DOCSLIB.ORG

Structural Economic Transformation in Nepal a Diagnostic Study Submitted to DFID Nepal

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Structural Economic Transformation in Nepal a Diagnostic Study Submitted to DFID Nepal June 2014 Report Structural economic transformation in Nepal A diagnostic study submitted to DFID Nepal Yurendra Basnett, Giles Henley, John Howell, Harry Jones, Alberto Lemma and Posh Raj Pandey Low levels of productivity undermine meaningful structural economic transformation. Effective public administration is vital for managing the transformation process. Rural infrastructure is vital for agricultural growth. Poor coordination of policies on fertilisers, irrigation and trade constrain delivery of agricultural inputs and services. Energy sector growth hinges on better market information systems and regulatory reforms to the electricity authority. Make labour markets work better for migrant workers. Financial intermediation can help translate remittances into productive investment Tourism and agriculture would benefit from institutional strengthening of public private partnerships. Catalysing economic development at a subnational level is a key opportunity in the current context. Shaping policy for development odi.org Acknowledgements This report has benefited from the comments, suggestions and support provided by Miguel Laric, Dirk Willem te Velde, Shaleen Khanal, Vincent Tang, Paul Kaiser, Mohan Manandhar, Charla Britt, Jackie Leslie, Luke Crimi, Mobolaji Oyeniji, Victoria Cox and Ritwika Sen. We would like to thank DFID-Nepal and SAWTEE for providing support during the national consultations held in Kathmandu from October to November 2013. We would like to thank the participants in the donor roundtable and high level panel discussion held at DFID-Nepal in October 2013. We would like to thank Millennium Challenge Corporation, Social Impact, Niti Foundation, Centre for Inclusive Growth, International Finance Corporation for sharing information and analysis on constraint to growth in Nepal. This report has been enriched by the insights and experience shared by a number of policy makers and opinion formers in Nepal. We would like thank Bharat Mohan Adhikary, Abhinab Basnyat, Joydeb Chakraborty, Kanak Dixit, Ganesh Gurung, Dilli Khanal, Bimal Koirala, Davendra Raj Panday, Surendra Pandey, Amir Rana, Mohan Man Sainju, Chandan Sapkota, Gagan Thapa and Deepak Thapa. The views presented in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of ODI and DFID. Table of contents Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations iv Executive summary v 1 Introduction 1 2 Constraints to economic growth in Nepal 3 2.1 Economic growth performance 4 2.2 Structural economic transformation 7 2.3 Overview of constraints to growth 13 3 Coordination failure 17 3.1 Brief history of economic policy in Nepal 18 3.2 Sources of coordination failure in Nepal 20 4 Evolving politics & implications for inclusive growth in Nepal 28 4.1 Key features 29 4.2 Priorities and programming principles 35 5 Agriculture 39 5.1 Overview 39 5.2 Context of Nepal’s agriculture sector 39 5.3 Performance of the agricultural sector 41 5.4 Identifying constraints 43 5.5 Opportunities for transformation 53 5.6 Programme options for agriculture 57 5.7 Programme options matrix for agriculture 60 6 Energy 63 6.1 Evaluating performance 63 6.2 Identifying constraints 66 6.3 The potential for renewable energy 73 6.4 Energy sector problem tree 75 6.5 Opportunities for transformation 76 6.6 Programme options for energy 78 6.7 Programme options matrix for energy 82 7 Transport 87 7.1 Evaluating performance 88 7.2 Challenges 91 7.3 Opportunities for transformation 98 7.4 Programme options for economic transport 100 7.5 Programme options matrix for economic transport 104 8 Tourism 112 Structural economic transformation in Nepal i 8.1 Evaluating performance 112 8.2 Identifying constraints 114 8.3 Opportunities for transformation 124 8.4 Programme options for tourism 128 8.5 Programme options matrix for tourism 134 9 Labour migration & remittance 137 9.1 Evaluating performance 137 9.2 Identifying constraints 139 9.3 Opportunities for transformation 146 9.4 Programme options for labour migration & remittances 152 9.5 Programme options matrix for labour migration 157 10 Leveraging Nepal’s natural resources 160 10.1 Overview 160 10.2 Water 161 10.3 Forestry 165 10.4 Climate change & risks to economic transformation in Nepal 168 11 Programme options for structural transformation 171 11.1 Programme narrative 171 11.2 Programme focus 172 11.3 Programme delivery 176 12 Conclusion 181 References 183 Appendix: Donor Mapping 194 Figures Figure 1: Real GDP annual growth (in percentage) over the past 45 year period (1974 – 2012; constant 2005 US$) 4 Figure 2: Real GDP per capita (average annual growth; constant local currency unit) 5 Figure 3: Real value added by economic sectors (average annual growth) 5 Figure 4: Trends in industry, manufacturing and gross capital formation (percent of GDP) 6 Figure 5: Gross national income per capita (atlas method) 9 Figure 6: Real value added by economic sector (percent of GDP) 9 Figure 7: Real value added by economic sectors (constant local currency units; in 000,000s) 10 Figure 8: Value added per worker by economic sectors (constant, USD2000) 11 Figure 9: Comparison with developing countries in the region (values as percentage of GDP, 2005 - 2010) 11 Figure 10: Electricity production from hydroelectric sources (in kilowatt hours (000,000s), left axis) and percentage change in production (right axis) 14 Figure 11: Electricity power consumption (kWh per capita) 14 Figure 12: Value of agricultural sub-sector output 1970 and 2010. 41 Figure 13: Agricultural production in Nepal (2010) 41 Figure 14: Agricultural growth rates, 1968-2012 42 Figure 15: Productivity per agricultural worker, 1990-2010 43 Figure 16: Problem tree for low yields 45 Figure 17: Problem tree for low value added in high value/export crop 50 Figure 18: Returns to investments in agriculture in India 1960s-1990s 54 Figure 19: Electricity production for Nepal GWh (2012) 64 Figure 20: Electricity total availability MW (2012) 64 Figure 21: Electricity consumption by sector (GWh) 64 Structural economic transformation in Nepal ii Figure 22: Electricity load forecast for Nepal 65 Figure 23: License system impacts on IPP investments 71 Figure 24: Problem tree for the energy sector 76 Figure 25: Effects of high cost of transport 91 Figure 26: Problem tree for high cost of air transport 94 Figure 27: Figure Problem tree for lack of railway development 97 Figure 28: Average spend per tourist (current US$) 114 Figure 29: Tourism sector problem tree 127 Figure 30: Problem tree for high social and economic costs of migration 146 Figure 31: Problem tree for unrealised benefits 151 Figure 32: Water to economic transformation theory of change 164 Figure 33: Forests to economic transformation theory of change 167 Figure 34: Estimated economic damages (RHS) & people affected (LHS) reported by disaster type (1980-2010) 168 Figure 35: Potential impacts of climate change on power generation & cost of hydropower (WECS 2012) 169 Tables Table 1: Real GDP growth and sectoral value added (constant 2005 US$) 6 Table 2: Comparison of Nepal with select countries on some economic development indicators 12 Table 3: Cost of starting business in Sri Lanka and Nepal 16 Table 4: Government expenditure in infrastructure (share in percent) 22 Table 5: Governance indicators 22 Table 6: Aid fragmentation in Nepal 26 Table 7: Cropping patterns in Nepal 40 Table 8: Land holdings in Nepal 40 Table 9: Crop yields in Nepal, 2008 42 Table 10: Importance of transport for development 87 Table 11: Transport infrastructure 89 Table 12: Quality of transport infrastructure 89 Table 13: Cost of transport 90 Table 14: Ecosystem services & economic benefits from forests 165 Table A1: Agriculture 195 Table A2: Energy 208 Table A3: Economic transport 215 Table A4: Tourism 217 Table A5: Labour migration 218 Boxes Spaces for joining the flying geese ......................................................................... 7 Improvements in doing business .......................................................................... 15 Political economy analysis .................................................................................... 29 Constraints to the ginger subsector ...................................................................... 52 Conditions necessary for agricultural development .............................................. 54 The ILO 169 convention ....................................................................................... 70 CDM energy projects in Nepal .............................................................................. 74 Hydropower potential for low carbon growth ...................................................... 161 Assumptions ....................................................................................................... 164 Climate finance ................................................................................................... 165 Assumptions ....................................................................................................... 167 Structural economic transformation in Nepal iii Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre CBS Central Bureau of Statistics CNI Confederation of Nepalese Industries DFID Department for International Development DoED Department of Electricity Development FNCCI Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry GoN Government of Nepal GWh Gigawatt hour IPP Independent Power Producer JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KWh Kilowatt hour MoF Ministry of Finance
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Critical Development Constraints Nepal’S Pace of Growth and Poverty Reduction Has Lagged Behind That of Other South Asian Countries
    Nepal: Critical Development Constraints Nepal’s pace of growth and poverty reduction has lagged behind that of other South Asian countries. The country diagnostic study—Nepal: Critical Development Constraints—inquires into the causes for Nepal ’s slow growth vis-à-vis that of other South Asian economies by posing three questions: • What are the critical factors constraining investments, both domestic and foreign? • What should policy makers do to revive investment, particularly by the private sector? • How can the growth be made more inclusive? The inquiry and the results thereof aim to assist the work of government, development agencies, and the private sector to achieve a higher, more equitable growth path to benefit the people of Nepal. About the Asian Development Bank ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments Nepal for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance. About the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development Critical One in six people in the world today, almost 1 billion people, live in poverty on less than $1 a day.
    [Show full text]
  • Advancing Workers' Rights Under Sdgs
    Research Paper IX Advancing Workers’ Rights under SDGs Policy and Situational Analysis of Decent Work in Nepal The Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility is a research centre within Social Science Baha, Kathmandu, set up with the primary objective of contributing to broader theories and understandings on labour and mobility. It conducts interdisciplinary, policy-relevant research on critical issues affecting working people; serves as a forum to foster academic, policy and public debates; and provides new insights on the impact of labour and migration. Jeevan Baniya with 9 789937934916 Sunita Basnet, Himalaya Kharel and Rajita Dhungana Research Paper IX Advancing Workers’ Rights under SDGs Policy and Situational Analysis of Decent Work in Nepal Jeevan Baniya with Sunita Basnet, Himalaya Kharel and Rajita Dhungana This publication was made possible through the financial support of the Solidarity Center, Washington DC. The authors would like to thank Krishma Sharma of the Solidarity Center for administrative and logistical support during the study. The authors are grateful to Saloman Rajbanshi, Senior Programme Officer and Dr Biswo Poudel, Economic Advisor, from ILO Country Office Nepal, for reviewing the report and providing their valuable feedback. The authors would also like to thank Khem Shreesh at Social Science Baha for his feedback while finalising this publication. © Solidarity Center, 2019 ISBN: 978 9937 9349 1 6 Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility Social Science Baha 345 Ramchandra Marg, Battisputali, Kathmandu – 9, Nepal Tel: +977-1-4472807, 4480091 • Fax: +977-1-4475215 [email protected] • www.ceslam.org Printed in Nepal CONTENTS Acronyms v Executive Summary vii 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Nepal: SASEC Road Connectivity Project: Leguwaghat-Bhojpur
    Initial Environmental Examination February 2013 NEP: SASEC Road Connectivity Project Leguwaghat — Bhojpur Subproject Prepared by the Department of Road, Ministry of Physical Planning, Works and Transport Management for the Asian Development Bank. 16. ii CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (as of 21 February 2013) Currency unit – Nepalese rupee (NR) NR1.00 – $ 0.0115340254 $1.00 – NR86.700000 ABBREVIATIONS EPR Environmental Protection Rules ES Environmental Specialist EWH East-West Highway FIDIC Federation International Des Ingenieurs- Conseils FS Feasibility Study GESU Geo-Environmental and Social Unit GHG Green House Gas IA Implementing Agency ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development IEE Initial Environmental Examination IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JICA Japan International Co-operative Agency LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas MCT Main Central Trust MHH Mid-Hill Highway MOE Ministry of Environment MoPPW Ministry of Physical Planning and Works MRM Mahendra Raj Marg NAAQS Nepal Ambient Air Quality Standard NEP Nepal NGO Non Government Organization NOx Nitrogen Oxide OD Origin-Destination PD Project Directorate pH Percentage of Hydrogen PPE Personal Protective Equipment PIP Priority Investment Plan PPMO Public Procurement Monitoring Office RCP Road Connectivity Project - ADB RAP Rural Access Programmme -DFID RAP Rural Access Program RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete RCSP Road Connectivity Sector Project - ADB iii REA Rapid Environmental Assessment RIP Road Improvement Project- DOR RNDP Road Network Development Project
    [Show full text]
  • Nepal Occupying Only 0.1% of the Total Landmass of the Earth Is Home To: Area : 147,181 Sq
    epal is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of bio-diversity due to its unique Ngeographical position and altitudinal variation. The elevation of the country ranges from 60 m above sea level to the highest point on earth, Mt. Everest at 8,848 m, all within a distance of 150 km resulting into climatic conditions from sub-tropical to Arctic. Nepal occupying only 0.1% of the total landmass of the earth is home to: Area : 147,181 sq. km • 2% of all the flowering plants in the world Location : Situated between China in the north and • 8% of the world’s population of birds (more than India in the south, east and west 848 species) Capital : Kathmandu • 4% of mammals on earth Population : 25.8 million • 11 of the world’s 15 families of butterflies (more than People : Nepal has more than 101 ethnic groups 500 species) and 92 spoken languages. • 600 indigenous plant families Language : Nepali is the national language; travel- • 319 species of exotic orchids trade people understand and speak English as well. Religion : Nepal is a secular state with a pre- dominance of Hindu and Buddhist population. Currency : Nepali Rupee (approximately US$ 1 equals Rs. 78.90 as of December 2008) Political System : Federal Democratic Republic Climate : Nepal has four major seasons (1) Winter: December-February, (2) Spring: March-May, (3) Summer: June-August, (4) Autumn: September-November. Monsoons are from June till mid September. Nepal can be visited the whole year round. Summer Winter (May, June, July) (Nov, Dec, Jan) Place Max Min Rain Max Min Rain (°C) (°C) (mm) (°C) (°C) (mm) Kathmandu 28.1 19.5 312.9 19.3 3 15.4 Pokhara 29.7 21.3 829.7 20.3 7.7 26.3 Chitwan 33.0 25.3 404.0 24.1 8.3 13.8 What to Wear : Light weight clothing is recommended from May through October.
    [Show full text]
  • Logistics Capacity Assessment Nepal
    IA LCA – Nepal 2009 Version 1.05 Logistics Capacity Assessment Nepal Country Name Nepal Official Name Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal Regional Bureau Bangkok, Thailand Assessment Assessment Date: From 16 October 2009 To: 6 November 2009 Name of the assessors Rich Moseanko – World Vision International John Jung – World Vision International Rajendra Kumar Lal – World Food Programme, Nepal Country Office Title/position Email contact At HQ: [email protected] 1/105 IA LCA – Nepal 2009 Version 1.05 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Country Profile....................................................................................................................................................................3 1.1. Introduction / Background.........................................................................................................................................5 1.2. Humanitarian Background ........................................................................................................................................6 1.3. National Regulatory Departments/Bureau and Quality Control/Relevant Laboratories ......................................16 1.4. Customs Information...............................................................................................................................................18 2. Logistics Infrastructure .....................................................................................................................................................33 2.1. Port Assessment .....................................................................................................................................................33
    [Show full text]
  • Nepal-India Think Tank Summit 2018 Opening Ceremony Session I
    Summit Schedule Nepal-India Think Tank Summit 2018 Registration and Breakfast 8:00 AM- 9:00 AM 9:00 AM-10:00 AM Opening Ceremony Opening Remarks: Mr. Shyam KC, Research and Development Director, AIDIA Chair Remarks: Shri Shakti Sinha, Director, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) Special Remarks: H.E. Manjeev Singh Puri, Ambassador of India to Nepal Keynote Speech: Shri Ram Madhav, National General Secretary, Bharatiya Janata Party and Director, India Foundation Special Guest Remarks: Hon'ble Mr. Matrika Prasad Yadav, Minister for Industry, Commerce & Supplies Special Address: Chief Guest Rt. Hon’ble Former Prime Minister of Nepal, Pushpa Kamal Dahal ‘Prachanda’ Vote of Thanks: Mr. Sunil KC, Founder/CEO, Asian Institute and Diplomacy and International Affairs (AIDIA) Opening Session Brief Think Tank, as a shaper of various policy related questions, acts as a bridge between the world of idea and action. And it recommends best possible policy options to the government to meet the daunting challenges in the domestic and the international affairs. The session aims to locate the major role of the think tank in addressing the emerging foreign policy questions and the importance of cooperation between the think-tank of Nepal and India. 10:00 AM-11:30 AM Session I: Building Innovative Cooperation between Indo-Nepal Think Tank: The Partnership Chair Hon'ble Mr. Gagan Thapa, Member of Parliament, Nepali Congress Panelists: Prof. Dr Shambhu Ram Simkhada, Convener, CNI Think Tank, Former Permanent Representative of Nepal to the United Nations Major General Rajiv Narayanan, AVSM, VSM (Retd) Shri Shakti Sinha, Director, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • National Services Policy Review: Nepal
    UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT NATIONAL SERVICES POLICY REVIEW NEPAL New York and Geneva, 2011 ii NATIONAL SERVICES POLICY REVIEW OF NEPAL NOTE The symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United Nations document. The views expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat. The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its economic system or degree of development. Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement is requested, together with a reference to the document number. A copy of the publication containing the quotation or reprint should be sent to the UNCTAD secretariat, Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland. For further information on the Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy Branch and its activities, please contact: Ms. Mina MASHAYEKHI Head, Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy Branch Division of International Trade in Goods and Services, and Commodities Tel: +41 22 917 56 40 Fax: +41 22 917 00 44 E-mail: [email protected] www.unctad.org/tradenegotiations UNCTAD/DITC/TNCD/2010/3 Copyright © United Nations, 2011 All rights reserved. Printed in Switzerland FOREWORD iii FOREWORD For many years, UNCTAD has been emphasising the importance of developing countries strengthening and diversifying their services sector.
    [Show full text]
  • The Economy of Nepal
    The Economy of Nepal Arturo Y, Consing* HE KINGDOM OF NEPAL is a landlocked country bordered on the west, south, and east by India, on the north by Tibet, and Ton the northeast by Sikkim. It extends approximately 500 miles from east to west and 100 miles from north to south, and covers an area of about 54,000 square miles. Comparatively few miles apart are jungles, rice valleys, alpine highlands, and snow peaks. Elevation rather than latitude is the main determinant of climate. The country is divided into three geographical regions: the Hima- layan North, the central region (Inner Himalaya or the Hills), and the southern region (Terai). The Himalayan North contains the Nepalese portion of the Himalayan Mountains. The central region lies between the Great Himalaya and the Churia Hills (a continua- tion of the Siwalik Range of India); it is a succession of mountain chains which vary between 4,000 and 10,000 feet in elevation. Be- tween the well-defined Mahabharat Range (8,000 feet) and the Himalayan North is the Kathmandu Valley (4,500 feet), which is not only the political and cultural heart of the nation, but also one of its principal economic areas. The precipitation in the Valley averages about 58 inches a year; most of it occurs during the period from June through September—the time of the monsoon winds. Tem- peratures range from about 50°F in January to 78°F in July. The southern region lies between the Indian border and the Churia Hills; included in this general area are the forest-clad Churia Hills and the Bhabar slope, known together as the foothills or the Inner Terai.
    [Show full text]
  • Nepal's Future: in Whose Hands?
    NEPAL’S FUTURE: IN WHOSE HANDS? Asia Report N°173 – 13 August 2009 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................. i I. INTRODUCTION: THE FRAYING PROCESS ........................................................... 1 II. THE COLLAPSE OF CONSENSUS............................................................................... 2 A. RIDING FOR A FALL......................................................................................................................3 B. OUTFLANKED AND OUTGUNNED..................................................................................................4 C. CONSTITUTIONAL COUP DE GRACE..............................................................................................5 D. ADIEU OR AU REVOIR?................................................................................................................6 III. THE QUESTION OF MAOIST INTENT ...................................................................... 7 A. MAOIST RULE: MORE RAGGED THAN RUTHLESS .........................................................................7 B. THE VIDEO NASTY.......................................................................................................................9 C. THE BEGINNING OF THE END OR THE END OF THE BEGINNING?..................................................11 IV. THE ARMY’S GROWING POLITICAL ROLE ........................................................ 13 A. WAR BY OTHER MEANS.............................................................................................................13
    [Show full text]
  • River Culture in Nepal
    Nepalese Culture Vol. XIV : 1-12, 2021 Central Department of NeHCA, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/nc.v14i0.35187 River Culture in Nepal Kamala Dahal- Ph.D Associate Professor, Patan Multipal Campus, T.U. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Most of the world civilizations are developed in the river basins. However, we do not have too big rivers in Nepal, though Nepalese culture is closely related with water and rivers. All the sacraments from birth to the death event in Nepalese society are related with river. Rivers and ponds are the living places of Nepali gods and goddesses. Jalkanya and Jaladevi are known as the goddesses of rivers. In the same way, most of the sacred places are located at the river banks in Nepal. Varahakshetra, Bishnupaduka, Devaghat, Triveni, Muktinath and other big Tirthas lay at the riverside. Most of the people of Nepal despose their death bodies in river banks. Death sacrement is also done in the tirthas of such localities. In this way, rivers of Nepal bear the great cultural value. Most of the sacramental, religious and cultural activities are done in such centers. Religious fairs and festivals are also organized in such a places. Therefore, river is the main centre of Nepalese culture. Key words: sacred, sacraments, purity, specialities, bath. Introduction The geography of any localities play an influencing role for the development of culture of a society. It affects a society directly and indirectly. In the beginning the nomads passed their lives for thousands of year in the jungle.
    [Show full text]
  • The Kamaiya System of Bonded Labour in Nepal
    Nepal Case Study on Bonded Labour Final1 1 THE KAMAIYA SYSTEM OF BONDED LABOUR IN NEPAL INTRODUCTION The origin of the kamaiya system of bonded labour can be traced back to a kind of forced labour system that existed during the rule of the Lichhabi dynasty between 100 and 880 AD (Karki 2001:65). The system was re-enforced later during the reign of King Jayasthiti Malla of Kathmandu (1380–1395 AD), the person who legitimated the caste system in Nepali society (BLLF 1989:17; Bista 1991:38-39), when labourers used to be forcibly engaged in work relating to trade with Tibet and other neighbouring countries. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Gorkhali and Rana rulers introduced and institutionalised new forms of forced labour systems such as Jhara,1 Hulak2, Beth3 and Begar4 (Regmi, 1972 reprint 1999:102, cited in Karki, 2001). The later two forms, which centred on agricultural works, soon evolved into such labour relationships where the workers became tied to the landlords being mortgaged in the same manner as land and other property. These workers overtimes became permanently bonded to the masters. The kamaiya system was first noticed by anthropologists in the 1960s (Robertson and Mishra, 1997), but it came to wider public attention only after the change of polity in 1990 due in major part to the work of a few non-government organisations. The 1990s can be credited as the decade of the freedom movement of kamaiyas. Full-scale involvement of NGOs, national as well as local, with some level of support by some political parties, in launching education classes for kamaiyas and organising them into their groups culminated in a kind of national movement in 2000.
    [Show full text]
  • Zombie Slayers in a “Hidden Valley” (Sbas Yul): Sacred Geography and Political Organisation in the Nepal-Tibet Borderland1
    Zombie Slayers in a “Hidden Valley” (sbas yul): Sacred Geography and Political Organisation in the Nepal-Tibet Borderland1 Francis Khek Gee Lim The Himalaya, with its high peaks and deep valleys, served for centuries as natural geographical frontier and boundary between the kingdoms and states of South Asia it straddles. Given the strategic advantage of controlling that high ground, it is little wonder that the Himalaya has throughout history witnessed countless skirmishes between neighbouring states that sought such strategic advantage. The interest in this mountain range, of course, was not restricted to matters of defence. North-south trade routes criss-crossed the Himalayan range, connecting the Tibetan plateau to the rest of the Indian subcontinent, ensuring lucrative tax revenues for those who controlled these economic lifelines. In the era of European colonialism in the “long” 19th century, the Himalaya became embroiled in what has been called the “Great Game” between the British and Russian empires, who sought to expand their respective commercial and imperial interests in the region. Due to its pristine environment, awe-inspiring mountains, and the remoteness of its valleys, the Himalaya was also the well-spring of countless legends, myths and romantic imaginings, engendering the sacralisation of the landscape that had served as a source of religious inspiration for peoples living both in its vicinity and beyond. Hence, despite its remoteness — or because of it — warfare, pilgrimages, trade and the search for viable areas of settlement have been some of the key factors contributing to the migratory process and interest in the area. Largely because they lay in the frontier zone, enclaves of Tibetan settlements located deep in the numerous Himalayan valleys were often on the outer fringes of state influence, enjoying a significant degree of local autonomy until processes of state consolidation intensified in the last century or so, as exemplified by the case of Nepal.
    [Show full text]