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There Is Intense Competition Between the Manufacturers of Light CHANGING LIGHTBULBS WEALTH CREATION LED bulbs submitted by Philips being tested in the L Prize luminem maintenance-proving apparatus. The US Department of Energy held the L Prize competition to encourage quality, high efficiency lighting and find a replacement for the incandescent bulb © US Department of Energy As the efficiency of light-emitting diodes rises and production costs fall, they are being used in their billions as backlights for screens in mobile phones, televisions and laptop computers. Now LEDs are making inroads into one of the most lucrative lighting markets of all, the light bulb. Dr Richard Stevenson, editor of Compound Semiconductor magazine, reviews the rapid rise of the LED. For more than a century, the incandescent and replaced bulbs in the brake lights of cars. glowing filament light bulb was the LEDs can even deliver the absolute levels of dominant source of electric light. Today, brightness needed for a car’s headlights, while it is the LED that is rapidly becoming the many companies are using them in backlights illumination technology of choice. This for computer monitors, televisions, satellite semiconducting light source is making navigation systems and tablet computers. inroads into commercial and domestic LEDs are now set to enter a new lighting, with its promise of huge energy market that promises to be the biggest yet: savings and much longer lifetimes. LEDs domestic and industrial lighting. Sales for have come a long way since the 1970s when this use are small today, but analysts are they were manufactured as low-voltage tipping LED-based bulbs to revolutionise indicator lamps for integrated circuits. the lighting market by 2020. With lighting A driving force in the progress of LEDs accounting for more than 15% of electricity has been the demand for more efficient and up to 40% of household use, the light sources that can match the light bulb’s efficiency of LEDs has the potential to luminescence. At its best, an incandescent trim the electricity bill for households and bulb delivers around 12 lumens/watt commerce while reducing carbon dioxide (lm/W). The compact fluorescent lamp emissions. What is more, LED light bulbs last brought some progress with a light output 25 times as long as incandescents, and more CHANGING LIGHTBULBS of around 75 lm/W, using as much as 75% than twice as long as compact fluorescents. less energy than an incandescent bulb – but The rise of the LED owes much to the it does contain mercury. Commercial LED expansion of its colour palette, along with There is intense competition between the manufacturers of bulbs now deliver up to 100 lm/W, with the increases in brightness and efficiency. This potential to become even brighter. progress came through the development of light-emitting diodes to win orders from the makers of lighting The production of LEDs accelerated semiconductors that allow LEDs to emit light rapidly in the 1990s, when they appeared in over a broader part of the visible spectrum systems to replace conventional bulbs. the backlights and keypads of mobile phones. than the narrow band of red light used in They were also incorporated into traffic lights those early indicators. 14 INGENIA INGENIA ISSUE 54 MARCH 2013 15 CHANGING LIGHTBULBS WEALTH CREATION Further progress came through changes weakness: blue light is essential to create on the substrate. To stop this happening, lighting source of the 20th century, the in the design of the devices so that rather THE INNER WORKINGS OF AN LED LEDs that emit the white light needed to semiconductor engineers have devised two incandescent bulb. These traditional bulbs than trapping light internally, they release LEDs are made from layers of crystalline semiconductor materials. If the semiconductor backlight screens or power light bulbs. different ways to make LEDs. convert just 10% of their electrical input into a far higher proportion of it. Modern is pure, it conducts very little electricity. So, to increase conductivity, engineers add small Most of the white LEDs produced today One approach begins with the same light, losing the rest as heat. designs can let out almost 80% of their light, amounts of other materials, in a process called ‘doping’. Selecting the dopant enables the feature a chip that emits blue light. By process used for making conventional The CFL’s perceived faults are that it emits compared to around 12% for conventional fabrication of n-type semiconductor layers with extra electrons and p-type layers with applying a yellow phosphor coating on LEDs, namely the growth of a stack of thin an undesirable green-tinted form of white LEDs. electrons missing – known as positive ‘holes’. the chip, the blue and yellow light mix to films on a substrate. However, instead of light, takes a long time to warm up and is A diode sandwiches layers of p-type and n-type material together. When an produce white light. simply cutting up the substrate to form a often incompatible for use with dimmer electrical voltage is applied to the diode, electrons and holes are brought closer together, The breakthrough for blue-emitting collection of chips that can be processed switches. While CFLs can outlive traditional ENLIGHTENED TIMES and interact to release photons. The colour of light that each LED emits depends on the LEDs came from Professor Nakamura, a into LEDs, a highly reflective metallic layer light bulbs, they cannot come near the The understanding of how an LED emits materials used to create it. +– lone researcher at the Japanese firm Nichia deposited on top of the stack of thin films lifetime of the LED, which promises to last so light goes back to the early days of Chemical Industries. In 1993, he made an acts as a mirror. After the structure is turned long that the whole idea of changing a bulb semiconductors when, in 1951, a team LED based on the semiconductor gallium over, a laser separates the substrate from becomes redundant, a significant advantage of American researchers at Signal Corps nitride (GaN), until then a notoriously difficult the semiconductor film, leaving it with in locations where the cost of replacing a Engineering Laboratories, New Jersey, material to process. Nakamura’s LED was a roughened surface. After contacts are light far outweighs the cost of the bulb itself. described its behaviour. The following year, p-type n-type 10 times more efficient than its forerunners applied, the result is a far more efficient Heinrich Welker produced the first gallium and was also better at controlling the device: the mirror stops light from leaving arsenide crystals at Siemens, an advance internal current flow. the chip in the wrong way, while the THE L PRIZE that provided a substrate for developing While the LED avoids these drawbacks, a Within a few years of the birth of the roughened surface makes it far less likely the first LEDs. The substrate is the platform flood of shoddily made LED light bulbs white LED, devices manufactured by Nichia for photons to be reflected back into the for making an LED, which is formed from onto the market could create public hole electron and several rivals were backlighting mobile device. Instead, more of them are extracted the growth of a stack of thin films on to phones. However, the commercialisation from the LED. this material. of Nakamura’s discovery, which earned A different approach to overcoming Initially LEDs just emitted in the infrared him the 2006 Millennium Technology trapped light is tackled by etching a very spectrum, but by the 1970s, devices LIGHTING EFFICIENCY Prize, did not initially lead to LEDs bright fine pattern into a substrate’s surface. This featuring films of gallium phosphide (GaP) 200 enough for powering lightbulbs. To do that, surface modification, which does not require and gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) semiconductor engineers had to overcome substrate removal with a laser, prevents could emit red, yellow, orange and green a number of obstacles. light from bouncing around in the LED. light. These devices, though in themselves White Both approaches have their advocates too low-powered to do more than just LED Panel and both have efficiencies exceeding the provide status indicator lamps, were the 150 FINE TUNING ‘greenest’ bulb of recent times, the compact forerunners of the LEDs used in brake fluorescent lamp (CFL). lights and signs on railway stations. These One weakness of an LED is that it behaves Linear in a similar way to a glass block. Some of The CFL has never been universally are based on aluminium indium gallium The prizewinning Philips 60 W-equivalent light Fluorescent popular, despite delivering an efficiency that phosphide (AlInGaP), a material with high the emitted light fails to emerge because bulb lasts more than 25,000 hours and draws less of internal reflections and reabsorption is typically five times that of the prevailing than 10 W of power © Philips light-emitting efficiencies. 100 These materials can produce a wide range of colours, but they still leave an High Wattage HID Compact important hole in the visible spectrum: Fluorescent they cannot emit blue light. This is a major 50 Luminous Efficact (Lumens per Watt) per Efficact (Lumens Luminous White Low Wattage HID OLED Halogen Panel Incandescent Modern designs can let out 0 Deposition of nitride layers Growth of a reflective mirror Second substrates bonded to Structure flipped over and initial that make up the LED onto a layer on the nitride layers this structure substrate removed to create a 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 almost 80% of their light, sapphire substrate roughened surface that improves The efficiency of light-emitting diodes has risen rapidly since their first commercial appearance, according light extraction from the LED compared to around 12% to data gathered for the US Department of Energy for its Solid-State Lighting Research and Development: Multi-Year Program Plan.
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