Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area

Community-Based Integrated Natural Resource Management in Okyeman Traditional Area of the Eastern Region, Ghana: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area

J. S. Ayivor1 and E. Ekpe2 1 Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, P. O. Box LG209, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana 2 Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Fl. USA Corresponding author; Email: [email protected]

Abstract The Akyem Abuakwa State, otherwise referred to as the Okyeman traditional area, in historic times, struggled against dominant groups like the Ashantis to gain self recognition. In present times, the state has remained resolute and constitutes a strong and influential traditional authority in Ghana. The Okyeman traditional area is located in the Eastern Region of Ghana. It is endowed with rich natural resources including forest, mineral and water resources. In a survey to examine the socio-economic profile of the area and how traditional practices and taboos affect natural resource use, 426 respondents from 33 communities were randomly sampled and interviewed through questionnaire administration. The results of the analysis indicated that about 72% of the population was engaged in farming. The results also showed that traditional practices and taboos had played significant roles in natural resource management in the past, but being abandoned presently because of divergent beliefs. It was further revealed that rapid population growth from the 1960s to date and its associated production pressures was a major underlying factor in resource exploitation in the area. The activities of small-scale miners in particular were observed to be the major source of stream pollution and flow regime disturbance. The hitherto rich biodiversity of the area is at risk of being eroded if urgent steps are not taken to stop illegal activities in surrounding forest reserves. The study recommended the provision of alternative livelihood opportunities to the farming population to safeguard the rich forest resources and water bodies from further degradation.

Introduction absorbed by the Ashantis in the 14th Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Bosome and Century. After several skirmishes with the Akyem Kotoku are three independent states Ashantis, the Akyems broke away from the that constitute the Akyem Mansa federation Adansi group, with the Akyem Abuakwa of the Akan speaking people of Ghana. division moving south-eastwards across the These states are geographically non River Pra to avoid further Ashanti attacks. contiguous but have clusters in parts of Across Pra River, the Abuakwas had to Eastern and Ashanti regions of Ghana. The contend with yet another force, the largest of these states in terms of land size, Akwamus, for territorial supremacy. They population and natural resources managed to push the Akwamus further east endowment is the Abuakwa state presently across the Volta River to establish located in the Eastern Region under the themselves as a great kingdom at the present Okyeman Traditional Authority. According place of settlement (Addo-Fening, 2000, to history, Akyem was a splinter group of the 2002). Amanor (2001) noted that major Adansi kingdom that was conquered and themes in the history of Akyem Abuakwa 36 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 37

centered on migration, the coming together associated biodiversity. The area is drained Table 1 Region played a major role in the of disparate groups, conflicts and wars of by three important rivers namely Birim, Population Growth in Major Towns of the Okyeman development of the cocoa industries leading Traditional Area domination against oppression. This, Densu and Ayensu. The Atewa range to the cultivation of vast plantations (Hill, according to him, revealed a state that was therefore serves as the main watershed for Major Towns/Year 1960 1970 1984 2000 1997). struggling to attain an identity in the midst of the three rivers, together with their Other plantation crops popular in the area turmoil and instability during the eighteenth numerous tributaries (Ayivor et al., 2011). Adoagyiri 4,715 7,656 7,520 13,058 are oil palm and citrus. The main food crops and nineteenth centuries. The situation under Akwatia 12,592 12,177 15,007 20,723 are an intercrop of plantain, cassava, Anyinam 3,674 3,582 5,697 8,359 which they found themselves did not portray Population Apedwa 4,123 4,604 5,144 6,590 cocoyam, maize, yam and vegetables like a state with well established conventions and The Okyeman traditional area is made up Asafo 2,503 2,439 3,050 3,685 pepper, garden eggs and tomatoes. Pure customs arising from the sanctity of a long of over 800 towns and villages within the Asamankese 16,718 16,905 23,077 34,855 stands of maize, cassava and rice is also tradition of dynastic rule (Amanor, 2001). In Eastern Region and has an estimated Asiakwa 3,315 3,471 4,311 3,912 noticeable in most locations (Amanor, spite of the early difficulties and struggle for population of about two million (GSS, Banso 1,265 1,275 2,086 1895 2001). sovereignty, the Okyeman Traditional Area 2005). The population of the area, as most Begoro 9,289 11,043 16,890 15,941 Other supplementary economic activities Bunso 1,124 1,670 2,295 2,475 has remained resolute and presently other parts of the country, has been growing Kade 6,274 6,627 10,196 18,545 in Akyem Abuakwa are hunting, fishing, constitutes a strong and influential traditional steadily over the years. From the 1960s to Kibi 5,069 5,408 7,175 9,612 snail- gathering and group hunting by men in authority in the Ghanaian context. This paper date, the population of some major towns in Kukurantumi 5,061 6,067 8,019 10,373 search of game mostly during the dry season examined the socio-economic background of the area has more or less doubled as a result Kwabeng 4,138 3,842 4,736 5,836 (Amanor, 2001). Presently, about 72% of the the present day Okyeman Traditional Area, of migration and high rate of fertility. For New Abirim 1,287 588 1,480 3,245 population is engaged in farming New Tafo 10,557 11,114 13,155 18,635 the major environmental concerns, and how example, Adoagyiri’s population has grown Old Tafo 4,598 4,880 5,009 5,417 (Conservation International, 2002). traditional practices and taboos have affected from 4,715 in 1960 to 13,058 in 2000. Osiem 3,029 3,394 4,538 5,944 natural resource use in the area. Likewise Akwatia’s population increased Osino 2,591 2,620 3,512 4,631 Social Survey and Occupational Profile from 12,592 to 20,723 within the same Suhum 10,193 12,421 19,298 31,044 A social survey of the Okyeman Geographical Setting period. Asamankese’s population also rose Traditional Area was conducted in 2007 to Akyem Abuakwa, located in the western within the same period from 16,718 to Source: Ghana Statistical Services (1984, 2005) determine local dependence on natural half of Eastern Region of Ghana, occupies an 34,855 (GSS, 1984, 2005). Table 1 resources within forest reserves in the area. area of about 105,472 ha and accounts for illustrates the growth in population of some of slaves on the coast principally for A total of 426 respondents were about two-thirds of modern Akyem territory. major towns in the area. alcoholic drinks, firearms, ammunition, interviewed from 33 communities within 10 It shares boundaries with Asante Akyem and textiles and knives. The abolition of the slave Forest Blocks of the Okyeman area. Out of Kwahu to the north, Manya Krobo and New Economy: Past and Present trade and its substitution with legitimate this total number, 289 representing 69% Juabeng to the east, Akuapem to the south- Land was Akyem Abuakwa’s most trade brought about significant shifts and were males whereas 137, representing 31% east, Agona to the south, and Asante Akyem valuable economic resource in pre-colonial changes in the Abuakwa economy from the were females. The selection of the to the west (Amanor, 2001). The Okyeman times. The area is rich in agricultural lands, mid-nineteenth century. During this period, respondents was randomly done to include area is within the Tropical Rain Forest Zone gold and diamonds. It is the old cocoa the gold mining industry was revived, adults 18 years and above who are normal with fertile river valleys, deep loamy soils frontier zone in Ghana in which migrant commercial farming was given a great boost; residents of the selected communities. The and rich fauna. The area has a heterogeneous cocoa farmers made a lot of impact during indigenous industries received greater questionnaires were designed by a research landscape made of mountain ranges, scarps, the 19th century (Hill, 1997). Before the attention; and export and import trade were team and administered by research assistants plateaus and adjoining valleys. The diversity upsurge of the cocoa industry, trade in gold introduced (Addo-Fening, 2000). selected and trained for the exercise. The in the landscape reflects different ecological and slaves were the most popular economic Farming has since become a dominant forest blocks within whose catchment the zones following differences in altitude. activities (Addo-Fening, 2000). By the third economic activity of the area especially with survey was carried out together with the Several forest reserves have been established decade of the eighteenth century, trade in the introduction of cocoa. Migrant farmers respective communities are indicated in the in the area to preserve the rich vegetation and slaves was very important and saw exchange mostly from Krobo and parts of the Volta Appendix 1. 36 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 37 centered on migration, the coming together associated biodiversity. The area is drained Table 1 Region played a major role in the of disparate groups, conflicts and wars of by three important rivers namely Birim, Population Growth in Major Towns of the Okyeman development of the cocoa industries leading Traditional Area domination against oppression. This, Densu and Ayensu. The Atewa range to the cultivation of vast plantations (Hill, according to him, revealed a state that was therefore serves as the main watershed for Major Towns/Year 1960 1970 1984 2000 1997). struggling to attain an identity in the midst of the three rivers, together with their Other plantation crops popular in the area turmoil and instability during the eighteenth numerous tributaries (Ayivor et al., 2011). Adoagyiri 4,715 7,656 7,520 13,058 are oil palm and citrus. The main food crops and nineteenth centuries. The situation under Akwatia 12,592 12,177 15,007 20,723 are an intercrop of plantain, cassava, Anyinam 3,674 3,582 5,697 8,359 which they found themselves did not portray Population Apedwa 4,123 4,604 5,144 6,590 cocoyam, maize, yam and vegetables like a state with well established conventions and The Okyeman traditional area is made up Asafo 2,503 2,439 3,050 3,685 pepper, garden eggs and tomatoes. Pure customs arising from the sanctity of a long of over 800 towns and villages within the Asamankese 16,718 16,905 23,077 34,855 stands of maize, cassava and rice is also tradition of dynastic rule (Amanor, 2001). In Eastern Region and has an estimated Asiakwa 3,315 3,471 4,311 3,912 noticeable in most locations (Amanor, spite of the early difficulties and struggle for population of about two million (GSS, Banso 1,265 1,275 2,086 1895 2001). sovereignty, the Okyeman Traditional Area 2005). The population of the area, as most Begoro 9,289 11,043 16,890 15,941 Other supplementary economic activities Bunso 1,124 1,670 2,295 2,475 has remained resolute and presently other parts of the country, has been growing Kade 6,274 6,627 10,196 18,545 in Akyem Abuakwa are hunting, fishing, constitutes a strong and influential traditional steadily over the years. From the 1960s to Kibi 5,069 5,408 7,175 9,612 snail- gathering and group hunting by men in authority in the Ghanaian context. This paper date, the population of some major towns in Kukurantumi 5,061 6,067 8,019 10,373 search of game mostly during the dry season examined the socio-economic background of the area has more or less doubled as a result Kwabeng 4,138 3,842 4,736 5,836 (Amanor, 2001). Presently, about 72% of the the present day Okyeman Traditional Area, of migration and high rate of fertility. For New Abirim 1,287 588 1,480 3,245 population is engaged in farming New Tafo 10,557 11,114 13,155 18,635 the major environmental concerns, and how example, Adoagyiri’s population has grown Old Tafo 4,598 4,880 5,009 5,417 (Conservation International, 2002). traditional practices and taboos have affected from 4,715 in 1960 to 13,058 in 2000. Osiem 3,029 3,394 4,538 5,944 natural resource use in the area. Likewise Akwatia’s population increased Osino 2,591 2,620 3,512 4,631 Social Survey and Occupational Profile from 12,592 to 20,723 within the same Suhum 10,193 12,421 19,298 31,044 A social survey of the Okyeman Geographical Setting period. Asamankese’s population also rose Traditional Area was conducted in 2007 to Akyem Abuakwa, located in the western within the same period from 16,718 to Source: Ghana Statistical Services (1984, 2005) determine local dependence on natural half of Eastern Region of Ghana, occupies an 34,855 (GSS, 1984, 2005). Table 1 resources within forest reserves in the area. area of about 105,472 ha and accounts for illustrates the growth in population of some of slaves on the coast principally for A total of 426 respondents were about two-thirds of modern Akyem territory. major towns in the area. alcoholic drinks, firearms, ammunition, interviewed from 33 communities within 10 It shares boundaries with Asante Akyem and textiles and knives. The abolition of the slave Forest Blocks of the Okyeman area. Out of Kwahu to the north, Manya Krobo and New Economy: Past and Present trade and its substitution with legitimate this total number, 289 representing 69% Juabeng to the east, Akuapem to the south- Land was Akyem Abuakwa’s most trade brought about significant shifts and were males whereas 137, representing 31% east, Agona to the south, and Asante Akyem valuable economic resource in pre-colonial changes in the Abuakwa economy from the were females. The selection of the to the west (Amanor, 2001). The Okyeman times. The area is rich in agricultural lands, mid-nineteenth century. During this period, respondents was randomly done to include area is within the Tropical Rain Forest Zone gold and diamonds. It is the old cocoa the gold mining industry was revived, adults 18 years and above who are normal with fertile river valleys, deep loamy soils frontier zone in Ghana in which migrant commercial farming was given a great boost; residents of the selected communities. The and rich fauna. The area has a heterogeneous cocoa farmers made a lot of impact during indigenous industries received greater questionnaires were designed by a research landscape made of mountain ranges, scarps, the 19th century (Hill, 1997). Before the attention; and export and import trade were team and administered by research assistants plateaus and adjoining valleys. The diversity upsurge of the cocoa industry, trade in gold introduced (Addo-Fening, 2000). selected and trained for the exercise. The in the landscape reflects different ecological and slaves were the most popular economic Farming has since become a dominant forest blocks within whose catchment the zones following differences in altitude. activities (Addo-Fening, 2000). By the third economic activity of the area especially with survey was carried out together with the Several forest reserves have been established decade of the eighteenth century, trade in the introduction of cocoa. Migrant farmers respective communities are indicated in the in the area to preserve the rich vegetation and slaves was very important and saw exchange mostly from Krobo and parts of the Volta Appendix 1. 38 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 39

As shown in the appendix, the highest In most traditional African communities, while others may be mentioned as secondary Traditional farming practices of number of respondents were drawn from farming is the dominant occupation. occupation. conservation significance vicinities of three Forest Blocks namely According to Udo (1978), in West Africa, Details of the percentage of respondents • Gathering of weeds around plants to Atewa Range Reserve (18.05%), about 60% of the population is engaged in and their respective primary and secondary decompose in order to add nutrients to Esukawkaw (17.10%) and Southern Scarp agriculture. According to this survey, the occupations are shown in Appendices 3 and the soil. (16.63%). Together these constituted about dominant occupation in the Okyeman 4. Appendices 5 and 6 additionally show the • Use of poultry dropping as manure 51.78% of the total number of respondents. traditional area is farming. About 66.52% of educational background of respondents and • Rotational farming practices as a way of The reason is that these three forest blocks the population has farming as the primary the percentage of people engaged in various soil management cover relatively large geographic area and occupation, which in many cases is activities as primary occupation, and • Observance of selected days as ‘sacred hence have more communities within their combined with other secondary activities. secondary occupation respectively. days’ when people are prohibited from going to the farm. vicinity. Other forest blocks covered were Within the Esuboni Forest Block alone, Apaam (6.89%), Bunso Aboretum (5.46%), about 91.89% have farming as their primary Traditional Practices and observation of Bush Fire prevention Practices Esuboni (8.79%), Norborpong (7.36%), occupation whereas Atewa, Apaam, Taboos in the Okyeman Traditional Area • Prohibition of fire on cropped farms Nsuensa (7.36%), Okyemanpaw (5.23%) Esukawkaw and Woropong South Forest Traditional practices and social taboos are good examples of informal institutions, • Creation of fire belts around farms and Worobong South (7.13%). Blocks all have over 70% of the population during the dry season where norms rather than governmental Appendix 2 illustrates the age range of engaged in farming as the primary • Ban on indiscriminate bush burning respondents from the respective communi- occupation. Apart from farming other juridical regulations determine human behavior toward the environment. Many of ties of the forest blocks surveyed. As shown primary occupations include trading Forest and Wildlife Conservation Practices in the appendix, the highest number of male representing 10.12%, other services like these practices work for the preservation of • No entry into the forest during festive respondents was recorded in Apaam (86.66% hair-dressing, tailoring etc (11.51%), habitat and ecologically vulnerable occasions and on Fridays males as against only 10.34% females). teaching (7.20%), hunting (4.55%), resources as well as providing long term • No indiscriminate felling of trees Likewise the highest number of female extractive industry (3.34%) and conservation of common property (Ostrom, • No entry into sacred forests without respondents was recorded in Norborpong manufacturing industry (3.26%). Out of the 1990, Colding and Folke, 2001). permission with 51.61% as against 48.39% males. As total number of respondents, 5.03% claimed In the Okyeman Traditional Area, • No hunting on Fridays illustrated in Table 2, the highest number of they were unemployed. For most men, the traditional practices and taboos had played • No eating of snails and rats in some respondents belonged to the age group 31–44 primary occupation is farming whereas in and continued to play a key role in regulating communities representing 37.79% of the sampled the case of women, it is trading. social behaviour and the sustainable population, followed by the 45–54 age group As Start and Johnson (2001) noted, most management of natural resources. The Protection of rivers and fisheries resources representing 24.05% whilst the lowest rural people combine occupations or what analysis of responses from the field survey • No fishing in certain rivers representation fell within the age range 55 they referred to as livelihood or indicates that several categories of these • No defecation in rivers and above representing 17.69%. occupational diversity as a coping strategy. practices exist though many of them have • No swimming in certain selected rivers The rural people who are normally self- outlived their usefulness. Five categories of • Use of chemicals in streams for fishing is Table 2 employed would like to engage in multiple these practices and/or taboos were not allowed Percentage Representation of Respondents by Age • No dumping of refuse into rivers Group activities as a means of security. In the identified. These include traditional farming Okyeman area, there is a clear evidence of practices of conservation significance; bush • Water was not fetched from certain Age Range % of male % of female occupational diversification where almost fire prevention and prohibitions practices; streams on Fridays • Prohibition of farming close to a river Respondents Respondents Total all the respondents are engaged in more than forest and wildlife conservation practices; one occupation. Thus, for all the major practices relating to protection of rivers and 15–30 14.01% 6.46% 20.47% Other traditional practices of socio- primary activities mentioned, most fisheries resources; and other traditional 31–44 26.53% 11.26% 37.79% cultural significance respondents were noted to be engaged in one practices of socio-cultural significance. The 45–54 16.85% 7.20% 24.05% • No one was allowed to go to the farm 55+ 11.58% 6.11% 17.69% particular occupation as a primary activity various practices are listed below under each of the categories. during festive occasions 38 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 39

As shown in the appendix, the highest In most traditional African communities, while others may be mentioned as secondary Traditional farming practices of number of respondents were drawn from farming is the dominant occupation. occupation. conservation significance vicinities of three Forest Blocks namely According to Udo (1978), in West Africa, Details of the percentage of respondents • Gathering of weeds around plants to Atewa Range Reserve (18.05%), about 60% of the population is engaged in and their respective primary and secondary decompose in order to add nutrients to Esukawkaw (17.10%) and Southern Scarp agriculture. According to this survey, the occupations are shown in Appendices 3 and the soil. (16.63%). Together these constituted about dominant occupation in the Okyeman 4. Appendices 5 and 6 additionally show the • Use of poultry dropping as manure 51.78% of the total number of respondents. traditional area is farming. About 66.52% of educational background of respondents and • Rotational farming practices as a way of The reason is that these three forest blocks the population has farming as the primary the percentage of people engaged in various soil management cover relatively large geographic area and occupation, which in many cases is activities as primary occupation, and • Observance of selected days as ‘sacred hence have more communities within their combined with other secondary activities. secondary occupation respectively. days’ when people are prohibited from going to the farm. vicinity. Other forest blocks covered were Within the Esuboni Forest Block alone, Apaam (6.89%), Bunso Aboretum (5.46%), about 91.89% have farming as their primary Traditional Practices and observation of Bush Fire prevention Practices Esuboni (8.79%), Norborpong (7.36%), occupation whereas Atewa, Apaam, Taboos in the Okyeman Traditional Area • Prohibition of fire on cropped farms Nsuensa (7.36%), Okyemanpaw (5.23%) Esukawkaw and Woropong South Forest Traditional practices and social taboos are good examples of informal institutions, • Creation of fire belts around farms and Worobong South (7.13%). Blocks all have over 70% of the population during the dry season where norms rather than governmental Appendix 2 illustrates the age range of engaged in farming as the primary • Ban on indiscriminate bush burning respondents from the respective communi- occupation. Apart from farming other juridical regulations determine human behavior toward the environment. Many of ties of the forest blocks surveyed. As shown primary occupations include trading Forest and Wildlife Conservation Practices in the appendix, the highest number of male representing 10.12%, other services like these practices work for the preservation of • No entry into the forest during festive respondents was recorded in Apaam (86.66% hair-dressing, tailoring etc (11.51%), habitat and ecologically vulnerable occasions and on Fridays males as against only 10.34% females). teaching (7.20%), hunting (4.55%), resources as well as providing long term • No indiscriminate felling of trees Likewise the highest number of female extractive industry (3.34%) and conservation of common property (Ostrom, • No entry into sacred forests without respondents was recorded in Norborpong manufacturing industry (3.26%). Out of the 1990, Colding and Folke, 2001). permission with 51.61% as against 48.39% males. As total number of respondents, 5.03% claimed In the Okyeman Traditional Area, • No hunting on Fridays illustrated in Table 2, the highest number of they were unemployed. For most men, the traditional practices and taboos had played • No eating of snails and rats in some respondents belonged to the age group 31–44 primary occupation is farming whereas in and continued to play a key role in regulating communities representing 37.79% of the sampled the case of women, it is trading. social behaviour and the sustainable population, followed by the 45–54 age group As Start and Johnson (2001) noted, most management of natural resources. The Protection of rivers and fisheries resources representing 24.05% whilst the lowest rural people combine occupations or what analysis of responses from the field survey • No fishing in certain rivers representation fell within the age range 55 they referred to as livelihood or indicates that several categories of these • No defecation in rivers and above representing 17.69%. occupational diversity as a coping strategy. practices exist though many of them have • No swimming in certain selected rivers The rural people who are normally self- outlived their usefulness. Five categories of • Use of chemicals in streams for fishing is Table 2 employed would like to engage in multiple these practices and/or taboos were not allowed Percentage Representation of Respondents by Age • No dumping of refuse into rivers Group activities as a means of security. In the identified. These include traditional farming Okyeman area, there is a clear evidence of practices of conservation significance; bush • Water was not fetched from certain Age Range % of male % of female occupational diversification where almost fire prevention and prohibitions practices; streams on Fridays • Prohibition of farming close to a river Respondents Respondents Total all the respondents are engaged in more than forest and wildlife conservation practices; one occupation. Thus, for all the major practices relating to protection of rivers and 15–30 14.01% 6.46% 20.47% Other traditional practices of socio- primary activities mentioned, most fisheries resources; and other traditional 31–44 26.53% 11.26% 37.79% cultural significance respondents were noted to be engaged in one practices of socio-cultural significance. The 45–54 16.85% 7.20% 24.05% • No one was allowed to go to the farm 55+ 11.58% 6.11% 17.69% particular occupation as a primary activity various practices are listed below under each of the categories. during festive occasions 40 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 41

• No black pot is allowed on river “Kuku mining operations and bad political resources are, however, major factors central African rainforest: the agricultural and abra” judgment especially in granting mining militating against sustainability of the demographic causes, and some solutions. Pages natural resources the area is noted for. To 65–78. In Conservation of West and Central • No pounding of fufu after 6pm licenses are factors that threaten the rich A f r i c a n R a i n f o r e s t s . T h e W o r l d • Large bundles of firewood are not carried biodiversity and permanent stream flow in ensure sustainable conservation and Bank/International Union for the Conservation of inside the household the area (Ayivor et al., 2011). One utilization of the natural resources in the Nature. (K. Cleaver, M. Munasinghe, M. Dyson, • No whistling at night disturbing situation is the discovery of Okyeman Traditional Area, there is the need N. Egli, A. Penker and F. Wencelius eds), 351 pp. • A woman in her menses not allowed entry bauxite and gold reserves within the Atewa to establish alternative income generating Washington, DC. Colding J. and Folke C. (2001). Social taboos: into certain rivers. Range Forest Reserve and the insensitivity activities for the local communities to reduce dependence on extractive industries “invisible” systems of local resource management The significance of these traditional of some political actors in granting licenses and biological conservation. Ecological practices/taboos include natural resources to mining companies to exploit these and forest products. This should be done as a Applications 11(2): 584–600. conservation, pollution prevention in rivers, minerals. It is believed that when the area is collaborative effort between governmental Conservation International (2002). Ecotourism instilling of discipline in the people through opened up for mineral exploitation and non-governmental organizations, the Development of the Atewa Range Forest Reserve. Report prepared for NRMP Biodiversity the observance of traditional values and especially bauxite mining, the vegetation private sector, scientific community and local community groups. There is also the Component. norms, pulling of labour force for ‘communal will be cleared and the topsoil and Ghana News Agency (2010). Illegal small-scale need to strengthen state institutions tasked to labour’ on certain days of the week, and overburden beneath which the bauxite is mining in Ghana. 29th September 2010, Accra. implement policies especially those prevention of theft cases on farms on festive found will be removed. This will obviously Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) (2005). 2000 regulating small-scale mining and forest occasions. destroy the rich biodiversity within the Population and housing census of Ghana. resource exploitation. Statistical Service, Accra. It is interesting to note that though most of range (Rapid Assessment Programme, Hill P. (1997). The migrant cocoa farmer of Southern these practices are frowned upon by some 2007). A Ghana News Agency report References Ghana: A study in rural capitalism. James Currey Christian groups and modernity, they have (2010), has implicated some chiefs in the Addo-Fening R. (2000). Akyem Abuakwa Publishers. New Brunswick. been very useful over the years in regulating area of colluding with illegal small scale 1700–1943 from Ofori Panin to Sir Ofori Atta. No. McCullough J., Alonso L. E., Naskrecki P., Wright environmental management and in instilling miners to perpetrate their action, which is 19 Trondheim Studies in History. African Series H. E. and Osei-Owusu Y. (eds.) (2007). A rapid No. 1. biological assessment of the Atewa Range Forest social order among the people. also worrying. Moreover, government Reserve, Eastern Ghana. RAP Bulletin of appears unable to check illegal forest Addo-Fening R. (2002). Giving Akyem history its due. The Journal of African History. 43, (2): Biological Assessment 47. Conservation International, Arlington, VA. Natural Resource Exploitation and exploitation leading to the fast depletion of 324–326. Published by Cambridge University Ostrom E (1990). Governing the commons: The Environmental Degradation some of the forest products. Some forest Press. evolution of institutions for collective action. The greatest threat to the Okyeman resources which respondents mentioned as Amanor, K. S. (2001). Land, labour and the family in Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UK. Southern Ghana: A critique of Land policy under Traditional Area, which is noted for its rich dwindling were snails, bush meat and Rapid Assessment Program (2007). Biodiversity in biodiversity and mineralogical wealth is timber species including Mahogany, Odum, neo-liberalization. Research Report no. 116, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala. the Atewa Range Forest Reserve, Ghana. environmental degradation. According to Obeche, and Emire (Rapid Assessment Ayivor J. S., Gordon C., Adomako J. K. and Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA. Clerver (1992), Ghana has lost over 80% of its Program. 2007). Ntiamoah-Baidu Y. (2011). Challenges of Start D. and Craig J. (2001). Transformation, Well- forest habitat since the 1920s with just 20% managing forest reserves: case study of Atewa being and the State: Rural Livelihood range Forest Reserve in Ghana. Nature and Faune. Diversification in South Asia. ODI Working Paper. left untouched. Atewa Range Forest Reserve Conclusion Udo R. (1978). A comprehensive geography of West which is a major forest landmark in the In conclusion, it is worthwhile to note that Economic and Social Significance of Forests fro African Development. FAO 25 (2) 56–63 Africa. Heinemann Education Books (Nigeria) Okyeman area represents one-third of the the Okyeman traditional area is endowed Cleaver K. (1992). Deforestation in the western and Ltd. Ibadan. remaining closed forest in the Eastern Region with variety of natural resources. The forest of Ghana (McCullough, 2007). However is a storehouse of biodiversity, the mountain rapid population growth, rural poverty, ranges are important watershed areas while unemployment, land shortage, illegal the geology constitutes an important chainsaw operation, illegal small scale mineral wealth. Rapid population growth mining, stream pollution emanating from and its associated high demand for land 40 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 41

42 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 43 obong obong

obong

obong obong or

3.33%

10.00%

3.33%

10.00%

20.00%

13.34%

20.00%

26.67%

73.33%

South South W

6.66% 6.67% 36.67% 50.00% W South 3.33% 70.00% 3.33% 16.67% 6.67%

W South

7.13%

Besebuom

Peseator

Feyiase

Ahumahumasu

South South W

etum

1.43%

14.29%

5.71%

4.28%

21.43%

17.14%

45.71%

54.29%

Scarp Southern Southern

8.34% 12.50% 8.34% 58.33% 12.50% Bunso Abor 8.34% 4.17% 58.33% 16.67% 12.50%

Bunso Abor

16.63%

Dome

Adjeikrom

Gyapomani

Dwanse

Abompe

Pimpimso

Scarp

Southern Southern Banso

7.14% 1.43% 12.86 7.14% 45.72 25.71 Southern Scarp 2.86% 7.14% 55.71% 14.28% 15.72% 4.28%

Southern Scarp

9.09%

4.54%

13.64%

9.09%

13.64%

27.27%

40.91%

59.09%

Okyemanpaw

5.23%

Akim Akim

Okyemanpaw est Blocks est

Activity

2.70% 5.41% 91.89 Esuboni

91.89% 2.70% 5.41%

Esuboni

0.00%

16.13%

3.23%

6.45%

12.90%

45.16%

16.13%

19.35%

80.65%

Nsuensa

7.36%

Anweam

Abompe

Otumi

Nsuensa

22.58%

12.90%

3.23%

22.58%

16.13%

3.23%

6.45%

51.61%

48.39% Norborpong

Activities as Primary

4.55% 18.18% 63.64% 13.64% Okyemanpaw 4.55% 9.09% 4.55% 54.60% 9.10% 13.64% 4.55%

Okyemanpaw

7.36%

Kukurantumi Norborpong

Activities as Secondary Occupation

esponding Communities Surveyed Communities esponding arious

arious

Appendix 2 Appendix

Appendix 1 Appendix Ntronae

1.39% 8.33% 15.27% 9.72% 1.39% 51.4% 12.5% Esukawkaw 4.17% 1.39% 76.39% 5.56% 2.78% 9.72% Esukawkaw

Appendix 4

Appendix 3

2.28%

5.55%

20.83%

0.00%

6.94%

16.67%

31.94%

15.28%

29.17%

70.83%

Esukawkaw

wuronsua

17.1%

Krobom

Subrisu Subrisu

Subinso Subinso

Old Old

Ntronang Ntronang

Amanfrom

Esuom Esuom

Esukawkaw

etum

2.70%

5.40%

8.12%

5.40%

13.51%

16.22%

35.14%

13.51%

21.62%

78.37%

Esuboni est Blocks and the Corr the and Blocks est

3.23% 3.23% 3.23% 12.90% 19.36% 3.23% 41.92% 12.90% Norborpong 3.22 6.44 3.22 41.91 19.35 16.12 9.67

Norborpong

8.79%

Afotom

Anumabo

Abor Esuboni

Age Range of Respondents within Respective Communities of For of Communities Respective within Respondents of Range Age

List of For of List

4.17%

8.33%

12.50%

4.17%

29.17%

25.00%

8.33%

33.33%

66.67% Bunso Bunso

3.45% 3.45% 6.70% 79.1 6.90% Apaam 3.45 3.45 3.45 82.75 6.90 Apaam

centage of Respondents Engaged in V

5.46%

Ettokrom Bunso Bunso

Per

Sex and and Sex etum

1.85

Number of Respondents Engaged in V

2.63 1.32 13.15 9.21 61.84 1 Atewa 1.32 5.26 72.36 3.95 9.21 7.89

Atewa

2.63%

10.53%

14.47%

3.95%

18.42%

19.74%

22.37%

7.89%

31.58%

68.42%

Abor

Atewa

18.05%

Labikrom

Sagyimaase

Apaapam

Anwenease

Asiakwa

Asikam

Bomaa Atewa

6.45% 3.23% 6.46% 6.46% 12.90% 51.61% 12.90% Nsuensa

61.29% 16.13% 16.13% 6.45%

Nsuensa

0.00%

3.45%

6.90%

10.35%

13.79%

51.72%

13.79%

10.34%

89.66%

Apaam Apaam

6.89%

Atobrisu

Apaam Apaam

55+

45-54

31-44

15-30

55+

45-54

31-44

18-30

Female Female

Male Male

of of

Industry

Age Age Block

Block range

range Block %

Services and and

Services

centage centage

est est

sex(F) sex(M)

est

Secondary

by by

Age Age

Sex Sex

range

Sex Sex

Respondents

Per

Respondents

Number

Communities Communities For

rading

rading eaching

eaching

Hunting/Gathering Extractive Manufacturing T Other T Unemployed No occupation Farming For Manufacturing Unemployed Hunting/Gathering Extractive Farming T Other T For

42 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 43 obong obong

obong

obong obong or

3.33%

10.00%

3.33%

10.00%

20.00%

13.34%

20.00%

26.67%

73.33%

South South W

6.66% 6.67% 36.67% 50.00% W South 3.33% 70.00% 3.33% 16.67% 6.67%

W South

7.13%

Besebuom

Peseator

Feyiase

Ahumahumasu

South South W

etum

1.43%

14.29%

5.71%

4.28%

21.43%

17.14%

45.71%

54.29%

Scarp Southern Southern

8.34% 12.50% 8.34% 58.33% 12.50% Bunso Abor 8.34% 4.17% 58.33% 16.67% 12.50%

Bunso Abor

16.63%

Dome

Adjeikrom

Gyapomani

Dwanse

Abompe

Pimpimso

Scarp

Southern Southern Banso

7.14% 1.43% 12.86 7.14% 45.72 25.71 Southern Scarp 2.86% 7.14% 55.71% 14.28% 15.72% 4.28%

Southern Scarp

9.09%

4.54%

13.64%

9.09%

13.64%

27.27%

40.91%

59.09%

Okyemanpaw

5.23%

Akim Akim

Okyemanpaw est Blocks est

Activity

2.70% 5.41% 91.89 Esuboni

91.89% 2.70% 5.41%

Esuboni

0.00%

16.13%

3.23%

6.45%

12.90%

45.16%

16.13%

19.35%

80.65%

Nsuensa

7.36%

Anweam

Abompe

Otumi

Nsuensa

22.58%

12.90%

3.23%

22.58%

16.13%

3.23%

6.45%

51.61%

48.39% Norborpong

Activities as Primary

4.55% 18.18% 63.64% 13.64% Okyemanpaw 4.55% 9.09% 4.55% 54.60% 9.10% 13.64% 4.55%

Okyemanpaw

7.36%

Kukurantumi Norborpong

Activities as Secondary Occupation

esponding Communities Surveyed Communities esponding arious

arious

Appendix 2 Appendix

Appendix 1 Appendix Ntronae

1.39% 8.33% 15.27% 9.72% 1.39% 51.4% 12.5% Esukawkaw 4.17% 1.39% 76.39% 5.56% 2.78% 9.72% Esukawkaw

Appendix 4

Appendix 3

2.28%

5.55%

20.83%

0.00%

6.94%

16.67%

31.94%

15.28%

29.17%

70.83%

Esukawkaw

wuronsua

17.1%

Krobom

Subrisu Subrisu

Subinso Subinso

Old Old

Ntronang Ntronang

Amanfrom

Esuom Esuom

Esukawkaw

etum

2.70%

5.40%

8.12%

5.40%

13.51%

16.22%

35.14%

13.51%

21.62%

78.37%

Esuboni est Blocks and the Corr the and Blocks est

3.23% 3.23% 3.23% 12.90% 19.36% 3.23% 41.92% 12.90% Norborpong 3.22 6.44 3.22 41.91 19.35 16.12 9.67

Norborpong

8.79%

Afotom

Anumabo

Abor Esuboni

Age Range of Respondents within Respective Communities of For of Communities Respective within Respondents of Range Age

List of For of List

4.17%

8.33%

12.50%

4.17%

29.17%

25.00%

8.33%

33.33%

66.67% Bunso Bunso

3.45% 3.45% 6.70% 79.1 6.90% Apaam 3.45 3.45 3.45 82.75 6.90 Apaam

centage of Respondents Engaged in V

5.46%

Ettokrom Bunso Bunso

Per

Sex and and Sex etum

1.85

Number of Respondents Engaged in V

2.63 1.32 13.15 9.21 61.84 1 Atewa 1.32 5.26 72.36 3.95 9.21 7.89

Atewa

2.63%

10.53%

14.47%

3.95%

18.42%

19.74%

22.37%

7.89%

31.58%

68.42%

Abor

Atewa

18.05%

Labikrom

Sagyimaase

Apaapam

Anwenease

Asiakwa

Asikam

Bomaa Atewa

6.45% 3.23% 6.46% 6.46% 12.90% 51.61% 12.90% Nsuensa

61.29% 16.13% 16.13% 6.45%

Nsuensa

0.00%

3.45%

6.90%

10.35%

13.79%

51.72%

13.79%

10.34%

89.66%

Apaam Apaam

6.89%

Atobrisu

Apaam Apaam

55+

45-54

31-44

15-30

55+

45-54

31-44

18-30

Female Female

Male Male

of of

Industry

Age Age Block

Block range

range Block %

Services and and

Services

centage centage

est est

sex(F) sex(M)

est

Secondary

by by

Age Age

Sex Sex

range

Sex Sex

Respondents

Per

Respondents

Number

Communities Communities For

rading

rading eaching

eaching

Hunting/Gathering Extractive Manufacturing T Other T Unemployed No occupation Farming For Manufacturing Unemployed Hunting/Gathering Extractive Farming T Other T For 44 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 45

obong

W South

23.33%

6.67% 3.33%

36.67% 3.33% 6.67%

10%

3.33% 6.67%

W South

26.67% 6.67%

36.66% 3.33% 6.67%

10% 6.67% 3.33%

etum

Bunso Abor

8.33%

4.17%

37.5% 12.5% 4.17%

12.5% 4.17% 8.33% 4.17%

4.17%

Bunso Abor

12.5%

33.33% 8.33% 4.17% 8.33%

12.5% 4.17% 4.17% 4.17% 4.17%

4.17%

Southern Scarp

15.71% 4.28%

1.43%

22.86% 7.14% 12.86%

4.28%

1.43%

15.71% 2.86% 2.86% 4.28% 1.43%

1.43%

Southern Scarp

14.29% 1.43% 2.86%

1.43% 1.43%

20% 15.71% 7.14% 4.28%

1.43%

10% 8.57% 2.86% 1.43%

4.28%

1.43%

Esuboni

21.62%

62.16%

5.41%

8.1 2.70%

Esuboni

21.62%

62.16%

5.41%

2.70%

Activities as Primary Occupation

Activities as Secondary Occupation

arious

Okyemanpaw

22.72%

4.55%

22.73% 4.55% 13.64%

9.09%

4.55%

4.55% 4.55%

4.55%

Okyemanpaw

22.72% 4.55%

27.27% 9.09% 13.63%

9.09%

4.55% 4.55%

4.55%

1.1

Esukawkaw

1 1.39% 1.39% Appendix 5

55.56%% 2.78% 1.39% 1.39%

4.17%

9.72% 1.39%%

1.39%

6.94% 1.39%

Esukawkaw

5.56% Appendix 6 1.39% 4.17% 1.39% 1.39%

38.89% 2.77% 6.94% 8.33%

6.94%

4.17% 4.17% 2.77%

1.39% 1.39%

2.78%

1.39%

Norborpong

6.45%

25.81% 12.90% 12.90%

3.22% 3.22%

3.22% 6.45% 3.22% 3.22% 3.22%

3.22%

6.45% 3.22% 3.22%

centage of Respondents Engaged in V

Norborpong

3.23%

35.48%

12.90% 6.45%

3.23%

6.45% 9.67% 3.23%

6.45% 8.1

6.45%

Apaam

13.70%

51.72%

3.45%

3.45% 3.45% 3.45%

13.79%

3.45%

Apaam

17.24%

62.07%

3.45% 3.45% 3.45% 3.45%

6.89%

ound and Per

ound and Number of Respondents Engaged in V

Atewa

7.89%

57.89%

6.58% 3.95% 9.21% 7.89%

5.26%

1.32%

Atewa

3.95%

38.16% 1.32% 6.57% 7.89%

2.63% 1.32%

13.16% 10.53% 2.63% 1.32%

6.57% 4.17%

Nsuensa

3.23%

38.71% 9.67% 16.13% 6.45%

19.35% 3.23%

3.23%

Nsuensa

3.23%

35.48% 12.90% 3.23%

Educational Backgr 6.45%

3.23% 3.23% 6.45%

12.90%

6.45%

3.23%

3.23% 3.23%

Educational Backgr

Industry

occupation

Industry

Block

Services

Block

Services

est

Education

est

Education Secondary

Secondary

rading

eaching

rading

eaching

rading

eaching rading

rading eaching

For

No Farming eaching T Other Unemployed Hunting/Gathering

Primary Farming T Petty T Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

Secondary Farming T Other T Manufacturing

Post-Secondary Farming T T Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

For

No No Farming T Other Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

Primary No Farming T Petty T Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

Secondary No Farming T Petty T Extractive

Post-Secondary No Farming T Petty T 44 West African Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20 (3), 2012 Ayivor et al.: Socio-Economic Profile of the Okyeman Traditional Area 45

obong

W South

23.33%

6.67% 3.33%

36.67% 3.33% 6.67%

10%

3.33% 6.67%

W South

26.67% 6.67%

36.66% 3.33% 6.67%

10% 6.67% 3.33%

etum

Bunso Abor

8.33%

4.17%

37.5% 12.5% 4.17%

12.5% 4.17% 8.33% 4.17%

4.17%

Bunso Abor

12.5%

33.33% 8.33% 4.17% 8.33%

12.5% 4.17% 4.17% 4.17% 4.17%

4.17%

Southern Scarp

15.71% 4.28%

1.43%

22.86% 7.14% 12.86%

4.28%

1.43%

15.71% 2.86% 2.86% 4.28% 1.43%

1.43%

Southern Scarp

14.29% 1.43% 2.86%

1.43% 1.43%

20% 15.71% 7.14% 4.28%

1.43%

10% 8.57% 2.86% 1.43%

4.28%

1.43%

Esuboni

21.62%

62.16%

5.41%

8.1 2.70%

Esuboni

21.62%

62.16%

5.41%

2.70%

Activities as Primary Occupation

Activities as Secondary Occupation

arious

Okyemanpaw

22.72%

4.55%

22.73% 4.55% 13.64%

9.09%

4.55%

4.55% 4.55%

4.55%

Okyemanpaw

22.72% 4.55%

27.27% 9.09% 13.63%

9.09%

4.55% 4.55%

4.55%

1.1

Esukawkaw

1 1.39% 1.39% Appendix 5

55.56%% 2.78% 1.39% 1.39%

4.17%

9.72% 1.39%%

1.39%

6.94% 1.39%

Esukawkaw

5.56% Appendix 6 1.39% 4.17% 1.39% 1.39%

38.89% 2.77% 6.94% 8.33%

6.94%

4.17% 4.17% 2.77%

1.39% 1.39%

2.78%

1.39%

Norborpong

6.45%

25.81% 12.90% 12.90%

3.22% 3.22%

3.22% 6.45% 3.22% 3.22% 3.22%

3.22%

6.45% 3.22% 3.22%

centage of Respondents Engaged in V

Norborpong

3.23%

35.48%

12.90% 6.45%

3.23%

6.45% 9.67% 3.23%

6.45% 8.1

6.45%

Apaam

13.70%

51.72%

3.45%

3.45% 3.45% 3.45%

13.79%

3.45%

Apaam

17.24%

62.07%

3.45% 3.45% 3.45% 3.45%

6.89%

ound and Per

ound and Number of Respondents Engaged in V

Atewa

7.89%

57.89%

6.58% 3.95% 9.21% 7.89%

5.26%

1.32%

Atewa

3.95%

38.16% 1.32% 6.57% 7.89%

2.63% 1.32%

13.16% 10.53% 2.63% 1.32%

6.57% 4.17%

Nsuensa

3.23%

38.71% 9.67% 16.13% 6.45%

19.35% 3.23%

3.23%

Nsuensa

3.23%

35.48% 12.90% 3.23%

Educational Backgr 6.45%

3.23% 3.23% 6.45%

12.90%

6.45%

3.23%

3.23% 3.23%

Educational Backgr

Industry

occupation

Industry

Block

Services

Block

Services

est

Education

est

Education Secondary

Secondary

rading

eaching

rading

eaching

rading

eaching rading

rading eaching

For

No Farming eaching T Other Unemployed Hunting/Gathering

Primary Farming T Petty T Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

Secondary Farming T Other T Manufacturing

Post-Secondary Farming T T Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

For

No No Farming T Other Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

Primary No Farming T Petty T Unemployed Extractive Manufacturing

Secondary No Farming T Petty T Extractive

Post-Secondary No Farming T Petty T