Introduction 1 'Seeds and Roots/ 1893-1913

Notes

Introduction 1 Alfred B. Xuma, Charlotte Manye (Mrs Maxeke): What an Educated Afri- can Girl Can Do (AME Church, 1930), p. 9. 2 Notable exceptions include Thomas Karis and Gwendolen Carter, eds, From Protest to Challenge: a Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964, vols. 1-4 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1972-7); Paul Rich, White Power and the Liberal Conscience: Racial Segregation and South African Liberalism (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1984); Richard Ralston, 'American Episodes in the Making of an African Leader: a Case Study of Alfred B. Xuma/ International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, 1973, pp. 72-93; and Peter Walshe, The Rise of African National- ism in South Africa: the African National Congress, 1912-1952 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).

1 'Seeds and Roots/ 1893-1913

1 Commenting on his family background in the first of a series of autobiographical articles published in Drum magazine in South Africa in the 1950s, Xuma wrote that 'these are the seeds and roots from which I spring.' This phrase seemed an appropriate way to begin Xuma's biography. For Xuma's autobiographical articles, see 'Extracts from the Life Story of Dr Alfred Xuma/ Drum, March 1954-January 1955. 2 For an elaboration of this point, see the introduction to William Beinart and Colin Bundy, Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa: Politics & Popu- lar Movements in the Transkei and Eastern Cape, 1890-1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). Beinart developed this argument earlier in The Political Economy of Pondoland, 1860-1930 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982). 3 For historical background on the Southern Nguni, see Robin Derricourt, 'Settlement in the Transkei and Ciskei before the Mfecane/ in Beyond the Cape Frontier: Studies in the History of the Transkei and Ciskei, ed. Christopher Saunders and R. Derricourt (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 39-82; J.B. Peires, The House of Phalo: a History of the Xhosa People in the Days of their Independence (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1981); and John Henderson Soga, The Ama-Xosa: Life and Customs (Lovedale Cape: Lovedale Press, c. 1931). 4 These figures are given in the official Cape census reports of 1891, as quoted in R. Hunt Davis, Jr, 'Nineteenth Century African Education in the Cape Colony: a Historical Analysis' (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1969), pp. 131 and 144. 5 Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry, 2nd ed. (London: James Currey, 1988), particularly pp. 65-108. Although Bundy

207 208 Notes

may have overstated the extent of this peasantry's 'rise' and 'fall/ his assertion that a stratum of African farmers responded to new market opportunities after 1870 remains convincing. 6 C.C. Saunders, 'The Annexation of the Transkei/ in Beyond the Cape Frontier, pp. 185-98. 7 On the Cape colony's incorporation of the Transkeian territories, see also C.C. Saunders, The Annexation of the Transkeian Territories' in Archives Year Book 1976, (Pretoria: Government Printer, 1978); Beinart and Bundy, Hidden Struggles, pp. 1-45; and Andre Odendaal, Vukani Bantu! The Beginnings of Black Protest Politics in South Africa to 1912 (Cape Town: David Philip, 1984), pp. 1-29. 8 Odendaal, Vukani Bantu!, pp. 197-227. 9 For discussion of African political activities in the Cape colony and the Transkeian territories, see Andre Odendaal, 'African Political Mobilisation in the Eastern Cape, 1880-1910' (PhD dissertation, University of Cam- bridge, 1983) and Odendaal, Vukani Bantu!, pp. 12-15. 10 In his study Songs of Zion: the African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), James Campbell notes that Africans played a particularly important role in the spread of the Wesleyan Church in South Africa. In the nineteenth- century Cape, for example, it was common for African Wesleyans to participate in the missionary endeavor by serving as lay preachers and evangelists. See Campbell, pp. 103-38. 11 Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' p. 144. 12 Sources that discuss the role of missionaries among the Southern Nguni include Beinart and Bundy, Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa, pp. 1-45; Campbell, Songs of Zion, pp. 103-38; R. Hunt Davis, Jr, 'School vs Blanket and Settler: Elijah Makiwane and the Leadership of the Cape School Community/ African Affairs, vol. 78, no. 310, Jan. 1979, pp. 12-31; Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education/ pp. 104-87; B.A. Pauw, Christianity and Xhosa Tradition: Belief and Ritual among Xhosa- speaking Christians, (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 18-34; and Monica Wilson, Reaction to Conquest: Effects of Contact with Europeans on the Pondo of South Africa, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961). 13 The date of Xuma's birth is difficult to document with absolute cer- tainty. The date mentioned above is consistent with information gleaned from two sources: a letter Xuma wrote to an acquaintance in South West Africa in 1946 [A.B. Xuma papers no. 460315, Division of Histori- cal Papers, Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (hereafter referred to as ABX)] and Xuma's official death notice, filed on 2 February 1962 (State Archives, Pretoria: MHG.559 1056/62). However, in a form he completed while registering at the Northwestern Univer- sity medical school (c. 1923), Xuma listed his birth date as 5 March 1894. The whereabouts of Xuma's baptismal record - if one ever existed - remain a mystery. 14 This discussion of Xuma's family background is based on the following: interview with Attwell J. Xuma, Alfred's nephew, 24 October 1990, Manzana, Transkei and personal communication from the same (1991); Notes 209

interview with Dabulamanzi Gcanga; Alfred's cousin, 24 October 1990, Manzana, Transkei; Xuma's autobiographical writings, both in typescript form (ABX box P, file 24) and published as 'Extracts from the Life Story of Dr Alfred Xuma/ Drum, March 1954-January 1955; Nat Nakasa, 'Who was Dr Xuma? An Intimate Profile,' Drum, March 1962; and 'Master- piece in Bronze: Dr Alfred B. Xuma,' Drum, December 1953. 15 Alfred B. Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 3. 16 Gcanga and Xuma interviews. For a more general discussion of migration and ethnic identities among the Southeast Nguni in the nineteenth century, see Peires, House of Phalo, pp. 13-26. 17 T.R.H. Davenport's South Africa: a Modern History, 4th ed. (Toronto: Uni- versity of Toronto Press, 1991), pp. 55-7, provides valuable background information on Thembuland. For a more detailed analysis, see EJ.C. Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu and Their Relationship with the Cape, 1850-1900' (PhD dissertation, Rhodes University, 1988). 18 Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' p. 293. 19 This description is based on my personal visit to Manzana in October 1990; interviews with A.J. Xuma and D. Gcanga; and Alfred B. Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 3. Although the name 'Manzana' ('little water') suggests that the community was well-watered, droughts were not unknown in the region. In her study of late-nineteenth-century Thembuland, Elsie Wagenaar notes that the Engcobo district experienced droughts in 1885-6 and in 1892. See Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu/ pp. 357-64. 20 'Rondavel' is a South African term for a round hut with a thatched roof; the word 'kraal' refers to an enclosure for cattle or other stock animals. 21 Interviews with A.J. Xuma and D. Gcanga; see also Alfred B. Xuma, autobiographical typescript. These sources suggest that the Xumas had ample land and livestock to provide for their growing family. The precise socio-economic position of the Xumas in relation to other families in Manzana is admittedly difficult to determine. 22 A.J. Xuma interview; Alfred B. Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 2-3; 'Masterpiece in Bronze: Dr Alfred B. Xuma,' Drum, December 1953. 23 Wesleyan Methodist Church of South Africa, Minutes of the Eleventh Conference at Queenstown, 1893 (Cape Town: Argus, 1893), pp. 18-19. The designation 'Thembuland Proper' refers to the region bordered by the Mbashe and Mtata rivers in the Transkeian territories. It was here that the Xumas settled after the birth of their first child in 1877. 24 Christopher Saunders, 'Tile and the Thembu Church: Politics and Inde- pendency on the Cape Eastern Frontier in the Late 19th Century,' Journal of African History, vol. 11, no. 4, 1970, pp. 553-70. Further commentary on Tile's church can be found in Francis Meli, South Africa Belongs to Us: a History of the ANC (Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1988), p. 9; Saunders, 'The New African Elite in the Eastern Cape and Some Late Nineteenth Century Origins of African Nationalism,' Collected Seminar Papers on the Societies of Southern Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries, vol. 1, 10, October 1969-March 1970, pp. 44-55; and Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu,' pp. 219-27. 210 Notes

25 'Districts' in the Transkeian territories were administrative units some- what akin to 'counties' in the United States or Britain. 26 For background on the Engcobo district, see T.R. Beattie, A Ride Through the Transkei (King William's Town: S.E. Rowles & Co., 1891), chapters 3 and 4; Frank Brownlee, The Transkeian Native Territories: Historical Records (Lovedale: Lovedale Institution Press, 1923) pp. 20-31; Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' p. 145; A. Stanford (Resident Magistrate, Engcobo) to Chief Magistrate, Thembuland, 14 Dec. 1891 [Cape Archives: CT 3/86]; and Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu,' pp. 342-53. 27 See the correspondence between the Engcobo Resident Magistrate and the Chief Magistrate of Thembuland (Umtata), 14 December 1891 and 10 June 1892 [Cape Archives: CMT. 3/86]; also Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu,' pp. 342-53. 28 The following reconstruction of Xuma's childhood experiences is based mostly on Xuma's autobiographical typescript plus interviews with AJ. Xuma and D. Gcanga. 29 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 4. 30 Unfortunately, Xuma did not leave behind an account of his initiation experiences. But in an interview, Xuma's cousin Dabulamanzi Gcanga (born circa 1912) remarked, 'He became a man like all Xhosa boys. He goes to the veld [field] and some man is asked to circumcise him, make him a man. And you will stay there doing all those fun things - not eating food, not drinking, only [eating] hard food. You don't drink for eight days.' (Interview, 24 October 1990). Alfred probably participated in a circumcision ceremony and underwent a period of seclusion with other Thembu youths when he was in his late teens. For detailed accounts of circumcision rites as they were practiced in the Transkei in the early twentieth century, see Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1994), pp. 22-7 and Soga, The Ama-Xosa: Life and Customs, pp. 247-60. 31 In South African parlance, the term 'mealies' refers to corn. 32 Standard five, equivalent to seventh grade in the United States, was typically the last year of primary school for South African children. Relatively few Africans had access to a complete primary school education during Xuma's youth. Those who did manage to complete primary school were often in their mid to late teens when and if they entered standard six, which marked the beginning of high school. 33 This estimate, offered by CT. Loram in his study The Education of the South African Native (London, 1917), placed school attendance among African children in the Cape and the Transkeian territories at 26.5 per cent, compared with 7.5 per cent in Natal, 4.8 per cent in the Transvaal, and 12.8 per cent in the Orange Free State. Quoted in Alan Cobley, Class and Consciousness (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), pp. 61-2. 34 See Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' pp. 271-9, 300. 35 Norman Etherington, Preachers, Peasants, and Politics in Southeast Africa, 1835-1880 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1978), pp. 135-41. Al- though Etherington focuses upon the 'kholwa' among Zulu society, his comments on cultural syncretism are equally relevant when applied to other Southern Nguni societies. Notes 211

36 For more on the development of the Christian, western-educated Afri- can elite in South Africa, see Michael Ashley, 'African Education and Society in the Nineteenth Century Eastern Cape/ in Beyond the Cape Frontier, pp. 199-211; Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' pp. 60-103, 286-90; Davis, 'School vs Blanket and Settler/ Etherington, Preachers, Peasants, and Politics) and Odendaal, 'African Political Mobilisation in the Eastern Cape, 1880-1910.' 37 Many historians have recognized the links between the eastern Cape/ Transkei and the rise of African nationalism in South Africa. For examples, see Odendaal, Vukani Bantu!; Saunders, 'The New African Elite;' Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu,' p. 388; A.P. Walshe, 'The Origins of African Political Consciousness in South Africa,' Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 7, no. 4, 1969, pp. 583-610; and Donovan Williams, 'African Nationalism in South Africa: Origins and Problems/ Journal of African History, vol. 11, no. 3, 1970, pp. 371-83. 38 Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu,' pp. 212-18. 39 CJ. Warner to Chief Magistrate, Umtata (CM-U), 10 November 1896; C.A. King to CM-U, 2 December 1903; Resident Magistrate, Nqamakwe, to Native Affairs Department, 4 October 1904 (Cape: NA. 633. 2160); WJ. Clarke to Resident Magistrate, Engcobo, 16 August 1902; and Undersecretary for Agriculture, Cape Town, to Secretary to Native Affairs Department, Cape Town, 27 August 1902 (Cape: NA. 550. 870). 40 Bundy, Rise and Fall, pp. 116-22, and Charles van Onselen, 'Reactions to Rinderpest in Southern Africa,' Journal of African History, vol. 13, no. 3, 1972, pp. 473-88. For the consequences of the epidemic in Thembuland, see Wagenaar, 'A History of the Thembu,' pp. 354-64, 377-88. 41 Bundy, Rise and Fall, p. 140. 42 For the history of Clarkebury, see Kenneth Coggin, 'Essay on the His- tory of Clarkebury Institution (TS, c. 1963) [Cory library: MS 14,683]; The Deathless Years: a Centenary Souvenir of Clarkebury Mission, 1830- 1930 (n.p., 1930), especially Arthur J. Lennard's chapter 'A Brief History of Clarkebury,' pp. 8-19; C.C. Harris, 'South African Missionary Institu- tions: Clarkebury/ South African Outlook, 1 December 1932, pp. 237-8; W. Gordon Mears, Mission to Clarkebury (Cape Town: Methodist Pub- lishing House, c. 1973), and 'Progress at Clarkebury Institution,' South African Outlook, 1 December 1932, p. 228. 43 Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' p. 283. 44 For background on the educational options open to Africans in late- nineteenth, early-twentieth-century South Africa, see Ashley, 'African Education and Society,' p. 209; Cobley, Class and Consciousness, pp. 62-3; Davis, 'Nineteenth Century African Education,' pp. 279-83; Alexander Kerr, Fort Hare, 1915-48: the Evolution of an African College (Pietermaritz- burg: Shuter & Shooter, 1968), pp. 3-71, 145-57; and Z.K. Matthews, Freedom for My People (Cape Town: David Philip, 1986), pp. 30-48. 45 Standard six is equivalent to eighth grade in the United States. 46 Xuma reminisced about his experiences at Clarkebury in his autobiographical typescript, pp. 5-8, and in Xuma, 'The Story of My Education,' in The Deathless Years, pp. 22-4. 47 In a 'character certificate' he submitted to Northwestern University's 212 Notes

medical school circa 1923 (NU archives: Xuma biographical file), Xuma noted that he studied Latin privately from 1910-12 under a Professor Sutcliffe. It is unclear whether Professor Sutcliffe resided at or near Clarkebury, or whether he lived elsewhere and offered Xuma these lessons by correspondence. 48 In a letter to the Secretary for Native Affairs (Cape Town) written on 19 December 1904 (Cape: NA.701. no. 2838), Lennard noted 'how difficult it is to get the Native mind to grasp the importance of order and exactness.' 49 For Lennard's legacy at Clarkebury, see Coggin, 'Essay on the History of Clarkebury;' Mears, Mission to Clarkebury, pp. 26-7; and Xuma, 'The Story of My Education.' 50 Xuma describes these duties in his autobiographical typescript, p. 6. 51 The only information I have encountered on the events at Clarkebury in 1911 is contained in Xuma's autobiographical typescript, pp. 6-7. As valuable a source as Xuma's recollections are, they leave many ques- tions unanswered. 52 For information on the 1878 strike at Amanzimtoti Institute, see Etherington, Preachers, Peasants, and Politics, p. 132. Conditions at Afri- can missionary schools in the twentieth century are discussed in Baruch Hirson, Year of Fire, Year of Ash (London: Zed Press, 1979), pp. 22-32 and Frank Molteno, 'The Historical Foundations of the Schooling of Black South Africans,' in Apartheid and Education, ed. Peter Kallaway (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1984), pp. 65-88. 53 Z.K. Matthews (1901-68) was a contemporary of Xuma's and also gained recognition for his educational attainments. For his reflections on the status of African education in early twentieth century South Africa, see his autobiography, Freedom for My People, pp. 1-48. 54 These figures are taken from the Fort Hare Report, Section 2, 1937 Cal- endar, as quoted in Kerr, Fort Hare, p. 173. 55 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 8-9. See also Xuma, 'The Story of My Education,' pp. 22-3. 56 Ibid. For background on Rev. J.Z. Tantsi, see Campbell, Songs of Zion. 57 The literature on the links between black America and black South Af- rica is vast. See, for example, Campbell, Songs of Zion; R. Hunt Davis, Jr, 'The Black American Education Component in African Responses to Colonialism in South Africa, c. 1890-1914,' Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 3, no. 2, January 1978, pp. 65-83; George Fredrickson, Black Liberation: a Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Clement Keto, 'Black Americans and South Africa, 1890-1910,' A Current Bibliog- raphy on African Affairs, vol. 5, no. 3 (new series), May 1972, pp. 383-406; George Shepperson, 'Notes on Negro American Influences on the Emer- gence of African Nationalism,' Journal of African History, vol. 1, no. 2, 1960, pp. 299-312; A.P. Walshe, 'Black American Thought and African Political Attitudes in South Africa,' Review of Politics, vol. 32, no. 1, January 1970, pp. 51-77; and Walshe, 'The Origins of African Political Consciousness.' 58 In his book Preachers, Peasants, and Politics, p. 133, Norman Etherington Notes 213

noted that an African alumnus of a Natal missionary school graduated from Howard University as early as 1876. However, a later examination of Howard's graduation lists undertaken by Prof. Robert Edgar revealed no record of this individual. According to Edgar's findings, a black South African named John Jabane graduated from Howard in 1896. I am grateful for Prof. Edgar for his detective work. 59 This is a rough estimate. Rev. Walter Rubusana, a respected leader of Cape Africans in the late nineteenth, early twentieth centuries, esti- mated that 100 Africans were studying in the United States in 1908 alone. See Davis, 'Black American Education,' p. 70. For more commentary on the extent of this trans-Atlantic educational traffic, see D.E. Burchell, 'African Higher Education and the Establishment of the South African Native College, Fort Hare,' South African Historical Journal, no. 8, November 1976, pp. 60-83; Campbell, Songs of Zion, p. 258; Keto, 'Black Americans and South Africa,' p. 399; and Matthews, Freedom for My People, p. 35. 60 Davis, 'Black American Education,' p. 71. 61 Standards four and five are equivalent to sixth and seventh grade in the United States. 62 In 1901, D.D.T. Jabavu tried to enroll in a white high school in King William's Town, but was rejected because of his race. He traveled to Britain to continue his education in 1903. See Catherine Higgs, The Ghost of Equality: the Public Lives of D.D.T. Jabavu, 1885-1959 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1997), pp. 16-19. 63 Higher education for all races was in its infancy in South Africa before 1920. The Universities of Cape Town and the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg) were just taking shape in this era. While these institutions did not strictly prohibit the admission of black South African students before World War II, such students were not encouraged to attend. The small number of blacks who did gain admission into the traditionally white, English-speaking universities in South Africa were usually of mixed race ('Coloureds') or Indians, rather than Africans. For more on early black admission to UCT and Wits, see Howard Phillips, The University of Cape Town, 1918-1948: The Formative Years (Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1993) and Bruce K. Murray, Wits: the Early Years (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1982). 64 Ashley, 'African Education and Society,' p. 210; Burchell, 'African Higher Education,' pp. 60-83; Campbell, Songs of Zion, pp. 254-7; Davis, 'Black American Education,' pp. 71-3; Kerr, Fort Hare, pp. 3-32; and Walshe, 'The Origins of African Political Consciousness.' 65 Saunders, 'Tile and the Thembu Church,' footnote 42, p. 562. Tsigidimi' is the Xhosa word for messenger. 66 Campbell, Songs of Zion, p. 210; Cobley, Class and Consciousness, p. 231; Keto, 'Black Americans and South Africa,' pp. 386-401. 67 The role of the AME Church in promoting American education for black South Africans is discussed most thoroughly in Campbell, Songs of Zion, chapter 8. For more on the AME Church and other independent churches in this regard, see Ashley, 'African Education and Society,' p. 210; Davis, 214 Notes

'Black American Education/ pp. 69-71; Keto, 'Black Americans and South Africa/ pp. 393-7; Walshe, 'Black American Thought/ pp. 56-7; and Walshe, 'Origins of African Political Consciousness/ p. 597. 68 Davis, 'Black American Education/ pp. 76-7. 69 For more on Dube's American experiences, see Manning Marable, 'Afri- can Nationalist: the Life of John Langalibalele Dube' (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, 1976) and R. Hunt Davis, Jr, 'John L. Dube: a South African Exponent of Booker T. Washington/ Journal of African Studies vol. 2, no. 4, Winter 1975-76, pp. 497-528. 70 Besides John Dube, those Africans who supported Washington's ideas included John Tengo Jabavu and his son D.D.T. Jabavu, PJ. Mzimba, Sol Plaatje, Pixley Seme, and A.K. Soga. Particularly valuable in discuss- ing the influence of Booker T. Washington and Tuskegee on black South Africa is Louis R. Harlan, 'Booker T. Washington and the White Man's Burden/ American Historical Review, vol. 71, January 1966, pp. 441-67. 71 According to George Shepperson, Rev. Henry Reed and Rev. Isaiah Goda Shishuba attended the conference on behalf of the 'Ethiopian Church of South Africa.' Which particular branch of the Ethiopian Church these two individuals represented, if any, is unclear. See Shepperson, 'Notes on Negro American Influences,' p. 304, note 36. 72 Jabavu's impressions of Tuskegee are described in his book The Black Problem, 2nd ed. (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1921), pp. 25-67. Corre- spondence in the Booker T. Washington papers at Tuskegee also illustrates the respect with which the Institute was viewed by black South Afri- cans. See for example M.M. Maxeke, Idutywa, to Booker T. Washington, 10 January 1912 (95:507). See also Davis, 'Black American Education/ pp. 66-77; idem, 'John L. Dube: a South African Exponent of Booker T. Washington,' pp. 497-528; and Walshe, 'Black American Thought/ pp. 54-6. 73 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 8-9. 74 This is illustrated in a letter Washington wrote on 16 May 1913, in which he responded to a request for financial assistance from two black South African students wishing to attend Tuskegee. Quoted in Davis, 'Black American Education,' p. 73. 75 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 7-10, 13. 76 For more on white concerns regarding the African educational exodus, see Ashley, 'African Education and Society,' p. 210; Burchell, 'African Higher Education/ pp. 60-83; and Davis, 'Black American Education,' pp. 68 and 73. 77 Edmund Kamnqa and Robinson Sondlo, whom Xuma later described as being 'young men much older than myself/ had entered Clarkebury in 1900 and 1901 respectively. They were also bound for Tuskegee. See Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 10-11; 'Clarkebury Institution Register of Student Boarders, 1875-1929/ in The Deathless Years, pp. 53-64; and Tuskegee Annual Catalog, 1913-14, vol. 8, no. 2, p. 121. Notes 215

2 Odyssey Overseas, 1913-27

1 Xuma recalled his journey in his autobiographical typescript, pp. 12-14. Although Xuma failed to mention the existence of Jim Crow cars on any of the trains between New York and Alabama, D.D.T. Jabavu was required to travel in such cars between Washington, DC and Tuskegee just two months earlier in July 1913. See D.D.T. Jabavu, 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage,' 1913, D.D.T. Jabavu Papers, Documentation Centre for Af- rican Studies, University of South Africa, Pretoria, p. 25. 2 For background on American race relations in this era, see John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss, Jr, From Slavery to Freedom: a History of Negro Americans, 6th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), pp. 277- 86, and George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: a Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 268-72. 3 Jabavu, 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage,' pp. 38-54. 4 Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: the Making of a Black Leader, 1856- 1901 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972) and Harlan, Booker T. Washington: the Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-1915 (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1983). 5 The phrase 'women's industries,' as it was used at Tuskegee, is synony- mous with the disciplines of 'domestic science' and 'home economics.' 6 This portrait of Tuskegee is based on Tuskegee Annual Catalog, 1913-14, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 145-6; D.D.T. Jabavu, 'Booker T. Washington: His Methods Applied to South Africa,' in The Black Problem, 2nd ed. (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1921), pp. 25-67; Jabavu, 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage,' pp. 23-9; Harlan, The Making of a Black Leader, pp. 272-5, 277-80; Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, pp. 143-5; and William H. Hughes and Frederick D. Patterson, eds, Robert Russa Moton of Hampton and Tuskegee (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), pp. 84, 86-8. 7 The circumstances of Jabavu's visit to Tuskegee are described in his essay, 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage;' Xuma's arrival at the Institute is noted on p. 55. Upon his return to South Africa in 1915, Jabavu was appointed to the faculty of the South African Native College at Fort Hare. He would teach African languages, history, and Latin at Fort Hare from 1916 until his retirement in 1944. For more on Jabavu, see Catherine Higgs, The Ghost of Equality: the Public Lives of D.D.T. Jabavu of South Africa, 1885-1959 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1997). 8 Despite the initial challenges their sons faced at Tuskegee due to financial hardship, Abraham Xuma and Paul Kamnqa wrote to thank Booker T. Washington for allowing Alfred and Edmund to enroll in night school. See Abram (sic) Xuma and Paul Kamnqa, Manzana, to Booker T. Wash- ington, 1 December 1913 (Booker T. Washington papers, box 97, folder 511, Tuskegee archives). On the conditions facing Xuma upon his arrival at Tuskegee, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 14; Xuma, 'The Story of My Education/ p. 23; Harlan, The Making of a Black Leader, pp. 102, 140; and Tuskegee Annual Catalog, 1913-14, vol. 8, no. 2. p. 19. In his book Songs of Zion, p. 256, James Campbell comments on the financial difficulties plaguing black South African students whose 216 Notes

studies in the United States were not officially sponsored by the AME Church. 9 Like Booker T. Washington, George Washington Carver (c. 1864-1943) became one of the most renowned African Americans of his time. He achieved special recognition for his research into alternative uses for peanuts and sweet potatoes. During Xuma's student days at Tuskegee, Carver was the Director of Agricultural Instruction and the Experiment Station. Carver also taught Sunday evening Bible classes at Tuskegee for 30 years (beginning in 1907) and left a deep impression on genera- tions of students. For more on Carver, see Linda O. McMurry, George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981). In an appearance before a South African government commission of inquiry in 1947, Xuma mentioned that Carver had been one of his teachers. See 'Minutes of Evidence/ Native Laws Enquiry Commission, Johannesburg, 12 March 1947 (SAIRR basement collection, Wits: AD1715 5.29), p. 36. 10 I am indebted to Tuskegee University Registrar Mrs E.W. Crittenden for reviewing parts of Xuma's transcript with me during a visit in 1996. See also Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 15; Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, pp. 145, 149-52; and Jabavu, 'Booker T. Washington,' pp. 33-4, 36-8, 43-5, 52-3. 11 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 15; Tuskegee Student, vol. 28, no. 10, 13 May 1916, p. 5; Jabavu, 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage,' p. 55; Jabavu, 'Booker T. Washington,' pp. 29-31. 12 In his article 'American Episodes in the Making of an African Leader,' International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, 1973, pp. 72-93, Richard Ralston quotes Xuma's second wife, Madie Hall, as saying that her husband stayed at the Washington home while at Tuskegee (p. 76). She did not offer details as to the timing or duration of her husband's alleged stay. Xuma himself did not mention living in Washington's home in any of his autobiographical essays. This casts some doubt on the assertion. If Xuma stayed at the Washington house- hold at all, such a stay probably lasted no more than a few days and was considered insignificant. 13 During Xuma's first year at Tuskegee, he was one of 11 African students enrolled at the Institute. Of these, three were South Africans; the rest came from the Gold Coast, Liberia and Nigeria. Seventy students were from the West Indies; 12 more were from Central America. See Tuskegee Annual Catalog, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 145-6 and Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, pp. 276-7. 14 Jabavu, 'Booker T. Washington,' pp. 32-3. On the rules governing student conduct at Tuskegee, see also Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, p. 156; and Hughes & Patterson, Robert Russa Moton, pp. 91-2. 15 The phrase 'right qualities' is borrowed from Harlan, The Making of a Black Leader, p. 253. My sense of Washington's values - and how he sought to inculcate them - comes chiefly from this book, plus Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee; Jabavu, 'Booker T. Washington;' and Booker T. Washington, Character Building (New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1902). The books Xuma possessed are listed in 'Dr A.B. Xuma Memorial Library,' Notes 217

TMs, c. 1964 (Pam 018.1 JOH, Johannesburg Public Library). 16 Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, p. 233. 17 Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, pp. 165, 211, 233, 422-3; Hughes & Patterson, Robert Russa Moton, pp. 91-2; Jabavu, 'Booker T. Washing- ton/ p. 56; Jabavu, 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage.' 18 A. Henry May and others to Booker T. Washington, 15 January 1915 (Booker T. Washington papers, container 723, Library of Congress). I am grateful to Jeffrey Flannery of the Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, for help in tracking down this letter. The circumstances that led to the drafting of this letter are described in Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, pp. 413-16. 19 The last years of Washington's life are described in Harlan, The Wizard of Tuskegee, pp. 438-57. 20 Tuskegee Student, vol. 28, no. 11, 3 June 1916, p. 2; Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 15; and Xuma, 'The Story of My Education,' p. 23. 21 For the difficulties African students faced in arranging trans-Atlantic travel during World War I, see Campbell, Songs of Zion, p. 257. 22 Xuma to Emmett J. Scott, 15 August 1916 (R.R. Moton papers, general correspondence box 7, folder 37, Tuskegee archives); Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 16; Xuma, 'The Story of My Education,' p. 23; and Ralston, 'American Episodes,' p. 78. 23 Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, pp. 292-306; Peter M. Bergman, The Chronological History of the Negro in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), pp. 375-6; and James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 3-4, 13. 24 The number of blacks in the Twin Cities grew from 5736 in 1910 to 7303 in 1920; comparable figures for Chicago were 44 103 and 109 458, respectively. 25 Roy Wilkins, Standing Fast (New York: Viking Press, 1982), pp. 29, 37-9. See also Earl Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota (Minneapolis: T.S. Denison & Co., 1961), pp. 64-94; and David V. Taylor, 'The Blacks,' in They Chose Minnesota: a Survey of the State's Ethnic Groups (St Paul: Minne- sota Historical Society Press, 1981), pp. 81-2. 26 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 16-17; E.B. Pierce, St Paul, to R.M. West, St Paul, 8 February 1917, (ABX 170208); and Ralston, 'American Episodes,' pp. 78-9. 27 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 18; Xuma, 'The Story of My Edu- cation,' p. 23; Ralston, 'American Episodes,' p. 79. 28 Xuma had passed through Southampton, England, and New York before, but only in transit. 29 Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota, p. 76; see also the following publications by the University of Minnesota: 'Annual Register, 1917-18,' pp. 172-3; The Gopher, 1920 (yearbook); and 'President's Report for the Year 1917-18.' 30 Anna B. Vanicky, St Paul, to Xuma, 20 June 1918 (ABX 180618); AJ. Elliot, Chicago, to Xuma, 4 June 1920 (ABX 200604); S. Wirt Wiley, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 13 September 1920 (ABX 200913); Dick Haupt, 218 Notes

Minneapolis, to Xuma, 14 April 1921 (ABX 210414); University of Min- nesota, The Gopher, 1919, pp. 328, 344-5; The Gopher, 1921, pp. 479, 494-5; and Ralston, 'American Episodes,' p. 79. 31 The Methodist Episcopal Church was the largest branch of American Methodism in the early twentieth century. In contrast to the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the Methodist Episcopal Church was predominantly white. In 1968, the Methodist Episcopal Church merged with other Methodist branches and was renamed the United Methodist Church. For background on the various Methodist denominations, see Edward Queen II and others, The Encyclopedia of American Religious His- tory (New York: Facts On File, 1996). For information on William Riley, Xuma's mentor at the University of Minnesota, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 18-19 and file on William A. Riley ([ALD9E.1]), Papers of the Division of Entomology and Economic Zoology, University of Minnesota archives, Minneapolis. 32 In a 1960 letter to African National Congress official Oliver Tambo, Wilkins (1901-81) wrote that he first met Xuma 'many years ago when he was a student at the university in my home city. He was a member of our church and a frequent visitor in our home . . .' See Roy Wilkins to Oliver Tambo, 13 May 1960 (NAACP papers, group III, box A35, Library of Congress). Also relevant are R.U. Bowden, St Paul, to Xuma, 20 January 1921 (ABX 210120); Ralston, 'American Episodes/ pp. 80-1; and Wilkins, Standing Fast, pp. 28-9. Xuma and Wilkins remained friends throughout Xuma's life, a fact documented in the Xuma papers and the NAACP papers ([Library of Congress LC]). See, for example, Wilkins to Xuma, 11 January 1932 (ABX 320111a); Xuma to Wilkins, 27 January 1937 (ABX 370127a); Wilkins to Walter White, 4 November 1946 (LC); Wilkins to Xuma, 14 December 1946 (LC); Wilkins to Mr McLain, 9 June 1960 (LC). 33 Raymond W. Cannon, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 15 September 1927 (ABX 270915) and Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota, p. 77. 34 Transcript of Alfred Xuma from the University of Minnesota, 8 October 1923 (Xuma biographical file, Northwestern University archives); Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 17; registrar, Department of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, to registrar, Northwestern University, 25 October 1923 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives); James Brebner, Toronto, to Xuma, 30 October 1919 (ABX 191030) and Ralston, 'American Episodes,' p. 80 35 Hugh C. Stuntz, Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, to Xuma, 15 November 1919 (ABX 191115); and Monroe N. Work, Tuskegee, to Xuma, 29 April 1920 (ABX 200429). 36 Most black South African students in the United States enrolled at traditionally black educational institutions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One notable exception to this trend - besides Xuma - was Pixley Seme, who graduated from Columbia University in 1906. For more on Seme's life, see Richard Rive and Tim Couzens, Seme: the Founder of the ANC (Johannesburg: Skotaville, 1991) and Christopher Saunders, 'Pixley Seme: Towards a Biography,' South African Historical Journal no. 25, 1991, pp. 196-217. John Dube attended Oberlin College's Notes 219

preparatory school (equivalent to high school) between 1888-90, but did not enroll in the predominantly white college itself. On the rarity of South African blacks attending traditionally white American educational institutions, see Davis, 'Black American Education,' p. 71; and Shepperson, 'Notes on Negro American Influences/ p. 304. 37 Xuma, 'The Story of My Education/ p. 23; 'Program, forty-eighth annual commencement/ University of Minnesota, 17 June 1920 (University of Minnesota archives); and Kerr, Fort Hare, p. 150. 38 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 17, 19; Xuma, 'The Story of My Education/ p. 23; Xuma's transcript, University of Minnesota, 8 Octo- ber 1923; Henry H. King, New York, to Xuma, 1 December 1920 (ABX 201201); and Cyrus P. Barnum, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 14 January 1921 (ABX 210114a). 39 One hundred and twenty-five dollars was a significant amount of money in 1921. Indeed, Dr Matthews' gift would have covered a sizeable share of Xuma's first-year medical school tuition. In his memoirs, Roy Wilkins recalled that undergraduate tuition at the University of Minnesota in 1919-20 was $115. See Wilkins, Standing Fast, pp. 40-44; Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 19; William Riley, Minnesota, to Xuma, 2 February 1921 (ABX 210202), 16 June 1921 (ABX 210616), and 28 July 1921 (ABX 210728); Evelyn Riley Nicholson, Chicago, to Xuma, 27 June 1921 (ABX 210627); and Dr Justus Matthews, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 6 June 1921 (ABX 210610) and 12 October 1921 (ABX 211012). 40 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 19; official statement of college credits for Alfred B. Xuma, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 3 October 1923 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives); E.P. Lyon, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 19 May 1921 (ABX 210519); H.L. Osterud, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 8 June 1921 (ABX 210608b); C.J.V. Pettibone, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 22 July 1921 (ABX 210722); Riley to Xuma, 2 February, 16 June, and 28 July 1921 (ABX 210202, 210616, & 210728); E. Nicholson to Xuma, 3 September and 6 October 1921 (ABX 210903b & 211006); H.C. Dorcas, Iowa City, to Xuma, 31 August 1921 (ABX 210831); Dorcas to T.L. Hazard, Iowa City, 19 September 1921 (ABX 210919); C.R. Bardeen, Madison, Wisconsin, to Xuma, 3 September 1921 (ABX 210903b); Emmett Scott, Washington, DC, to Xuma, 28 September 1921 (ABX 210928); and John J. Mulowney, Nashville, Tennessee, to Xuma, 24 October 1921 (ABX 211024). 41 Joe William Trotter, Jr, Black Milwaukee: the Making of an Industrial Pro- letariat, 1915-45 (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1985), pp. 41-5, 116-25. 42 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 19-20; photograph of Marquette University medical school 'freshes,' c. 1921 (ABX box P, file 29); Xuma to C.W. Patterson, Chicago, 3 April 1923 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives); second-year class report, Marquette University medical school, 23 July 1923 (ABX 230723); and transcript for Alfred B. Xuma, Marquette, 22 September 1923 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). 43 Charles H. Wesley, The History of Alpha Phi Alpha: a Development in College Life (Chicago: Foundation Publishers, 1950), p. 148. 44 Methodist Episcopal Church, Milwaukee, to Xuma, 25 January 1922 220 Notes

(ABX 220125); Robert S. Miller, Milwaukee, to Xuma, 17 November 1922 (ABX 221227b); M.L. Melzer, Milwaukee, to Xuma, 13 June and 13 July 1922 (ABX 220613 & 220713); Sol T. Plaatje, London, to Xuma, 19 July 1923 (ABX 230719); Brian Willan, Sol Plaatje: A Biography Johannesburg: Ravan, 1984), pp. 279-80; S.M. Nkomo, Tuskegee, to Xuma, 16 February 1923 (ABX 230216b); and E. Nicholson, Chicago, to Xuma, 26 March 1923 (ABX 230326). 45 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 19; J. Matthews to Xuma, 22 September 1922 (ABX 220922); L.C. Hollister, Chicago, form letter to church organizations, 17 November 1922 (ABX 221117a); Hollister to Xuma, 27 November 1922 and 13 January 1923 (ABX 221127 & 230113); Bishop Thomas Nicholson, Chicago, to Xuma, 16 February 1923 (ABX 230216a); and Ralph E. Peck, New York, to Xuma, 5 April and 18 April 1923 (ABX 230405 and box P, file 26). 46 E. Nicholson to Xuma, 19 November 1921, 7 February 1922, 10 April 1922, 15 October 1922, and 26 March 1923 (ABX 211119, 220207, 220410, 221015, & 230326); and W.E. Carpenter, Brazil, Indiana, to E. Nicholson, 2 January 1922 (ABX 220102). 47 Xuma to C.W. Patterson, Chicago, 4 April 1923; J.B. Modesitt, Milwau- kee, to Patterson, 5 April 1923; Patterson to Xuma, 6 April 1923 and 12 May 1923; E. Nicholson to Patterson, 7 April 1923 and 17 April 1923; and Thelma Fagerstrom, Chicago, to Patterson, 30 April 1923 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). 48 Grossman, Land of Hope, pp. 161-80. For an additional perspective on the history of black Chicago, see St Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: a Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1945). 49 Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, Mob Murder in America: the Challenge Which Lynching Brings to the Churches (New York: Commission on the Church and Race Relations, 1923) (ABX box S, file 41). 50 According to Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota, p. 72, Porter practiced medicine in Minnesota between 1898-1903. 51 Xuma's academic performance at Northwestern is discussed in Patterson to E.B. Hodge, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 26 August 1924 and registrar, Northwestern University, 'to whom it may concern,' 22 October 1924 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). Statistics concerning Xuma's class at Northwestern medical school are taken from Northwestern University Medical School Bulletin, 1924-25, vol. 25, no. 24, 9 February 1925 (NU archives), and Ralston, 'American Episodes/ pp. 90-1. For information on the educational attainments of black Chicagoans in general, see Drake, Black Metropolis, pp. 515-22. 52 Evidence of Xuma's involvement in the Chicago YMCA includes, but is not limited to, the following: David McKeith, Jr, Chicago, to Xuma, 21 March 1921 (ABX 210321); minutes of the meeting of the Foreign Student Council of the YMCA of Chicago, 9 September 1921 (ABX 210909); and Xuma's student information card, Northwestern University, c. 1923, (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). 53 Drake, Black Metropolis, p. 603. 54 For historical background on the YMCA in general, and the Wabash Notes 221

Avenue YMCA in particular, see Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom, p. 290; and Grossman, Land of Hope, pp. 123-46, 186-7, 201-2, and 229. 55 Samuel Insull (1859-1938) was one of Chicago's wealthiest citizens in the 1920s. Described by his biographer Forrest McDonald as 'a rich, powerful, self-made giant, ruthless in smashing enemies, generous and soft-hearted when dealing with the weak,' Insull was a dedicated phil- anthropist. 'In the late twenties,' writes McDonald, 'when his total salary averaged almost half a million dollars a year, he gave away more than he earned, supporting his personal pension list and financing such unconventional projects as the Chinese YMCA and the education of African doctors.' Unfortunately, Insull's life took a tragic turn in the 1930s. He lost much of his fortune during the Great Depression, fled to Europe in 1932, and was extradited back to Chicago in 1934 to face charges of fraud and embezzlement. Though acquitted, Insull's reputa- tion was irreparably damaged. He died in Paris in 1938. Shortly thereafter, Xuma wrote a tribute to Insull entitled 'Samuel Insull - the other side' (ABX 380902) in which he revealed his enormous debt of gratitude to his benefactor. For more on Insull, see Forrest McDonald, Insull (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). 56 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 20-1; J.P. MacMillan, New York, to Xuma, 14 December 1923 (ABX 231215); E. Nicholson to Xuma, 8 April 1924 (ABX 240408); Patterson to Charles A. Chandler, Muskogee, Oklahoma, 18 July 1924 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives); CD. Parker, Chicago, to Xuma, 20 September 1924 (ABX 240920); and Grover J. Little, Chicago, to Xuma, 28 November 1924 (ABX 241128). 57 H.H. Robertson, 'Poverty May End College Career of Young African,' Syracuse Journal, 11 July 1924 (ABX 240814); article reprinted as 'Col- lege Goal of Ex-Savage Near Failure,' newspaper unknown, 13 July 1924 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). See also E. Nicholson to Xuma, 14 August 1924 (ABX 240814). 58 Charles A. Chandler, Muskogee, Oklahoma, to registrar, Northwestern University medical school, 12 July 1924; Patterson to Chandler, 18 July 1924; A.W. McLellan, New Orleans, to Patterson, c. July 1924; E.B. Hodge, Grand Rapids, Michigan, to dean, Northwestern University medical school, 20 August 1924; Patterson to Hodge, 26 August 1924; and Xuma to Patterson, 30 August 1924 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). See also E. Nicholson to Xuma, 14 August 1924 (ABX 240814). 59 E. Nicholson, Detroit, to Xuma, 17 June 1925 (ABX 250617). For Bishop Thomas Nicholson's praise of Xuma, see T. Nicholson, Detroit, to Xuma, 31 March 1925 (ABX 250331). 60 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 20-2; Xuma, 'The Story of My Education,' p. 24; Dr G.A. Jordan, St Louis, to Xuma, 20 February 1925 (ABX 250220); program, Northwestern University medical school commencement, 15 June 1925 (ABX box Q); and Dr Irving S. Cutter, Chicago, to Mabel Reinecke, Chicago, 20 August 1926 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). 61 According to census figures quoted in Drake, Black Metropolis, pp. 8-9, blacks constituted 4.1 per cent of the Chicago population in 1920. 62 For historical background on black St Louis, see Katherine T. Corbett 222 Notes

and Mary E. Seematter, 'No Crystal Stair: Black St Louis, 1920-1940/ Gateway Heritage, vol. 8, no. 2, Fall 1987, pp. 8-15; James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St Louis, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1981), pp. 435-41; and Sandra Schoenberg and Charles Bailey, The Symbolic Meaning of an Elite Black Community: The Ville in St Louis/ Bulletin of the Missouri Historical Society, vol. 23, no. 2, January 1977, pp. 94-102. 63 Antho McFarland, St Paul, to Xuma, 28 September 1925 and 7 March 1926 (ABX 250928 & 260307); Emma Nix, Chicago, to Xuma, 10 October 1925 (ABX 251010); Northwestern University Medical School Bulletin, 1926-27, vol. 27, no. 32, 4 April 1927, pp. 57-59 (NU archives); Ralston, 'American Episodes/ p. 91; Lipsitz, The Sidewalks of St Louis, pp. 52-3; and Maria Odum, 'Black Hospitals Work to Find a Modern Role/ New York Times, 12 August 1992, p. B6. 64 C.T. Loram, Pretoria, to Xuma, 30 November 1925 (ABX 251130). 65 John Mullowney, MD, Nashville, to Xuma, 9 February 1926 (ABX 260209); E. Nicholson to Xuma, 26 February 1926 and 10 March 1926 (ABX 260226 & 260310); and Bishop Thomas Nicholson to Xuma, 3 April 1926 (ABX 260403). 66 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 22; Mark H. Ward, MD, Boston, to Xuma, 24 March 1926 (ABX 260324); Clara Davis Bridgman, Auburndale, Massachusetts, to Xuma, 23 April 1926 (ABX 260423); and Grover Little to Xuma, 21 May 1926 (ABX 260521). 67 E. Nicholson to Xuma, 26 February 1926 (ABX 260226). 68 Ibid. See also Gretta E. Wilson, Detroit, to E. Nicholson, 24 February 1926 (ABX 260224). 69 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 22-3; PJ. McEnroe, Chicago, to Xuma, 18 March 1926 (ABX 260318); Grover Little, Chicago, to Xuma, 21 May 1926 (ABX 260521); and Dr Irving S. Cutter, Chicago, to Mabel Reinecke, Chicago, 20 August 1926 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). 70 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 23; and A.B. Xuma's passport file, July-August 1926 ([G.G. 1469. 61/840], files of the Governor-General, State Archives, Pretoria). For a discussion of the South African government's wariness toward black American influences in the 1920s, see Shepperson, 'Notes on Negro American Influences/ pp. 303-6. 71 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 23-4. 72 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 25; Xuma, 'The Story of My Edu- cation/ p. 24; Xuma to C.W. Patterson, 27 July 1926 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives); and E. Nicholson to Xuma, 18 August 1926 (ABX 260818). 73 Recalled Xuma years later, 'I found the Hungarian people very conge- nial and friendly. Everyone I came in contact with seemed disposed to assist and be helpful in every possible way.' See Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 25-6; Xuma, 'The Story of My Education/ p. 24; and Xuma to Dr I. Cutter, Chicago, 31 October 1927 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives). 74 For information on the University of Edinburgh's links to Africa in general and South Africa in particular, see Gail M. Gerhart and Thomas Karis, From Protest to Challenge: a Documentary History of African Politics in South Notes 223

Africa, 1882-1964, vol. 4 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1977); Kerr, Fort Hare, p. 150; Matthews, Freedom for My People, pp. 63, 93; University of Edinburgh Journal, no. 3, 1926; and University of Edinburgh, Overseas Entry 1990 (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 1990). 75 Xuma also received the LRFPS. from Glasgow in 1927. See Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 26-7; Xuma, The Story of My Education,' p. 24; certificate from the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, June 1927 (ABX 270630); Xuma to Dr I. Cutter, Chicago, 31 October 1927; Xuma to C.W. Patterson, Chicago, 31 October 1927 (Xuma biographical file, NU archives); and M. Impey, registrar, South African Medical Council, Pretoria, to Xuma, 6 May 1940 (ABX 400506). 76 Alan Cobley labels Xuma as such in Class and Consciousness, p. 121, note 97. 77 In Songs ofZion, p. 271, Campbell notes that black South Africans studying at Wilberforce University in Ohio were 'shielded. . . from the more intractable realities of Afro-American life.' In Xuma's case, the phrase seems equally appropriate.

3 Prominent Young Physician, 1927-34

1 For commentary on the 1913 Natives' Land Act and its impact, see Tim Keegan, The sharecropping economy, African class formation and the 1913 Natives' Land Act in the highveld maize belt' in Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa, ed. Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone (London: Longman, 1982), pp. 195-211 and Keegan, Rural Transforma- tions in Industrializing South Africa: The Southern Highveld to 1914 (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1986), pp. 182-95. For African reaction, see Sol T. Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa (London: P.S. King and Son, 1916). 2 Founded in 1912, the South African Native National Congress represented the first sustained attempt by Christian, western-educated Africans to form a political organization that transcended ethnic lines. The SANNC shortened its name to the African National Congress in 1923. For more information on the early activities of the SANNC, see Peter Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa. 3 For other examples of the increasingly militant stance of African leaders, see Philip Bonner, 'The Transvaal Native Congress, 1917-1920: the Radicalisation of the Black Petty Bourgeoisie on the Rand,' in Industrial- isation and Social Change in South Africa, pp. 270-313. 4 For more on the Bulhoek tragedy, see Robert Edgar, 'The Prophet Mo- tive: Enoch Mgijima, the Israelites and the Background to the Bulhoek Massacre/ International Journal of African Historical Studies vol. 15, no. 3, 1982, pp. 401-22 and Edgar, Because They Chose the Plan of God: the Story of the Bulhoek Massacre (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1988). For analysis of the Bondelswarts rebellion, see G. Lewis, 'The Bondelswarts Rebel- lion of 1922' (MA thesis, Rhodes University, 1977). 5 Rubusana (1858-1936) was a man of considerable distinction. He helped launch the African newspaper Izwi Labantu (Voice of the People) in 224 Notes

1898 and won a seat in the Cape Provincial Council in 1910. He thus became the first and only African to be elected to a South African provincial legislature before 1994. Rubusana was also one of the founding members of the African National Congress. For a biographical sketch of Rubusana, see Gail Gerhart and Thomas Karis, From Protest to Challenge, vol. 4, pp. 134-5. 6 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 27-8; Ben Xuma writing on behalf of Abraham Xuma, Engcobo, to Alfred Xuma, 26 January 1924 (ABX 240126); Principal Immigration Officer, Cape Town, to Secretary for Native Affairs, Pretoria, 7 December 1927 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/ 301 2715); and Dabulamanzi Gcanga interview, 24 October 1990, Manzana, Transkei. 7 Xuma provides biographical details on his fellow African physicians in his article, 'Native Medical Practitioners/ The Leech, Nov. 1933, pp. 12-14. 8 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 26-7. 9 For a discussion of white South African liberalism in general, and Loram's ideological legacy in particular, see Rich, White Power and the Liberal Conscience, especially pp. 16-19 and 26-31. 10 C.T. Loram, Rondebosch, to Xuma, 9 December 1927 (ABX 271209). See also Loram to Xuma, 8 November 1927 (ABX 271108). Dr Silas Molema, another western-trained African physician, faced considerable hostility when he tried to work with white nurses and patients in the South African town of Mafeking in the 1920s and 1930s. For more on Dr Molema's difficulties, see Robert J. Edgar, ed., An African American in South Africa: the Travel Notes of Ralph J. Bunche, 28 September 1937-1 January 1938 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1992), pp. 154 and 347, note 14. 11 Xuma's initial discussions with Clara Bridgman are discussed in chapter two. 12 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 28-9; Xuma to Howard Pirn, Johannesburg, 20 December 1927 (Howard Pirn papers, University of the Witwatersrand [A881: BL.l]); Mrs Frederick B. Bridgman, 'Bridgman Memorial Hospital, Johannesburg/ c. 1927 (ABX box N, file 8); Bridgman Memorial Hospital Annual Report for 1928 (Bridgman Memorial Hospital papers, University of the Witwatersrand [A1059: Al]); and Ray E. Phillips, Bantu in the City: a Study of Cultural Adjustment on the Witwatersrand (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1938), pp. 128-9. 13 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 28. 14 Xuma explains his decision to practice in Johannesburg in his autobiographical typescript, pp. 28-9. 15 Alexandra was another area of Johannesburg in which Africans could own property. 16 The total population of the Western Areas in 1928 was 12,000. 17 Xuma's request was granted and he purchased a revolver. See Chief Native Commissioner, Witwatersrand, to Xuma, 21 October 1930 (ABX 301021) and Xuma to Administrative Magistrate, Johannesburg, 15 April 1939 (ABX390415). Xuma's request to carry a handgun was extraordinary in a society where black gun ownership was heavily restricted. Notes 225

Blacks in the Transvaal had been required to surrender their arms and ammunition to white authorities after the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). Black South African soldiers were limited to non-combatant roles during World War I, just as they would be during World War II. See Peter Warwick, Black People and the South African War, 1899-1902 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 165 and Albert Grundlingh, Fighting Their Own War: South African Blacks and the First World War (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1987), pp. 37-40. I am indebted to Patrick Furlong for drawing my attention to the above-mentioned point and the corresponding references. 18 These comments on Sophiatown's early history are based upon David Coplan, 'Sophiatown - Culture and Community, 1940-1960/ In Town- ship Tonight! (New York: Longman, 1985), pp. 143-82; David Goodhew, 'No Easy Walk To Freedom: Political Organisation in Sophiatown Be- tween the Wars/ Wits African Studies Institute Seminar paper no. 255, 29 May 1989; Phillips, Bantu in the City, p. 117; and Andre Proctor, 'Class Struggle, Segregation and the City: a History of Sophiatown, 1905- 1940/ in Labour, Townships, and Protest, Belinda Bozzoli, ed. (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1979), pp. 49-89. 19 See Coplan, 'Sophiatown - Culture and Community/ pp. 143-4 and Proctor, 'Class Struggle, Segregation and the City,' pp. 72-83. 20 This impression is derived from Dr Justus Matthews, Minneapolis, to Xuma, 2 September 1928 (ABX 280902). 21 This statistical information on African professionals is borrowed from R.V. Selope Thema, 'The Duty of Bantu Intellectuals/ Umteteli, 3 August 1929 and Cobley, Class and Consciousness, p. 39. 22 Three prominent examples are Cobley, Class and Consciousness; Tim Couzens, The New African: a Study of the Life and Work ofH.I.E. Dhlomo (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1985); and Brian Willan, Sol Plaatje: a Biography. 23 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 29-30; Bridgman Memorial Hos- pital Annual Report for 1928, Bridgman papers (A1059: Al); and minutes, meeting of Bridgman Memorial Hospital board, 15 February 1929, Bridgman papers (A1059: Cl.l). 24 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 30-1; Grover J. Little, Chicago, to Xuma, 21 May 1928 (ABX 280521) and 9 September 1929 (ABX 290909); Samuel Insull, Chicago, to Xuma, 16 August 1928 (ABX 280816); and Xuma to J.D. Rheinallt-Jones, Johannesburg, 2 September 1929 [SAIRR collection, part II, University of the Witwatersrand (AD843/RJ: Sa2.3)]. 25 For a discussion of the relative position of traditional versus western medicine among urban Africans in this era, see Phillips, Bantu in the City, pp. 132-3. 26 Phillips gives an overview of the health problems affecting Africans on the Witwatersrand in 'The Health of the Bantu Urban Community/ in Bantu in the City, pp. 108-45. 27 Xuma, 'Medical Training for Native South Africans/ speech given before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 31 July 1929 (ABX 290731). 28 Xuma, 'Medical Training and the Bantu/ Umteteli, 7 September 1929. 226 Notes

29 Campbell, Songs of Zion, p. 280. 30 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 30-2. In volume four of From Protest to Challenge, Gail Gerhart and Thomas Karis report that Xuma was elected to the ANC national executive committee in 1930, but that he declined to participate. See Gerhart and Karis, Political Profiles, 1882- 1964, p. 165. 31 It appears that both Pirn and Rheinallt-Jones were recommended to Xuma by John Harris, onetime secretary of the Anti-Slavery and Ab- origines' Protection Society in Britain. Harris supplied Xuma with a letter of introduction to take back to South Africa when the two met in London in 1927. See Xuma to Howard Pirn, Johannesburg, 20 December 1927 (Pirn BL.l). 32 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 29 and Xuma to Rheinallt-Jones, 2 September 1929 (SAIRR, part II: Sa2.3). For a biographical sketch of Howard Pirn, see Margaret Hodgson's forward in Pirn, Transkei Enquiry: 1933 (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1934). For a similar sketch of Rheinallt- Jones, see J.W. Horton, 'South Africa's Joint Councils: Black-White Cooperation between the two World Wars,' South African Historical Jour- nal, no. 4, Nov. 1972, pp. 29-44. 33 See Xuma's handwritten extracts from the Rand Daily Mail, 17 March 1928 (ABX 280317) and his copy of 'Memorandum on Convention of Paramount Chiefs,' Bloemfontein, 1928 (ABX 280406). 34 Xuma to Howard Pirn, Johannesburg, 14 June 1929 (Pirn BL.l); Xuma to Pirn, 5 July 1929 (Pirn BL.l); and Xuma to B.W. Lloyd, Bloemfontein, 26 June 1933 (ABX 330626b). 35 'Segregation: Debate at Pretoria,' Umteteli, 28 September 1929. 36 For more on James Aggrey, see Edwin Smith, Aggrey of Africa: a Study in Black and White (New York: Richard R. Smith, 1930) and L.H. Ofosu- Appiah, The Life of Dr J.E.K. Aggrey (Accra: Waterville Publishing House, 1975). 37 For background on the Joint Councils, see Tim Couzens, '"Moralizing Leisure Time": The Transatlantic Connection and Black Johannesburg, 1918-1936/ in Industrialisation and Social Change, Marks and Rathbone, pp. 314-37; Baruch Hirson, 'Tuskegee, the Joint Councils, and the All African Convention,' in The Societies of Southern Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries, vol. 10 (London: University of London Institute of Com- monwealth Studies, 1981), pp. 65-76; and Horton, 'South Africa's Joint Councils.' 38 Bridgman, Dexter Taylor, and Phillips represented the American Board Mission in South Africa and oversaw an extensive patronage network in Johannesburg that included institutions such as the Bridgman Me- morial Hospital and the Bantu Men's Social Centre. 39 Minutes, deputation of Africans' meeting with Chief Native Commis- sioner for the Rand, 17 June 1930 (ABX 300619). 40 This statistic is taken from Cobley, Class and Consciousness, p. 39. For in-depth historical analyses of the Rand's African elite, see both Cobley's work and Bonner, 'The Transvaal Native Congress, 1917-1920.' For a discussion of the downward mobility facing many educated Africans in this era, see Helen Bradford, 'Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: Notes 227

The Social Origins of the ICU Leadership, 1924-1929/ Journal of Afri- can History, vol. 25, no. 3; 1984, pp. 295-310. 41 See Bonner, The Transvaal Native Congress, 1917-1920/ for discussion of an unusually militant period in black petty bourgeoisie protest politics. 42 Umteteli wa Bantu (Mouthpiece of the People) was a well known Afri- can newspaper published in Johannesburg beginning in 1920. Launched at the behest of the Chamber of Mines, Umteteli pursued a 'moderate' editorial policy that sought to counter militant African opinion. It gave extensive coverage to the educated African elite. One of the early editors of Umteteli was Rev. Marshall Maxeke, the American-educated co-founder of Wilberforce Institute. Prominent African contributors to the paper included Sol Plaatje, H.I.E. Dhlomo, R.V. Selope-Thema, and Alan K. Soga. For more on the history of black South African journal- ism, see Les Switzer, ed., South Africa's Alternative Press: Voices of Protest and Resistance, 1880s-1960s (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 43 See Xuma's article in Umteteli, 7 September 1929. Quoted in Campbell, Songs of Zion, p. 277. 44 Xuma, Charlotte Manye (Mrs Maxeke): What an Educated African Girl Can Do (AME Church, 1930) (ABX box S, file 38). 45 Examples of these associations include the Transvaal Cricket Board, the Bantu Dramatic Society, the Transvaal African Eisteddfod, the Transvaal African Football Association, and the Gamma Sigma Club. 46 In his essay, '"Moralising Leisure Time/" Tim Couzens explains the various ways in which Ray Phillips and others sought to encourage 'modera- tion' among Johannesburg's black middle class between 1918 and 36. The establishment of the BMSC was part of this strategy. In an article in Umteteli, 22 June 1929, Phillips described the BMSC as a 'university of inter-racial goodwill and peace.' 47 Cobley, Class and Consciousness, p. 81. 48 Allen Davis to Xuma, 24 January 1930 (ABX 300124); Eliakim Tshabalala to Xuma, 30 March 1931 (ABX 310330); BMSC annual report, 1933 (A.W.G. Champion collection, Documentation Centre for African Studies, UNISA, Pretoria [AAS1. 6.3]); leaflet on BMSC, c. 1934 (UNISA: AAS1. 6.2); and BMSC poster, [n.dj, (UNISA: AAS1. 6.4). 49 One of the organizers of the conference was Max Yergan, an African American who had been sent to Fort Hare in 1928 to develop a branch of the YMCA. For a discussion of the friendship between Yergan and Xuma, see chapter 4. 50 Cobley, Class and Consciousness, p. 125 and Kerr, Fort Hare, p. 162. 51 Xuma, 'Bridging the Gap Between White and Black in South Africa,' quoted in Sheridan Johns, Protest and Hope, 1882-1934, vol. 1 of From Protest to Challenge: a Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964, ed. Thomas Karis and Gwendolen Carter (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1972), pp. 218-27. 52 Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 164-5. 53 Paul Mosaka's reminiscences of Xuma's Fort Hare speech are quoted in Nat Nakasa, 'Who was Dr Xuma? An Intimate Profile,' Drum, March 1962. 228 Notes

54 Xuma also shunned ethnic categories when speaking about the plight of Africans in South Africa. His decision to stress the common problems shared by Africans as a whole - rather than particular ethnic groups - would remain consistent throughout his career. 55 Xuma, 'Evidence [presented] to the Native Economic Commission/ 22 May 1931 (ABX 321231b). See also the transcript of Xuma's oral testimony in Native Economic Commission Evidence, 1930-31, vol. 12 (Documentation Centre for African Studies, UNISA, Pretoria [AAS 177]). 56 Minutes, Liquor Commission of 1931, 22 May 1931 (ABX 310531). 57 For Xuma's perspective on Africans in rural areas, see Xuma, 'Evidence [presented] to the Native Economic Commission' (ABX 321231b) and Xuma's oral testimony in Native Economic Commission Evidence, 1930-31, vol. 12 (UNISA: AAS 177). 58 This information on Amanda Mason and her marriage to Alfred Xuma is derived from Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 34; notebook of Amanda Mason, c. 1919-21 (ABX box Q); Amanda Mason, Freetown, Sierra Leone, to Xuma, 6 December 1930 (ABX 301206); Sibusisiwe Makanya, Amanzimtoti, Natal, to Amanda Mason Xuma, 20 April 1934 (ABX 340420); J.S. Maarohanye, Orlando township, to Xuma, 2 May 1934 (ABX 340502a); 'Last Tribute to Late Mrs Xuma - "Beautiful Ex- ample of Motherhood,"' Umteteli, 5 May 1934; death notice for Amanda Priscilla Mason Xuma, 6 April 1937, (State Archives, Pretoria: MHG 96793); and L.L. Berry, A Century of Missions of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, 1840-1940 (New York: AMEC Missionary Department, 1942), pp. 137, 155. I am indebted to James Campbell for the last reference listed above. Before his engagement to Amanda Mason, Xuma had proposed to Antho McFarland, another woman whom he had met in the United States. Miss McFarland was originally from St Paul, Minnesota, and was acquainted with Roy Wilkins's family. Although she seriously considered Xuma's 1928 proposal, the marriage never materialized. The fragmentary evidence which survives suggests that McFarland was re- luctant to move so far away from home (to South Africa), largely because her mother was in failing health and had no other children to look after her. See Antho McFarland, Chicago, to Xuma, 23 June 1928 (ABX 280623); Bruce [?] to Xuma, 4 July 1928 and 9 September 1928 (ABX 280704 & 280909); and Mary D. McFarland, St Paul, to Xuma, 12 November 1928 (ABX 281112). 59 Xuma comments on the effects of overseas experiences on Africans in his article 'Native Medical Practitioners,' the Leech, November 1933, pp. 13-14. 60 In an interview, Xuma's nephew, Attwell J. Xuma, recalled that Alfred joined the AME Church while studying in the United States. This was confirmed by Roy Wilkins, who recalled that Alfred joined the St James AME Church in St Paul, Minnesota, while studying at the University of Minnesota. See Ralston, 'American Episodes,' p. 80. While Xuma did participate in the activities of individual AME Churches in the States, he also cultivated close ties with the white-run Methodist Episcopal Church. Notes 229

The fact that Xuma and Amanda Mason were married in the Grahamstown Methodist Church by Rev. Arthur Lennard illustrates Xuma's continuing identification with the Wesleyan Methodist Church of South Africa. He and his siblings had been baptized into the Wesleyan Church and his parents remained Wesleyans all of their lives. Despite his early ties to the Wesleyan Methodist Church, Xuma eventually became a member of the AME Church in South Africa. This is confirmed in 'Masterpiece in Bronze: Dr Alfred B. Xuma/ Drum, December 1953 and 'Mosaka Pays Tribute/ World, 10 February 1962. Xuma's com- mitment to the AME Church in South Africa was illustrated by his work on behalf of Wilberforce Institute and his leadership of an AME laymen's association in the Transvaal. His first wife Amanda was a member of the AME Church both before and after her arrival in South Africa. Xuma's second wife, Madie Hall, had been a member of an AME Church in North Carolina and appears to have joined a Johannesburg AME Church in the 1940s. See E. Petersen, Bethel AME Church, Cape, to Xuma, 19 July 1936 (ABX 360719a) and Rev. W.R Witherspoon, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, to whom it may concern, 29 April 1948 (ABX 480429). 61 My discussion of the AME Church in South Africa relies heavily on Campbell, Songs of Zion. 62 E. Petersen to Xuma, 19 July 1936 (ABX 360719a). 63 Wilberforce was located in Evaton, approximately 50 kilometers south of Johannesburg. 64 Rev. W. Ndlazi, Wilberforce Institute, to Xuma, 9 March 1933 (ABX 330309). For historical background on Wilberforce Institute, see James T. Campbell, 'Our Fathers, Our Children: the African Methodist Episco- pal Church in the United States and South Africa' (PhD dissertation, Stanford University, 1989), pp. 319-78. 65 Xuma and others to Eva S. Mahuma Morake, 21 July 1933 (ABX 330721b). 66 Xuma to Morake, 21 July 1933 (ABX 330721a); Bishop David Henry Sims, 'Episcopal Message' for the AME Church of South Africa, 23 August 1933 (ABX 330823); Xuma to Bishop Sims, Cape Town, 5 September 1933 (ABX 330905a); Xuma to Reginald Cingo, Kroonstad, 15 September 1933 (ABX 330915b); Bishop Sims to E.B. Morake, Wilberforce Insti- tute, 27 October 1933 (ABX 331027a); and Xuma to Bishop Sims, 4 January 1934 (ABX 340104). 67 Xuma, 'The Training of Natives in Medicine/ Journal of the Medical As- sociation of South Africa, vol. 5, no. 2, 24 January 1931, pp. 39-43. See the comments of Sir Edward Thornton (as quoted by Xuma) for a vastly different perspective. The hostility with which some whites viewed Af- rican physicians is discussed in Karin A. Shapiro, 'Doctors or Medical Aids - the Debate over the Training of Black Medical Personnel for the Rural Black Population in South Africa in the 1920s and 1930s,' Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 13, no. 2, January 1987, pp. 234-55. 68 This discussion of Xuma's medical practice and professional views is based on C.T. Loram to Xuma, 20 April 1930 (ABX 300420); question- naire on 'The African in the Professions' as filled out by Xuma, undated (ABX box P, file 25); unsorted correspondence regarding Xuma's medical practice (ABX box R, file 33); Xuma, 'The Training of Natives in 230 Notes

Medicine;' G. Fraser, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 25 February 1933 (ABX box R, file 33); and Xuma, 'Native Medical Practitioners.' 69 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 29 and 36 and 'What Must Be Done With Alexandra Township?' Umteteli, 7 March 1936. 70 In 1928, C.T. Loram headed a government-appointed committee which recommended that full medical training be provided for Africans in South Africa. According to the committee's recommendations, such training could take place in segregated classes at the University of the Witwatersrand. Loram's plan would have required newly trained Afri- can physicians to practice in the rural areas and be employed by a 'Government Native Medical Service.' The Loram committee's scheme for the training of African physicians never materialized, as the government refused to approve the necessary funding. For more on the medical training of Africans in general, and the medical aid scheme in particular, see the Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa, vol. 5, no. 2, 24 January 1931, pp. 34-46; Murray, Wits: the Early Years, pp. 300-17; and Shapiro, 'Doctors or Medical Aids.' 71 Xuma, 'The Training of Natives in Medicine,' Journal of the Medical As- sociation of South Africa, vol. 5, no. 2, 24 January 1931, pp. 39-43. For the perspectives of A.H. Gool, Dr M.R. Mahlangeni, and Dr A.R.B. Soga, see the same issue of the Journal, pp. 35-8. 72 Dr S.M. Molema, Mafeking, Cape (ABX 320817) and Dr A.R.B. Soga, Idutywa, Transkei (Pirn BL.l) expressed support for the lower standard of nurses' training. Dr T.S. Gumede, Phoenix, Natal (ABX 320829), Dr M.R. Mahlangeni, Mount Frere, Transkei (ABX 320820a), Dr J.S. Moroka, Thaba 'Nchu, O.F.S. (ABX 320828), and Dr M.C.C. Motebang, Donny- brook, Natal (ABX 320819a) opposed it. For Xuma's circular letter, see Xuma to African medical practitioners, 14 August 1932 (ABX 320814). 73 Proceedings of the SAIRR conference on African health care workers, Bloemfontein, 17 June 1932 (ABX 320617) and J.D. Rheinallt-Jones, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 17 October 1932 (ABX 321017). 74 Xuma, 'Native Medical Practitioners,' the Leech, November 1933, p. 14. 75 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 33-4; '£75,000 to Train African Doctors,' Umteteli, 21 April 1934; Murray, Wits: The Early Years, pp. 300-17; and Shapiro, 'Doctors or Medical Aids.' 76 A South African advertising slogan from the 1970s, this phrase is taken from a photograph appearing in Arthur Ashe, Portrait in Motion (Bos- ton: Houghton Mifflin, 1975). 77 Xuma, Reconstituting the Union of South Africa (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1932). For information concerning Xuma's other speaking engagements before white audiences in the early thirties, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 32; R.S. Silson, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 10 December 1932 (ABX 321110); and Dr J.S. Sergay, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 29 May 1933 (ABX 330529c). 78 Xuma to Pirn, 6 January 1933 and 11 January 1933 (Pirn BL.l); Deneys Reitz, Johannesburg, to Xuma 18 August 1932 (ABX 320818); and Dr Louis F. Freed, Johannesburg, to Xuma 27 October 1933 (ABX 331027b). 79 Xuma, 'The Indispensable Work of a Teacher,' speech delivered to the Notes 231

O.F.S. African Teachers Association conference, Kroonstad, 5 October 1933 (ABX 331005). 80 Clarence S.H. Molopo, Brakpan Mines, to Xuma, 16 March 1933 (ABX 330316). Xuma's achievements and activities were heavily reported in Umteteli in the thirties. 81 'Eisteddfod' is a Welsh term that refers to an annual competition for poets and musicians. For Xuma's involvement in the African Eisteddfods in South Africa, see Xuma to Pirn, 29 November 1932 (Pirn BL.l); 'Fifth Transvaal African Eisteddfod,' Umteteli, 7 December 1935; and 'Welcome! The African Eisteddfod,' Umteteli, 14 December 1935. 82 Cobley, Class and Consciousness, pp. 126-7. 83 'Africans and Others in the News,' Umteteli, 21 April 1934. 84 For a discussion of the origins of the SAIRR, see Horton, 'South Africa's Joint Councils,' pp. 34-7 and Rich, White Power and the Liberal Con- science, p. 30. 85 'Report of the SAIRR deputation to the Minister of Native Affairs re: Distress and Unemployment among Natives,' 26 October 1932 (ABX 321026b). 86 The 232 conference participants included W.G. Ballinger (Johannesburg); Edgar Brookes (Pretoria); Margaret Hodgson Qhb); D.D.T. Jabavu (Fort Hare); Z.R. Mahabane (Kimberley); Leo Marquard (Bloemfontein); Z.K. Matthews (Amanzimtoti); Eva Morake (Evaton); J.S. Moroka (Thaba 'Nchu); Howard Pirn (Jhb); and R.V. Selope Thema (Jhb). 87 For information on the 1933 SAIRR conference, including Xuma's con- tribution, see 'Agenda and Minutes to SAIRR's 5th National European Bantu Conference,' Bloemfontein, 5-7 July 1933 (ABX 330707a); Xuma, 'Native Taxation: Its incidence, methods of collection, and allocation,' July 1933 (ABX 330707b); and 'Report, Fifth National European-Bantu Conference,' Bloemfontein, 5-7 July 1933 (Joint Council papers, Uni- versity of the Witwatersrand [AD1433: Ac6.10]). 88 This issue is discussed at greater length in chapter 4. 89 For a detailed discussion of this point, see Cobley, Class and Consciousness. 90 In a relatively rare display of overt class bias, Xuma once decried the fact that even 'intelligent, dignified, and self-respecting schoolteachers, ministers of the gospel, lawyers, and doctors must carry a pass.' See Xuma, 'Reconstituting the Union of South Africa,' pp. 10-11. 91 See, for example, Xuma to B.A. Key, Johannesburg, 13 January 1933 (ABX box R, file 33); Xuma to Otto B. Githens, Amanzimtoti, 22 April 1933 (ABX 330422); Xuma to Percy Hunt, Johannesburg, 19 May 1933 (ABX box P, file 26); Xuma to Rev. Arthur Wellington, Fort Beaufort, Cape, 20 May and 23 May 1933 (ABX 330520 & 330523); Wellington to Xuma, 29 May 1933 (330529a); Xuma to Githens, 14 December 1933 (ABX 331214b); and Xuma to W.E. Turnball, Johannesburg, 18 April 1934 (ABX 340418c). 92 'The Reviewing Stand: in South Africa,' Minnesota Alumni Weekly, no. 17, 13 February 1932, p. 277; Xuma to the Johannesburg public librar- ian, 11 February 1933 (ABX 330211); Xuma, 'Native Taxation,' (ABX 330707b); and Xuma to secretary, Commission of Enquiry regarding 232 Notes

Transport for Natives in Johannesburg, 22 March 1934 (ABX 340322). 93 The phrase 'daily degradation' is borrowed from Shula Marks, The Am- biguities of Dependence in South Africa: Class Nationalism, and the State in Twentieth-Century Natal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 103. 94 The details surrounding this incident are sketchy. Xuma was apparently assaulted by at least two Afrikaner males who were later arrested, convicted, and fined. Two sympathetic whites contacted Xuma to ex- press their support. Wrote H.P. Lamont of Johannesburg, 'I was very pleased to see that the fellows who assaulted you had been convicted, although in my opinion the penalty is quite inadequate. Rest assured that you have the sympathy of all decent white people. The oppression of your race cannot continue indefinitely. It's a long night, but dawn will come in due course.' See H.P. Lamont, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 20 August 1932 (ABX 320820b); Alfred Hoernle to Xuma, 19 August 1932 (ABX 320819b); and George B. Molefe, Newcastle, to Xuma, 2 September 1932 (ABX 320902). 95 For a further discussion of Xuma's racial and class identification, see Steven Gish, 'Dr Alfred B. Xuma and the Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1928-1940/ in the collection of the proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, 20-23 November 1992. Other valuable perspectives on the African elite can be found in Bonner, 'The Transvaal Native Congress/ pp. 286-9; Cobley, Class and Consciousness; Etherington, Preachers, Peasants, and Politics, pp. 172-5; and Marks, The Ambiguities of Dependence, pp. 103-6. 96 Merle Carey, La Porte, USA (state unknown) to Amanda Xuma, 19 April 1934 (ABX 340419) and K.A. King, Sierra Leone, to Alfred Xuma, 2 May 1934 (ABX 340502f). 97 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 35; death notice for Amanda Priscilla Mason Xuma, 6 April 1937 (State Archives, Pretoria: MHG 96793); con- dolence letters to Xuma regarding Amanda's death, 29 April 1934-10 June 1934 (ABX 340429a-340610); wreath cards, 2 May 1934 (ABX box Q, unnumbered file); and 'Last Tribute to Late Mrs Xuma,' Umteteli, 5 May 1934.

4 'Lift as You Rise/ 1934-40

1 'Lift as You Rise' was the motto of Clarkebury, Xuma's old missionary school in the Transkei. It suggested that western-educated Africans had a responsibility to use their skills and abilities to uplift their own communities. The motto seems particularly appropriate to Xuma's life between 1934-40. During these years, Xuma's public profile in South Africa rose dramatically, largely because of his medical, educational, and political work on behalf of black South Africans. For information on Clarkebury, see chapter 1 above and The Deathless Years: a Cente- nary Souvenir of Clarkebury Mission, Tembuland, 1830-1930 (Wesleyan Methodist Church of South Africa, 1930). 2 This statement is attributed to Dr Hope Trant of the Bridgman Memo- Notes 233

rial Hospital in Phillips, Bantu in the City, pp. 118-19. For a detailed discussion of the health problems plaguing urban African communities in the 1930s, see Phillips, pp. 118-27. 3 Xuma to the secretary of the Committee of Enquiry on National Health Insurance, Pretoria, 11 August 1936 (ABX 360811). 4 This last phrase is quoted from Xuma, 'Changes taking place in the health and diet of Natives in urban areas and their effects/ presented to the New Education Fellowship Conference, Johannesburg, 18 July 1934 (ABX 340718). For a sampling of Xuma's other public statements on African health care in the mid-1930s, see also Phillips, Bantu in the City, pp. 118-19 (for Xuma's speech to the SAIRR on 1 March 1935); 'Town and Country News,' Umteteli, 1 June 1935 (for comment on Xuma's presidential address to the Native and Coloured Health Soci- ety, Lovedale, 21 May 1935); Xuma, 'Evidence submitted before the Committee on Native Education,' Johannesburg, 1935 (ABX 351231b); and Xuma, 'The Meaning of Tuberculosis Among Non-Europeans: its Challenges to South Africa,' presented to the Location Advisory Boards Congress, Queenstown, 18 December 1936 (ABX 361200). 5 Xuma had been appointed interim treasurer of Wilberforce in late 1933, thus inheriting a legacy of financial difficulties and mismanagement. See D.H. Sims to E.B. Morake, 27 October 1933 (ABX 331027a). 6 Xuma to Sims, Newark, NJ, 8 April 1936 (ABX 360408); Xuma to Rev. R.R. Wright, Xenia, OH, 24 July 1936 (360724a); E.B. Morake to Xuma, 3 December 1936 (ABX 361203b); and H.W. Burrough, Transvaal Edu- cation Department, to Rev. J.D. Dexter-Taylor, 5 December 1936 (ABX 361205). 7 Xuma to Wright, Bloemfontein, 11 December 1936 (ABX 361211c) and Xuma to Wright, Cape Town, 23 December and 30 December 1936 (ABX 361223b & 361230). 8 Xuma, statement on Wilberforce, 31 January 1937 (ABX 370131) and Burrough to Dexter-Taylor, 5 March 1937 (ABX 370305c). 9 Later in 1936, Xuma ordered a number of books on African Ameri- cans, including The Story of the American Negro, Twelve Negro Americans, and Brown America: the Story of a New Race. See Xuma to manager, Lovedale Press, 26 November 1936 (ABX 361126b). For accounts of Eslanda Robeson's South African visit, see E. Robeson, African Journey (London: Victor Gollancz, 1946), pp. 30-87 and Umteteli, 11 July 1936. 10 Davenport, South Africa: a Modern History, pp. 272-82; Thompson, A History of South Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 166-77; and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 140-54. 11 Johns, Protest and Hope, pp. 154-8 and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 140-54. 12 Although Xuma believed that African pupils should be exposed to the same curricula as white children, he did not indicate whether he favored the actual integration of South African schools. See Xuma, 'Evidence Submitted Before the Committee on Native Education,' Johannesburg, 1935 (ABX 351231b). 13 Ibid. 234 Notes

14 Die Soeklig (The Searchlight) was apparently a periodical aimed at Afrikaner intellectuals. For the full text of Xuma's article see Die Soeklig, no. 13, 1935 or Xuma, The Evil Effects of Political Differentiations Based on Race and Colour/ 1935 (ABX box O; file 17). 15 Xuma, 'Evil Effects/ 1935 (ABX box O, file 17), p. 12. 16 Ibid., pp. 9-10. 17 For more on Hertzog's efforts to pass the Native Bills, see Saul Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919-36 (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 131-76 and Paul Rich, State Power and Black Politics in South Africa, 1912-51 (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 61-76, 94-104. 18 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 39-42; R.V. Selope Thema, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 20 June 1935 (ABX 350620); and Thomas Karis, Hope and Challenge, 1935-1952, vol. 2 of From Protest to Chal- lenge: a Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964, Thomas Karis and Gwendolen Carter, eds (Stanford: Hoover Institu- tion Press, 1973), pp. 4-5. 19 Organizations represented at the conference included the ANC, ICU, Communist Party, Cape Native Voters Convention, teachers' and ministers' associations, trade unions, the AME Church, Joint Councils, and various location advisory boards. 20 Xuma's colleagues at the convention included A.W.G. Champion, John Dube, Clements Kadalie, Z.R. Mahabane, Charlotte Maxeke, Z.K. Matthews, James Moroka, H. Selby Msimang, T.D. Mweli Skota, and R.V. Selope Thema. For background on the December 1935 AAC conference, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 42-3; 'More African Convention Resolutions,' Umteteli, 28 December 1935; D.D.T. Jabavu to members of the AAC executive committee, 13 January 1936 (ABX 360113b); Jabavu, The Findings of the All African Convention (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1936); and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 6-7, 31-46. 21 This impression is derived indirectly from Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 42-3. The precise date of Rheinallt-Jones' overture to the AAC is unclear. 22 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 43-6; H. Selby Msimang to Xuma, 3 February 1936 (ABX 360203b); D.D.T. Jabavu, Cape Town, to Xuma, 5 February 1936 (ABX 360205b); Umteteli, 15 February 1936; Jabavu, ed., Minutes of the All African Convention (Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1936), pp. 33-5. For a historical discussion of the behind-the-scenes negotiations in February 1936, see Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid, pp. 166-8. 23 According to provisions of the 1936 Representation of Natives Act, the Natives Representative Council would be chaired by the Secretary of Native Affairs, a white civil servant. The Council would have 21 additional members, five of whom would be white native commis- sioners. Of the 16 African members, 12 would be indirectly elected by Africans throughout the Union and four would be appointed by the government. The Natives Representative Council was not given any legislative power. It could only advise the government on matters pertaining specifically to Africans. Notes 235

24 Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 3-9. 25 Ibid., p. 4. 26 See the editorial entitled 'Fateful Talks at Cape/ Umteteli, 15 February 1936. 27 According to historian Saul Dubow, a number of African leaders dis- played at least some willingness to compromise on the Native Bills. John Dube tried to rally African support for a compromise plan in 1931; D.D.T. Jabavu and R.V. Selope Thema, 'while they upheld the principle of common citizenship and rejected Hertzogite segregation in public, privately. . . took part in a succession of clandestine attempts to secure what they considered to be a reasonable compromise.' See Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, pp. 163-8. Biographer Catherine Higgs notes that Jabavu's role in the February 1936 negotiations is difficult to determine with cer- tainty. See Higgs, The Ghost of Equality, pp. 121-4. 28 For information on the meeting, held between 29 June-2 July 1936, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 46-7; 'Prof. Jabavu Con- demns Present-Day Injustices,' Umteteli, 4 July 1936; Jabavu, Minutes of the All African Convention) and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 9-12. 29 Xuma to Max Yergan, New York, 27 November 1936 (ABX 361127c). For evidence of Xuma's continued involvement in the AAC, see D.E.E. Nduna, Benoni, to Xuma, 9 August 1936 (ABX 360809); D.D.T. Jabavu to Xuma and H. Selby Msimang, 23 September 1936 (ABX 360923); secretary, Transvaal provincial committee - AAC, to Xuma, 16 Octo- ber 1936 (ABX 361016a); and Msimang to Xuma, 16 October, 12 December, and 28 December 1936 (ABX 361016b, 361212 & 361228b). 30 Xuma to J.H. Hofmeyr, Pretoria, 30 November 1936 (ABX 361130b). 31 Hofmeyr to Xuma, 2 December 1936 (ABX 361202c). 32 Xuma's national stature was confirmed when R.V. Selope Thema asked him to write a New Year's message to the African people for publication in the Bantu World. See Thema to Xuma, 29 December 1936 (ABX 361229). 33 Xuma to James Moroka, Thaba 'Nchu, 3 February 1937 (ABX 370203a). The exact circumstances which prompted this remark from Xuma are unclear. It is likely, however, that Xuma felt betrayed by leaders such as Jan Smuts, who at one time seemed to offer an alternative to the rigid segregationism of Hertzog. In his 1935 article in Die Soeklig, Xuma quoted Smuts as saying the following: The longer I live, the more and more I feel that the future of South Africa depends on good feeling between black and white. We must avoid doing anything which would give rise to misunderstanding or ill-feeling between the black and white races. You must not be short-sighted on these matters; you must take the long view.' See Xuma, 'Evil Effects,' (ABX box O, file 17), p. 23. 34 Z.S.M. Mahlangu, secretary, Coligny Advisory Board, Western Transvaal, to Xuma, 2 March 1937 (ABX 370302b). For a detailed analysis of the NRC, see Mirjana Roth, 'The Natives Representative Council, 1937- 1951' (PhD dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, 1987). 35 Max Yergan, Fort Hare, to Xuma, 18 June 1935 (ABX 350618); Mayme Sims, Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA, to Xuma, 24 June 1936 (ABX 236 Notes

360624a); and Eva Morake, New York City, to Xuma, 25 June 1936 (ABX 360625). 36 Two black South African women who would have met Xuma's specifi- cations were already married: Charlotte Maxeke and Eva Morake. 37 Xuma to Yergan, 27 November 1936 (ABX 361127c). Xuma and Yergan, friends since the early 1930s, made an interesting pair. Xuma was a black South African who had lived in the United States; Yergan was a black American who had lived in South Africa. Yergan represented the YMCA while at Fort Hare; Xuma had a long history of involvement with that organization. Both had been active in the All African Con- vention. Although the two men had participated in a variety of interracial organizations and meetings, they began to view white liberals with increasing skepticism in the 1930s. As much as the two men resembled each other, however, there was a key difference. By the 1930s, Yergan had been radicalized by his South African experiences to a far greater extent than had Xuma. Yergan began to embrace socialist ideas, which Xuma never did. But despite their ideological differences - and Yergan's return to the US in 1936 - the two would remain in close touch in the years to come. Their friendship represented the continuing cross- fertilization of ideas between African Americans and black South Africans. For more on Yergan's career, see David H. Anthony III, 'Max Yergan in South Africa: From Evangelical Pan-Africanist to Revolutionary So- cialist,' African Studies Review, vol. 34, no. 2, September 1991, pp. 27-55. 38 Xuma to John Hardy, Johannesburg, 18 February 1937 (ABX 370218b) and Xuma to D.L. Smit, Secretary for Native Affairs, Pretoria, 15 March 1937 (ABX 370315a). For more on Xuma's decision to return to the United States in 1937, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 36 and Xuma to Z.K. Matthews, Fort Hare, 16 November 1936 (ABX 361116b). 39 Among those to whom Xuma wrote between January-May 1937 were the following African Americans: Dr R.R. Moton, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama (ABX 370512b); Dr Emmet Scott, Howard University, Wash- ington, DC (ABX 370513d); Roy Wilkins, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, New York (ABX 370127a & 370505a); and Max Yergan, newly appointed secretary of the International Com- mittee on African Affairs, New York (ABX 370219a, 370305e & 370402b). Xuma also revealed his plans to white American friends William Riley of the University of Minnesota (ABX 370310d) and Evelyn Riley Nicholson, Mount Vernon, Iowa (ABX 370319c). 40 Xuma to George Arthur, Chicago, 22 January 1937 (ABX 370122b). 41 See, for example, Xuma to Alexander Kerr, Fort Hare, 19 March 1937 (ABX 370319b); Xuma to Mabel Carney, New York, 24 March 1937 (ABX 370324c); and Xuma to George Arthur, Chicago, 4 May 1937 (ABX 370504c). 42 In March 1937, Xuma gained admission to London University and was granted a passport. See London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine to Xuma, 16 March 1937 (ABX 370316a) and D.L. Smit, Secretary for Native Affairs, Pretoria, to Xuma, 20 March 1937 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). See also George E. Haynes to Notes 237

Xuma, 19 April 1937 (ABX 370419a); Roy Wilkins to Xuma, 13 May 1937 (ABX 370313b); Max Yergan to Xuma, 4 February 1937 (ABX 370204); William Riley to Xuma, 9 April 1937 (ABX 370409a); Evelyn Riley Nicholson to Xuma, 12 April 1937 (ABX 370412a); and John L. Hardy to Xuma, 19 February 1937 (ABX 370219b). 43 S.E.K. Mqhayi, Berlin, Cape, to Xuma, 6 May 1937 (ABX 370506). 44 Xuma's two children remained at home in Sophiatown under the care of their father's sister, Sarah Xuma. For information on Xuma's departure, see Xuma to Roy Wilkins, 21 May 1937 (ABX 370521a) and Umteteli, 29 May 1937. J.R. Rathebe, a key member of the Bantu Men's Social Centre and the Johannesburg Joint Council, was also heading to the United States. He planned to study social work in Atlanta. See Rathebe, Atlanta, to Xuma, 23 February 1938 (ABX 380223). 45 Yergan had recently been appointed director of the New York-based International Committee on African Affairs, in which Xuma had expressed an interest while still in South Africa. Yergan invited Xuma to address the Committee on 7 September 1937. Haynes was executive secretary of the Department of Race Relations at the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America and had visited South Africa in 1930. Wilkins was assistant secretary of the NAACP. My inference that Wilkins and Xuma had at least some personal contact in the United States in 1937 is based upon correspondence between the two written before Xuma arrived in the country. 46 During a trip to Washington, DC, Xuma discussed public health issues with, among others, National Negro Health Movement spokes- man Roscoe C. Brown and US Surgeon General Thomas Parran. For general information on Xuma's 1937 US trip, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 36-8; Xuma to Yergan, 2 April 1937 (ABX 370402b); Xuma to Wilkins, 21 May 1937 (ABX 370521a); Roscoe Brown, Wash- ington, DC to Xuma, 28 June 1937 (ABX 370628b); Haynes to Xuma, 1 July 1937 (ABX 370701a); and 'Dr Alfred Xuma Returns to South Africa,' Umteteli, 29 October 1938. 47 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 38; Xuma to Max Yergan, 2 April 1937 (ABX 370402b); Dorie Clarke, Wilberforce, Ohio, to Xuma, 2 September 1937 (ABX 370902); Evelyn Nicholson, Mount Vernon, Iowa, to Xuma, 4 September 1937 (ABX 370904); and Grover Little, Chi- cago, to Xuma, 9 February 1938 (ABX 380209b). 48 Mabel Carney, New York, to Xuma, 20 April 1937 (ABX 370420g); Carney to Dr Raymond B. Fosdick, Rockefeller Foundation, New York, 28 August 1937 (ABX 370828); Alyce K. Bishop, Carnegie Corpora- tion, New York, to Xuma, 10 September 1937 (ABX 370910); and Catherine A. Doran, Milbank Memorial Fund, New York, to Xuma, 16 September 1937 (ABX 370916). Mabel Carney had traveled extensively in South Africa in 1926 and had met Xuma in 1934 on a return visit. In a letter written in 1937, Xuma referred to Carney as his young son's 'godmother' (ABX 370324c). For more on Carney, see Shula Marks, ed., Not Either an Experimental Doll: the Separate Worlds of Three South African Women (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 33-5 and 52, note 94. 238 Notes

49 When she met Xuma in 1937, Madie Hall was studying for a master's degree in education at Columbia. Her home was in North Carolina. For information on Xuma's early contact with Miss Hall, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 37; Madie Hall, New York, to Xuma, 2 August 1937 (ABX 370802); and Robert St John, Through Malan's Africa (New York: Doubleday, 1954), p. 212. 50 Xuma to Dr M.O. Bousfield, Chicago, 7 August 1937 (ABX 370807b); Susie Yergan, New York, to Xuma, 20 June 1938 (ABX 380620a); and Grover Little to Xuma, 24 June 1938 (ABX 380624b). 51 Xuma, medical lecture notes, October 1937-October 1938 (ABX box R, file 34) and London County Council certificate, 4 May 1938 (ABX box P, file 26). 52 I.M. Nangle, Central Society for the Care of Cripples, London, to Xuma, 18 November 1937 (ABX 371118) and R. Gordon Milburn to [?] MacMillan, 13 June 1938 (ABX 380613). 53 Prime Minister Hertzog had been pushing for incorporation of the British protectorates since 1924. African opposition in the protectorates, plus British reservations, continued to hinder Hertzog's efforts in the 1930s. See Davenport, South Africa: a Modern History, pp. 263-4. 54 See The Times (London), 23 December 1937. Amery (1873-1955) had been The Times' correspondent in South Africa during the Boer War. He served as a Conservative member of the of the British parliament from 1911-45 and toured South Africa in 1927 as Britain's Secretary of State for the Dominions. For biographical information on Amery, see Dictionary of National Biography, 1951-1960, 1971 ed., s.v. 'Amery, Leopold Stennett,' by A.P. Ryan. 55 Xuma to the editor, The Times, 2 January 1938 (ABX 380103b). Why Xuma's letter went unpublished remains a mystery. Perhaps it was never sent. Published letters responding to Amery included those by the Bishop of Southampton (30 December 1937); Peter Rodd (3 Janu- ary 1938); John Harris of the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society (5 January 1938); and William Cullen (15 January 1938). 56 Tshekedi Khama, Bechuanaland, to Xuma, 11 May 1938 (ABX 380511). 57 Sonia Cohen, London, to Xuma, 17 January and 20 January 1938 (ABX 380117 & 380120); Patrick B. Duncan, Balliol College, Oxford, to Xuma, 18 January 1938 and 17 February 1938 (ABX 380118 & 380217); W.T.D. Glasspoole, Methodist Laymen's Missionary Movement, London, to Xuma, 8 April 1938 (ABX 380408); and John P. Fletcher, Society of Friends, London, to Xuma, 27 May 1938 (ABX 380527). 58 Xuma was invited to a 'representative gathering of oppressed nation- alities' at the IASB headquarters in July 1938. See International African Service Bureau, London, to Xuma, 7 July 1938 (ABX box S, file 41). 59 Born in Trinidad and educated in the United States, George Padmore (1903-59) was one of the leaders of the Pan African movement in London in the 1930s. Jomo Kenyatta was another key member of the IASB in 1938. For information on Padmore, the IASB, and Pan Africanism in the 1930s, see Imanuel Geiss, The Pan-African Movement (London: Methuen & Co., 1974), pp. 349-56 and J. Ayodele Langley, Pan-Africanism and Nationalism in West Africa, 1900-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 326-46. Notes 239

60 Xuma's ties to the African-American fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha dated back to 1919. In that year, he became a charter member of the fraternity's branch at the University of Minnesota; in 1923, he became a charter member of the Marquette University chapter in Milwaukee, Wiscon- sin. See above, chapter two, and Charles H. Wesley, The History of Alpha Phi Alpha: a Development in College Life (Chicago: The Founda- tion Publishers, 1981), pp. 148 and 239. For background on C.B. Clarke, see Geiss, The Pan-African Movement, p. 349. 61 Aggrey House was a hostel in London for African students. For Xuma's own description of his Pan African contacts in London in 1937-8, see his form letter regarding the SAIRR's memo on the 'Welfare of Non- Europeans From Southern Africa Proceeding Overseas,' 10 May 1939 (ABX 390510). See also Hastings Banda, Edinburgh, to Xuma, 13 April 1938 (ABX 380413). 62 Geiss, The Pan-African Movement, p. 301. 63 Ladipo Solanke, West African Students' Union, London, to Xuma, 5 October 1938 (ABX 381005) and Xuma, form letter on 'Non-Europe- ans Proceeding Overseas/ 10 May 1939 (ABX 390510). For background on WASU, see Geiss, The Pan-African Movement, pp. 297-304. 64 D.D.T. Jabavu, Alice, Cape, to Xuma, 7 March 1938 and 26 May 1938 (ABX 380307 & 380526b). Jabavu had not opposed Hertzog's compromise plan on the 1936 Native Bills as strongly as Xuma would have liked. Jabavu also entertained some hopes that the Natives Represen- tative Council could be effective, while Xuma harbored no such illusions. For more on Jabavu's political orientation in this era, see Higgs, The Ghost of Inequality, pp. 121-37. 65 The only surviving fragment of Xuma's letter to Calata is a handwritten excerpt that Xuma kept among his own records. See Xuma to James Calata, Cradock, Cape, 6 August 1938 (ABX box P, file 25) and Calata to Xuma, 18 August 1938 (ABX 380818). For more on the alliance between Xuma and Calata, see chapter 5. 66 Xuma's changing summer plans - and his last ditch efforts to remarry - are amply documented in his correspondence. He seems to have become romantically involved with a woman based at the YWCA in Cambridge, England during mid-1938. Unfortunately, neither the nationality of Xuma's 'friend' nor the circumstances of their initial meeting are revealed in the letters Xuma saved. Only the woman's first name is known - Marianne. For evidence of Xuma's efforts to secure a com- panion, see for example, Marianne [last name unknown], Cambridge, England, to Xuma, 11, 16, and 30 July 1938 (ABX 380711a, 380716 & 380730b); Madie Hall, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, to Xuma, 10 June 1938, 8 August and 26 August 1938 (ABX 380610, 380808 & 380826); Susie Yergan, New York, to Xuma, 20 June 1938 (ABX 380620a); Grover Little, Chicago, to Xuma, 24 June 1938 and 2 September 1938 (ABX 380624b & 380902); and May [last name unknown], USA, to Xuma, 25 June 1938 (ABX 380625). 67 Additional qualifications certificate, General Council of Medical Edu- cation and Registration of the United Kingdom, Edinburgh, 10 December 1938 (ABX box P, file 26) and 'Dr Alfred Xuma Returns to South Af- rica,' Umteteli, 29 October 1938. 240 Notes

68 'Dr Alfred Xuma Returns to South Africa/ Umteteli, 29 October 1938; program, 'Welcome Reception to Dr Alfred B. Xuma/ 1 December 1938 (ABX 381201); Town and Country News/ Umteteli, 3 December 1938; 'Dr A.B. Xuma Welcomed/ Umteteli, 10 December 1938; Xuma, speech delivered at Alexandra township, 7 December 1938 (ABX 381207); and 'Dr Xuma Gets a Rousing Welcome/ Umteteli, 17 December 1938. 69 R.RA. Hoernle, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 9 December 1938 (ABX 381209a); Paramount Chief Sobhuza, Mbabane, Swaziland, to Xuma, 5 January 1939 (ABX 390105); and Dr S.M. Molema, Mafeking, to Xuma, 20 January 1939 (ABX 390120a). 70 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 39; agenda, annual general meeting of the Joint Council of European and African Women and Bantu Children's Holiday Fund, Johannesburg, 16 November 1938 (ABX 381116c); minutes, board of management of Alexandra Health Cen- tre, 25 November 1938 (ABX 381125a); minutes, meeting of Johannesburg Joint Council, 11 September 1939 (ABX 390911); Xuma, Alexandra Health Committee, Medical Officer's Report for 1939-40, July 1940 (SAIRR, part I: AD843 B2.1.1); annual report, Johannesburg Joint Council, 1940 (ABX 401231a); and Umteteli, 19 November 1938, 11 February 1939, and 13 April 1940. 71 Xuma to Bishop Wright, 29 December 1939 (ABX 391229b); Rev. J.R. Coan, Evaton, to Xuma, 17 April 1940 (ABX 400417); 'Professional Services of Dr A.B. Xuma for Crogman Community Clinic,' 5 May 1940 (ABX 400505); D.L. Smit to Xuma, 24 July 1940 (ABX 400724b); Xuma to Smit, 31 July 1940 (ABX 400731b); A.S. Mbelle, Pretoria, to Xuma, 2 August 1940 (ABX 400802); first annual report, Crogman Community Clinic, 30 August 1940 (ABX 400830b); and Umteteli, 11 February 1939, 29 April 1939, 16 September 1939, 30 September 1939, and 31 August 1940. 72 Madie Hall's father helped run Winston-Salem's first black hospital, Slater Hospital, which opened in 1902. Madie's brother Leroy also became a physician and practiced in Winston-Salem. In an interview just before her death, Madie Hall Xuma recalled why her father discouraged her from going into medicine. 'He said he had one or two women in his medical class [in 1890] and he followed them after they went out to work. And they had a hard time, going out, country practicing, winter time, and women molested (sic). And he saw all of that if I read medicine. And he said, "No, I'd rather you take anything else but medicine." I gave in, and went into teaching.' Quoted in Emily Wilson, '"For Peace and Justice, Freedom and Dignity for All People" - Madie Hall Xuma/ Hope and Dignity: Older Black Women of the South (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), p. 144. For background on Madie Hall and her family, see Wilson, 'For Peace and Justice,' pp. 142-9 and Robert W Prichard, MD, 'Winston-Salem's Black Hospitals Prior to 1930/ Journal of the National Medical Associa- tion, vol. 68, no. 3, May 1976, pp. 246-9. I am indebted to Carter Cue, archivist at Winston-Salem State University, for bringing these references to my attention and to Harold Kennedy, Madie Hall's nephew, for sharing his memories during an interview in April 1998. Notes 241

73 When Madie Hall taught there, the institution was known as the Daytona-Cookman Collegiate Institute. Its name was changed to Bethune- Cookman College in 1931. Mary McLeod Bethune (1875-1955), the college president who hired Madie Hall, was one of the most prominent African-American women of her generation. She founded the National Council of Negro Women, befriended Eleanor Roosevelt, and served as Director of Negro Affairs of the National Youth Administra- tion under US President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s. 74 For additional biographical information on Miss Hall, see Madie Hall to Xuma, 5 May 1939 (ABX 390505a); Xuma to D.L. Smit, 11 July 1939 (ABX 390711); and Umteteli, 25 May 1940. 75 Madie Hall, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, to Xuma, 8 August 1938 (ABX 380808). Unfortunately, Xuma's letters to Miss Hall have not been located and may not survive. But an examination of the latter's correspondence makes his intentions clear. See also Hall to Xuma, 10 June 1938 (ABX 380610) and 4 July 1939 (ABX 390704). 76 Hall to Xuma, 26 August 1938 (ABX 380826). 77 Hall to Xuma, 2 March 1939 (ABX 390302). 78 Hall to Xuma, 21 April 1939 (ABX 390421). 79 Hall to Xuma, 24 August 1939 (ABX 390824a). 80 Hall to Xuma, 28 September 1939 and Xuma to Hall, 29 September 1939 (both ABX 390928); Hall to Xuma, 11 October 1939 (ABX 391011). 81 Hall, Atlanta, to Xuma, 17 November 1939 (ABX 391117a). 82 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 39; Hall to Xuma, 11 October 1939 and 2 November 1939 (ABX 391011 & 391102b); information on the Zaandam's sea voyage from New York to Cape Town, 27 April- 16 May 1940 (ABX 400427); and Xuma to commissioner of immigration, Pretoria, 29 May 1940 (ABX 400529b). 83 '"Momma" Xuma is going back home/ Rand Daily Mail, 14 February 1963 (SAIRR press clips, Wits; AD1912 box 218). 84 'What Negro Women Are Doing in America' and 'Progress of Negro Americans/ Umteteli, 12 October 1940 and 23 November 1940, respectively. 85 For additional information on Madie Hall Xuma's activities upon arrival in Johannesburg in 1940, see Xuma, invitation for supper to welcome Madie to Sophiatown, 20 May 1940 (ABX 400520b); 'Wilberforce Choir at BMSC,' Umteteli, 8 June 1940; 'Mrs A.B. Xuma Guest at Re- ception,' Umteteli, 3 August 1940; A. de V. Herholdt, University of the Witwatersrand, to Madie Hall Xuma, 6 September 1940 (ABX 400906); 'Talitha Home,' Umteteli, 16 November 1940; and 'Daughters of Af- rica,' Umteteli, 23 November 1940. 86 Specifically, the ceremony paid tribute to the 615 African servicemen who drowned on 21 February 1917 when the transport ship Mendi sank in the English Channel. The Mendi, carrying almost 900 volun- teer members of the South African Native Labour Contingent, had been heading to France when it was accidentally rammed by the Brit- ish steamship Darro in heavy fog. Only 267 of the men on board survived. For more on the sinking of the Mendi, see Norman Clothier, Black Valour: the South African Native Labour Contingent, 1916-1918, 242 Notes

and the sinking of the "Mendi" (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1987) and Grundlingh, Fighting Their Own War, pp. 93-6 and 139-41. 87 'Dr Xuma's Stirring Speech at Mendi Memorial Celebration/ Umteteli, 18 March 1939. 88 Ibid. 89 Xuma to James Calata, 9 May 1939 (ABX 390509). 90 Calata and other senior ANC officials were scheduled to meet with Native Affairs Minister H.A. Fagan in Cape Town between 15-17 May 1939. Among the items on the agenda was the proposed transfer of African education to the Native Affairs Department. Xuma did not participate in the deputation. For more on the 1939 deputation, see 'Deputation from ANC and Congress of Native Urban Advisory Boards to Minister of Native Affairs, 15-17 May 1939' (Donald Molteno papers, University of Cape Town [BC579: E3.13]) and Umteteli, 27 May 1939. 91 J.D. Rheinallt-Jones, Memorandum on 'Welfare of Non-Europeans from Southern Africa Proceeding Overseas/ 29 December 1938 (SAIRR, part II: Kb3.7, file 1). Rheinallt-Jones may have sought to discourage black South African contact with West African students because of the latters' leading role in the growing Pan African movement in London in the 1930s. 92 Among those expressing reservations were Z.K. Matthews, Edgar Brookes, and C.C.N. Dlamini. D.D.T. Jabavu found much of the scheme worth- while, but still offered suggestions for its improvement. Unlike the above-named individuals, Xuma was not among those who received a copy of the first draft; the reason for this is unknown. See Rheinallt- Jones, form letter, 17 January 1939; Matthews to Rheinallt-Jones, 23 January 1939; Brookes to Rheinallt-Jones, 23 January 1939; Jabavu to Rheinallt-Jones, 4 February 1939; and Dlamini to Rheinallt-Jones, 8 February 1939 (SAIRR, part II: Kb3.7, file 1). 93 One such provision called for the Union's Department of Interior and the High Commission Office to supply the SAIRR with the names and addresses of those Africans to whom overseas passports had been granted. See Rheinallt-Jones, Memorandum on 'Welfare of Non-Europeans from Southern African Proceeding Overseas,' 2nd draft, 28 February 1939 (ABX 390602). 94 Xuma, form letter regarding SAIRR publication on 'Welfare of Non- Europeans From Southern Africa Proceeding Overseas,' 10 May 1939 (ABX 390510). 95 Ibid. 96 W.G. Ballinger, Cape Town, to Xuma, 15 May 1939 (ABX 390515b); D.D.T. Jabavu, Fort Hare, to Xuma, 17 May 1939 (ABX 390517a); and Edgar Brookes, Cape Town, to Xuma, 19 May 1939 (ABX 390519c). 97 R.F.A. Hoernle, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 2 June 1939 (ABX 390602). 98 Xuma to Hoernle, 5 June 1939 (ABX 390605). 99 Rheinallt-Jones himself was apparently traveling overseas in May-June 1939 and was thus not able to respond to Xuma's criticisms when they were first aired. Upon returning to South Africa in mid-June 1939, Notes 243

Rheinallt-Jones invited Xuma to share his perspectives before a meeting of the SAIRR executive on 24 June 1939. See Rheinallt-Jones to Xuma, 20 June 1939 (ABX 390620b). 100 Hoernle to Xuma, 7 June 1939 (ABX 390607b). 101 The newspaper to which Mbeki referred was the Territorial Magazine. In 1940 it was renamed Inkundla ya Bantu (People's Forum). 102 Paul Mosaka, Thaba 'Nchu, to Xuma, 5 May 1939 (ABX 390505a); Emily Rampu, Orlando, to Xuma, 26 November 1939 and 13 December 1939 (ABX 391126 & 391213); Gideon Motsima, Roodepoort, to Xuma, 30 November 1939 (ABX 391130); Olga Ndzibe, Orlando, to Xuma, 5 December 1939 (ABX 391205); Xuma to A.S. Vil-Nkomo, Benoni, 12 December 1939 (ABX 391212); Xuma, eulogy delivered at funeral of Rev. Ramushu of Bantu Methodist Church, 14 April 1940 (ABX 400414a); and G.A. Mbeki, Idutywa, Transkei, to Xuma, 29 May 1940 (ABX 400529a). 103 This impression is derived indirectly from a letter Xuma wrote to James Calata on 9 May 1939 (ABX 390509). 104 D.D.T. Jabavu to Xuma, 7 March 1938 (ABX 380307); H. Selby Msimang to Xuma, 9 March 1940 (ABX 400309b); 'All African Convention Planned/ Umteteli, 11 May 1940; and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 82-3. For useful discussions of the ANC between 1912-40, see Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa; Rich, State Power and Black Politics in South Africa) and Fredrickson, Black Liberation. 105 Xuma was 45 years old in August 1938. For information on Calata's initial overtures to Xuma, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, 47-8; Calata to Xuma, 18 August 1938 (ABX 380818); and Benson, The African Patriots, p. 88. 106 R.G. Baloyi, Alexandra, to Xuma, 25 January 1939 and 14 February 1939 (ABX 390125b & 390214a); C.S. Ramohanoe to Xuma, 25 February 1939 (ABX 390225); James Calata to Xuma, 1 December 1939 (ABX 391201a); J.D. Rheinallt-Jones to Xuma, 27 December 1939 (ABX 391227a); and Richard Godlo, East London, to Xuma, 19 January 1940 (ABX 400119). 107 This impression is derived from Xuma to Bishop R.R. Wright, 2 January 1940 (ABX 400102) and Xuma to R.G. Baloyi, 22 January 1940 (ABX 400122b). 108 'Rev. J.A. Calata Interviewed At P.E.,' Umteteli, 16 November 1940. For more on Xuma's ascent to the ANC presidency, see Stephen Oliphant, Cape Town, to Xuma, 30 December 1939, 14 May 1940, 9 July 1940, 18 October 1940, and 20 November 1940 (ABX 391230, 400514a, 400709, 401018, & 401120); Prince J.D. Nikiwe, Port Elizabeth, to Xuma, 27 May 1940 (ABX 400527); Xuma to Oliphant, 15 June 1940 (ABX 400615); and George Molefe, Port Elizabeth, 14 August 1940 (ABX 400814). 109 'European Constable Strikes Native Doctor/ Vereeniging News, 28 February 1941 (ABX 410228c) and 'Policeman Fined £5 or 7 Days - Assault on Dr Xuma/ Umteteli wa Bantu, 8 March 1941. At the time of the assault, Xuma was traveling with his wife Madie and another passenger, an unidentified African male. The Vereeniging News quoted Xuma as saying that the policeman was about to strike him again 'when my 244 Notes

wife put out her hand/ This was not the first time that Xuma was the victim of racially motivated violence; two or more Afrikaners had assaulted him in 1932. They too were found guilty of assault and fined. 110 Minutes, ANC annual conference, Bloemfontein, 15-17 December 1940 (ABX 401217b) and certificate of Xuma's election to the ANC presidency, 17 December 1940 (ABX 401217a). 111 In his book Black Metropolis, St Clair Drake discussed the concept of the 'race hero' as it applied to African-American communities in Chi- cago in the 1940s. Drake noted that black Chicagoans looked up to certain members of their race who had made great strides or accom- plished great things in the face of enormous obstacles. Examples included the first black surgeon in Chicago; the first black medical professor; the first black head of the Chicago Housing Authority, and so on. As Drake saw it, these 'race heroes' fostered racial pride in blacks and gave them something to strive for amid difficult circumstances. Xuma was such a 'race hero' in the South African context. For more on the 'race hero' concept, see Drake, pp. 390-2. 112 Three examples are Campbell, Songs of Zion, p. 250; Cobley, Class and Consciousness, p. 126; and Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa, 2nd ed. (Cape Town: David Philip, 1991), p. 37. 113 A generation younger than Dube, Xuma was of course the product of different circumstances. Xuma's political maturation took place during the Hertzog years, a period in which the South African government intensified segregation and curbed African political rights. 114 Representatives of the older generation include John Dube, John Tengo Jabavu, Sol Plaatje, and Pixley Seme.

5 ANC President, 1941-9 1 This phrase appeared in an announcement for the ANC's December 1943 conference (ABX 431005a). The announcement was signed by Xuma and Calata. 2 For further historical detail on South Africa in the 1940s, see Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 79-81; Tom Lodge, Black Politics in South Af- rica Since 1945 (New York: Longman, 1983), pp. 1, 11-12; and Jack and Ray Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, 1850-1950 (London: International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, 1983), pp. 527, 532-3, 554-5, 573. 3 Xuma, autobiographical typescript, p. 48; Xuma, 'Extracts from the Life Story of Dr Alfred Xuma,' Drum, December 1954, p. 71; minutes, ANC conference, 15-17 December 1940 (ABX 401217b); Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 95-6; Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 84; Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 389-90; and Nelson Mandela interview, 21 February 1991, Johannesburg. 4 Xuma, 'The Policy and Platform of the African National Congress,' June 1941 (ABX 410625b); reprinted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 168-71. 5 'Inkululeko,' the Zulu word for 'freedom,' was the title of the Com- munist Party of South Africa's flagship newspaper between 1939-50. Notes 245

Edited by Africans, it reported widely on the ANC, the South African Indian Congress, trade union activities, and foreign affairs. For historical background on Inkululeko, see Elizabeth Ceiriog Jones, 'Inkululeko: Organ of the Communist Party of South Africa, 1939-1950' in Switzer, South Africa's Alternative Press, pp. 331-72. 6 R.M. Mfeka interview, 8 May 1990, Johannesburg. 7 My description of Xuma's leadership style is based on both interviews and written sources. Relevant interviews include those with WJ.P. Carr, 19 June 1990, Johannesburg; Trevor Huddleston, 16 April 1991, Lon- don; Ellen Kuzwayo, 27 March 1991, Soweto; Patrick Lewis, 20 June 1990, Johannesburg; Nelson Mandela, 21 February 1991; R.M. Mfeka, 8 May 1990, Johannesburg; Nthato Motlana, 25 May 1990, Soweto; Godfrey Pitje, 30 May 1990, Johannesburg; and Walter Sisulu, 28 May 1990, Johannesburg. See also Louise Gow, Richmond, Virginia, to Madie Hall, 26 March 1940 (ABX 400326); Xuma to S.M. Mphahlele, Johan- nesburg, 10 February 1942 (ABX 420210e); Benson, The African Patriots, p. 68; Shirley du Boulay, Tutu: Voice of the Voiceless (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's, 1988), p. 36; and Bloke Modisane, Blame Me On His- tory (Johannesburg: Ad. Donker, 1986), pp. 33-5. 8 See, for example, Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 49; Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 71, 199-203; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 25; Albert Lutuli, Let My People Go: an Autobiography (London: Collins, 1962), pp. 88-9; and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 379-99. 9 Xuma, circular letter on 'Victory Congress Conference,' 14-16 December 1941 (ABX 411214a); Xuma, 'New Year's Greetings from ANC Presi- dent/ 1942 (ABX 420101); Xuma to Calata, 9 November 1942 (ABX 421109b); Xuma, circular letter to Africans of Roodepoort district, 8 November 1943 (ABX 431108a). 10 J.M. Mondile, Kimberley, to Xuma, 5 May 1941 (ABX 410505a); Calata to Xuma, 3 July 1941 (ABX 410703b); flyer, 'Grand Reception in Hon- our of Dr A.B. Xuma,' East London, 18 July 1941 (ABX 410718); Xuma to Calata, 2 August 1941 (ABX 410802); Xuma to A. Frank Pendla, Cape Town, 9 August 1941 (ABX 410809a); report of Orange Free State African Teachers Association conference, Bloemfontein, October 1941 (ABX 411008). 11 Xuma, ANC circular letter, 2 December 1942 (ABX 421202c); Xuma, official ANC notices, 31 August 1943 (ABX 430831a & b); Xuma, auth- orization certificate, 23 September 1943 (ABX 430923c); Xuma, 'Notes for [ANC] Organisers' Information,' October 1943 (ABX box N, file 2); Xuma to J.M. Nthakha, Heilbron, O.F.S., 25 November 1943 (ABX 431125). 12 Xuma to A.J. Sililo, Durban, 23 November 1943 (ABX 431123b). 13 These sentiments are reflected in J.M. Mondile, Kimberley, to Xuma 5 May 1941 (ABX 410505a); R.T. Bokwe, Middledrift, to Xuma, 29 January 1942 (ABX 420129a); D.W. Bopape to Xuma, 17 July 1943 (ABX 430717a); and J. Mejoane, Krugersdorp, to Xuma, 23 September 1943 (ABX 430923a). 14 G.A. Mbeki, Idutywa, Transkei, to Xuma, 7 May 1941 (ABX 410507); 246 Notes

C.P. Motsemme, Verulam Press, Natal, to Xuma, 11 February 1943 (ABX 430211c); Xuma to Motsemme, 23 February 1943, 30 October 1943, and 9 November 1943 (ABX 430223a, 431030d, & 431109b); Xuma to R.H. Godlo, East London, 22 November 1943 (ABX 431122a); Motsemme to Xuma, 24 November 1943 (ABX 431124b); and Xuma to Motsemme, 27 November 1943 (ABX 431127b). 15 Rev. SJ.N. Tladi, Cape Town, to Xuma, 8 April 1942 (ABX 420408b). 16 Xuma to R.H. Godlo, East London, 12 February 1942 (ABX 420212c). 17 Xuma to A.B.P. Malunga, Kimberley, 6 November 1942 (ABX 421106a). 18 For information on Xuma's efforts to rein in the Cape African Con- gress, see Xuma to editor, the Friend, 15 December 1941 (ABX 411215c); Xuma to Frank Pendla, Port Elizabeth, 31 December 1941 (ABX 411231a); CAC campaign committee, circular letter to the electors in the Cape Western Circle, June 1942 (ABX 421000b); Xuma to Bokwe, 29 July 1942 (ABX 420729c); Xuma to S.M. Bennett Ncwana, Cape Town, 13 August 1942 (ABX 420813c); Calata and Xuma, copy of resolutions made at ANC national executive meeting, Bloemfontein, 30 August 1942 (ABX 420830b); Xuma to Oliphant, Ncwana, and Pendla, 16 September 1942 (ABX 420916a, b, & c); Xuma and Calata, 'Suspen- sion of Cape African Congress officials/ c. 19 September 1942 (ABX 420920a); and minutes, extraordinary meeting of ANC, Johannesburg, 1 August 1943 (ABX 430801a). 19 Xuma to A.W.G. Champion, Durban, 23 July 1942 (ABX 420723); Xuma to H.P. Ngwenya, Durban, 24 March 1943 (ABX 430324b); Pixley Seme to John Dube, Ohlange Institute, Natal, c. March 1943 (ABX box N, file 2); and Gerhart, Political Profiles, pp. 18-9 and 24-6. 20 For information on the divisions within the Transvaal African Con- gress, see 'Declaration of Policy Urged by Reform Party,' 5 May 1941 (ABX 410505d); J.B. Marks, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 4 March 1943 (ABX 430304b); Xuma to Stephen Maloka, Johannesburg, 13 May 1943 (ABX 430513a); C.S. Ramohanoe to Xuma, 31 May 1943 (ABX 430531b); 'Minutes of an interview of some members of the TAC by the Presi- dent General/ Johannesburg, 21 June 1943 (ABX 430621a); minutes, TAC special meeting, 1 August 1943 (ABX 430801a); Xuma, 'ANC affairs in the Transvaal,' 1 August 1943 (ABX 430801b); Xuma, circular letter, 11 October 1943 (ABX 431011); and 'Transvaal's President Elected,' Bantu World, 15 April 1944. 21 Xuma, 'Life Story,' Drum, December 1954, p. 73 and Xuma to Jeremiah S. Nkoane, Bloemfontein, 16 April 1943 (ABX 430416). 22 For evidence of the ANC's growth in the Transvaal during this period, see T.R. Masethe, Duivelskloof, to Xuma, 19 February 1943 (ABX 430219b); James Z. Mdatyulwa, Potchefstroom, to Xuma, 27 May 1943 (ABX 430527a); D.W. Bopape to Xuma, 17 July 1943 (ABX 430717a); Rev. N.B. Tantsi, Lady Selbourne, to Xuma, 14 August 1943 (ABX 430814a); J. Mejoane, Krugersdorp, to Xuma, 23 September 1943 (ABX 430923a); and C.S. Ramohanoe, Alexandra, TAC circular letter, 3 October 1943 (ABX 431003b). 23 Recommendations made by ANC executive, 14 December 1941 (ABX 411214c); notes on ANC constitution, c. 1941 (ABX 411231k); Notes 247

constitution of ANC, 16 December 1943, reproduced in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 204-8; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 97-8; and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism, pp. 379-80, 382. The ANC's 1919 constitution is reproduced in Johns, Protest and Hope, pp. 76-82. 24 Bopape to Xuma, 17 July 1943 (ABX 430717a). See also notice of meeting from committee administering the Transvaal ANC, 30 November 1943 (ABX 431130b) and Xuma, circular letter, 30 November 1943 (ABX 431130e). 25 The ANC's response to the Atlantic Charter is discussed in detail later in this chapter. 26 Calata to Xuma, 26 November 1942 (ABX 421126b). 27 Evidence of the Xuma-Calata partnership is too numerous to be listed in its entirety here. Good examples are Calata to Xuma, 12 February 1941 (ABX 410212), 25 August 1941 (ABX 410825a), 15 January 1942 (ABX 420115c), 26 October 1942 (ABX 421026c), 18 February 1943 (ABX 430218e), 15 June 1943 (ABX 430615b); Xuma to Calata, 2 December 1942 (ABX 421202d); and Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990. 28 Mandela interview, 21 February 1991; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; Xuma, 'Life Story/ Drum, December 1954, p. 73; Xuma to Z.K. Matthews, Fort Hare, 29 November 1941 (ABX 411129a), 11 February 1942 (ABX 420211b); Xuma to S.M. Molema, Mafeking, 6 January 1943 (ABX 430106c); Benson, The African Patriots, p. 167; and Matthews, Freedom for My People, p. 137. 29 The rise of the ANC Youth League is discussed later in this chapter. For evidence of Xuma's overtures to past ANC leaders, see Xuma to J.L. Dube, Ohlange Institute, 12 March 1943 (ABX 430312a) and 29 November 1943 (ABX 431129c); Xuma to J.T. Gumede, Pietermaritzburg, 21 July 1943 (ABX 430721a), 26 July 1943 (ABX 430726f) and 29 November 1943 (ABX 431129f); Xuma to S.M. Makgatho, Pretoria, 21 July 1943 (ABX 430721b) and 29 November 1943 (ABX 431129e); and Xuma to Rev. Z.R. Mahabane, Kroonstad, 21 July 1943 (ABX 430721c) and 29 November 1943 (ABX 431129d). 30 Mandela interview, 21 February 1991. 31 Xuma to T.R. Masethe, Duivelskloof, 4 January 1943 (ABX 430104a). 32 For more on Xuma's relationship with traditional leaders, see Xuma, circular letter to chiefs, 12 April 1942 (ABX 420412); Xuma to Albert Lutuli, 17 September 1942 (ABX 420917d); Xuma to Chief T.M. Ramokgopa, northern Transvaal, 16 February 1943 (ABX 430216); Pixley Seme to John Dube, c. March 1943 (ABX box N, file 2); and Xuma to Paramount Chief Mshiyeni ka Dinizulu, Zululand, 12 March 1943 (ABX 430312b). 33 Xuma to J.S. Nkoane, Bloemfontein, 5 December 1943 (ABX 431205b) and Cherryl Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa, 2nd ed. (Cape Town: David Philip, 1991), p. 89. 34 Besides Xuma, other trustees of the Bantu Welfare Trust included, at one time or another, Jan Hofmeyr, D.D.T. Jabavu, Alexander Kerr, Paul Mosaka, J.D. Rheinallt-Jones, R.V. Selope Thema, and Donaldson himself, who was the chairman and founder. The Trust funded a wide 248 Notes

range of causes, organizations, and individuals, including the college at Fort Hare, training programs for African social workers, the Coun- cil of Non-European Trade Unions, African health care facilities, and law students such as Nelson Mandela, who received a loan of £150 from the Trust in 1947. The Trust also helped fund construction of the Donaldson Orlando Community Centre in Soweto. For more on the Bantu Welfare Trust, see Xuma to secretary, Bantu Welfare Trust (BWT), 31 December 1941 (ABX 411231d), 3 July 1942 (ABX 420703), 18 February 1943 (ABX 430218a); secretary, BWT, to Xuma, 4 February 1942 (ABX 420204a); Xuma to Colonel James Donaldson, 16 September 1943 (ABX 430916a); BWT report, 30 June 1947 (ABX 470630a); and Kerr, Fort Hare, pp. 170-1. 35 Xuma to J. Nhlapo, 2 June 1943 (ABX 430602e); program for 'Ameri- can Negro Revue/ 10-11 June 1943 (ABX 430610b); reviews in Forward, 18 June 1943, the Star, 11 June 1943, and Umteteli, 19 June 1943 (ABX box U, file 47); Xuma to Calata, 22 June 1943 (ABX 430622b); and Maurice Cohen, 'With Fences Around Them/ c. 1943, Xuma collection, Cory Library, Rhodes University. 36 Xuma to G.B. Xorile, Johannesburg, 19 June 1943 (ABX 430619d); Xuma to Mrs L.M. Campbell, 9 August 1943 (ABX 430809); Xuma to R.T. Bokwe, 20 October 1943 (ABX 431020b); ANC financial statement, December 1943 (ABX 431229a); and 'National Congress Sport's Day/ Bantu World, 19 August 1944. 37 Xuma, address delivered at the Mendi Memorial Celebration, Bantu Sports Grounds, Johannesburg, 23 February 1941 (ABX 410223). 38 Ibid. 39 Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 100-1; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 12-14; and Rich, White Power and the Liberal Conscience, p. 74. 40 Xuma to Z.K. Matthews, 29 November 1941 (ABX 411129a). 41 Xuma to Col Deneys Reitz, Pretoria, 13 May 1942 (ABX 420513b). 42 For evidence of Xuma's conciliatory approach in 1941-2, see Xuma, 'Orientation in Native Education/ delivered at the opening of Orlando High School, 13 August 1941 (ABX 410813); Xuma to D.L. Smit, 11 June 1942 (ABX 420611a); and Xuma to Deneys Reitz, 28 December 1942 (ABX 421228c). Xuma's admiration for and close working relationship with Ballinger is illustrated in Xuma to R.T. Bokwe, 20 April 1937 (ABX 370420b); Xuma to Margaret Ballinger, 29 November 1941 (ABX 411129b); and Ballinger to Xuma, 28 December 1941 (ABX 411228b). 43 This is illustrated in Xuma's vigorous dissent from the 1942 governmental commission investigating the 'African crime wave' on the Rand. Invited to participate on the commission, Xuma and his two African colleagues refused to endorse the body's final report and filed their own 'minority report' instead. See Xuma to Deneys Reitz, 20 July 1942 (ABX 420720a); Xuma, S.P. Mqubuli, and R.V. Selope Thema, 'Minor- ity Report of the Committee Appointed to investigate the position of crime on the Witwatersrand and Pretoria/ c. 21 December 1942 (ABX 421221c); and Xuma to S.H. Elliot, Johannesburg, 29 January 1943 (ABX 430129b) and 4 February 1943 (ABX 430204a). Notes 249

44 See, for example, Xuma to Jan Smuts, Cape Town, 17 March 1941 (ABX 410317a), 18 June 1941 (ABX 410618a), 29 December 1942 (ABX 421229), c. January 1943 (ABX 430131), 21 April 1943 (ABX 430421); 'ANC deputation meets with the Minister of Justice/ 8 July 1941 (ABX 410708a); Xuma to Colonel Horak, Johannesburg, 25 February 1942 (ABX 420225b); Horak to Xuma, 26 February 1942 (ABX 420226); and private secretary, Prime Minister, to Xuma, 30 December 1942 (ABX 421230a). 45 Xuma, Kaffir Beer Qohannesburg, 1941); Govan Mbeki to Xuma, 19 September 1941 (ABX 410919a); A. Malunga, Kimberley, to Xuma, 11 October 1941 (ABX 411011a); CM. Ndamse, Fort Beaufort, Cape, to Xuma, 26 October 1941 (ABX 411026); S. Mac Lepolesa, Bloemfontein, to Xuma, 23 October 1941 (ABX 411023); and Rev. E.E. Mahabane to Xuma, 16 December 1941 (ABX 411216c). 46 The following are the organizational affiliations of the deputation members listed above: Xuma, ANC; Baloyi, ANC and NRC; Calata, ANC; Godlo, ANC and Native Advisory Board Congress; Gosani, Congress of Non-European Trade Unions; Matthews, ANC and African Teachers Federation. 47 Xuma to J. Bulana, Cape Town, 29 July 1942 (ABX 420729b). In an 18 June 1942 letter to A.Z. Tshiwula in Port Elizabeth (ABX 420618), Xuma wrote that the ANC deputation made advances concerning the pass laws, trade unions, education, railways, and aspects of social welfare. For more on the March 1942 deputation, see Xuma to D.L. Smit, Cape Town, 3 February 1942 (ABX 420203a) and 9 March 1942 (ABX 420309e); Xuma, The ANC deputation at Cape Town,' 4 March 1942 (ABX 420304b); and Xuma to C.S. Ramohanoe, 9 March 1942 (ABX 420309b). 48 For an analysis of the conditions facing black South African soldiers during World War II, see Louis Grundlingh, 'The Participation of South African Blacks in the Second World War; (PhD dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University, 1986). Although Grundlingh argues that the war did little to raise the political consciousness of the average black South African soldier, the war undeniably deepened the disenchantment of African intellectuals and political activists. For a more detailed discussion of this point, see Steven Gish, 'Black South Africans and World War IV (unpublished paper, Stanford University, 1988). 49 Xuma to Calata, 6 July 1942 (ABX 420706c). 50 Among those agreeing to participate on the committee were Jabavu of the All African Convention, Kotane, Marks, and Mofutsanyana of the Communist Party, and other prominent Africans such as Bokwe, Calata, Matthews, Mbeki, Molema, Moroka, Seme, and Thema. Xuma also solicited the support of prominent traditional leaders, trade unionists, and members of the Natives Representative Council. See, for example, Xuma, circular letter to ANC leaders re: 'Charter of Citizenship,' 22 March 1943 (ABX 430322b); Xuma's letters to Paramount Chief Tshekedi Khama, Bechuanaland; Paramount Chief Sobhuza II (Swaziland); Para- mount Chief Mshiyeni ka Dinizulu (Zululand); all 1 April 1943 (ABX 430401b, c & d); and Xuma to secretary, African Trade Unions, Jo- hannesburg, 2 June 1943 (ABX 430602b). 250 Notes

51 Matthews served as the chairman of the Atlantic Charter Committee, while Xuma was secretary-organizer. See Matthews to Xuma, 25 June 1943 (ABX 430625c) and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 88-9. 52 Xuma, circular letter to members of the Atlantic Charter Committee, 22 November 1943 (ABX 431122d). 53 'Africans' Claims in South Africa,' 1943, as reproduced in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 209-23. 54 Ten thousand copies of 'Africans' Claims' were printed in pamphlet form in September 1944. Evidence suggests that the pamphlet sold well. See Liberty Printing and Publishing Company invoice, 2 September 1944 (ABX box P, file 27); Calata to Xuma, 5 January 1945 (ABX 450105b); Richard Godlo to Xuma, 12 January 1945 (ABX 450112); Nora Shand, Bantu World secretary, to Xuma, 28 May 1945 (ABX 450528c); and Steven Molefe, Vereeniging, to Xuma, 9 November 1945 (ABX 451109b). 55 A.S. Mbelle, essay on race relations, 22 October 1941 (ABX 411022b). Mbelle worked as an interpreter for the Native Affairs Department and was active in the Transvaal African Congress in the 1940s. He also wrote articles in the newspaper Umteteli wa Bantu under the pseudo- nym 'Enquirer.' According to the Bantu World, the job A.S. Mbelle held in the Native Affairs Department was 'the most highly paid post occupied by a Native in the Department and probably one of the most highly paid posts held by any Native in the Union.' See '38 Years in Government Service,' Bantu World, 31 March 1945; Les and Donna Switzer, The Black Press in South Africa and Lesotho (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1979), p. Ill; and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, p. 265. 56 Xuma to Mbelle, 6 November 1941 (ABX 411106c). For more on the exchanges between Xuma and Mbelle, see Mbelle to Xuma, 10 March 1941 (ABX 410310), 25 October 1941 (ABX 411025b), 9 December 1941 (ABX 411209), 3 February 1942 (ABX 420203b), 20 February 1942 (ABX 420220c); and Xuma to Mbelle, 9 February 1942 (ABX 420209). 57 Xuma to Rheinallt-Jones, 1 July 1942 (ABX 420701e) and Xuma to secretary, SAIRR, 1 July 1942 (ABX 420701f). 58 Hoernle to Xuma, 28 December 1942 (ABX 421228a). 59 Xuma to Hoernle, 30 December 1942 (ABX 421230b) and 31 Decem- ber 1942 (ABX 421231d). 60 Xuma to Hoernle, 13 January 1943 (ABX 430113). 61 Ibid. For more on Xuma's stance toward the SAIRR and his rift with Hoernle, see Hoernle to Xuma, 30 July 1942 (ABX 420730a and 420730b), 14 September 1942 (ABX 420914), 6 January 1943 (ABX 430106e), and 4 February 1943 (ABX 430204c); Xuma to Hoernle, 12 September 1942 (ABX 420912a); and minutes, 11th annual general meeting of the council of the SAIRR, Cape Town, 14-15 January 1943 (ABX 430128b). 62 Rheinallt-Jones, the Institute's chief executive officer, issued his statement three months after the SAIRR Council's eleventh annual meeting in Cape Town, where Xuma's initial letter was discussed. See Rheinallt- Jones to Xuma, 9 April 1943 (ABX 430409c). Notes 251

63 Paul Rich makes this point in White Power and the Liberal Conscience, p. 74. 64 Xuma suggested that Africans conduct their struggle 'resolutely but tactfully' in a letter to D. Gosani, Johannesburg, 12 July 1942 (ABX 420712a). 65 'Main activities of the Johannesburg Joint Council/ April 1941-March 1942 (records of the Joint Council of Europeans and Africans, Wits [AD1433: CJ2.3]). 66 Michael Scott, Sophiatown, to Xuma, 3 September 1943 (ABX 430903c), 9 December 1943 (ABX 431209b) and agenda, conference for 'Right and Justice,' 5 December 1943 (ABX 431205e). 67 Xuma to Hoernle, 12 September 1942 (ABX 420912a). 68 L.E.S. Gama, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 3 October 1941 (ABX 411003a). 69 Lawrence Mlambo, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 1 December 1943 (ABX 431201a). 70 Walter Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990. For more evidence of Xuma's involvement in the wider African community in the early forties, see Sol Lengane, Benoni, to Xuma, 4 February 1941 (ABX 410204b); John Banyane, Bloemfontein, to Xuma, 14 July 1941 (ABX 410714c); Goodman Mbekeni, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 12 September 1941 (ABX 410912a); Sol Lesolang to Xuma, 5 February 1942 (ABX 420205a); Bigvai Masekela to Xuma, 3 April 1942 (ABX 420403); N.M. Makgatho, Benoni, to Xuma, 5 June 1943 (ABX 430605c); and Rev. D.F. Sibeko, Potchefstroom, to Xuma, 31 December 1943 (ABX 431231a). 71 In 1942, Xuma noted that he was one of only ten western-trained African doctors in South Africa. See Xuma to Miss Perry, Johannes- burg, 1 July 1942 (ABX 420701b). 72 Minutes, meeting of Crogman Community Clinic board, 17 March 1943 (ABX 430317e). 73 Xuma's efforts on behalf of Alexandra residents did not meet with universal approval. For further details, see Xuma, speech on behalf of Alexandra standholders, 14 June 1941 (ABX 410614); C.A. Ramushu and MJ. Masenya, Alexandra, to Secretary, Native Affairs Department, 19 September 1941 and 29 September 1941 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 80/313 p. V); Alexandra Standholders Committee to Minister of Native Affairs, Pretoria, 16 June 1942 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS/ 313 p. V); minutes of conference on Alexandra township, Pretoria, 23 October 1942 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 80/313 p. V); and David Duncan, 'Liberals and local administration in South Africa: Alfred Hoernle and the Alexandra Health Centre, 1933-43/ International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 3, 1990, pp. 475-93. 74 Interviews with W.J.P. Carr, 19 June 1990; Dabulamanzi Gcanga, 24 October 1990; Ellen Kuzwayo, 27 March 1991; Patrick Lewis, 20 June 1990; Nthato Motlana, 25 May 1990; Clare Rheinallt-Jones, 27 April 1990; AJ. Xuma, 24 October 1990; and Maurice Cohen, 'With Fences Around Them,' c. 1943, Xuma collection, Cory Library, Rhodes University. 75 Minutes, National Council of African Women board meeting, Port Eliza- beth, 7-8 July 1941 (ABX 410829b); Mina [Soga] to A.B. Xuma, 18 252 Notes

November 1942 (ABX 421118c); A.B. Xuma to Roy Wilkins, New York, 6 January 1943 (ABX 430106a); Dorothy Maud, Sophiatown, to Madie Hall Xuma, 10 February 1943 (ABX 430210a); minutes, NCAW conference, Kimberley, 15-18 December 1943 (ABX 440204a); Ellen Kuzwayo, Call Me Woman (San Francisco: Spinsters Ink, 1985), pp. 162-3 and Walker, Women and Resistance in South Africa, pp. 88-93. 76 Xuma's attempt to assert national leadership is well-illustrated in his attempts to co-opt the Natives Representative Council within an ANC framework. See, for example, Xuma to NRC members, 12 November 1942 (ABX 421112 c, d, & e). The Principal of Sophiatown Methodist School echoed the feelings of an increasing number of Africans when he referred to Xuma as 'our national leader' in 1942. See J. Lekgothoane to Xuma, 4 March 1942 (ABX 420304c). 77 Johnson Dlwati, Modder East, to Xuma, 12 January 1943 (ABX 430112d). 78 S.M. Molema, 'Thoughts and Reflections on the African National Con- gress/ 28 January 1943 (ABX 430128a); K.T. Motsete, Blantyre Secondary School, Nyasaland, to Xuma, 2 July 1943 (ABX 430702b); Pixley ka Seme to Xuma, 18 December 1943 (ABX 431218); and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, p. 539. 79 I am indebted to George Fredrickson for his insights on the Smuts government's shifting policies during the early 1940s. 80 For comment on the rise of African trade unionism in South Africa in the early forties, see Baruch Hirson, Yours for the Union: Class and Community Struggles in South Africa, 1930-1947 (New Jersey: Zed Books, 1989), pp. 86-7; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 18-19; and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, pp. 546-7. 81 For more on the rise of mass-based African protest during World War II, see Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 113-15; Hirson, Yours for the Union, pp. 89-90; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, 14-17; and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, pp. 546-7. 82 Xuma to Smuts, 31 July 1943 (ABX 430731b). I am indebted to Patrick Furlong for making this point. 83 Xuma, notes on interview regarding Victoria Falls Power strike, 2 Feb- ruary 1944 (ABX 440202b). See also Xuma to Minister of Native Affairs; Xuma to Minister of Labour; and Xuma to Prime Minister, all c. Janu- ary 1944 (Rhodes: Xuma collection). 84 Xuma, 'Africans and San Francisco,' 8 May 1945, (ABX 450508). Xuma's essay was published in the Bantu World and is reproduced in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 223-4. See also Xuma to Smuts, 17 July 1945 (ABX 450717b). 85 Xuma to Smuts, 31 August 1944 (ABX 440831). See also Xuma to Smuts, 15 August 1944 (ABX 440815) and Henry Cooper, private secretary to Smuts, to Xuma, 18 August 1944 (ABX 440818). 86 Cooper to Xuma, 29 September 1944 (Carter-Karis microfilm: 2:XX2: 41/55). 87 Xuma to Margaret Ballinger, 10 March 1945 and 3 April 1945 (Ballinger papers, Wits-[A410: B2.8.22]); Ballinger to Xuma, 21 March 1945 and 6 April 1945 (A410: B2.8.22); Henry Cooper to Ballinger, 22 March 1945 (A410: B2.8.22); Cooper to Xuma, 10 September 1945 (ABX Notes 253

450910a); private secretary, Minister of Native Affairs, Pretoria, to Xuma, 21 November 1945 (ABX 451121h); Xuma to J.H. Hofmeyr, Pretoria, 24 November 1945 (ABX 451124f); and Hofmeyr's private secretary to Xuma, 27 November 1945 (ABX 451127g). 88 JJ. Kruger, Controller of Paper, Pretoria, to Xuma, 29 May 1944 (ABX 440529), 20 November 1944 (ABX 441120), and 9 November 1945 (ABX 451109e); Xuma to Kruger, c. June 1944 (ABX 440630b), 14 October 1944 (ABX 441014), 29 June 1945 (ABX 450629), and 7 November 1945 (ABX 451107e); Xuma to D.L. Smit, 28 October 1944 (ABX 441028); G.H. Young, Pretoria, to Xuma, 4 July 1945 (ABX 450704); and Xuma to R.G. Baloyi, 5 July 1945 (ABX 450705a). 89 Other charter members of the Transvaal-based ADP included Daniel Koza, G.R. Kuzwayo, SJJ. Lesolang, and Self Mampuru. See party manifesto, African Democratic Party, September 1943 (ABX 430902). 90 Xuma, 'African Democratic Party Leaders Rebels Against, and Enemies of, the Congress,' 6 September 1943 (ABX 430906c). 91 The quoted passage is taken from Xuma to J.M. Nkosi, Witbank, 7 September 1943 (ABX 430907c). A column appearing in the Bantu World in early 1944 indicated that Xuma wasn't alone in viewing the ADP as divisive. See Kgome, 'In the Political Arena/ Bantu World, 15 Janu- ary 1944. 92 Anonymous typescript, 'Senator Basner violently attacks African leaders,' 6 September 1943 (ABX 430906d); Xuma to Calata, 21 September 1943 (ABX 430921b); Xuma to Gilbert W. Xala, Johannesburg, 23 Sep- tember 1943 (ABX 430923d); minutes, meeting of committee administering Transvaal African Congress, 24 October 1943 (ABX 431024); J.Z. Mdatyulwa, Potchefstroom, to Xuma, 27 October 1943 (ABX 431027a); Xuma to Mdatyulwa, 30 October 1943 (ABX 431030c); and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 110-12. For Basner's involvement in the ADP, see Miriam Basner, Am I an African? The Political Memoirs of H.M. Basner (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993), pp. 158-62. 93 For background on the ANC Youth League, see Robert R. Edgar and Luyanda ka Msumza, eds, Freedom in Our Lifetime: the Collected Writ- ings of Anton Muziwakhe Lembede (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1996); Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 102-18; and Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 50-76. 94 Xuma had assumed temporary financial responsibility for Mandela while the latter's guardian, Paramount Chief Jongintaba, was visiting Johan- nesburg to receive medical treatment from Xuma. Xuma wired Alexander Kerr in March 1939 asking that Mandela be admitted to Fort Hare on behalf of the chief. He also helped arrange Mandela's transport to Fort Hare. Xuma to Kerr, 14 March 1939 (ABX 390314b) and Mandela interview, 21 February 1991. Both Xuma and Sisulu had roots in Engcobo in the Transkei; they became acquainted in Johannesburg in the late 1930s. The two occa- sionally drove to Evaton together when Xuma was scheduled to see patients at the Crogman Community Clinic. Years later, Sisulu recalled that Tambo and Xuma were close as well. Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990. 254 Notes

95 The phrase 'politically impotent' is Walter Sisulu's. Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990. 96 Xuma's vision of an ANC youth movement was discussed in interviews with Sisulu, 28 May 1990, and Mandela, 21 February 1991. 97 According to Karis, Champion felt the establishment of a youth league would threaten Xuma's leadership. His warning turned out to be re- markably prophetic. See Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 100-1. 98 'Congress Youth League Manifesto,' c. February 1944 (ABX 440331a). 99 ANC Youth League, notes from an interview with the President Gen- eral Dr Xuma, 21 February 1944 (African National Congress collection, Wits [AD2186: L.a.III.6]); notes from meetings of the ANC Youth League, 19 February 1944 (ABX 440219) and 2 March 1944 (ABX 440302); 'Congress Youth League Launched,' Bantu World, 22 April 1944; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; Mandela interview, 21 February 1991; and Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 50-1. 100 V.V.T. Mbobo, 'The Challenge of Youth,' c. September 1945 (ABX 450929); Mandela interview, 21 February 1991; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; and Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 51-72. 101 Jordan K. Ngubane, 'A Nation's Tribute to a Promising Son,' Inkundla ya Bantu, 17 September 1947, quoted in Freedom in Our Lifetime, pp. 169-71. 102 In a May 1946 article in Inkundla ya Bantu, Lembede wrote 'Africa is a blackman's country. Africans are the natives of Africa and they have inhabited Africa, their Motherland, from times immemorial; Africa belongs to them.' In an article entitled 'Fallacy of Non-European Unity Movement' appearing in the 11 August 1945 issues of Bantu World and Ilanga lase Natal, Lembede wrote, 'Africans are Natives of Africa; they and Africa are one; their relation to Africa is superior to the relations of other sections of the population. This superiority of relation to Africa clearly places the Africans in a position of ascendancy and superiority over other sections of the South African population.' These articles are reproduced in Edgar and Msumza, Freedom in Our Lifetime, pp. 90-3 and 118-20. 103 Shaka (c. 1787-1828) founded the Zulu kingdom in the nineteenth century. He is a legendary figure in Southern African history whose exploits are discussed and debated to this day. Moshoeshoe (c. 1786- 1870) established a united Sotho nation in the nineteenth century. The state he founded is now known as Lesotho. 104 Xuma, 'Life Story,' Drum, December 1954, pp. 71-3; Calata to Xuma, 31 July 1944 (ABX 440731c); and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 99, 109, 340-6. 105 E. Ramsdale and S.A. Jayiya, Cape Town, to Xuma, 17 May 1945 (ABX 450517c), 31 May 1945 (ABX 450531a), and 8 July 1945 (ABX 450708); Xuma to joint secretaries, Non-European Unity Committee, 9 June 1945 (ABX 450609b) and 9 July 1945 (ABX 450709b); and Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 115. 106 Xuma to Dr E.T. Dietrich, Port Elizabeth, 10 August 1945 and 26 Sep- tember 1945 (ABX 450810a & 450926e); Xuma to Councillor Ismael, Cape Town, 10 August 1945 and 26 September 1945 (ABX 450810b & Notes 255

450926f); and A.I. Kajee, Durban, to Xuma, 22 August 1945 (ABX 450822b). 107 In the South African context, 'multiracialism' refers to cooperation among organizations representing different races. 'Nonracialism' refers to interracial cooperation within the same organization. In the broader sense, of course, nonracialism is a political outlook in South Africa, the central principle of which is that the color of a person's skin should be irrelevant to their status in society. 108 Mandela interview, 21 February 1991. For more on Xuma's alliance with communists in the ANC, see Moses Kotane, Cape Town, to Xuma, 14 November 1945 and 3 April 1946 (ABX 451114c & 460403a); Xuma to Kotane, 19 March 1946 (ABX 460329g); Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 75-6; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 28-9; and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 362-3. Also relevant is Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990. 109 Xuma, 'Opening address of the all-in-conference of the non-white trade unions,' Bloemfontein, 4 August 1945 (ABX 450804). See also Xuma to Calata, 6 July 1942 and 26 March 1946 (ABX 420706c & 460326c); Calata to Xuma, 20 March 1944 (ABX 440320c); Xuma, ANC Presi- dential Address, 15 December 1947 (Carter-Karis m/f: 2:XX2:81/8); Benson, The African Patriots, p. 244; and Hirson, Yours for the Union, p. 115. 110 Quoted in Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, p. 547. 111 Xuma, 'Opening address of the all-in-conference,' 4 August 1945 (ABX 450804). 112 Memorandum on anti-pass conference, Johannesburg, 23 November 1943 (ABX 431123c) and resolution on pass laws made at ANC conference, December 1943 (ABX 431200). 113 Xuma, 'The Pass Laws,' 2 December 1943 (ABX 431203d). In Class and Colour in South Africa, pp. 547-8, Jack and Ray Simons report that Xuma's speech was published in Freedom, vol. 2, no. 5, January 1944. 114 Jordan K. Ngubane, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 26 January 1944 (ABX 440126b); Jellicoe Ntshona, Cape Town, to Xuma, 13 March 1944 (ABX 440313b); circular letter on the anti-pass campaign, 14 March 1944 (ABX 440314); Xuma to Ntshona, 23 March 1944 (ABX 440323); and 'Anti-Pass Laws Campaign,' Bantu World, 25 March 1944. 115 'Anti-Pass Campaign,' Bantu World, 13 May 1944. Probably the most famous anti-pass campaign in subsequent years occurred on 21 March 1960, when Robert Sobukwe, leader of the Pan Africanist Congress, called on Africans to leave their passes at home and court arrest. When anti-pass demonstrators converged on the police station at Sharpeville, police opened fire, killing 69 protestors and wounding 186 others. 116 Flyer, national anti-pass conference, Johannesburg, 20-21 May 1944 (ABX 440520); 'Repeal of Pass Laws Demanded/ Bantu World, 27 May 1944; Xuma and Bopape, circular letter re: national anti-pass council, 29 August 1944 (ABX 440829b); and Wilson, '"For Peace and Justice, Freedom and Dignity for All People" - Madie Hall Xuma,' p. 148. For more on the anti-pass campaign, see Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 115, 396-8. 256 Notes

117 Bopape, circular letters to members of National Anti-Pass Council (NAPC), 24 October 1944, 31 January 1945, 28 March 1945 (ABX 441024, 450131b & 450328); Xuma, chairman's address before NAPC emergency conference, 29 April 1945 (ABX 450429a); report of NAPC emergency meeting, 4 May 1945 (ABX 450504e); Bopape to Smuts, 28 July 1945 (ABX 450728b); Xuma, circular letter, 30 October 1945 (ABX 451030d); Xuma to Smuts and Minsters of Justice and Native Affairs, 15 Novem- ber 1945 (ABX 451115g, f, and e); minutes, NAPC meeting, 11 December 1945 (ABX 451211b); and Xuma, circular letter, 23 April 1946 (ABX 460423b). 118 Xuma to S.W. Sikiti, Standerton, Transvaal, 15 May 1945 (ABX 450515a). 119 Founded in 1937 by Xuma's friend Max Yergan, the Council on Afri- can Affairs was a left-wing organization that advocated the political liberation of Africa. The African-American singer and actor Paul Robeson was the most visible leader of the Council in the 1940s. It disbanded in 1955. For more on the activities of the Council, see Hollis R. Lynch, Black American Radicals and the Liberation of Africa: the Council on Afri- can Affairs, 1937-1955 (Ithaca, NY: Africana Studies and Research Center, 1978). For more on the Drought Relief Campaign of 1945-6, see Kenneth Kirkwood, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 4 January 1945 (ABX 450104); Xuma to F.R. Paver, Johannesburg, 17 October 1945 (ABX 451017c); 'African Drought Relief Fund Committee/ Star, 20 October 1945 (ABX 451020d); agenda, Drought Relief Fund Committee, 4 January 1946 (ABX 460104b); minutes, emergency meeting of Drought Relief Fund Committee, 5 January 1946 (ABX 460105b); and Xuma to Food Controller, Pretoria, 18 January 1946 (ABX 460118a). 120 For mention of Xuma's health problems in 1945, see Xuma to Sikiti, 15 May 1945 (ABX 450515a); Xuma to I. Leg Chili, Pietersburg, 27 July 1945 (ABX 450727); and Xuma to Tshekedi Khama, Bechuanaland, 29 October 1945 (ABX 451029). 121 Xuma to Champion, 26 March 1946 (ABX 460326a). 122 Xuma to S.M. Elias, Bloemfontein, 6 June 1946 (ABX 460606b). 123 Xuma to secretary, Bantu Welfare Trust, Johannesburg, 13 July 1946 (ABX 460713a). For more on the state of Congress organization in 1946, see 'Our Task for 1946/ in ANC Bulletin, January 1946 (ABX 460101b) and Xuma to J.G. Katjerungu, Keetmanshoop, South West Africa, 15 March 1946 (ABX 460315). 124 Minutes, meeting of trustees of Bantu Welfare Trust, 11 January 1946 (ABX 4601 lie); Xuma to secretary, Bantu Welfare Trust, 7 May 1946 (ABX 460507b); and Bantu Welfare Trust report, 30 June 1947 (ABX 470630a). 125 Jordan Ngubane, Durban, to Xuma, 18 March 1946 (ABX 460318a) and Xuma to Ngubane, 6 May 1946 (ABX 460506d). Xuma's lack of enthusiasm toward a post-war general strike is suggested in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 90-1, 116. 126 Calata to Xuma, 1 November 1946 (ABX 461101). See also Calata to Xuma, 23 September 1946 (ABX 460923) and Champion to Xuma, 9 May 1946 (ABX 460509b). Notes 257

127 Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 47, footnote 1; Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 79-81; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 11-12, 18-20; and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, pp. 554-5, 573. 128 Xuma's longstanding ties to African trade unionists are illustrated in Xuma to D. Koza, Johannesburg, 19 November 1941 (ABX 411119); Xuma to secretary, Council of Non-European Trade Unions, 7 February 1942 (ABX 420207b & 420207c); D. Gosani to Xuma, 7 April 1942, 19 April 1942, 1 August 1945, and 13 May 1946 (ABX 420407f, 420419, 450801a & 460513); and Xuma, SABC radio address on trade unions, 14 January 1946 (ABX 460114g). For an entirely different view of Xuma's attitude toward African trade unions, see Hirson, Yours for the Union, especially pp. 88, 170, and 187. 129 Quoted in Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, p. 577. 130 For more on the 1946 African mine workers' strike, see Dan O'Meara, 'The 1946 Mine Workers Strike and the Political Economy of South Africa,' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 13, no. 2, July 1975, pp. 146-73; T. Dunbar Moodie, The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike of 1946,' Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 13, no. 1, October 1986, pp. 1-35; and Wilmot James, 'Grounds for a Strike: South African Gold Mining in the 1940s,' African Econ- omic History, no. 16, 1987, pp. 1-22. 131 Xuma to Minister of Native Affairs, 14 August 1946 (ABX 460814a) and Xuma to Prime Minister, 14 August 1946 (ABX 460814b). For evidence regarding Xuma's attitude toward the strike, see Brian Bunting, Moses Kotane: South African Revolutionary (London: Inkululeko Publica- tions, 1975), p. 128; Hirson, Yours for the Union, p. 187; and Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 90-1. 132 Xuma to members of the Natives Representative Council, 26 July 1946 (ABX 460726a). 133 Xuma, 'Life Story,' Drum, January 1955, p. 73 and S.M. Elias, Bloemfontein, to Xuma, 18 February 1946 (ABX 460218b). For more on the NRC, see Roth, 'The Natives Representative Council, 1937-1951.' 134 Xuma to members of NRC, 26 July 1946 (ABX 460726a). 135 African high school students at Lovedale in the eastern Cape staged a violent demonstration at the institution on 7 August 1946. The Lovedale unrest, closely tied to the difficult socio-economic conditions facing Africans after the war, was just one in a series of student strikes plaguing black missionary institutions in post-war South Africa. For more information on student unrest in this era, see Jonathan Hyslop, 'Food, authority and politics: student riots in South Africa 1945-1976/ Af- rica Perspective: New Series, vol. 1, no. 3-4, June 1987, pp. 3-41. 136 See, for example, Govan Mbeki, Idutywa, Transkei, to Xuma, 11 September 1946 (ABX 460911b); Calata to Xuma, 29 September 1946 (ABX 460929); and F.H.M. Zwide to Xuma, 3 October 1946 (ABX 461003a). 137 Xuma, circular letter on emergency conference of All Africans, 21 Sep- tember 1946 (ABX 460921). See also Xuma to Champion, 29 September 1946 (Champion papers, Wits [A922: Da20]). 258 Notes

138 Xuma to Champion, 14 October 1946 (ABX 461014); Hirson, Yours for the Union, p. 188; and Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 95. Hofmeyr served as acting Prime Minister while Smuts traveled overseas to conduct business at the United Nations. 139 Davenport, South Africa: a Modern History, pp. 310-11. 140 Xuma to R.T. Bokwe, Middledrift, Cape, 11 November 1942 (ABX 421111a). 141 Xuma to chairman, General Assembly, United Nations Organization, London, 28 January 1946 (ABX 460128) and Xuma to Peter Fraser, c. 28 January 1948 (ABX box P, file 25). The latter piece of evidence consists of handwritten material likely used as an addendum to the telegram cited above. The quotation is taken from the handwritten portion. 142 Kotane to Xuma, 30 January 1946, quoted in Karis, Hope and Chal- lenge, p. 263. For Xuma's response, see Xuma to Kotane, 21 February 1946 (ABX 460221b). 143 'African supporter' (anonymous), Windhoek, to Xuma, 2 February 1946 (ABX 460202c) and Margaret Ballinger to Xuma, 7 February 1946 (ABX 460207b). 144 Representing the ANC at the Manchester congress were Peter Abrahams and Mark Hlubi. See Peter Abrahams, London, to Xuma, 24 September 1945 (ABX 450924b); Xuma to the secretariat, Pan-African Congress, 16 October 1945 (ABX 451016b); and Geiss, The Pan-African Move- ment, pp. 385-408. 145 George Padmore, 'UNO Gets South African Appeal/ Chicago Defender, 16 February 1946 (ABX box U, file 47). Established in London in 1944, the Pan-African Federation was an umbrella organization representing George Padmore's International African Service Bureau, the Negro Welfare Centre, the Negro Association (Manchester), the Association of Students of African Descent (Dublin), the Kikuyu Central Association, and the African Youth League (Sierra Leone). It hosted the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester in 1945. For more on the Pan-African Federa- tion, see Geiss, The Pan-African Movement, pp. 387-8. 146 Paul Robeson, New York, to Xuma, 1 May 1946 (ABX 460501). 147 Xuma to Robeson, c. May 1946 (ABX 460501). 148 For more on the Indian-initiated passive resistance campaign of 1946, see Jordan Ngubane, Durban, to Xuma, 11 June 1946 (ABX 460611a); Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 119-23; Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 77; and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, pp. 550-2. 149 Xuma actually did receive medical treatment in New York, but the exact nature of this treatment remains a mystery. See Xuma to I. Leg Chili, 27 July 1945 (ABX 450727); G. Mears, Secretary for Native Af- fairs, to Secretary for the Interior, Pretoria, 1 August 1946 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715); 'Comment on Events/ Inkundla ya Bantu, October 1946; Calata to Xuma, 1 November 1946 (ABX 461101); and Xuma, ANC Presidential Address, 15 December 1947 (Carter-Karis m/f: 2:XX2:81/8). 150 Mears to Secretary for the Interior, 1 August 1946. 151 In his memorandum to the UN, Xuma wrote that he told Mears the Notes 259

following: 'There can be no gentleman's agreement where the freedom of my people is concerned. My people have faith and confidence in me and they believe that I would never sell out... I shall take the first opportunity that offers itself to champion the cause of my people if my health permits, as I am continuing to do so here at home, notwithstanding my present condition of health. I refuse to be muz- zled.' See Xuma, South West Africa: Annexation or United Nations Trusteeship? (New York: H.A. Naidoo and Sorabjee Rustomjee, 1946), p. 6. Xuma's apparent refusal to accept government preconditions before his American trip is corroborated in 'Comment on Events/ Inkundla ya Bantu, 20 February 1947. It is notable that officials of the United Party government decided to let Xuma make the trip despite their misgivings. After the Nation- alist government came to power in 1948, Xuma would find it much more difficult to obtain permission for overseas travel. In the 1950s and 1960s, his passport applications were viewed with considerable suspicion, despite the fact that he had long retired from the ANC. 152 Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 102. 153 Xuma to Champion, 14 October 1946 (ABX 461014) and 22 October 1946 (Carter-Karis m/f: 2:XX2:41/66); D. Tloome to Xuma 25 October 1946 (ABX 461025); and James Arnold, New York, to Xuma, 14 December 1946 (ABX 461214a). For an account of Basner's experiences in New York in 1946, see Basner, Am I an African?, pp. 182-90. 154 '3 African Leaders Assail Gen. Smuts' and 'African Plan Assailed,' New York Times, 9 November 1946 and 18 November 1946 respectively; New Africa (Council on African Affairs monthly bulletin), vol. 5, no. 10, November 1946 and vol. 5, no. 11, December 1946; and NAACP press release, 22 November 1946 (NAACP papers, group II, series A, container 4, Library of Congress). 155 K.O. Mbadiwe, New York, to Xuma, 12 November 1946 (ABX 461112). Established in New York in 1943 by the Nigerian-born Mbadiwe, the AAAR disseminated information about Africa, sponsored African cultural festivals and lectures, and arranged scholarships for African students studying in the United States. For more on the academy, see the pamphlet 'Africans and Americans Present the African Academy of Arts and Research,' c. 1946 (ABX 461112); circular letter to AAAR members and friends, November 1946 (ABX 461130); Mbadiwe to Xuma, 30 November 1946 (ABX 461130); and Hollis R. Lynch, 'Pan-African Re- sponses in the United States to British Colonial Rule in Africa in the 1940s' in The Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization, 1940-1960, ed. Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis (New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1982), pp. 77-85. 156 W.E.B. Du Bois and L.D. Reddick, New York, circular letter, 21 November 1946 (ABX 461121d). Established at the New York Public Library in 1926, the Schomburg Collection was a repository of books, pamphlets, and other materials documenting the history of people of African descent throughout the world. The collection was named after Arturo Schomburg, a Puerto Rican born black scholar who donated his collection of books to the library's Division of Negro Literature. In 1972, the Schomburg 260 Notes

Collection was renamed the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. For more on the collection, see the Center's webpage at www.nypl.org/research/sc/sc.html. 157 Wilkins was eager to have Xuma write a series of articles on South Africa for the Crisis. See Roy Wilkins, New York, to Xuma, 14 Decem- ber 1946 (ABX 461214b). 158 There are many examples of these links. During the Defiance Cam- paign of 1952, both the Council on African Affairs and a group called Americans for South African Resistance raised money for the ANC. (The latter organization, whose members were both black and white, eventually became known as the American Committee on Africa). In the 1960s, the American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr in- spired black South African clergymen Desmond Tutu and Allan Boesak. The Black Power movement in the United States influenced the Black Consciousness movement in South Africa. Randall Robinson of TransAfrica, Rev. Jesse Jackson, and members of the black caucus in the US House of Representatives played a pivotal role in pressuring the American government to impose economic sanctions against South Africa in the 1980s. For more on the links between the American civil rights movement and the South African anti-apartheid movement, see Fredrickson, Black Liberation. 159 In October 1946, the South African government had publicized a report stating that South West Africans favored incorporation into South Africa by a six to one margin. These reports appeared in the Rand Daily Mail. See E.F.W. Gey van Pittius, 'Whither South-West Africa?' International Affairs, vol. 23, no. 2, April 1947, pp. 202-9. For background on Smuts' 1946 appearance before the UN, see W.K. Hancock, Smuts: the Fields of Force, 1919-1950 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1968), pp. 450-72; James Barber and John Barratt, South Africa's Foreign Policy: the Search of Status and Security (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 17-27; and Martin Wright, 'Note [on South West Africa],' International Affairs, vol. 23, no. 2, April 1947, pp. 209-12. 160 Ibid., and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, p. 553. 161 'Comment on Events,' Inkundla ya Bantu, 20 February 1947. Strictly speaking, Xuma was the first African from South Africa to protest his country's racial policies at the UN. H.A. Naidoo, an Indian representative of the South African Passive Resistance Council, and Sorabjee Rustomjee, vice president of the Transvaal Indian Congress, also participated in the lobbying campaign in late 1946. 162 The meeting between Xuma and Smuts is briefly described in 'Com- ment on Events,' Inkundla ya Bantu, 20 February 1947 and Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 139-40. 163 Xuma, South West Africa: Annexation or United Nations Trusteeship? (Durban and New York: H.A. Naidoo and Sorabjee Rustomjee, South African Passive Resistance Council, c. December 1946) (ANC collection, Wits: AD2186: Hc.32). 164 Ibid., p. 26. 165 The chief architects of the resolution on South West Africa were the Notes 261

delegations from Denmark, India, and the United States. The nine abstaining nations were Australia, France, Greece, Liberia, Norway, Panama, South Africa, Turkey, and Uruguay. See 'African Annexation Barred; Trustee-Pact Bid Requested,' New York Times, 15 December 1946. 166 The 1946 proceedings at the General Assembly regarding South West Africa are described in United Nations News, vol. 1, no. 12, December 1946, p. 7 and vol. 2, no. 1, January 1947, pp. 3-7; Yearbook of the United Nations, 1946-47 (Lake Success, NY: United Nations, 1947), pp. 205-8; and John Dugard, ed., The South West Africa/Namibia Dispute: Documents and Scholarly Writings on the Controversy Between South Af- rica and the United Nations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), pp. 104-12. 167 Barber and Barratt, South Africa's Foreign Policy, p. 27. 168 Calata to Xuma, 6 January 1947 (ABX 470106c). 169 A.P. Mda, Orlando, to Xuma, 6 January 1947 (ABX 470106b). For more African perspectives on Xuma's role at the UN, see R.V. Selope Thema to Xuma, 18 November 1946 (ABX 461118); 'Resolutions of the ANC annual conference,' 14-17 December 1946, quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 263-6; A.W.G. Champion, Durban, to Xuma, 4 January 1947 (ABX 470104b); Seth M. Mphahlele, Krugersdorp, to Xuma, 14 January 1947 (ABX 470114); H. Nkageleng-Nkadimeng, 'Welcome Address to Dr A.B. Xuma by the Residents of the Western Areas of Johannes- burg at the Western Native Township,' 16 March 1947 (ABX 470316); and J.W. Seekui, Bloemfontein, to Xuma, 3 April 1947 (ABX 470403). 170 Maulvi Cachalia interview, 27 March 1991, Johannesburg. 171 Xuma to Champion, 22 January 1947 (ABX 470122); Joint Declara- tion of Cooperation (Doctors' Pact), 9 March 1947, quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 272-3. 172 Minutes of the National Executive Committee of the ANC, 1-2 February 1947, quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 266-72. 173 Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 104 and Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 26. Despite facing some opposition to his alliance with Indians, Xuma was not the only member of the ANC's senior leadership to favor such a move. At the Congress's December 1946 annual conference, the ANC national executive (in Xuma's ab- sence) agreed to explore the idea of cooperating with other national organizations of 'Non-Europeans' in the 'common struggle.' See minutes of the ANC conference, December 1946, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 263-6. 174 Nat Nakasa, 'Who Was Dr Xuma? An Intimate Profile,' Drum, March 1962, p. 38. For more on Xuma's perspective on African-Indian cooperation, see Xuma to Champion, 17 April 1947 (ABX 470417). 175 Xuma, speech at opening of annual conference of Transvaal Indian Congress, Johannesburg, 25 April 1948 (ABX 480425). Xuma's continuing links with the South African Indian community are also illustrated in Dr K. Goonam, Durban, to Xuma, 24 September 1947 (ABX 470924) and Danie J. du Plessis, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 7 July 1948 (ABX 480707a). 176 Statement by the working committee of the ANC on the Durban riots, 262 Notes

20 January 1949 (ABX 490120); Xuma to R.T. Chad, Cape Town, 29 January 1949 (ABX 490129); H. Selby Msimang, Pietermaritzburg, to Xuma, 31 January 1949 (ABX 490131); Maulvi Cachalia interview, 27 March 1991; Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 102; and Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 92. 177 Among those attending were Xuma, Champion, Ramohanoe, Baloyi, Marks, and Yengwa of the ANC, Mahabane and Jabavu of the AAC, and Dadoo, Naicker, Meer, and Singh of the SAIC. 178 Statement issued by joint meeting of African and Indian leaders, 6 February 1949 (ABX 490206). 179 Champion to Xuma, 4 March 1949 (ABX 490304b). Benson reports that Msimang and Lutuli also harbored reservations about further cooperation with Indians. See Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 152-3. 180 Alii Singh, Durban, to Xuma, 14 September 1949 (ABX 490914) and J.P. Joshi, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 25 September 1949 (ABX 490925). 181 Minutes from the ANC annual conference, December 1946, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 263-6 and Gabriel S. Mabeta, West- ern Native Township, to Xuma, 27 January 1947 (ABX 470127). 182 Xuma to A.W.G. Champion, 13 February 1947 (ABX 470213b) and Xuma to treasurer, Bantu Welfare Trust, 26 February 1947 (ABX 470226a). 183 Xuma, 'To All Africans and Friends of Justice,' 21 March 1947 (ABX 470321a). 184 Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 140-1 and New Africa, vol. 6, no. 6, June 1947. 185 Xuma, 'Statement on the Prime Minister's Proposals,' 11 May 1947, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 257-8. See also 'Proposals on Native Policy Criticized/ Daily Dispatch, 13 May 1947 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 135). 186 'The Natives and General Smuts/ Cape Argus, 12 May 1947 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 135). 187 'Dr Xuma's Reply/ Natal Witness, 13 May 1947 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 135). 188 Minutes of the ANC conference, December 1946, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 263-6. 189 The Xumas attended festivities in Eshowe on 19 March 1947. For one reaction to the controversy surrounding the boycott, see R.T. Bokwe to Xuma, 26 May 1947 (ABX 470526b). 190 'Royal Visit and After/ Inkundla ya Bantu, 8 May 1947. Initially launched in 1938 under the title Territorial News, Inkundla ya Bantu ('People's Forum'), was an independent, African-run newspaper distributed mainly in the eastern Cape, Natal, and the southern Transvaal. From 1944- 51 the newspaper was edited by Jordan Ngubane, a charter member of the ANC Youth League. Under Ngubane, Inkundla ya Bantu provided in-depth coverage of the ANC and regularly published the views of the Youth League. For a historical analysis of this newspaper, see Les Switzer and Ime Ukpanah, 'Under Siege: "Inkundla ya Bantu" and the African Nationalist Movement, 1938-1951/ in Switzer, South Afri- ca's Alternative Press, pp. 215-51. Notes 263

191 See, for example, Inkundla ya Bantu, 17 April 1947, 1 May 1947, 8 May 1947, and 26 June 1947. 192 Minutes of ANC national executive meeting, February 1947, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 266-72. 193 E. Manyosi to Xuma, 7 June 1947 (ABX 470607). 194 Mpondise Mokgane, Pretoria, to Xuma, 21 June 1947 (ABX 470621a); 'So They Won't Play,' Rand Daily Mail, 14 July 1947 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 135); C.S. Ramohanoe, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 18 July 1947 (ABX 470718a); A.L. Molefe, Randfontein, to secretary, Transvaal African Congress, 19 July 1947 (ABX 470719); Transvaal African Congress to branch officials, July 1947 (ABX 470731c); Xuma to H. Selby Msimang, Pietermaritzburg, 30 December 1947 (ABX 471230b); Xuma, 'Life Story,' Drum, January 1955, p. 73; Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 80-1; and Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 28-9. 195 Calata to Xuma, 30 September 1947, 25 October 1947, and 1 December 1947 (ABX 470930b, 471025 & 471201b); notice of election, Transvaal ANC executive committee, 26 October 1947 (ABX 471026); Xuma to Champion, 30 December 1947 (ABX 471230a); Champion to Xuma, 2 January 1948 (ABX 480102); and Edward Feit, 'Generational Conflict and African Nationalism in South Africa: the African National Con- gress, 1949-1959,' International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, 1972, pp. 181-202. 196 Bunting, Moses Kotane, p. 140; Allison Drew, ed., South Africa's Radical Tradition: a Documentary History, vol. 2 (Cape Town: Buchu, Mayibuye, and UCT, 1997), pp. 172-81; Hirson, Yours for the Union, p. 187; Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 90-1; and Mel Piehl, 'A.B. Xuma and the South African Elite: the Years of Transition, 1936-1949/ in 'Occasional Papers on African Intellectual Responses to the West,' ed. G. Wesley Johnson and K. David Patterson (unpublished papers, Department of History, Stanford University, 1971), p. 65. 197 Davenport, South Africa: a Modern History, p. 312. 198 Xuma, 'Statement at Press Conference on Coming General Election,' 5 April 1948, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 274-8. 199 Ibid. 200 For a valuable discussion of how the Nationalists represented a break with the past, see Patrick J. Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika: the Impact of the Radical Right on the Afrikaner Nationalist Movement in the Fascist Era (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991), pp. 240-64. 201 Minutes, meeting of the ANC national executive, Bloemfontein, 1 August 1948 (ABX 480801). See also Rev. James Calata, presidential address to the Cape African Congress, July 1948, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 278-84. 202 'An African Defines "Apartheid/" Daily Dispatch, 25 August 1948 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 135). 203 Xuma and others, 'A Call for Unity/ 3 October 1948, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 368-9; 'All African Convention Committee 264 Notes

(W.P.) Resolutions Rejecting Bloemfontein '"Unity/" c. October 1948 (ABX 481003); Xuma to Calata, 19 October 1948 (ABX 481019); minutes of the joint conference of the ANC and AAC, 16-17 December 1948, in Karis, pp. 370-7; minutes of the joint meeting of the ANC and AAC national executive committees, 17-18 April, 1949, in Karis, pp. 378-86; Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 150-2; and Karis, pp. 118-19. 204 'Union Moving Backwards/ Friend, 6 February 1949 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 135). 205 Xuma, The State of the Nation Under Apartheid/ c. August 1949 (ABX box O, file 17). 206 'Basic Policy of the Congress Youth League/ 1948, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 323-31. 207 A.P. Mda to G.M. Pitje, 24 August 1948 (ANC collection, Wits: AD2186: La.IV.l). 208 'Programme of Action,' c. 1948 (ABX box N, file 2); Xuma, 'Life Story/ Drum, December 1954, p. 73; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 156-7; Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 288-91. 209 Mda to V. Sifona, 20 July 1949 (ANC collection, Wits: AD2186: L.a.IV.2). 210 Mandela interview, 21 February 1991. 211 'Dr Xuma Explains Why He Resigned from the ANC Executive/ Bantu World, 18 March 1950; 'Youth League Leaders Reply to Dr Xuma/ Bantu World, 1 April 1950; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; Benson, The African Patriots, p. 157; and Feit, 'Generational Conflict/ pp. 188-9. 212 Interviews with Godfrey Pitje, 30 May 1990 and Sisulu, 28 May 1990. For valuable evidence of Xuma's attitudes toward leadership and political experience, see Xuma, autobiographical typescript, pp. 31-2 and Xuma to Gaur Radebe, 5 July 1941 (ABX 410705a). 213 'Dr Xuma Explains Why He Resigned/ Bantu World, 18 March 1950; 'Youth League Leaders Reply,' Bantu World, 1 April 1950; Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 157-8; Feit, 'Generational Conflict/ p. 189; and Matthews, Freedom for My People, p. 116. 214 'Politicians, Public Servants, Women, Herbalists All Meet in Bloem- fontein/ Bantu World, 24 December 1949. 215 'Minutes of the Annual Conference of the ANC/ 15-19 December 1949, as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 288-300 and 'Programme of Action,' 17 December 1949, as quoted in Karis, pp. 337-9. 216 'Minutes of the Annual Conference of the ANC/ 15-19 December 1949/ as quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 288-300; 'Politicians.. . Meet in Bloemfontein/ Bantu World, 24 December 1949; 'Dr Xuma Explains Why He Resigned/ Bantu World, 18 March 1950; Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990; and Benson, The African Patriots, pp. 158-61. 217 Calata to Xuma, 14 June 1949 (Carter-Karis m/f: 2:XX2:41/82). 218 For perceptive comments regarding Xuma's fall from power, see Nakasa, 'Who was Dr Xuma?' Drum, March 1962, p. 38 and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa, pp. 291, 399, 403-4. 219 Harlan, Booker T. Washington: the Wizard ofTuskegee, pp. 322 and 428. 220 The terms of Xuma's predecessors were as follows: John L. Dube, 1912- Notes 265

17; Sefako M. Makgatho, 1917-24; Zaccheus R. Mahabane, 1924-7 and 1937-40; Josiah T. Gumede, 1927-30; and Pixley Seme, 1930-7. 221 Xuma's complex ideological orientation is well-described by Karis: 'Xuma was both an Africanist, calling for African unity and self-reliance, and a multi-racialist, welcoming cooperation by whites of goodwill but turning increasingly to cooperation with nonwhites.' See Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 90. 222 For membership estimates, see Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 25 and Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Af- rica, p. 403. 223 Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 84.

6 Enigmatic Elder Statesman, 1950-62 1 J.H. Maswanganyi, letter to Readers' Forum, Bantu World, 4 February 1950; letters by Ishva, Bantu World, 11 March 1950 and anonymous ANC member from Pretoria, Bantu World, 18 March 1950. Founded in Johannesburg by Bertram F.G. Paver, a white liberal, the Bantu World was published as a national weekly newspaper from 1932-55. (From 1956-77 it was known simply as the World). It contained news relevant to the African community in South Africa and gave extensive coverage to black politics. Although the Bantu World was edited and written by Africans, its board of directors was dominated by white representatives of the mining industry and the Argus Company, a white- owned newspaper conglomerate. For more on the newspaper, see Les Switzer, 'Bantu World and the Origins of a Captive African Commer- cial Press,' in Switzer, South Africa's Alternative Press, pp. 189-212. 2 'Dr Xuma Explains Why He Resigned From ANC Executive,' Bantu World, 18 March 1950. In his statement, Xuma explained his reasons for opposing a boycott of the advisory boards, local councils, and the Natives Representative Council. He believed that such a boycott would 'leave open a way for weaker aspirants to take the place of present members' and that it would split Africans, 'since some men wouldn't resign.' Xuma suggested that the ANC try to gain control of these institutions in order to increase its visibility and influence. Xuma's stance was paradoxical, since he had advocated the adjournment of the NRC in 1946. 3 Mandela, Sisulu, and Tambo, letter to Readers' Forum, Bantu World, 1 April 1950. 4 Peter Tsele, letter in Readers' Forum, Bantu World, 13 May 1950. 5 Richard Victor Selope Thema (1886-1955) edited the Bantu World from 1932-52. He had served on the ANC's national executive during Xuma's tenure as president and was a member of the Natives Representative Council from 1937-51. Thema became a controversial figure in the ANC in the early 1950s. He criticized the ANC leadership for cooperating with communists and Indians and opposed plans for civil disobedience. For more on Thema, see Switzer, 'Bantu World and the Origins of a Captive African Commercial Press,' in Switzer, South Afri- ca's Alternative Press, pp. 191-6. 266 Notes

6 'Tendencies in the African National Congress/ Bantu World, 8 April 1950. The editorial criticized the Youth League for making Xuma's re- election to the ANC presidency conditional on his accepting the League's 'triple doctrine of Africa for the Africans, African Nationalism, and Boycott of the N.R.C. [Natives Representative Council] Advisory Boards . ..' 7 R.M. Tunzi, letter to Readers' Forum, Bantu World, 1 April 1950. 8 Xuma's continued links with the ANC are revealed in Xuma to Walter Sisulu, 21 November 1951 (ABX 511121). 9 M.M. Maisella, Nigel, letter to Readers' Forum, Bantu World, 15 July 1950. 10 Edmund Mlotywa, Roodepoort, to Dr and Mrs Xuma, 28 March 1951 (ABX 510328). 11 Interviews with Nelson Mandela, 21 February 1991, and Walter Sisulu, 28 May 1990. 12 See 'Western Areas Start Fund to Help Children,' Bantu World, 28 January 1950; G.N. Phatudi, Krugersdorp, to Xuma, 31 January 1950 (ABX 500131); and 'Constitution of the Xuma National Education Fund,' c. 1950 (ABX box N, file 5). 13 Program, unveiling of Mqhayi's monument, 26 February 1951 (ABX 510226); Xuma, speech delivered at unveiling of tombstone for S.E.K. Mqhayi, 26 March 1951 (ABX 510326); '3000 Africans Mourn Death of Rev. (sic) S.M. Makgatho,' Bantu World, 2 June 1951; and 'Big At- tendance at Funeral of Dr (sic) Pixley Seme,' Bantu World, 23 June 1951. 14 Bantu World, 28 October 1950. 15 At the time of Xuma's resignation from the Crogman Community Clinic in 1948, he was greatly dissatisfied with the clinic's financial and administrative machinery, which seemed to lurch from crisis to crisis. In 1949, the clinic went bankrupt and closed its doors after ten years of service. 16 Dr Hilliard Hurwitz interview, 17 May 1990, Johannesburg. See also Medical Officer's report, Alexandra Health Committee, February 1950 (ABX 500228) and secretary, Medical Correspondence College, Lon- don, to Xuma, 26 April 1948 (ABX 480426). 17 According to Ellen Kuzwayo, a South African acquaintance of Madie Hall's, 'zenzele' means 'do it yourself.' Ellen Kuzwayo interview, 27 March 1991, Soweto. 18 Higgs, The Ghost of Equality, p. 70. 19 For background on Madie Hall Xuma's involvement in the Zenzele movement, see M.H. Xuma, appointment diary, 1947 (ABX box Q); Betty Motsepe, Sophiatown, to M.H. Xuma, 21 August 1947 (ABX 470821b); Mrs F.J. Ndinamde, Witbank, to M.H. Xuma, 15 June 1948 (ABX 480615b); annual reports, Homemakers' Club, and Roodepoort and Sophiatown branches of Zenzele club, c. December 1948 (ABX 481231); 'Women's World' column, Bantu World, 8 December 1951. Also relevant is Kuzwayo interview, 27 March 1991. 20 'Mrs Xuma on Way Here - Will Attend Women's Conference in New York,' New York Times, 22 August 1947; news release, African Academy Notes 267

of Arts and Research, New York, 20 October 1947 (ABX 471010); and M.H. Xuma, engagement diary, 1948 (ABX box Q). 21 M.H. Xuma, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, telegram to A.B. Xuma, 19 May 1951 (ABX 510519); 'Women's World' column, Bantu World, 8 December 1951; and Kuzwayo interview, 27 March 1991. 22 Africans were allotted a limited number of places at the Wits medical school, but the government had cut scholarship assistance for such students in 1949. See G.S. Getz, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 20 July 1950 (ABX 500720). Some provision for African medical students was also made at the University of Natal. For information regarding Xuma's children, see Dr M.L. Gilchrist, London, to Xuma, 19 March 1951 (ABX 510319); G.W. Woit, Dauntsey School, United Kingdom, to whom it may concern, 25 August 1951 and report by Native Commissioner, Alice, on passport application of Alfred Xuma, Jr, 1 September 1951 (State Archives, Pretoria: BAO C100/6/600.3465); and 'All the Way to England,' Bantu World, 13 October 1951. Also relevant is R.M. Mfeka interview, 8 May 1990. 23 Extramarital sex between whites and Africans had been illegal since 1927, when the Hertzog government passed the Immorality Act. The Immorality Amendment Act of 1950 prohibited whites from engaging in extramarital sex with 'Coloureds' and Indians as well. For more on legislation affecting interracial sex and marriage in South Africa, see Patrick Furlong, The Mixed Marriages Act: an Historical and Theological Study (Cape Town: Center for African Studies, UCT, No. 8, 1983). 24 For a classic study of South Africa under apartheid, see Gwendolen M. Carter, The Politics of Inequality: South Africa Since 1948 (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958). 25 In a large sense, the government's decision to abolish the Natives Representative Council was academic; the NRC had refused to meet with the government since the days of United Party rule in the late forties. 26 Devised by the Nationalists, banning was a punishment unique to South Africa. 'Banned' individuals were prohibited from publishing, teaching, and attending public meetings. They were required to report to a police station on a regular basis and obtain governmental permission before leaving their magisterial district. Over the years, bans became harsher. Six-month bans were replaced by two-year and then five-year bans; eventually bans became renewable indefinitely. Some banned individuals were put under virtual house arrest on week- ends and at night. 27 The Western Areas lay approximately six and a half kilometers to the west of Johannesburg's city center, next to the white residential areas of Westdene and Newlands. 28 Africans could also own property in neighboring Martindale and Newclare, as well as in Alexandra, 15 kilometers north of Johannes- burg city center. 29 Shebeens were speakeasies run by black South Africans, usually located in a room or rooms of a house. Proprietors plied their guests with illicit liquor and often provided musical entertainment. 268 Notes

30 For vivid descriptions of Sophiatown in the 1940s and 1950s, see David Coplan, 'Sophiatown - Culture and Community, 1940-60/ in Coplan, In Township Tonight! South Africa's Black City Music and Theatre (New York: Longman, 1985), pp. 143-82; Trevor Huddleston, Naught for Your Comfort (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956); Don Mattera, Sophiatown: Coming of Age in South Africa (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987); and Pippa Stein and Ruth Jacobson, editors, Sophiatown Speaks (Johannesburg: Junction Avenue Press, 1986). 31 Alan Paton, 'The Grim Drama at Johannesburg/ New York Times Magazine, 27 February 1955 (ABX box N, file 10), pp. 15, 36-40 and Tom Lodge, The Destruction of Sophiatown/ in Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 91-113. 32 Lodge, 'The Destruction of Sophiatown,' pp. 99-101. 33 Nat Nakasa, 'Who Was Dr Xuma? An Intimate Profile/ Drum, March 1962. 34 Don Mattera interview, 11 March 1991, Johannesburg. 35 Nthato Motlana interview, 25 May 1990. 36 Mfeka interview, 8 May 1990. Trevor Huddleston also shared his recollections about Xuma's home during a 16 April 1991 interview in London. Commenting on Xuma, one journalist wrote 'He owns a beautiful eight-roomed house in Toby Street, Sophiatown, where it sticks its tongue out at the white suburb of Westdene.' See 'Sophiatown Big- Shots Fight for Their Homes/ Drum, December 1957. 37 Nelson Mandela interview, 21 February 1991. 38 Prominent foreign visitors to Xuma's home included Hastings Banda of Nyasaland and Eslanda Robeson, Ralph Bunche and John Gunther of the United States (on separate occasions). Bunche visited 85 Toby Street during an extended tour of South Africa in late 1937, while Xuma was working toward his diploma in public health in London. For details on overseas visitors to Xuma's home, see Arnold Benjamin, 'Africa's Eccentric Loner' [Banda], Star, 10 November 1993; Eslanda Goode Robeson, African Journey (London: Victor Gollancz, 1946); Robert R. Edgar, ed., An African American in South Africa: the Travel Notes of Ralph J. Bunche, 28 September 1937-1 January 1938 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1992); and John Gunther, Inside Africa (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1955). 39 For information on Xuma's acquisition of property, see Godfrey Hayman & Sanderson, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 29 March 1939, 24 April 1939, and 29 November 1956 (ABX 390329, 390424, & 561029); miscellaneous unsorted correspondence, August-December 1939 (ABX box P, file 26); J. Gottlieb, Thaba 'Nchu, to Xuma, 10 May 1950 (ABX 500510); Greenfield & Greenfield, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 4 December 1950 (ABX 501204a); and delivery notices, 31 July 1957 and 4 August 1957 (ABX box P, file 27). For more general information on property ownership in the Western Areas, see Thomas Karis and Gail Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, 1953-1964, vol. 3 of From Protest to Challenge: a Docu- mentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964, Thomas Karis and Gwendolen Carter, eds, (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1977), p. 25. Notes 269

40 I am indebted to R.M. Mfeka for sharing this story with me during our interview on 8 May 1990. 41 The Natives Resettlement Act of 1954 further legalized the government's forced removals scheme. 42 Meadowlands was designated as an African township; Indian and mixed- race inhabitants of the Western Areas were required to move to their own ethnically homogeneous communities on the Rand. For more on the government's Western Areas removal scheme, see Lodge, 'The Destruction of Sophiatown,' pp. 97-103 and Karis and Gerhart, Chal- lenge and Violence, p. 24. 43 'Protest Meeting in Sophiatown/ Daily Dispatch, 17 April 1951 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912, box 541); 'Protest Over Plans for Removal of "Black Spots,"' Bantu World, 21 April 1951; Xuma to Minister of Native Affairs, Cape Town, 31 May 1951 (ABX 510531); 'Why Not Remove the "White Spots,"' Bantu World, 8 June 1951; 'Dr Xuma States Case Against Removal of Sophiatown, Newclare,' Bantu World, 13 October 1951; Xuma, 'Black Spots or White Spots?,' Drum, March 1953, pp. 25-8; 'Dr Xuma Leads Sophiatown Struggle for Survival,' Bantu World, 5 April 1952; Xuma, 'Memorandum to the Ad Hoc Committee on the Removal of Non-Europeans from the Western Areas,' 8 October 1952 (ABX 521008); 'Proper Housing Movement Gains Wide Support,' Bantu World, 8 November 1952; and 'Fight Against Loss of Freehold,' Bantu World, 7 February 1953. 44 Xuma, 'African Reactions,' in The 'Western Areas' Removal Scheme (Jo- hannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1953), pp. 24-9. 45 Ibid. 46 Xuma used this phrase in the 'Memorandum to the Ad Hoc Commit- tee on the Removal of Non-Europeans from the Western Areas,' presented by the African Anti-Expropriation Ratepayers Association and Proper Housing Movement, 8 October 1952 (ABX 521008), p. 1. 47 Xuma and S.D. Lethoba, statement to the press on the Western Areas, 21 March 1954 (ABX 540321) and Xuma, '"Black Spots" Removal Plan,' (undated), (ABX box N, file 10). 48 For evidence of alliances among African property owners on the Rand, see Xuma and S.D. Lethoba, statement to the press on Western Areas, 21 March 1954 (ABX 540321) and Xuma, notes on meeting of ratepayers, 27 June 1954 (ABX 540627). For an analysis of efforts to save Sophiatown, see Deon P. van Tonder, 'Sophiatown: Removals and Protest, 1940-1955,' (Master's thesis, UNISA, 1990). 49 The meeting was interrupted when police stormed the stage to arrest Indian leader Yusef Cachalia. 50 On 11 July 1954, 10,000 people attended an ANC rally in Sophiatown. For background on the ANC's anti-removal campaign, see Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 10, 19-22; Lodge, 'The Destruc- tion of Sophiatown,' pp. 104-5; and van Tonder, 'Sophiatown, Removals and Protest,' pp. 149-53. 51 Trevor Huddleston interview, 16 April 1991 and Maggie Resha, My Life in the Struggle: 'Mangoana o Tsoara Thipa Ka Bohaleng (Johannes- burg: Congress of South African Writers, 1991), pp. 53-5, 61-2. 270 Notes

52 For evidence of Xuma's appearance at ANC-sponsored protest rallies, see Bantu World, 10 April and 17 April 1954. In the latter issue, the paper quoted Walter Sisulu as saying, 'I am particularly happy to see "Mdengentonga" among the leaders of the Western Areas.' The term 'Mdengentonga,' according to the paper, was a Xhosa word meaning 'little man with a big stick.' Sisulu was referring to Xuma. 53 Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 26-9; Lodge, 'The Destruc- tion of Sophiatown,' pp. 97-9, 106-10; and van Tonder, 'Sophiatown: Removals and Protest,' pp. 167-99. 54 The Johannesburg City Council favored the removal of some of the Western Areas' 'excess population,' but opposed the Nationalist government's decision to forcibly relocate the entire population. City councilors favored preserving the rights of African property owners in the areas. See AJ. Cutten, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 2 November 1953 (ABX 531102). Also relevant is Patrick Lewis interview, 20 June 1990. 55 'Uncertainty Hangs Over "Black Spots" on Eve of Removal,' Sunday Times, 6 February 1955 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 309). 56 The events leading up to 9 February 1955 are described in Lodge, 'The Destruction of Sophiatown,' pp. 103-4, 107-8. 57 Xuma was interviewed by CBS correspondent Howard K. Smith for a two-part report on South Africa. Excerpts of Xuma's interview were broadcast on 14 and 21 December 1954. Other South Africans appearing in the report included Prime Minister J.G. Strijdom, Native Affairs Minister Hendrik Verwoerd, and Father Trevor Huddleston. See Edward R. Murrow and Fred W. Friendly, eds., See It Now (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955), pp. 92-113. 58 Paton, 'The Grim Drama at Johannesburg,' p. 38. 59 'South Africa: Toby Street Blues,' Time, 21 February 1955, pp. 24, 27; 'White Man Destroying Our Lives, African Negroes Say,' Miami Herald, 14 April 1955 (NU archives: Xuma biographical file); and 'Minnesota Grad Evicted From Home/ Minnesota Alumni Voice, vol. 54, no. 8, April 1955, p. 31 (University of Minnesota archives). The New York Times also gave the Sophiatown removals considerable coverage in February 1955. 60 Veronica Keating, New York, to Xuma, 3 January 1955 (ABX 550103); George M. Houser, New York, to Xuma, 8 February 1955 (ABX 550208a); Dr Gilbert Sofio, Riverside, CA, to Xuma, 19 February 1955 (ABX 550219); Dr Fordyce Ely, Columbus, OH, to Xuma, 28 February 1955 (ABX 550228); Willie Kennedy, Winston-Salem, NC, to Xuma, 15 March 1955 (ABX 550315); and Evelyn Riley Nicholson, Chicago, to Xuma, 29 July 1955 (ABX 550729a). Dr Ely was a former classmate of Xuma's at the University of Minnesota during World War I. 61 Madie Hall Xuma, Winston-Salem, NC, to Xuma, 25 June 1955 (ABX 550625); Godfrey Hayman & Sanderson, Johannesburg, to Xuma, 29 November 1956 (ABX 561029); Xuma, untitled essay on removals, c. 1956-7 (ABX box N, file 10); 'Sophiatown Big-Shots Fight for Their Homes,' Drum, December 195 7; and Lodge, 'The Destruction of Sophiatown,' p. 108. 62 Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 403-8, 412-13. Notes 271

63 Quoted in Anthony Sampson, The Treason Cage: the Opposition on Trial in South Africa (London: Heinemann, 1958), p. 86. Mary Benson also noted Xuma's opposition to the Defiance Campaign in The African Patriots, p. 173. 64 For the conduct of the Defiance Campaign and its aftermath, see Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 424-7; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 43-5, 61; and Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1994), pp. 106-22. 65 'Defiance Campaign Will Not Waiver,' Advance, 20 November 1952, pp. 4-5, quoted in Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 423-4. 66 Xuma, untitled statement on the South African political situation, November 1952 (ABX 520000). For published versions of the statement, see 'Xuma Calls on Malan to Confer with Natives,' Rand Daily Mail, 12 November 1952 and 'Dr A.B. Xuma's Warning on Present Tension,' Bantu World, 15 November 1952. 67 Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 230; Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 421; and Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 329-30, 373. 68 This impression is derived from interviews with Walter Sisulu, 28 May 1990, and Nelson Mandela, 21 February 1991. Albert Lutuli replaced Moroka as ANC president in December 1952. 69 Karis, Hope and Challenge, pp. 424-6 and Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 3-5. 70 Bantu World, 30 May 1953. 71 For background on Bantu education and the campaign to resist it, see Huddleston, Naught for Your Comfort, pp. 157-75; Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 29-35; and Tom Lodge, 'The Parents' School Boycott: The Eastern Cape and East Rand Townships, 1955/ in Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 114-38. 72 See '"End Boycott" Says Dr Xuma' and 'Send the Children Back to School,' Bantu World, 23 April 1955. Xuma also expressed opposition to the school boycott in a letter he forwarded to the December 1955 ANC conference. See 'Dr Xuma's Letter Congress Would Not Read,' World, 28 January 1956. 73 Duma Nokwe, 'Bantu World and the Boycott,' New Age, vol. 1, no. 28, 5 May 1955. 74 This impression is derived from a conversation with Nthato Motlana, himself a member of the ANC Youth League in the early 1950s. Motlana interview, 25 May 1990. 75 Gail Gerhart explains the ANC's drift toward multiracialism in Black Power in South Africa, pp. 85-123. While former Youth Leaguers Mandela, Sisulu, and Tambo began to embrace multiracial cooperation in the 1950s, others such as A.P. Mda and Robert Sobukwe remained com- mitted to the Africanist philosophies of Anton Lembede. 76 Cobley, Class and Consciousness, pp. 156, 177; Karis, Hope and Challenge, p. 409; and Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 38-9. 77 'Concluding the Life Story of Dr Alfred Xuma,' Drum, January 1955, p. 73. 78 Ibid. 272 Notes

79 The Congress of Democrats, a white organization, was founded in 1953 partly to provide a home to former members of the Communist Party, which had been banned by the Nationalist government in 1950. Al- though it was an all-white organization, not all of its members were communists. 80 For discussion of the Congress of the People and its consequences, see Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 106-7 and Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 12-13, 61-9. 81 Although Xuma was also skeptical toward communism, it probably was not communism per se to which Xuma objected in the ANC's alliance with the Congress of Democrats. After all, when Xuma was president of the ANC, he had encouraged the participation of African communists such as Kotane, Marks, and Tloome. Furthermore, the 1947 'Doctors' Pact' - of which Xuma was a signatory - linked him with the Indian communist Yusuf Dadoo. What Xuma seemed to fear in the Congress Alliance was that whites would seek to lead the movement, thus eroding Africans' ability to speak for themselves and develop their own leadership. Xuma's skepticism was not unjustified. As historian Tom Lodge has noted, the Congress of Democrats did play a disproportionately large role in the drafting of the Freedom Charter and in meetings of the Congress Alliance. See Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 72. For additional perspectives on the Congress of Democrats' role in the Congress Alliance, see Joshua N. Lazerson, Against the Tide: Whites in the Struggle Against Apartheid (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), pp. 161-95. 82 'Dr Xuma's Letter Congress Would Not Read,' World, 28 January 1956. 83 Ibid. 84 Xuma had first met Duncan in Britain in 1938, when the latter invited him to address a meeting at Oxford. Since then the two had become friends. See Xuma to Mr and Mrs Patrick Duncan, 19 August 1955 and Patrick Duncan to Xuma, 23 August 1955 (Patrick Duncan papers, Borthwick Institute, University of York: 6.30.1 & 6.30.2). For a biographical study of Duncan see CJ. Driver, Patrick Duncan: South African and Pan-African (London: Heinemann, 1980). 85 Duncan to Xuma, 27 January 1956 (Duncan papers: 6.30.3). In his reply to Duncan, Xuma expressed his thanks and added, 'I must has- ten to say [that] your idea of nationalism is no different from mine. My idea of it is not as narrow as one might have gathered from the letter. That was a psychological and strategic approach in the circumstances.' See Xuma to Duncan, 2 February 1956 (Duncan papers: 6.30.4). 86 Benson, The African Patriots, p. 225 and Sampson, The Treason Cage, p. 111. 87 For a classic study of the Pan Africanist Congress, see Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa. 88 Ibid., p. 180. 89 In a 21 February 1991 interview, Nelson Mandela insisted that Xuma never became a member of the PAC. Only one piece of evidence has surfaced linking Xuma to the formation of the PAC, and it has not Notes 273

been verified: a secret memorandum from the Commissioner of the South African Police to the Secretary of Interior, dated 10 February 1960. The relevant portion of the document reads as follows: 'Infor- mation has been received suggesting that Dr Xuma played a major role in the founding of the Pan-Africanist Congress and that he was offered the Presidency of the organization, but that he declined because he did not want to draw too much attention to himself (translated by the author]. See Kommissaris van die Suid Afrikaanse Polisie to Die Sekretaris van Binnelandse Sake, 10 February 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). 90 Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 216. That Xuma began to display some sympathy toward the Africanists is confirmed in Sisulu interview, 28 May 1990. 91 In a secret memorandum to the Nationalist government's Secretary of Interior dated 10 February 1960, the Commissioner of the South Afri- can Police reported that Xuma 'maintains that he has not been a member of the African National Congress for the past 3 years.' This is difficult to verify. There is good reason to suppose that Xuma purposely sup- pressed his ANC membership in order to elude government suspicion. The above-mentioned police report was issued in response to Xuma's January 1960 request for the renewal of his passport. See Kommissaris van die Suid Afrikaanse Polisie to Sekretaris van Binnelandse Sake, 10 February 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). 92 For evidence of anti-white feeling in the PAC, see Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 218-20. 93 Anthony Sampson, Drum, 2nd ed. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1983), pp. 23-4. 94 Bantu World, 3 January 1953. 95 Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 297-8. 96 Ibid., p. 300. 97 Ibid., pp. 302-5. 98 Xuma, speech delivered at the unveiling of S.E.K. Mqhayi's tombstone, Berlin, Cape, 26 March 1951 (ABX 510326). Xuma echoed these sentiments in speech delivered at the University of the Witwatersrand four years later. See Xuma, '"Towards a New Africa": an African's Vi- sion of Group Relations in the New Africa,' 9 July 1955 (ABX 550709), especially pp. 14-15. 99 Xuma would undoubtedly have agreed with Lutuli's statement that 'the ANC's goal is not that Congress shall rule South Africa, but that all Africans shall fully participate in ownership and government.' Quoted in Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, p. 94. 100 For perspectives on the 1957 Alexandra bus boycott, see Peter Dreyer, Martyrs and Fanatics: South Africa & Human Destiny (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980), pp. 161-70; Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 275-7; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 153-87; and Dan Mokonyane, Lessons of Azikwelwa, 2nd ed. (London: Nakong Ya Rena, 1994). Lodge reports that 15,000 Africans walked from Alexandra to Johannesburg on the first day of the boycott; Karis and Gerhart claim 50,000 did so. 274 Notes

101 'No Sincere Attempt Made to End Bus Boycott, Says Native Leader/ Star, 30 January 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 265). 102 Ray Phillips, an American Board missionary in South Africa since the 1920s, had a long history of sponsoring interracial meetings and organizations. He participated actively in the Joint Council movement and the Institute of Race Relations and had played a key role in the development of the Bantu Men's Social Centre. Xuma's friendship with Phillips dated back to the late 1920s. 103 For accounts of the controversial 1 February 1957 meeting, see '"Se- cret" Break-The-Boycott Talks Frowned Upon/ World, 9 February 1957; 'They Explained (Long Ago) They Were Not Qualified/ World, 16 Feb- ruary 1957; 'Commerce and Industry Agreed That All African Wages Were Too Low/ World, 23 February 1957; and 'Dr Xuma: "I Have No Fears About My Actions/" World, 9 March 1957. 104 'Boycotters Denounce Negotiators/ Eastern Province Herald, 8 February 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 266). 105 For details of further closed-door meetings, see 'Officials Meet Natives/ Cape Argus, 12 February 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 266); 'Natives Who Met Govt. for Boycott Parley Had No Power to Talk,' Rand Daily Mail, 13 February 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 266); 'Boycott Plan Turned Down/ Evening Post, 15 February 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 1313); 'Bus-Boycott Leaders Of- fer to Hold Talk/ Rand Daily Mail, 15 February 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 1313); 'New Talks Give Hope for End of Boycott,' Rand Daily Mail, 18 February 1957 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 267); 'Dr Xuma: "I Have No Fears ...,"' World, 9 March 1957; and Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 163. 106 In his book Lessons of Azikwelwa (p. 58), Dan Mokonyane, a partici- pant in the boycott, recalls, 'Xuma had practically nothing to do with the boycott and all of us in the Azikwelwa [we will not ride] Committee knew that full well. We refused to discuss any matters pertaining to the boycott with Xuma. . .' 107 'Dr Xuma: "I Have No Fears . ../" World, 9 March 1957. 108 Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, p. 277 and Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 167. 109 In his autobiography, Albert Lutuli noted the controversial role that 'a few self-styled African leaders' played in negotiations to end the boycott, but did not mention Xuma by name. The journalist Nat Nakasa recalled that Xuma was 'severely criticized' for his role in the boycott. See Lutuli, Let My People Go, pp. 158-9 and Nakasa, 'Who Was Dr Xuma? An Intimate Profile/ Drum, March 1962. 110 Although not formally charged, Xuma did become a sponsor of the Treason Trial Defence Fund in 1956. This fund, under the direction of Bishop Ambrose Reeves, Alan Paton, and Ellen Hellmann, was established to provide money, food, and clothing to the accused and their families. See the World, 22 December 1956. For more on the Treason Trial and the events leading up to it, see Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 80-1; Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, p. 76; and Sampson, The Treason Cage. Notes 275

111 My thoughts on this transition have been stimulated by George Fredrickson, Black Liberation, pp. 225-76 and Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 204-5. Although interest in the Soviet Union increased in the 1950s, that country had been an inspiration for some black South Africans as early as the 1920s and 1930s. 112 Xuma, "Towards a New Africa/" 9 July 1955 (ABX 550709). 113 Xuma, 'My Pal Adlai Stevenson,' Drum, June 1955. p. 19; Xuma to Claudia E. Haines, New York, c. 1953 (ABX box S, file 38); and clip- ping file, 1940s-50s (ABX box U, file 47). 114 Notice of trial, Supreme Court of Nigeria, to Zik's Press, Ltd (copy), 27 January 1947 (ABX 470128); Leo Marquard, Cape Town, to Xuma, 10 March 1950 (ABX 500310); and Xuma's unsorted, undated manuscript notes on Africa (ABX box O, file 15). 115 Xuma to Kwame Nkrumah, Accra, Gold Coast, c. February 1951 (ABX 510228). 116 Xuma to Nnamdi Azikiwe, Lagos, Nigeria, 26 July 1952 (ABX 520726). 117 C.W. de Kiewiet was a well-known historian of South Africa who had studied at the University of the Witwatersrand. At the time Xuma wrote him, de Kiewiet was serving as president of the University of Rochester in the United States. For Xuma's research proposal, see Xuma to C.W. de Kiewiet, Rochester, New York, 22 July 1952 (ABX 520722). 118 Xuma to Dr Emery Ross, New York, 28 July 1952 (ABX 520728) and Mrs S.H. Frankel, Oxford, to Xuma, 24 February 1953 (ABX 530224). 119 Xuma to W.G. Ballinger, 15 August 1953 (Ballinger papers, Wits: A410 C2.1.28 file 3). 120 'Baasskap,' an Afrikaans word meaning 'domination,' was used to re- fer to the explicitly white-supremacist policies of Nationalist Prime Minister J.G. Strijdom, who held office from December 1954-September 1958. For the text of Xuma's remarks, see Xuma, '"Towards a New Africa/" 9 July 1955 (ABX 550709). 121 'Great Union Ambassador Flies to Europe,' World, 30 June 1956. For more information on Madie Hall Xuma's international activities in the 1950s, see A.B. Xuma to Secretary of the Interior, Pretoria, 12 April 1955 (ABX 550412a); M.H. Xuma to A.B. Xuma, 26 April, 21 July, 16 August, and 13 September 1955 (ABX 550426, 550721, 550816, & 550913a); Bantu World, 1 October 1955; M.H. Xuma, passport, 1955 (ABX box Q, file 31); M.H. Xuma, appointment diary, 1957 (ABX box Q); and F.H. Cronje, Native Commissioner, Johannesburg, to M. Smuts, Chief Native Commissioner, Witwatersrand, 3 April 1957 (State Ar- chives, Pretoria: NTS 535/301 2728). 122 The relative ease with which Mrs Xuma received permission to travel overseas in this period is documented in her official passport file (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 535/301 2728). 123 The government's crackdown on the anti-apartheid movement from the mid-fifties onward is documented in Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 48-9, 293, 306-7. 124 Madie Hall Xuma, New York, to A.B. Xuma, 26 April 1955 (ABX 550426). 125 Government officials had expressed concern about Xuma's trip to the United States in 1946, but granted him a passport nevertheless. 276 Notes

126 Secretary for the Interior to Secretary for Native Affairs, 5 May 1953; J.M. Klopper to Secretary for the Interior, 11 May 1953 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 535/301 2728); R.C. Lindeque to Xuma, 27 August 1953 (ABX 530827); Xuma to W.W.M. Eiselen, Pretoria, 9 November 1955; and Eiselen to Xuma, c. December 1955 (NTS 535/301 2728). In 1955, Xuma's son Alfred Jr was studying in London in order to gain the necessary academic background for admission to Oxford. He began medical studies at Oxford in October 1956 and remained there until 1960 or 1961. See passport file of Alfred Xuma, Jr (State Archives, Pretoria: BAO C100/6/600 3465). 127 Xuma to Secretary of Interior, Pretoria, 9 October 1957 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). 128 Kommissaris van die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisie, to Sekretaris van Binnelandse Sake, 8 November 1957 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715) (translated by the author). 129 Memorandum signed by W.W.M. Eiselen, 13 November 1957; D. Groenewald, Sekretaris van Naturellesake, to Sekretaris van Binnelandse Sake, 16 November 1957 (translated by the author); and HJ.R. Myburg, Secretary of the Interior, to Secretary for Native Affairs, 3 December 1957 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). 130 Xuma to Secretary of Interior, Pretoria, 9 October 1957 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715); Madie Hall Xuma, appointment diary, 1957 (ABX box Q); Margaret Mason, Liberia, to Elizabeth Xuma, 12 August 1958 (ABX 580812); and I.L. Piliso, Birmingham, England, to Mrs Xuma, 29 November 1958 (ABX 581129). 131 Dabulamanzi Gcanga interview, 24 October 1990. As Mr Gcanga recalled, '.. . [Xuma] used to tell me that he was expected almost every year to go to West Africa to meet the leaders of Nigeria and Ghana, those big guys - Azikiwe and that great Ghanaian . .. Kwame Nkrumah.' When asked if Xuma had actually visited West Africa, Gcanga responded, 'Yes, he used to go there during Christmas holidays to talk about [the] independence of Africa. And there were people up north who got their independence, and I asked Dr Xuma, "Tell me, what is the secret? Those people are getting their freedom and we are not getting any here. Things are getting tighter instead." And he said, "Slavery up there is only a thing of yesterday. But here, the roots of slavery are deep." That's what he used to say.' 132 Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 204-5 and Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 286-7, 292-3. 133 'Ghana Man in South Africa,' Drum, January 1958; Bantu World, 6 December 1958; Kommissaris van die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisie to Sekretaris van Binnelandse Sake, 10 February 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715); and Nakasa, 'Who Was Dr Xuma?' p. 38. 134 Xuma to Margaret Ballinger, Cape Town, 10 February and 7 March 1960 (Ballinger papers, Wits: A410 B2.8.22). 135 Kommissaris van die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisie to Sekretaris van Binnelandse Sake, 10 February 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715) (translated by the author). 136 Margaret Ballinger to Xuma, 17 February 1960; Ballinger to J.F. Naude, Notes 277

25 February 1960 (Ballinger papers, Wits: A401 B2.8.22); BJ. Smithers, Bantu Affairs Commissioner, Johannesburg, to M. Smuts, Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, Witwatersrand, 27 February 1960; M. Smuts to Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development, Pretoria, 1 March 1960; memorandum from senior administrative officer, Department of Native Affairs, 7 March 1960; and memorandum from Secretary of Bantu Administration and Development, c. 10 March 1960 (State Ar- chives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715) (translated by the author). 137 For accounts of the Sharpeville crisis, see Gerhart, Black Power in South Africa, pp. 236-56; Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 334- 43; and Bishop Ambrose Reeves, Shooting at Sharpeville: the Agony of South Africa (London: Victor Gollancz, 1960). 138 Memorandum from Sekretaris van Bantoe Administrasie en Ontvikkeling, 7 April 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715) (translated by the author). See also Margaret Ballinger to Xuma, 21 March and 24 March 1960 (Ballinger papers, Wits: A410 B2.8.22). 139 'Dr Xuma Is On His Way With £567 Air Ticket,' Cape Argus, 8 April 1960; handwritten notes by M. Botha, Sekretaris van Bantoe Administrasie en Ontwikkeling, 9 April 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715); Madie Hall Xuma to Margaret Ballinger, 24 April 1960 (Ballinger papers, Wits: A410 B2.8.22); H.P. Joubert, Waarnemende Sekretaris of Bantu Administration and Development, to Sekretaris of Internal Affairs, 26 April 1960; and Secretary of Internal Affairs to Secretary of Native Affairs, 26 April 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). 140 South African permanent delegation to UN, New York, to Secretary for External Affairs, Cape Town, 26 April 1960 (State Archives, Preto- ria: NTS 277/301 2715). 141 In the epilogue to her book The African Patriots, Mary Benson wrote, 'Dr Xuma, before his sudden death in 1962, disclosed that he had recently lobbied in several African capitals and at the United Nations for economic sanctions' (p. 294). 142 W.C. Du Plessis, South African Ambassador to the United States, to Secretary for External Affairs, Pretoria, 28 April 1960 (State Archives, Pretoria: NTS 277/301 2715). 143 According to his official death certificate, Xuma developed cancer in May 1961, a year after he sought treatment from Dr Mayo. See death notice and death certificate for A.B. Xuma, 2 February and 26 February 1962 (State Archives, Pretoria: MHG 1056/62) 144 For further evidence of Xuma's activities in the United States in 1960, see Roy Wilkins, executive secretary, NAACP, to Oliver Tambo, Lon- don, 13 May 1960; Wilkins to Mr Mclain, internal NAACP memorandum, 9 June 1960 (NAACP papers, group III, box A35, Library of Congress); and World, 9 July 1960 and 10 December 1960. 145 'Net Algehele Apartheid Aanvaarbaar - Dr Xuma,' Die Transvaler, 5 October 1956; 'Tomlinson Debate - Leaders Explain Why S.A. Apart- heid Policy Must Fail,' World, 13 October 1956; and Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 75-8. 146 'He's the Sage of Sophiatown: African Leaders Call on Dr Xuma,' World, 14 February 1959. Xuma's willingness to meet representatives from 278 Notes

both the ANC and PAC in the late fifties is confirmed in Mandela interview, 21 February 1991. 147 Triomf is an Afrikaans word meaning 'triumph.' Triomf was renamed Sophiatown in the mid-1990s. For more on the last days of Sophiatown in the 1950s, see 'Sophiatown Big-Shots Fight for Their Homes/ Drum, December 1957; miscellaneous newsclips from the Star and the Rand Daily Mail, c. 1958 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 541); 'Sophiatown Property Owners Had No Option/ World, 31 May 1958; 'White Official Will Move into 8-Roomed Sophiatown Home/ World, 26 September 1959; R.M. Mfeka interview, 8 May 1990; Resha, My Life in the Struggle, p. 63; and van Tonder, 'Sophiatown: Removals and Protest/ p. 198. 148 Nakasa, 'Who Was Dr Xuma?/ p. 37. 149 Architectural invoice, 10 September 1959 (ABX box P, file 27); 'Home, Sweet Home/ World, 26 August 1961; and Nthato Motlana interview, 25 May 1990. According to the World, the cost of Xuma's house was equivalent to 28,000 rand. When the house was built in 1959, the basic unit of South African currency was still the pound. 150 Davenport, South Africa: a Modern History, p. 345 and Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 289, 306. 151 Statement by the executive committee of the ANC, 1 April 1960 (ABX 600401). 152 Both Nkomo and Masemola had participated in secret discussions with the government during the Alexandra bus boycott in February 1957 - as had Xuma. Nkomo, a Pretoria-based physician, had been expelled from the ANC in 1953; Masemola was secretary of the Pretoria Native Advisory Board. 153 'Natives Told Dag About "Outside Interference"' and 'Luthuli Not Happy Over Dag's Visit/ Star, 13 January 1961 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 559); 'Now It's Up To Dag To Talk With Us,' World, 14 January 1961; 'Dag Sends For Dr Xuma' and 'Mr Dag Ignored African Leaders,' World, 21 January 1961. , 154 'Luthuli Not Happy Over Dag's Visit/ Star, 13 January 1961. 155 Xuma, 'Bantu Schools Under Bantu Education/ 17-20 January 1961 (Strange Africana Library, Johannesburg: S Pam 326:37(68) Xum). 156 Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 361-4. 157 Karis and Gerhart, Challenge and Violence, pp. 647-8, 658-9 and Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945, pp. 241-55. 158 Xuma, last will and testament, 10 January 1962 (State Archives, Preto- ria: MHG 1056/62); World, 13 January 1962; 'Dr Xuma Dead/ World, 29 January 1962; death notice and death certificate for A.B. Xuma, 2 February and 26 February 1962 (State Archives, Pretoria: MHG 1056/ 62); and Motlana interview, 25 May 1990. 159 Can Themba, 'Dr Xuma: Pint-Sized Leader/ Post, 4 February 1962; Paul Mosaka, 'Mosaka Pays Tribute/ World, 10 February 1962; Z.K. Matthews, 'Tribute to Late Dr A.B. Xuma,' Imvo Zabantsundu, 10 February 1962; Nat Nakasa, 'Who Was Dr Xuma?,' Drum, March 1962; and 'Dr Xuma is Laid to Rest: Moving Scenes at Funeral,' World, 5 February 1962. 160 'Dr Xuma Dies After Life of Struggle/ Rand Daily Mail, 29 January Notes 279

1962; 'Dr Xuma Fought For His People/ New Age, vol. 8, no. 17, 8 February 1962; Quintin Whyte, 'Dr A.B. Xuma: A Tribute/ Race Relations News, February 1962; 'Dr A.B. Xuma: Rise of African Nationalism/ The Times (London), 30 January 1962; and Smith Hempstone, 'A Great Leader Dies Unnoticed,' San Francisco Chronicle, 12 February 1962 (NU Archives: Xuma biographical file). 161 Bishop Gow was the head of the AME Church in South Africa at the time of Xuma's death. Born of African-American parents, Gow had studied and taught at Tuskegee and was a former principal of Wilberforce Institute in Evaton. He had known Xuma for more than 30 years. 162 Patrick Lewis, a friend of Xuma's since their days on the Johannes- burg Joint Council, was chairman of the Non-European Affairs Committee of the Johannesburg City Council. He also served as Xuma's account- ant. RJ. van Buuren was the YMCA national secretary for South Africa. 163 'Dr Xuma Dead,' World, 29 January 1962; 'Dr Xuma Will Be Buried Tomorrow.../ World, 31 January 1962; program, 'Funeral service of the late Dr A.B. Xuma,' 1 February 1962 (SAIRR: Xuma file, box 61 E); 'Dr Xuma Buried,' Rand Daily Mail, 2 February 1962; '6000 Mourn Dr Xuma,' Post, 4 February 1962; 'Dr Xuma Is Laid To Rest/ World, 5 February 1962; 'Weeping Crowds At Xuma Burial,' World, 10 February 1962; 'Dr Xuma Is Laid To Rest/ Imvo Zabantsundu, 17 February 1962; Ellen Kuzwayo interview, 27 March 1991; and Attwell J. Xuma interview, 24 October 1990.

Conclusion

1 Jill Chisholm, '''Momma" Xuma is going back home/ Rand Daily Mail, 14 February 1963; 'Many Pay Tribute to Dr Xuma,' Rand Daily Mail, 18 February 1963 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 218); Basil Bikitsha, 'Tribute to Dr Xuma/ World, 18 February 1963; 'Leader of African Women Is Dead,' Winston-Salem Journal, 11 September 1982; miscellaneous documents regarding the administration of Xuma's estate, 19 July 1983 and 25 September 1984 (State Archives, Pretoria: MHG 1056/62); Nthato Motlana interview, 25 May 1990; and Attwell J. Xuma interview, 24 October 1990. Alfred Mtutuzeli Xuma declined to be interviewed for this project. 2 Like Xuma, Yusuf Dadoo and Monty Naicker received medical degrees from the University of Edinburgh before embarking upon distinguished careers in South Africa. The three politically involved physicians signed the 'Doctors' Pact' in 1947 in order to promote cooperation between Africans and Indians in the fight against discrimination. 3 Xuma, last will and testament, 10 January 1962 (State Archives, Preto- ria: MHG 559 1056/62); 'Dr Xuma Bursary,' Post, 11 February 1962; 'Mayor to Accept Dr Xuma Library/ Star, 11 February 1963 (SAIRR press clips, Wits: AD1912 box 218); Paul Joseph, personal communication to author, 5 August 1991; Benjamin Pogrund, personal communication to author, 1 February 1991; and Motlana interview, 25 May 1990. Select Bibliography

I. Manuscript collections

Cape Archives: Chief magistrate, Transkei (CMT) Engcobo, Transkei municipality (3/ECO) Native Affairs Hoover Institution Library: Carter-Karis collection of African political materials (microfilm) Johannesburg, city of: City council meeting minutes Johannesburg Public Library: Strange Africana Library Library of Congress: Booker T. Washington papers NAACP papers Northwestern University Archives: Gwendolen M. Carter papers A.B. Xuma biographical file Rhodes University Cory Library: Xuma collection South African Institute of Race Relations: A.B. Xuma biographical file South African Library: Manuscript collection MSB 782 State Archives, Pretoria: Department of Bantu Administration and Development Governor-General Native Affairs Department: Alfred B. Xuma passport file (277/301) Madie Hall Xuma passport file (535/301) Transvaal Archives: Master of the Supreme Court: Alfred B. Xuma estate papers (1056/62) Amanda P. Mason Xuma estate papers (96793) Tuskegee University Archives University of Cape Town Library, historical papers Margaret Ballinger papers (BL 345) W.G. Ballinger papers (BC 347) Donald Molteno papers (BC 579) University of Minnesota Archives: Division of Entomology and Economic Zoology papers (ALD9E.1) University of South Africa, Documentation Centre for African Studies: A.W.G. Champion collection (AAS1) D.D.T. Jabavu papers (AAS47)

280 Select Bibliography 281

University of the Witwatersrand, Cullen Library, Division of Historical Papers: ANC collection (AD2186) Ballinger papers (A410) Bridgman Memorial Hospital papers (A1059) A.W.G. Champion papers (A922) J.H. Hofmeyr papers (Al) J. Howard Pirn papers (A881) Joint Council of Europeans and Africans records (AD 1433) South African Institute of Race Relations, 'B' Box collection, part I (AD843) South African Institute of Race Relations, part II (AD843/RJ) South African Institute of Race Relations basement collection (ADI715) South African Institute of Race Relations press clippings (AD 1912) Quintin Whyte papers (AD 1502) A.B. Xuma papers (AD843) University of York, Borthwick Institute of Historical Research, Centre for Southern African Studies Archives: Patrick Duncan papers

II. Interviews

Maulvi Cachalia, 27 March 1991, Johannesburg W.J.P. Carr, 19 June 1990, Johannesburg Dabulamanzi Gcanga, 24 October 1990, Manzana, Transkei Trevor Huddleston, 16 April 1991, London Hilliard Hurwitz, 17 May 1990, Johannesburg Harold Kennedy, 17 April 1998, Winston-Salem, North Carolina Ellen Kuzwayo, 27 March 1991, Soweto Patrick Lewis, 20 June 1990, Johannesburg Nelson Mandela, 21 February 1991, Johannesburg Don Mattera, 11 March 1991, Johannesburg R.M. Mfeka, 8 May 1990, Johannesburg Nthato Motlana, 25 May 1990, Soweto Godfrey Pitje, 30 May 1990, Johannesburg Peter Rezant, 28 June 1998, Johannesburg Clare Rheinallt-Jones, 27 April 1990, Johannesburg Walter Sisulu, 28 May 1990, Johannesburg Attwell J. Xuma, 24 October 1990, Manzana, Transkei

III. Newspapers and periodicals

Advance Bantu World Cape Argus Chicago Defender Daily Dispatch Die Soeklig Die Transvaler Drum 282 Select Bibliography

Eastern Province Herald Evening Post Forward Friend Guardian Imvo Zabantsundu Inkululeko Inkundla ya Bantu Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa Leech Miami Herald Minnesota Alumni Voice Minnesota Alumni Weekly Natal Witness New Africa New Age New York Times Post Race Relations News Rand Daily Mail San Francisco Chronicle South African Outlook Star Sunday Times Syracuse Journal The Times (London) Time Umteteli wa Bantu United Nations News Vereeniging News

IV. Books and pamphlets

Africans' Claims in South Africa. Johannesburg: African National Congress, 1944. Barber, James, and John Barratt. South Africa's Foreign Policy: the Search for Status and Security, 1945-1988. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Basner, Miriam. Am I an African? The Political Memoirs of H.M. Basner. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993. Beattie, T.R. A Ride Through the Transkei. Kingwilliam's Town: S.E. Rowles & Company, 1891. Beinart, William. The Political Economy ofPondoland, 1860-1930. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Beinart, William, and Colin Bundy. Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa: Politics and Popular Movements in the Transkei and Eastern Cape, 1890-1930. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Benson, Mary. The African Patriots: the Story of the African National Congress of South Africa. London: Faber and Faber, 1963. Select Bibliography 283

Berry, L.L. A Century of Missions of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, 1840-1940. New York: AME Church Missionary Department, 1942. Brownlee, Frank, comp. The Transkeian Native Territories: Historical Records. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1923. Bundy, Colin. The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry, 2nd ed. London: James Currey, 1988. Bunting, Brian. Moses Kotane: South African Revolutionary. London: Inkululeko Publications, 1975. Campbell, James T. Songs of Zion: the African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Carter, Gwendolen M. The Politics of Inequality: South Africa Since 1948. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958. Clothier, Norman. Black Valour: the South African Native Labour Contingent, 1916-1918, and the Sinking of the 'MendV. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1987. Cobley, Alan Gregor. Class and Consciousness: the Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1924 to 1950. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Coplan, David. In Township Tonight! South Africa's Black City Music and Theatre. New York: Longman, 1985. Couzens, Tim. The New African: a Study of the Life and Work ofH.I.E. Dhlomo. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1985. Davenport, T.R.H. South Africa: a Modern History, 4th ed. Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press, 1991. Drake, St Clair, and Horace R. Cayton. Black Metropolis: a Study of Negro Life in a Northern City. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1945. Drew, Allison, ed. South Africa's Radical Tradition: a Documentary History. 2 vols. Cape Town: Buchu Books, Mayibuye Books, and UCT Press, 1996 and 1997. Dreyer, Peter. Martyrs and Fanatics: South Africa and Human Destiny. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980. Driver, CJ. Patrick Duncan: South African and Pan-African. London: Heinemann, 1980. du Boulay, Shirley. Tutu: Voice of the Voiceless. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's, 1988. Dubow, Saul. Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919-36. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1989. Edgar, Robert R., ed. An African American in South Africa: the Travel Notes of Ralph J. Bunche, 28 September 1937-1 January 1938. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1992. Edgar, Robert R., and Luyanda ka Msumza, eds. Freedom in Our Lifetime: the Collected Writings of Anton Muziwakhe Lembede. Athens, OH: Ohio Univer- sity Press, 1996. Etherington, Norman. Preachers, Peasants, and Politics in Southeast Africa, 1835-1880: African Christian Communities in Natal, Pondoland, and Zululand. London: Royal Historical Society, 1978. Feit, Edward. African Opposition in South Africa: the Failure of Passive Resis- tance. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1967. Franklin, John Hope, and Alfred A. Moss, Jr. From Slavery to Freedom: a History of Negro Americans, 6th ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988. 284 Select Bibliography

Fredrickson, George M. White Supremacy: a Comparative Study in American and South African History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Fredrickson, George M. Black Liberation: a Comparative History of Black Ide- ologies in the United States and South Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Furlong, Patrick J. Between Crown and Swastika: the Impact of the Radical Right on the Afrikaner Nationalist Movement in the Fascist Era. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991. Geiss, Imanuel. The Pan-African Movement. London: Methuen & Company, 1974. Gerhart, Gail M. Black Power in South Africa: the Evolution of an Ideology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Grossman, James R. Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. Grundlingh, Albert. Fighting Their Own War: South African Blacks and the First World War. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1987. Gunther, John. Inside Africa. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1955. Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington: the Making of a Black Leader, 1856- 1901. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington: the Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-1915. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. Hellmann, Ellen, ed. Handbook on Race Relations in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1949. Higgs, Catherine. The Ghost of Equality: the Public Lives of D.D.T. fabavu of South Africa, 1885-1959. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1997. Hirson, Baruch. Yours for the Union: Class and Community Struggles in South Africa, 1930-1947. New Jersey: Zed Books, 1989. Huddleston, Trevor. Naught for Your Comfort. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956. Jabavu, D.D.T. The Black Problem, 2nd ed. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1921. Jabavu, D.D.T. The Findings of the All African Convention. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1936. Jabavu, D.D.T., ed. Minutes of the All African Convention. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1936. Karis, Thomas, and Gwendolen Carter, eds. From Protest to Challenge: a Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. Vol. 1, Protest and Hope, 1882-1934, by Sheridan Johns (1972). Vol. 2, Hope and Challenge, 1935-1952, by Thomas Karis (1973). Vol. 3, Challenge and Violence, 1953-1964, by Thomas Karis and Gail Gerhart (1977). Vol. 4, Political Profiles, 1882-1964, by Gail Gerhart and Thomas Karis (1977). Keegan, Timothy J. Rural Transformations in Industrializing South Africa: the Southern Highveld to 1914. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1986. Kerr, Alexander. Fort Hare, 1915-48: the Evolution of an African College. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter, 1968. Kuzwayo, Ellen. Call Me Woman. San Francisco: Spinsters Ink, 1985. Langley, J. Ayodele. Pan-Africanism and Nationalism in West Africa, 1900- 1945. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. Lazerson, Joshua N. Against the Tide: Whites in the Struggle Against Apartheid. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994. Select Bibliography 285

Lipschutz, Mark R., and R. Kent Rasmussen. Dictionary of African Historical Biography, 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Lipsitz, George. The Sidewalks of St Louis: Places, People, and Politics in an American City. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1991. Lodge, Tom. Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945. New York: Longman, 1983. Luthuli, Albert. Let My People Go: an Autobiography. Johannesburg: Collins, 1962. Lynch, Hollis R. Black American Radicals and the Liberation of Africa: the Council on African Affairs, 1937-1955. Ithaca, NY: Africana Studies and Research Center, 1978. Mandela, Nelson. Long Walk to Freedom. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1994. Marks, Shula. The Ambiguities of Dependence in South Africa: Class, Nationalism, and the State in Twentieth Century Natal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. Mattera, Don. Sophiatown: Coming of Age in South Africa. Boston: Beacon Press, 1987. Matthews, Z.K. Freedom for My People. Cape Town: David Philip, 1986. McDonald, Forrest. Insull. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. McMurry, Linda O. George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Mears, Gordon. Mission to Clarkebury. Cape Town: Methodist Publishing House, c. 1973. Meli, Francis. South Africa Belongs to Us: a History of the ANC. Harare: Zim- babwe Publishing House, 1988. Modisane, Bloke. Blame Me on History. Johannesburg: Ad. Donker, 1986. Mokonyane, Dan. Lessons of Azikwelwa, 2nd ed. London: Nakong Ya Rena, 1994. Murray, Bruce K. Wits: the Early Years. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand Uni- versity Press, 1982. Murrow, Edward R., and Fred W. Friendly, eds. See It Now. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955. Mweli-Skota, T.D., ed. The African Who's Who: an Illustrated Classified Register and National Biographical Dictionary of the Africans in the Transvaal, 3rd ed. Johannesburg: Central News Agency, c. 1966. Odendaal, Andre. Vukani Bantu! The Beginnings of Black Protest Politics in South Africa to 1912. Cape Town: David Philip, 1984. Pauw, B.A. Christianity and Xhosa Tradition: Belief and Ritual Among Xhosa- speaking Christians. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1975. Peires, J.B. The House of Phalo: a History of the Xhosa People in the Days of their Independence. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1981. Phillips, Howard. The University of Cape Town, 1918-1948: the Formative Years. Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1993. Phillips, Ray E. The Bantu in the City: a Study of Cultural Adjustment on the Witwatersrand. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1938. Pirn, Howard. A Transkei Enquiry: 1933. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, c. 1934. Plaatje, Sol. Native Life in South Africa. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1982. (first ed. published in 1916) Potgieter, H.L. The Transkei and Its Places. Umtata: Transkei Publications, 1960. Primm, James Neal. Lion of the Valley: St Louis, Missouri. Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Company, 1981. 286 Select Bibliography

Resha, Maggie. My Life in the Struggle: 'Mangoano o Tsoara Thipa Ka Bohaleng. Johannesburg: Congress of South African Writers, 1991. Rich, Paul. White Power and the Liberal Conscience: Racial Segregation and South African Liberalism. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1984. Rich, Paul. State Power and Black Politics in South Africa, 1912-51. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1996. Rive, Richard, and Tim Couzens. Seme: the Founder of the ANC. Johannesburg: Skotaville, 1991. Robeson, Eslanda Goode. African Journey. London: Victor Gollancz, 1946. Roux, Edward. Time Longer Than Rope: the Black Man's Struggle for Freedom in South Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964. Sampson, Anthony. The Treason Cage: the Opposition on Trial in South Africa. London: Heinemann, 1958. Sampson, Anthony. Drum, 2nd ed. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1983. Saunders, Christopher, and Robin Derricourt, eds. Beyond the Cape Frontier: Studies in the History of the Transkei and Ciskei. London: Longman, 1974. Schadeberg, Jurgen, ed. The Fifties People of South Africa. Bailey's African Photo Archives, 1987. Schadeberg, Jurgen, ed. Nelson Mandela and the Rise of the ANC. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball and Ad. Donker Publishers, 1990. Shepherd, R.H.W., and B.G. Paver. African Contrasts: the Story of a South African People. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1947. Simons, Jack and Ray. Class and Colour in South Africa, 1850-1950. London: International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, 1983. Soga, John Henderson. The Ama-Xosa: Life and Customs. Lovedale, Cape: Lovedale Press, c. 1931. Spangler, Earl. The Negro in Minnesota. Minneapolis: T.S. Denison & Com- pany, 1961. St John, Robert. Through Malan's Africa. New York: Doubleday, 1954. Stein, Pippa, and Ruth Jacobson, eds. Sophiatown Speaks. Johannesburg: Junc- tion Avenue Press, 1986. Switzer, Les, ed. South Africa's Alternative Press: Voices of Protest and Resis- tance, 1880s-1960s. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Switzer, Les, and Donna Switzer. The Black Press in South Africa and Lesotho: a Descriptive Bibliographic Guide to African, Coloured and Indian Newspapers, Newsletters and Magazines, 1836-1976. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1979. Thompson, Leonard. A History of South Africa, 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Trotter, Joe William, Jr. Black Milwaukee: the Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-45. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985. United Nations. Yearbook of the United Nations, 1946-47. Lake Success, NY: United Nations, 1947. Walker, Cherryl. Women and Resistance in South Africa, 2nd ed. Cape Town: David Philip, 1991. Walshe, Peter. The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa: the African National Congress, 1912-1952. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. Washington, Booker T. Up From Slavery: an Autobiography. New York: Association Press, 1901. Select Bibliography 287

Wesley, Charles H. The History of Alpha Phi Alpha: a Development in College Life. Chicago: The Foundation Publishers, 1981. Wesleyan Methodist Church of South Africa. The Deathless Years: a Centenary Souvenir. Clarkebury Mission, Tembuland, 1830-1930. Wesleyan Methodist Church, 1930. Wesleyan Methodist Church of South Africa. Minutes of the 11th Conference of the Wesleyan Church of South Africa Begun in Queen's Town, 13 April 1893. Cape Town: Argus, 1893. Wilkins, Roy. Standing Fast. New York: Viking Press, 1982. Willan, Brian. Sol Plaatje: a Biography. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1984. Wilson, Monica. Reaction to Conquest: Effects of Contact with Europeans on the Pondo of South Africa, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961. Wilson, Monica, and Leonard Thompson, eds. The Oxford History of South Africa, 1870-1966, vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Wynne, Susan G., comp. South African Political Materials: a Catalogue of the Carter-Karis Collection. Bloomington, IN: Southern African Research Ar- chives Project, 1977. Xuma, Alfred B. Bridging the Gap Between White and Black in South Africa. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1930. Xuma, Alfred B. Charlotte Manye (Mrs Maxeke): What an Educated African Girl Can Do. African Methodist Episcopal Church, 1930. Xuma, Alfred B. Reconstituting the Union of South Africa or A More Rational Union Policy. Lovedale: Lovedale Press, 1932. Xuma, Alfred B. Kaffir Beer. Johannesburg, 1941. Xuma, Alfred B. South West Africa: Annexation or United Nations Trusteeship? New York: South African Passive Resistance Council, 1946.

V. Articles and chapters

Anthony, David H., III. 'Max Yergan in South Africa: From Evangelical Pan- Africanist to Revolutionary Socialist.' African Studies Review, vol. 34, no. 2, September 1991, pp. 27-55. Bonner, Philip. The Transvaal Native Congress, 1917-1920: the Radicalisation of the Black Petty Bourgeoisie on the Rand.' In Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa, Shula Marks and Richard Rathbone, eds (London: Longman, 1982), pp. 270-313. Bradford, Helen. 'Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: the Social Origins of the ICU Leadership, 1924-1929.' Journal of African History, vol. 25, no. 3, 1984, pp. 295-310. Corbett, Katherine T., and Mary E. Seematter. 'No Crystal Stair: Black St Louis, 1920-1940.' Gateway Heritage, vol. 8, no. 2, Fall 1987, pp. 8-15. Cunningham, Anna. 'Alfred Bitini Xuma: Pioneer Black Doctor and Politi- cian.' Between the Chains (Journal of the Johannesburg Historical Foundation), vol. 16, 1995, pp. 46-55. Davis, R. Hunt, Jr. 'John L. Dube: A South African Exponent of Booker T. Washington.' Journal of African Studies, vol. 2, no. 4, Winter 1975-76, pp. 497-528. 288 Select Bibliography

Davis, R. Hunt, Jr. 'The Black American Education Component in African Responses to Colonialism in South Africa, c. 1890-1914/ Journal of South- ern African Studies, vol. 3, no. 2, January 1978, pp. 65-83. Davis, R. Hunt, Jr. 'School vs. Blanket and Settler: Elijah Makiwane and the Leadership of the Cape School Community.' African Affairs, vol. 78, no. 310, January 1979, pp. 12-31. Drum magazine. 'Masterpiece in Bronze: Dr Alfred B. Xuma.' Drum, De- cember 1953. Duncan, David. 'Liberals and Local Administration in South Africa: Alfred Hoernle and the Alexandra Health Centre, 1933-43.' International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 23, no. 3, 1990, pp. 475-93. Feit, Edward. 'Generational Conflict and African Nationalism in South Af- rica: the African National Congress, 1949-1959.' International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, 1972, pp. 181-202. Harlan, Louis R. 'Booker T. Washington and the White Man's Burden.' American Historical Review, vol. 71, January 1966, pp. 441-67. Harlan, Louis R. 'Booker T. Washington in Biographical Perspective.' Ameri- can Historical Review, vol. 75, no. 6, October 1970, pp. 1581-99. Harris, Rev. C.C. 'South African Missionary Institutions: Clarkebury.' South African Outlook, 1 December 1932, pp. 237-8. Hill, Robert A., and Gregory A. Pirio, '"Africa for the Africans": the Garvey Movement in South Africa, 1920-1940.' In The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth Century South Africa, Shula Marks and Stanley Trapido, eds (New York: Longman, 1987), pp. 209-53. Hirson, Baruch. 'Tuskegee, the Joint Councils, and the All African Conven- tion.' In The Societies of Southern Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries, University of London Institute of Commonwealth Studies, vol. 10, 1981, pp. 65-76. Horton, J.W. 'South Africa's Joint Councils: Black-White Cooperation between the Two World Wars.' South African Historical Journal, no. 4, November 1972, pp. 29-44. Hyslop, Jonathan. 'Food, authority and politics: student riots in South Af- rica 1945-1976.' Africa Perspective: New Series, vol. 1, no. 3-4, June 1987, pp. 3-41. James, Wilmot. 'Grounds for a Strike: South African Gold Mining in the 1940s.' African Economic History, no. 16, 1987, pp. 1-22. Keto, Clement. 'Black Americans and South Africa, 1890-1910.' A Current Bibliography on African Affairs, vol. 5, no. 3 (new series), May 1972, pp. 383-406. Lynch, Hollis R. 'Pan-African Responses in the United States to British Co- lonial Rule in Africa in the 1940s.' In The Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization, 1940-1960, Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis, eds (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), pp. 57-86. Moodie, T. Dunbar. 'The Moral Economy of the Black Miners' Strike of 1946.' Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 13, no. 1, October 1986, pp. 1-35. Nakasa, Nat. 'Who Was Dr Xuma?' Drum, March 1962. Odum, Maria. 'Black Hospitals Work to Find a Modern Role.' New York Times, 12 August 1992. Select Bibliography 289

O'Meara, Dan. 'The 1946 African Mine Workers' Strike and the Political Economy of South Africa.' Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Poli- tics, vol. 13, no. 2, July 1975, pp. 146-73. Paton, Alan. 'The Grim Drama at Johannesburg.' New York Times Magazine, 27 February 1955, pp. 15, 36, 38, 40. Proctor, Andre. 'Class Struggle, Segregation and the City: A History of Sophiatown, 1905-40.' In Labour, Townships, and Protest, Belinda Bozzoli, ed. (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1979), pp. 49-89. Ralston, Richard. 'American Experiences in the Making of an African Leader: a Case Study of Alfred B. Xuma (1893-1962). International Journal of Afri- can Historical Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, 1973, pp. 72-93. Ryan, A.P. Entry on L.S. Amery. Dictionary of National Biography, 1951-1960, E.T. Williams and Helen M. Palmer, eds (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 16-19. Saunders, Christopher. 'The New African Elite in the Eastern Cape and Some Late Nineteenth Century Origins of African Nationalism.' In Collected Seminar Papers on the Societies of Southern Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries, vol. 1, no. 10, October 1969-March 1970, pp. 44-55. Saunders, Christopher. 'Tile and the Thembu Church: Politics and Independency on the Cape Eastern Frontier in the Late 19th Century.' Journal of African History, vol. 11, no. 4, 1970, pp. 553-70. Saunders, Christopher. 'The Annexation of the Transkeian Territories.' Archives Year Book 1976. Pretoria: Government Printer, 1978. Saunders, Christopher. 'Pixley Seme: Towards a Biography.' South African Historical Journal, no. 25, 1991, pp. 196-217. Schoenberg, Sandra, and Charles Bailey. 'The Symbolic Meaning of an Elite Black Community: the Ville in St Louis.' Bulletin of Missouri Historical Society, vol. 23, no. 2, January 1977, pp. 94-102. Shapiro, Karin A. 'Doctors or Medical Aids - the Debate over the Training of Black Medical Personnel for the Rural Black Population in South Africa in the 1920s and 1930s.' Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 13, no. 2, January 1987, pp. 234-55. Shepperson, George. 'Notes on Negro American Influences on the Emer- gence of African Nationalism.' Journal of African History, vol. 1, no. 2, 1960, pp. 299-312. South African Outlook. 'Progress at Clarkebury Institution.' South African Outlook, 1 December 1932, p. 228. Taylor, David Vassar. 'The Blacks.' In They Chose Minnesota: a Survey of the State's Ethnic Groups, June Drenning Holmquist, ed. St Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981. Themba, Can. 'Requiem for Sophiatown.' In The Will To Die (London: Heinemann, 1972), pp. 102-8. van Onselen, Charles. 'Reactions to Rinderpest in Southern Africa.' Journal of African History, vol. 13, no. 3, 1972, pp. 473-88. van Pittius, E.F.W. Gey. 'Whither South-West Africa?' International Affairs, vol. 23, no. 2, April 1947, pp. 202-9. Walshe, A.P. 'The Origins of African Political Consciousness in South Af- rica.' Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 7, no. 4, 1969, pp. 583-610. Walshe, A.P. 'Black American Thought and African Political Attitudes in 290 Select Bibliography

South Africa.' Review of Politics, vol. 32, no. 1, January 1970, pp. 51-77. Williams, Donovan. 'African Nationalism in South Africa: Origins and Prob- lems.' Journal of African History, vol. 11, no. 3, 1970, pp. 371-83. Wilson, Emily. '"For Peace and Justice, Freedom and Dignity for All People" - Madie Hall Xuma.' In Hope and Dignity: Older Black Women of the South, Emily Wilson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), pp. 142-9. Wright, Martin. 'Note [on South West Africa].' International Affairs, vol. 23, no. 2, April 1947. Xuma, Alfred B. 'The Training of Natives in Medicine.' Journal of the Medi- cal Association of South Africa, vol. 5, no. 2, 24 January 1931, pp. 39-43. Xuma, Alfred B. 'Native Medical Practitioners.' Leech, November 1933, pp. 12-14. Xuma, Alfred B. 'The Evil Effects of Political Differentiations Based on Race and Colour.' Die Soeklig, no. 13, 1935. Xuma, Alfred B. 'The Art of Making Criminals.' Common Sense, March 1943. Xuma, Alfred B. 'Black Spots or White Spots?' Drum, March 1952, pp. 25-8. Xuma, Alfred B. 'African Reactions.' The 'Western Areas' Removal Scheme. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1953, pp. 24-9. Xuma, Alfred B. 'Extracts from the Life Story of Dr Alfred B. Xuma.' Drum, March 1954-January 1955.

VI. Unpublished papers and theses

Campbell, James. 'Our Fathers, Our Children: the African Methodist Epis- copal Church in the United States and South Africa.' PhD dissertation, Stanford University, 1989. Couzens, Tim. 'History of the Black Press in South Africa, 1836-1960.' Unpublished paper, University of the Witwatersrand, 1984. Davis, Richard Hunt, Jr. 'Nineteenth Century African Education in the Cape Colony: a Historical Analysis.' PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1969. Gish, Steven. 'Black South Africans and World War II.' Unpublished paper, Stanford University, June 1988. Gish, Steven. 'Dr Alfred B. Xuma and the Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1928-1940.' Paper presented at the annual meeting of the African Studies Association, Seattle, November 1992. Gish, Steven. 'Alfred B. Xuma, 1893-1962: African, American, South Afri- can.' PhD dissertation, Stanford University, 1994. Goodhew, David. '"No Easy Walk to Freedom": Political Organisation in the Western Areas of Johannesburg Between the World Wars.' Paper presented to the African Studies seminar, University of the Witwatersrand, 29 May 1989. Grundlingh, Louis. 'The Participation of South African Blacks in the Sec- ond World War.' PhD dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University, 1986. Jabavu, D.D.T. 'My Tuskegee Pilgrimage.' Unpublished paper held at the UNISA Documentation Centre for African Studies, Pretoria, 1913. Johannesburg Public Library. 'Dr A.B. Xuma Memorial Library.' Unpublished book list, 1964. Marable, Manning. 'African Nationalist: the Life of John Langalibalele Dube.' PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, 1976. Select Bibliography 291

Odendaal, Andre. 'African Political Mobilisation in the Eastern Cape, 1880- 1910.' PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1983. Piehl, Mel. 'A.B. Xuma and the South African Elite: the Years of Transition, 1936-1949/ 'Occasional Papers on African Intellectual Responses to the West,' G. Wesley Johnson and K. David Patterson, eds. Unpublished papers, Department of History, Stanford University, 1971. Ralston, Richard. 'The Individual Factor in the Transformation of Modern African Nationalism: Dr Xuma and the ANC, 1930-1949.' Paper presented to the SSRC conference on South Africa, New York, 8-12 September 1982. Roth, Mirjana. 'The Natives Representative Council, 1937-1951.' PhD dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, 1987. van Tonder, Deon P. 'Sophiatown: Removals and Protest, 1940-1955.' Master's thesis, University of South Africa, 1990. Wagenaar, Elsie J.C. 'A History of the Thembu and Their Relationship with the Cape, 1850-1900.' PhD dissertation, Rhodes University, 1988. Xuma, Alfred B. 'The Socio-Economic Aspects of Native Health or Health and Wealth of the South African Natives.' Unpublished paper, c. 1939. Index

Achimota University, 193 African National Congress (ANC), Adams College (Amanzimtoti 1, 3, 108, 142, 152, 153, Institute), 17, 21, 185 165-6, 174-5, 177-87, 191, Advance, 178 193, 197, 199, 203 Africa, see under specific names, 'Africans' Claims in South Africa,' places, organizations, and 121-2, 128-9, 163, 183 subjects All African National Congress, Africa House (London), 95 proposal for, 158 Africa House (New York), 168 armed struggle, adoption of, African Academy of Arts and 201, 203 Research, 147, 259nl55 banned (1960), 195, 199 African-American Institute, 196 before Xuma's presidency, 55, African Americans 61, 83, 95-6, 102, 106 in Chicago, 41-3 boycotts proposed: elections for influence in South Africa, 21-24, government-sponsored 62-3, 64, 68-9, 73, 74-5, 82, institutions, 155, 160-1, 166; 97, 123, 125, 147, 196, schools under Bantu 260nl58 education, 179-80, 183, 191 lynching of, 41-2 see also Alexandra; royal visit migration to northern USA to South Africa (1947); (1915-20), 33 Natives Representative in Milwaukee, 38-9 Council in Minneapolis-St Paul, 33 Cape African Congress, 113 in St Louis, 45 constitution, 114-15 African Democratic Party, 130, 131, Defiance Campaign, 177-8, 180, 146 182, 183, 191 African Domestic Servants Trade financial status and fundraising, Union, 124 111, 117-18, 139-40, 153, African independent churches, 11, 163 21, 22, 23 membership and recruitment, see also African Methodist 110-11, 115, 116-17, 126, Episcopal Church; Israelites; 130, 139, 163 Mgijima, Enoch; Tile, movement to draft Xuma as Nehemiah president, 106-7 Africanism, philosopy of, 132-3, multiracialism, debate 162-3, 181-2, 183-5, 189, surrounding, 180-6 206 Natal, 113-14, 151 African Methodist Episcopal nationalist-minded bloc, 181 (AME) Church, 2, 20, 22, 23, Nyasaland, 139 36, 41, 45, 50, 65, 68, 69-70, Orange Free State, 114, 139 80, 81-2, 97, 108, 194, 196, 202, organization, 112-15, 139, 153, 205 163-4 African Mine Workers' Union, 127, Programme of Action (1949), 140-2 159-61, 164

292 Index 293

publicity, 113, 129-30, 153 see also Tuskegee Institute Sophiatown, activities in, see 'American Negro Revue' (1943), Sophiatown 117 South West Africa, 139 American South, 26-32, 176 tactics, 122, 140, 143-4, 151, Amery, Leopold, 93, 238n54 159-61 anti-pass campaign (1943-4), 127, traditional leaders, 114-15, 116, 136-8, 142 153 see also pass laws Transvaal, 114, 156 apartheid, policy of, 156-9, 169-70, women, 115, 116-17: Bantu 198-9 Women's League, 117; ANC Arthur, George, 90 Women's League, 117, 125, Asiatic Land Tenure and Indian 168 Representation Act (1946), 145, Xuma's presidency of, 148 110-64, 205-6 Associated Press, 176 Youth League, 108, 135, 136, Atlantic Charter, 115, 120-1, 140, 143, 145, 150, 151, 153, 128-9, 139, 145 155-6, 162, 179-80, 206: Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 50, 189-90, 193, establishment of, 130-3; role 276nl31 in unseating Xuma, 159-61, 164, 165-6 Ballinger, Margaret, 63, 119, 124, African People's Organization, 134, 144; i94_5 154 Ballinger, William, 63, 96, 103 see also South African Coloured Baloyi, Richard, 120, 161 People's Organization Banda, Hastings, 50, 95, 193-4, Aggrey, James, 62-3 268n38 Aggrey House (London), 95, Bantu Dramatic Society, 76 239n61 Bantu education, 200 Alexandra, 71, 96, 127, 167, 185, Bantu Education Act (1953), 169 193 Bantu Education Commission, bus boycott of 1957, 186-8, 169 191, 197, 199 school boycott against (1955), Peoples' Transport Committee, 179-80 186, 188 Bantu Men's Social Centre, 66, All African Convention (AAC), 28, 75-6, 77, 82, 96, 97, 117, 167 86-8, 102, 105-6, 108, 133-4, Bantu Trained Nurses' Association, 152, 158 100 All Saints mission (Transkei), 12 Bantu Welfare Trust, 117, Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, 36, 39, 139-40, 153, 247-8n34 50, 94-5 Bantu World, 65, 86, 88, 127, Amanzimtoti Institute, see Adams 136-7, 165-6, 178, 179-80, College 183, 187, 191, 197, 202, 265nl American Board of Foreign Basner, Hyman, 130, 146 Missions, 46-7 Basutoland, 93, 144, 149 American education and black Bechuanaland, 93-4, 116, 144, 149, South Africans, 19-25, 26-52 172 numerical trends, 20 Belgian Congo, 190, 192-3 white South African concerns, Bethune, Mary McLeod, 98, 24, 48, 55 241n73 294 Index

Birmingham, Alabama, 32 Clarke, C.B., 94 black Americans, see African Clarkebury missionary institution Americans (Transkei), 12, 15-19 Black Consciousness movement, strike of 1911, 18 206, 260nl58 Clermont Township transport Bokwe, John Knox, 14 committee, 124 Bokwe, Dr R.T., 76, 113, 116, 155, Columbia University, 70, 92, 98 156, 161 Communist Party of South Africa, Bondelswarts (chiefdom), 54 55, 83, 120, 133, 134-8, 156, Bopape, David, 115, 136, 138, 156 169, 180, 183, 272n79 Botswana, see Bechuanaland Congress Alliance, 151, 181-4, 188, Bridgman, Clara, 46-7, 57-8, 60, 189, 203 63, 71, 79 Congress of Democrats, 181, Bridgman Memorial Hospital, 47, 272n79, 272n81 57, 60, 71, 74, 79 Congress of the People (1955), Britain, 21, 49, 53, 93-6, 193 181-2, 191 British Association for the Controller of Paper (Pretoria), 129 Advancement of Science, 61 Cooper, Henry, 129 Brookes, Edgar, 62, 74, 76, 79, 103, Council of Non-European Trade 119 Unions, 127, 140-1 Budapest, 49 Council on African Affairs, 138, Bunche, Ralph, 268n38 145, 147, 256nll9 Burton, Marion, 37 Criminal Law Amendment Bill (1953), 170, 178 Calata, James, 65, 202 Crisis, the, 125 as ANC secretary general, 95-6, Crogman Community Clinic, 97, 102, 106-7, 112, 113, 114, 125, 167 120-1, 134, 135, 150, 156, Cry, the Beloved Country, 167 157, 161 partnership with Alfred B. Dadoo, Yusuf, 136-8, 145, Xuma, 115, 140 150-1, 204 Campaign for Right and Justice, 124 Dadoo-Naicker-Xuma scholarship, Cape Argus, 154 204 Cape Town, 195 Dauntsey School, 169 Bethel AME Church, 100 Defiance Campaign (1952), 177-8, Carnegie Corporation, 76, 92 180, 182, 183, 191 Carney, Mabel, 92, 237n48 De Kiewiet, C.W., 190, 275nll7 Carver, George Washington, 29, De Pitch Black Follies, 96 216n9 Detroit, 91-2 Central Council for the Care of Dexter Taylor, James, see Taylor, Cripples (London), 93 James Dexter Chamber of Mines, 142 Dhlomo, H.I.E., 64, 65, 76, 79 Champion, A.W.G., 114, 131, 139, Die Burger, 157 146, 152, 155, 156, 177 Die Soeklig, 83 Chicago, 33, 37, 41, 47, 51, 58, doctors, African (South Africa) 91, 92 conditions facing, 46, 57 Chicago Daily News, 202 medical training of, 46, 49, 56, Chicago Defender, 41 60-1, 71, 81, 90, 169, 204, China, 189 230n70, 267n22 Index 295

number by 1927, 56 Fischer, Bram, 114 see also medical aids, African; Fisk University, 29 Xuma, Alfred Bitini, Fort Hare, South African 'Native medicine College' at, 16, 21, 24, 11, 90 Doctors' Pact (1947), 151, 163 Conference of the European and Donaldson, James, 117 Bantu Christian Student Donaldson Community Centre, Associations (1930), 66 202, 248n34 medical aids, training of, 72-3 Drake, St Clair, 42 Franchise and Ballot Act (1892), 8 Drum, 171, 173, 181, 185, 202 Fraser, Peter, 144, 145 Dube, Charles, 19 Freed, Dr Louis R, 74 Dube, John, 19, 21, 22-3, 50, 53, Freedom Charter, 181, 184 55, 64, 65, 89, 108, 114, 116 Friends House (London), 94 Du Bois, W.E.B., 2, 27, 147, 205 Duncan, Patrick, 94, 183, 193 Gamma Sigma Club, 66, 75 Du Plessis, W.C., 196 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 112, 160 Durban, 195, 201 Garvey, Marcus, 38, 67 African-Indian riot (1949), 152 Gcanga, Dabulamanzi, 55, 276nl31 Dutch Reformed Church, 157 Gcanga, Vetu, 9, 10 George VI, King, 155 Eastern bloc nations, 189 see also royal visit to South East Rand District Bantu Lawn Africa (1947) Tennis Association, 124 Ghana, 191, 192-3 Edinburgh see also Gold Coast Royal Infirmary, 49 Godlo, R.H., 89, 120 University of 49, 204 Gold Coast, 189-90 education, American, see American see also Ghana education and black South Gool, Goolam, 158 Africans Gosani, D. 120 education, Bantu, see Bantu Gow, Bishop Francis, 202 education Grahamstown, 68 Eiselen, W.W.M., 169 Groenewald, D., 192 Eisteddfod, African, 75, 231n81 Group Areas Act (1950), 169, election of 1948, South African, 172-3 156-8, 164 Gumede, Josiah, 55, 116, 126 elite, educated African, 14-15, Gunther, John, 268n38 20-21, 23, 25, 55, 59, 64-6, 75-8, 83, 86, 205 Hall, Ginny Cowan, 98 Enduku Methodist Society, 9 Hall, Dr H.H., 98, 240n72 Engcobo Hall, Madie, see Xuma, Madie Hall district (Transkei), 9, 12, 15 Hammarskjold, Dag, 199-200 town of (Transkei), 10 Hardy, John, 91 Evaton, 97, 172 Hargreaves, Rev. Peter, 16 Extension of University Education Harlem, 91, 147 Act (1959), 198 Abyssinian Baptist Church, 147 compared to Sophiatown, 170 Federal Council of Churches of Harris, Nathan, 42 Christ in America, 41-2 Harvard University, 29 First World War, see World War I Haynes, George, 91, 237n45 296 Index

Healdtown missionary institution; Brixton cemetery, 203, 204 17 City Council, 175, 187 health, African, 60, 62, 80-1, 90, 167 gangs, 171 see also doctors, African (South Native Welfare Society, 62 Africa) Non-European Affairs Hempstone, Smith, 202 Department, 172 Herbert, Dr, 59 Public Library, 78 Hertzog, James, 54, 82, 84-7, 102, see also Alexandra; Sophiatown 118 Joint Council for Europeans and Hodgson, Margaret, see Ballinger, Africans, 62-3, 64-5, 66, 76, 83, Margaret 97, 109, 122, 124 Hoernle, R.F.A., 97, 104-5, 122-4 Jones, Thomas Jesse, 62-3 Hofmeyr, Jan, 88, 129, 138, 143 Jongintaba, Paramount Chief, 116 Hollister, L.C., 40 Journal of the Medical Association of Howard University, 20, 38 South Africa, 72 Huddleston, Trevor, 174 Hungary, 48-9 Kadalie, Clements, 55, 61, 78, 138 Kamnqa, Edmund, 24, 28 Immorality Amendment Act (1950), Kenya, 158, 190, 193 169 Khama, Tshekedi, 93-4, 116, 138 Imvo Zabantsundu, 88, 202 Kliptown, 181 Industrial and Commercial Workers Kotane, Moses, 134-5, 137-8, 144, Union (ICU), 55, 61, 83 156, 161 Inkululeko, 112, 244-5n5 Inkundla ya Bantu, 113, 155, 156, Lawson, Victor, 43 262nl90 League of Coloured Peoples, 95 Insull, Samuel, 43, 48, 51, 60, Leballo, P.K., 184 221n55 Lembede, Anton, 130, 132-3, 143, Inter-denominational African 155, 254nlO2 Ministers Federation, 197 Lennard, Rev. Arthur J., 17, 18, 68 Internal Revenue Service, 48 Lesotho, see Basutoland International African Service Lewis, Patrick, 203 Bureau, 94 Liberal Party, 183, 188, 197 International Council of Women, liberals, white South African, 56, 168 58, 62-4, 74, 76-7, 102-5, International Missionary 122-4, 183, 202 Conference on Africa, 193 Liberia, 68, 190, 191, 192-3 Iowa, University of, 38 Lie, Trygve, 145, 148 Isigidimi, 21 Lincoln University, 20 Israelites, 54 Little, Grover, 43, 48, 60, 92 London, 93-6 Jabavu, D.D.T., 21, 23, 27, 28, 30, London School of Economics 55, 65, 86, 94, 95, 102, 103, Research Students' Association, 158, 168, 215n7 94 Jabavu, Florence, 168 London Society of Friends, 94 Jabavu, John Tengo, 14, 16 London University Jazz Maniacs, 96 School of Hygiene and Tropical Johannesburg, 58, 170-6, Medicine, 90, 93 186-8, 193, 195, 198, 201 Loram, C.T., 46, 56-7, 76, 230n70 Index 297

Lovedale missionary institution, Mda, A.P., 130, 150, 159-60, 161 16, 17, 19, 21, 143, 168-9, Meadowlands, 175 257nl35 see also Soweto Lutuli, Albert, 155, 177, 178, 185, Mears, Gordon, 146 186, 191, 197, 199-200, 202 medical aids, training of, 56, 60-1, 71-3 MacKenzie, Dr R.P., 59 see also doctors, African (South Macmillan, William, 114 Africa) Mahabane, Rev. Z.R., 86, 106, 111, Medical Correspondence College of 116 London, 167 Mahlangeni, M.R., 19, 56 Meharry Medical College, 38, 46 Makgatho, S.M., 78, 116, 167 Mendi memorial ceremonies, 101, Malan, Daniel R, 157, 169 118, 241-2n86 Mandela, Nelson, 112, 116, 130-1, Merry Black Birds Band, 76 135, 156, 160, 166, 167, 172, Methodist Episcopal Church, 35, 174, 178, 180, 186, 191, 201, 36, 37, 39, 40-1, 42, 43, 51, 253n94 218n31 Mangena, Alfred, 19 Methodist Laymen's Missionary Manzana (Transkei), 9, 10, 12, 13, Movement, 94 24 Mfeka, R.M., 172 Marks, J.B., 134-5, 136, 138, 141, Mgijima, Enoch, 54 156, 178 Michigan, University of, 29 Marquard, Leo, 185 middle class, African, see elite, Marquette University, 38-40 educated African Martindale, 58, 170, 172, 173, 176 Milbank Memorial Fund, 92 Masemola, K.T., 187, 199, 278nl52 Milwaukee, 38, 58 Mason, Amanda, see Xuma, St Mark's AME Church, 39 Amanda Mason Miners' Phthisis Commission, 62 Maswanganyi, J.H., 165 Mines and Works Amendment Act Mattera, Don, 171 (1926), 82 Matthews, Dr Justus, 38, 40, 59 Minneapolis, 33, 38, 91 Matthews, Z.K., 19, 96, 179, 185, Minnesota, University of, 32, 34-7, 197, 202 38, 51, 176 and ANC, 113, 114, 116, 119, missionaries, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16 120, 121, 155, 161 Mlotywa, Edmund, 166 Maxeke, Charlotte, 19, 21, 55, 64, Mob Murder in America, 41 65, 69-70, 76, 79 Modderfontein Dynamite Factory, Maxeke, Marshall, 19, 69 124 Mayo, Dr Charles, 196 Mofutsanyana, Edwin, 134, 136 Mayo Clinic, 48, 196 Mokoena, Joseph, 161 Mbadiwe, K.O., 147 Molema, Dr Silas, 56, 79, 97, 116, Mbata, J. Congress, 131 126, 203, 224nlO Mbeki, Govan, 105, 116 Molopo, Clarence, 75 Mbelle, A.S., 122, 250n55 'Molotsi, Peter, 184 Mbobo, Victor, 132, 161 Montsioa, George, 19 Mboya, Tom, 193-4 Moody, Harold, 95 McCord, Dr James, 56 Morake, Eva M., 70, 81, 89 McCord Zulu Hospital, 56 Moroka, James, 49, 56, 88, 161, McEnroe, P.J., 48 165, 166, 178, 202-3 298 Index

Mosaka, Paul, 105, 130, 138, 20-2 adjournment of (1946), Moshoeshoe, 75, 133, 254nlO3 142-3, 150, 154 Motlana, Nthato, 171, 201, 204 proposed boycott of elections Moton, Robert R., 32 for, 155, 156, 160, 166 Mount Frere (Transkei), 9 Native Trust and Land Act (1936), Mphahlele, Ezekiel, 193 87 Mpondomise (chiefdom), 6, 9 Native (Urban Areas) Act (1923), Mqhayi, S.E.K., 91, 167, 186 54, 171 Mshiyeni, King, 116 Negro Yearbook, 36 Msimang, H. Selby, 62, 65, 78, 86, New Age, 180, 202 177 Newala (Transkei), 19 Msimang, Richard, 19 Newclare, 58, 170, 173 Mullowney, John, 46 New St John's Hospital (Budapest, Murrow, Edward R., 175 Hungary), 49 Mweli Skota, T.D., see Skota, T.D. New York, 26, 91-2, 147-8, 196 Mweli New York Times Magazine, 175-6 Ngangelizwe (Thembu paramount), Naicker, Monty, 145, 151, 204 11 Naidoo, H.A., 146 Ngubane, Jordan, 130, 136, 140, Nakasa, Nat, 171, 202 193, 262nl90 Namibia, see South West Africa Nicholson, Evelyn Riley, 37, 38, Natal Witness, 154 40-1, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 51, National Anti-Pass Council, see 62, 91, 92 anti-pass campaign (1943-4); Nicholson, Bishop Thomas, 37, 40, see also pass laws 43, 46, 48, 51, 92 National Association for the Nigeria, 189-90, 191, 192-3 Advancement of Colored Njongwe, James, 161 People (NAACP), 2, 36, 38, 92, Nkoana, J.K., 187 123, 125, 147, 196, 205 Nkomo, William R, 131, 187, 199, National Council of African 278nl52 Women, 125 Nkrumah, Kwame, 50, 189-90, National Party, 54, 149-50, 156-7, 193, 276nl31 164, 179 Nokwe, Duma, 180, 191 National Union of South African Non-European United Front, 120 Students, 77 Non-European Unity Movement, Native Affairs, Department of, 172, 134 192, 195 North Western Hospital (London), Native Bills (1936), 54, 77, 93 83-4, 85-9, 100, 102, 108 Northwestern University, 38, 40-1, Native Life in South Africa, 53 42, 43, 44, 45 Native Military Corps, 128 Ntibani (Transkei), 19 Native Recruiting Corporation, 57 nurses, African, 72, 81, 100 Native Service Contract Act (1932), Nyasaland, 139, 190, 191, 193 82 Nyerere, Julius, 193 Natives' Land Act (1913), 53, 67 Nzo, Alfred, 187 Natives Representative Council (NRC), 87, 89, 120, 129, 130, Oberlin College, 21, 29 234n23 Ohlange Institute, 22 abolition, 169 Oliphant, Stephen, 106-7 Index 299

Orange Free State African Poqo, 201 Herbalists Association, 124 Port Elizabeth, 195, 201 Orange Free State Teachers Porter, J.E., 42 Association, 74 Post, 201 Orlando, 202 Poswayo, Henry, 19, 20 Mother's Welfare Association, 105 Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act Orlando East Public Library, 204 (1949), 169 Orlando Musical Association, 96 Promotion of Bantu Self- Oxford, University of Government Act (1959), 198 South Africa Society, 94 protectorates in Southern Africa, British, 93-4, 97, 138, 144 Padmore, George, 94, 238n59 Public Safety Bill (1953), 170, 178 Pan Africanist Congress, 162, Public Welfare Foundation, 189 184-5, 186, 194, 195, 197, 199, 201 Queenstown, 54 Pan African movement, 94-5, 100- 1, 108, 144-5, 147, 205-6 Ramohanoe, C.S., 114 All-African People's conference Rand Daily Mail, 178, 202 (1958), 193 Rathebe, J.R., 76, 79, 91, 203 Fifth Pan-African Congress Reddick, L.D., 147 (1945), 145 Reeves, Bishop Ambrose, 187 Independent African States, Reitz, Deneys, 74, 119, 120 conference of (1958), 193 Representation of Natives Act Pan-African Federation, 145 (1936), 87, 153 Parliamentary Voters Registration Republic Day (1961), 200-1 Act (1887), 8 Reservation of Separate Amenities pass laws, 54, 118, 120, 127, 135, Act (1953), 169 136, 142, 195 Resha, Robert, 175, 191 see also anti-pass campaign Rheinallt-Jones, J.D., 62, 63, 71, (1943_4) 72, 76, 79, 86, 100, 102-4, Paton, Alan, 167, 175-6, 187 123, 139 Patterson, C.W., 44 Rhodesia, 158, 190, 191 Pecs (Hungary), 48-9 Ricks, Nelson, 32, 34 Women's Hospital, Pecs Riley, William, 35, 37, 38, 51, 62, University, 49 91, 92 petty-bourgeoisie, African, see elite, rinderpest epidemic of 1896-7, 15 educated African Riotous Assemblies Act, Phelps-Stokes Commission, 62, 76 amendment to (1930), 82 Phillips, Ray, 63, 66, 79, 187, Robeson, Eslanda, 82, 268n38 274nlO2 Robeson, Paul, 2, 82, 145, 147 physicians, see doctors, African Rockefeller Foundation, 92 (South Africa) Rosenwald, Julius, 42 Pirn, Howard, 62, 63, 74, 76 royal visit to South Africa (1947), Pit]e, Godfrey, 159, 161 140, 153, 154-5 Plaatje, Sol, 39, 53 Rubusana, Walter, 14, 55 Pogrund, Benjamin, 204 Rustomjee, Sorabjee, 146 Poitier, Sidney, 167 Population Registration Act (1950), St Louis, 33, 45, 58, 91 169 City Hospital no. 2, 45 300 Index

St Paul (Minnesota), 33, 36, 38, 58, ANC anti-removal campaign, 91 174-5, 178, 183 St James AME Church, 36 Anti-Expropriation and Proper St Peter's Secondary School, 168 Housing Movement, 173-4 Sampson, Anthony, 185 government removal plans, Schomburg Collection, 147, 172-6, 197-8 259-60nl56 population in 1950, 171 Scott, Michael, 124 Resettlement Board, 176, 197 Second World War, see World War II South Africa, Republic of, see under 'See It Now' television program, specific names, places, 175, 270n57 organizations, and subjects Selope Thema, R.V., see Thema, South Africa Act (1909), 85 R.V. Selope South Africa Society (Oxford), 94 Seme, Pixley, 19, 21, 50, 55, 61, South African Bureau of Racial 64, 83, 111, 126, 167 Affairs (SABRA), 185-6 Shaka, 133, 254nlO3 South African Coloured People's Sharpeville, 195, 199, 200 Organization, 181 Shaw, Rev. William, 8, 16 South African Congress of Trade Shaw University, 98 Unions, 181 Sierra Leone, 68, 190 South African Indian Congress, Sihlali, S.P., 16 134, 146, 152, 177, 181 Simpson, Rowland, 193 South African Institute of Race Sims, Bishop D.H., 79, 82 Relations, 62, 72, 76-7, 83, 86, Sims, Mayme, 89 97, 118, 173, 185, 200, 202, Sisulu, Walter, 125, 130-1, 156, 204 160, 161, 166, 167, 174, 178, memorandum on black South 180, 253n94 Africans studying overseas, Skota, T.D. Mweli, 64 102-5 Smit, Douglas, 119 political stance in early 1940s, Smith, Dr Ethel, 57 122-4 Smuts, Jan, 85, 202 South African Native Affairs as Prime Minister of South Commission (1903-5), 24 Africa, 54, 121, 128-9, South African Native College, see 141-2, 154, 156-7, 158 Fort Hare United Nations, appearance South African Native National before regarding South West Congress, 23, 53-4 Africa, 144, 146, 148, 149 see also African National Xuma, encounter with in New Congress York, 148 South African Outlook, 45 see also United Party Southern Nguni, 6, 9 Sobhuza, Paramount Chief, 97 South West Africa Sobukwe, Robert, 184, 199 ANC branch, proposed, 139 Soga, A.K., 14 Bondelswarts rebellion (1922), Solanke, Ladipo, 95 54 Sondlo, Robinson, 24 and United Nations, 144-9, Sophiatown, 58-9, 61, 127, 170-6, 260-lnl65 204 Soviet Union, 120, 189 American media coverage of, Soweto, 198, 204 175-6 Star, 186 Index 301

State Department, US, 196, 197 Transkei Native Vigilance Stevenson, Adlai, 189 Association, 15 strikes, 54, 127, 128, 140 Transvaal African Football African mine workers' strike Association, 117 (1946), 141-2, 156 Transvaal Bantu Football Sunday Times, 175 Association, 117 Suppression of Communism Act Transvaal Council of Trade Unions, (1950), 169-70 142 Swaziland, 93, 96, 144, 149, 204 Transvaal Indian Congress, 151, 154, 174 Tabata, I.B., 133-4, 158 Treason Trial, 188, 191 Taberer, H.M., 57 Triomf, 198, 278nl47 Tambo, Oliver, 130-1, 156, 160, Tsele, Peter, 166 161, 166, 167, 180, 186, 191, Tunzi, R.M., 166 253n94 Tuskegee Institute, 2, 3, 20, 22-3, Tanganyika, 158, 191, 193 27-32, 42, 50, 97, 123, 181, Tantsi, Rev. J.Z., 20 205 Taylor, James Dexter, 63 see also Washington, Booker T. Thaele, James, 21 Thema, R.V. Selope, 62, 64, 65, 78, Uganda, 190, 191 86, 89, 96, 138, 156, 166, 177, Umkhonto we Sizwe, 201 181, 265n5 Umteteli wa Bantu, 65, 75, 87, 88, Themba, Can, 201 96, 107, 227n42 Thembu (chiefdom), 6, 9-12 United Nations, 128, 143, 163, Thembu Church, 11 195, 196, 199 Thembuland, 7, 9-12, 15 and status of South West Thornton, Sir Edward, 71 Africa, 144, 146, 148-9, Tile, Nehemiah, 11 260-lnl65 Time magazine, 175 United Party, 85, 118-9, 126-7, Times, The (London), 93, 202 136, 139, 156-7 Tloome, Dan, 134-5, 156 United States of America, see under Toronto, University of, 36 specific names, places, traditional medicine, African, 60, organizations, and subjects 61, 71 Universal Negro Improvement Transkei, 3, 5-25, 116, 172, 201 Association, 38 administration, 7-8 Urban League, 41, 123, 147 annexation (nineteenth century), 7 van Buuren, R.J., 203 Bunga, 155 Verwoerd, Hendrik, 173, 180, 195, chiefdoms, 6, 7 200 conversion, Christian, 8 Victoria Falls Power Company, 128 economy, 6, 12, 15 Vorster, B.J., 200 education in, 13-14, 16, 19 Vundla, P.Q., 175, 187 franchise, 8 literacy, 8 War Measures Act 145 (1942), 127 missionaries, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16 War Measures Act 1425 (1945), population in the 1890s, 6, 8 127, 141 Transkeian Territories African Washington, Booker T., 3, 22-3, Union, 15 27-32, 34, 62-3, 64, 161-2 302 Index

influence on Xuma, 2, 31-2, African Methodist Episcopal 49-50, 52, 70, 73, 74-5, 97, (AME) Church, involvement 108, 181, 205 with, 2, 20, 23, 36, 50, 65, Wesleyan Methodist Church, 9, 11, 69-70, 80, 81-2, 97, 108, 23 194, 196, 202, 205 Wesleyan Methodist Missionary African National Congress: Society, 8 presidency of, 110-64, West Africa, 158, 188, 193 205-6; resignation from West African Students' Union, 95 national executive, 165-6 Westdene, 171, 172 African National School Fund, Western Areas of Johannesburg, see 167 Sophiatown All African Convention (AAC), Western Areas Students participation in, 28, 86-8 Association, 171 anti-pass campaign (1943-4), Western Native Township, 59 participation in, 136-8, 142 Whyte, Quintin, 185, 202 assault, victim of, 78, 84, 107, Wilberforce Choir, 203 172, 232n94, 243-4nlO9 Wilberforce Institute (South Africa), birth (1893), 9, 208nl3 20, 69-70, 80, 81-2 Britain, experiences in, 49, 93-6 Wilberforce Library Society, 100 burial, 203 Wilberforce University (USA), 20, certificates and diplomas 65, 68, 70, 91 awarded: Diploma of Public Wilkins, Roy, 33, 36, 91, 147, 196, Health (DPH), London, 96; 237n45 high school diploma, Windhoek Advertiser, 144 Tuskegee, 32; junior Winston-Salem Teachers College, certificate, Cape Education 98 Department, 18-19 Wisconsin, University of, 38 Chicago, experiences in, Witwatersrand, University of the, 37-8, 39, 41 3, 74, 114, 168, 173, 184, 185, childhood, 12-13 190 children, 78-9, 97, 168-9, 192, Work, Monroe, 36 204, 279nl World, see Bantu World civil disobedience and mass World War I, 20, 33, 45, 53, 58, action, attitude toward, 128, 118, 144 131-2, 137, 151-2, 159-60, World War II, 73, 110, 126, 144 164, 177-8, 183, 203, 206 impact on African nationalism, class consciousness, 59, 65, 67- 118, 120-1, 249n48 8, 73, 77-8, 205, 231n90 Wright, Bishop R.R., 81, 82 communism and communists, attitude toward, 120, 133, Xuma, Abraham Mangali, 9, 10-11, 134-6, 138, 141, 156, 13, 15, 18, 23 272n81 Xuma, Alfred Bitini death (1962), 201 Africa (north of the Limpopo), degrees awarded: Bachelor of interest in, 158, 189-90, Science (BS), Minnesota, 36; 192-4 Doctor of Medicine (MD), African-American women, Northwestern, 47; Licentiate interest in, 89, 91, 92, 96, of the Royal College of 98-9 Physicians and Surgeons Index 303

(LRCP & S), Edinburgh, 49; 204; internships in, 45, 47, Licentiate of the Royal 48-9, 93; lectures in, Faculty of Physicians and 167-8; Medical Officer of Surgeons (LRFP & S), Health, Alexandra, 71, 96, Glasgow, 223n75 97, 125, 167; study of, 36, deputations, participation in, 63, 37-49, 56, 90, 93, 96, 167; 76, 87, 120, 141 traditional African medicine, drought relief effort (1945-6), attitude toward, 61, 71 138 Milwaukee, experiences in, 39 education: before 1913, 13, 15- Minnesota, experiences in, 33-7 19; between 1913 and 1927, Natives Representative Council: 26-52 attitude toward, 89, 120, ethnic background, 9 142; family background, 9 role in adjournment of, funeral, 202-3 142-3 grave, 204 Pan Africanist Congress, links to, health, physical, 138-9, 146, 184-5, 194, 197, 272-3n89 196, 201, 277nl43 Pan African movement, interest home in Dube (Soweto), 198, in, 94-5, 100-1, 108, 144-5, 202, 204 147, 205-6 home in Sophiatown, 171-2, papers, personal, 3, 204 197-8, 204 parents, see Xuma, Abraham homelands, opinion on, 197 Mangali and Xuma, Elizabeth Hungary, experiences in, 48-9 Cupase ideology, political, 50-2, 67, 73- passport applications, 146, 5, 107-9, 121-2, 132-3, 134, 191-6, 258-9nl51 135-6, 141, 162-4, 182-6, police, monitored by, 191-5 205-6, 272n85 political activity, initial, 62 Indians (in South Africa), political consciousness, early, 18 cooperation with, 134, 150-3 property ownership, 172 Joint Council movement, protectorates in Southern Africa, involvement in, 62-3, 64-5, opinion on, 93-4, 144, 149 76, 97, 109, 122, 124 religious affiliation, 23, 36, 69, leadership style, 112, 121-2, 160 228-9n60 liberals (white), attitude toward, siblings, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 97, 203 57_8; 63-4, 71, 77, 86, Smuts, Jan, encounter with in 88-9, 101, 102-5, 107-9, New York, 148 122, 162-3, 173-4, 206 Sophiatown, efforts to save, library, personal, 204, 173-6 216-17nl5 South African Institute of Race marriage to Amanda Mason Relations, clashes with, (1931), 68-9 102-5; 122-4; marriage to Madie Hall (1940), South West Africa, opposition to 98-100 South African incorporation, medicine: career in, 36, 56-8, 144-50 59-61, 70-3, 80-1, 125, speeches (selected): 'Bantu 167-8; Crogman Community Schools Under Bantu Clinic, 97, 125, 167; fund for Education' (1961), 200; African medical students, 'Bridging the Gap Between 304 Index

White and Black in South Differentiations Based on Africa' (1930), 66-7, 84; The Race and Colour' (1935), Indispensable Work of a 83-5; 'Kaffir Beer' (1941), Teacher' (1933), 74-5; Mendi 119-20; letter to ANC memorial ceremonies (1939, conference (1955), 182-3; 1941), 101, 118; 'Native 'South West Africa: Taxation' (1933), 76, 78; Annexation or United 'Reconstituting the Union of Nations Trusteeship?' (1946), South Africa' (1932), 74; 149; 'The Story of My Transvaal Indian Congress, Education' (1930), 49-50; in address to (1948), 151-2 Umteteli, 65 teaching experiences, 19, 167-8 Xuma, Alfred Mtutuzeli, 79, 97, testimony to government 168-9, 192, 204, 279nl commissions (selected): Xuma, Amanda Mason, 68-9, 78-9, Liquor Commission (1931), 89, 203 67-8; Miners' Phthisis Xuma, Ben, 16 Commission (1929), 62; Xuma, David, 16 Native Economic Commission Xuma, Elizabeth Cupase, 9, (1931), 67-8; Native 10-11, 13, 23 Education, Committee on Xuma, Elizabeth Nozipho, 78, 97, (1935), 83; Transport for 168, 204 Natives in Johannesburg, Xuma, Frankfort, 9, 203 Commission on (1934), 78 Xuma, Madie Hall, 137, 155, 167, Tuskegee Institute, experiences 176, 189, 192, 203, 205 at, 28-32, 50 adjustment to South Africa, United Nations: contact with in initial, 100, 125 1946, 143-6; contact with in African Americans, perspectives 1960-1, 196, 197, 199; on, 100, 125 lobbying efforts at in 1946, African National Congress, 148-50 involvement in, 116-7, 125, United States of America: 161, 168 departure for in 1913, 24; 'American Negro Revue' (1943), experiences between 1913 117 and 1926, 26-52; experiences birth (1894), 98 in 1937, 91-3; experiences in death (1982), 204 1946, 146-50; experiences in education, 98, 99 1960, 196-7; interest in, family background, 98, 240n72 general, 189; interest in, first meeting with Alfred B. initial, 19-25; news coverage Xuma, 92, 98 in, 175-6; plans for 1937 marriage to Alfred B. Xuma, 100 trip, 89-91 parents, 98, 240n72 Washington, Booker T., reaction to Alfred B. Xuma's admiration of, 2, 31-2, courtship, 98-9 49-50, 52, 70, 73, 74-5, 97, religious affiliation, 98 108, 181, 205 return to United States (1963), women's issues, attitude toward, 204 68, 116-17 speech on 'The American Negro writings (selected): 'The Evil and His Progress' (1940), 100 Effects of Political travels, 168, 190-1 Index 305

YWCA, involvement in, 98; 125, 45, 47-8, 50, 66, 90, 91, 92, 147 168, 190 Young Women's Christian Zenzele clubs, promotion of, Association (YWCA), 30, 98, 125, 168 125, 168, 190 Xuma, Richard, 9, 11, 15 Youth League, ANC, see African Xuma, Sarah, 97 National Congress (ANC), Youth League Yergan, Max, 82, 88, 89-91, 145, 147, 205, 236n37, 237n45 Zanzibar, 191 Young Men's Christian Association Zenzele movement, 125, 168 (YMCA), 30, 35, 39, 41, 42-3, Zululand, 116, 155, 172