CHAytBR IV

THE OQNCEPT CF RASA

A) The Concept of

The concept of raga is of a later origin. In the IP*. early days of Gandharv^, «usic was presented through the Tsediiim of Jatis. Bharata has described Jatis as the prevalent melody modes of his tioe. In his tiae the term 'Raga* was not current in its present sense. In the Natyasastra the term has been used in many different senses. *Raga' meant the capacity of the then melody modes viz, Jatis to entertain the listeners. The term hds also been used in connection with playing on Mrdariga (Karanaraga), It has again been used in connection with rhythmic beats of time measures (ragamarga). The term has also been used in connection with the melodies which evolved out of Jatis (Grimaragas). It was also con­ ventional with certain scholars to call Jatis themselves as Jatiragas. But the addiendum »» did not convey any special meaning. It simply meant »melodies that were known as Jatis*. In the chapter on the study of the concept of Jatis, their importance, and the role played by them in the field of music then prevalent, has been evaluated. Jatigana was mainly concerned with Gandharvia, as distinguished by Abhinavagupta, from Gana, Abhinava had analysed a fundamental fourfold

211 212 distinction between and Gana, viz: 1) They differed as to the nature of the formal struc­ ture. They were composed of distinct set of Svara, Pada and Tala. 2) They served different ends of purpose. Gandharva was intended for Adrsta Phala, such as Nissreyasa, whereas Gana was explicitly intended for a mundane purpose, of the satis­ faction of the listeners. (Drsta Phala), 3) In the theatrical performance, the occasions for their employment were different. Gandharva was employed in the Purvaranga with a propitiatory purpose. Gana was employed within the plot of the play, in Dhruvas, to suit the occasions. h) Their functions were distinct. Gandharva was meant for the performers; the Adrsta phala arising out of its per­ formance would accrue to the performing musicians, Gandharva was tbus concerned with divine subjects. Gana, on the other hand was meant for the audience. It was composed basically with a view to pleasing the listner/viewer. The Dhruvas in which Gana was employed were therefore more concerned with the contents of popular life, such as, for example, seasons, rivers, birds, forests, beasts, festivals, feelings, senti­ ments, etc. This provided a basis for the Desi Gana which was later dealt with by Matanga, Kallinatha, in his commen­ tary on S.P. ^,1,^0, has equated Gana with Desi music, Abhinavagupta, in the course of discussion of the topic, has drawn further points of difference between Gandharva and i 213 I I Gana. Gandharva, as a sublime and sacred forffi of music, was governed by rules and injunctions which could never be dis­ regarded. Gana on the other hand, being guided by the principle of producing a pleasing effect, could admit of all possible musical scales and complex chromatic tonal formations. In Jatigayana, the movement was permitted in all the three octaves, but restricted to a particular note in the Tara and Mandra octaves. Forms like Gramaragas etc, used in G^a had no such restrictions and the performer could move freely in the Tara and Mandra octaves at his sweet will and capacity for such a movement. Tala structures in Gandharva were too complex, as compared with those of Gana. As regards the Svara system in

I the Jatis of Gandharva, they were either septatonic (vrLth seven notes), hexatonic (with six notes), or pentatonic (v;ith five notes). Jatis with less than five notes were not permissible in Gandharva. In Gana however, formations with four (and less number of) notes were at times used. Bharata has made a mention of Avakrsta Dhruvas, wherein the musical formations used contained four notes, G5na meant, according to Abhinava, all musical forms utilised in Dhruva singing and the background music of the drama. It used forms like Gramaragas, Bhasas, ragas etc. moulding the structure and ethos suited to the dramatic plots. Kasyapa, in a passage in Brhaddesi ascribed to him, says that Gramaragas should be sung in the five Dhruvas, viz, Pravesa, Aksepa, Niskrama, Prasadika, and Antara. Abhinava quotes from 21^ this passage from Ka^yapa where many Gramaragas have been trac­ ed to their parent Jati forms. It will be seen from the above discussion that Grama^ ragas were the first offshoot from Jatis. Jatis were decided by the Nyasa note primarily; however in one Jati often the melodic expressions differed, owing to different Atfisas there­ in. These different melodic expressions formed the basis for the Gramaragas. In this Gramaraga, we find the seed of the concept of raga. And since Gramaragas themselves developed from Jatis, Jatis were termed as the root ragas, (Miilaragas). These Gramaragas mark the beginning of the Raga system, Bharata himself mentions certain Gramaragas in his Natyasastra. Harivatn^a, which is regarded as a supplement of , also refers, to certain Gramaragas, (Visnuparvan, 89.82) which were presumably identical with those mentioned in the Natya­ sastra. Another evidence of currency of Grgtoaragas is furnish­ ed by the Kuduraiyamalai inscription of the Pudukottai State (7th century). The concept of raga could be said to have been settled by about 6th century. The term • raga' in its conventional meaning was used for the first time, in the musical world, by Matanga in his Brhaddesi. The work can be regarded as an important land mark in the Raga history. It takes the first official congnizance of the existence of ragas and contains a separate chapter devoted to the topic of ragas. Matanga has said that he dealt with, in his book, the topic of ragas which 215 was not treated by earlier musicologists like Bharata etc. The concept of raga was introduced in the musical field just with a view to explaining in clear terms the various melodic expressions that arose out of Jatis. It served the purpose of Indian musical system in a more convenient way than Jatis. As a means for the introduction of the raga concept in music, Oitis as the forms of presentation were first in­ troduced and the ragas later appeared through the medium of Gitis. The peculiar arrangement of the note forms, which is the basis of the concept of raga, are manifested through Gitis, Gitis were initially given as five, viz. Suddh^, Bhinna, Gaudi, Vesara, Sadharani, There has always been a difference of opinion about the number of Gitis. Sardula had accepted only one Giti viz, Bhasa, whereas Kasyapa had accepted two, viz, Bhasa and Vibhasa. According to Yastika, they were three, Bhasa", Vibhasa and Antarabhasa. Dvrga^akti had accepted five Gitis as mentioned above, Matanga has given seven Gitis -

I five given above and two more, Bhasa and Vibhasa". The only change is that in the place of Vesara Giti, he has given Raga Giti, The ragas dealt with by Matanga have appeared through the medium of these seven Gitis, Ragas arising out of the first five Gitis (i.e. Suddha etc, upto Sadharani) were five, five, three, eight and seven respectively, i.e. twentyeight in all. These have been termed, by Nahyadeva, Abhinavagupta, Sarngadeva, etc. as Gramaragas. Earlier, the melodic expre­ ssions arising out of the peculiar arrangements of the notes 216 in a Grama, were termea as Grafflaragas. The Gramaragas mention- ed in Natyaiastrz­ a were ©f tlais type. The same term was used to denote Matanga»s rigas, since they were based upon the different melodic expressions arising out of the note arrange­ ments in Jatis. Since they were derived from Jatis which had

i relationship with the two Gramas, they were termed as Grama­ ragas. GraJBaragas were thus the first step towards the development of the concept of raga« After Gramaragas, there appeared what were called Bhasas or Bhasaragas. Out of the twentyeight Gramaragas that h)ad arisen from the fi]fst five Gltis of Matanga, there are fifteen which have given rise to certain Bhasas, numbering about seventythree in «LL1, This information has been given by him accoixiing to Tasitika Mat a, quoted by him. From Bhasas have arisen Vibhasas- Matanga has already accepted two more Gitis by name BhasS anc^ Vibhasas, Bhasas have been regarded by Matanga as melodic expressions of Gramaragas. Just as various melodic expressions of Jatis gave rise to GraJBaragas, in the same way the melodic expressions of GramarSgas gave rise to Bhasa rffgas. Matanga has not given Vibhasa varieties. Matanga has quoted Yastika to show the process of evolution of the raga concept froia the Jatis. According to Yastika, originally there were onXy two Gramas or the basic scales. From Gr&Das, Jatis were derived; from Jatis, Graiaaragas; and from GraJBaragas, the formalised Desi ragas. There is one more stage between Gramas and Jatis, viz, Murcchanas, They were no doubt instrumental to the formation of Jatis. Since however 217

the Jatis were the first oelody-oode-type formations which \iLtiiBately evolved into rag as, the process has been taken to begin with them. In the quotation of Yastika three varieties have been mentioned, viz. Bhasa, Vibhasa and Antarabhasa. Matanga however seems to have regarded the latter two as different parts of Bhaka only and hence in giving the ragas of Des'i type, he has made a mention of Bhasa ragas only. In Matanga's time both Marga and Des'i types of music were current and the distinction between the two has been clearly brought out by him, Marga sangita came down tradi­ tionally, and was bound by certain set of rules. Initially it had its sphere limiiied to altars and moved around religious functions and similar occasions. Although later it set aside the ecclesiastical limitations, it still remained the music of the hi^ brow society and not of the common man. Side by side, there was anothei' type of music current in different levels of society, in different regions. In times to follow, the musicologists studied both the systems carefully, amd rearranged the science of music accordingly in order to make it nearer and dearer to common man. In doing so, they had to think of such tunes and melodies as would have an easy popular appeal. For this purpose, the material readily available was the Jatis. By taking into account the peculiarities of the manifestation of the notes, the use of various graces, amen­ able fluctuations in human voice, they could bring out such melodies from the existing melodies as would have different 218 shades of entertainment, and the Gitis served as the conve­ yance for such melodies to be carried to the hearts of the people. The outcome of these efforts was the Gramaragas - new melodies which evolved through the existing ones and paved the way for future such evolution. Out of the fifteen Gramarap-as stated above to have been instrumental to the rise of seventythree ragas, none is from the Buddha Giti. The reason presumably is that the produc­ tion of new melodies or tunes presupposes blending of tunes. And the ragas under Suddha Giti would not admit of any such admixture. Not all but some GraiTiaragas from other Gitis have however been causal in the formation of the Bhasaragas, Matanga has given the details of his ragas in terms of Jatis from which they are derived, and the Grama (Sadja- grama or Madhyaraagrama) to which they belong. When the Jati to which the rSga belonged is given, the note structure of the Jati also defined the note structure of the raga. Matanga has given the murcchanas of the particular Jati, Before sing­ ing a particular raga, the murcchana had to be determined first, and that would determine the trend of the raga. Murcchana was thus the deciding factor of the raga. Matanga has in fact stated that the very purpose of the murcchanas is the establishment of Jatis, Ragas, Bhasas etc. It would thus appear that in the process of determining the concept of raga, the murcchanas have been the fountainhead and had a very important role in the domain of classical music. With 219 different aljustraents of the tDurcchanas, numerous different ragas were evolved. In short, what a mela or a that a in the modern days is for a raga, the murcchana was for a raga in those days. It would he seen from the ahove discussion that the raga as a form of melody, other than the Jati, had been well lit • established as early as in the days of Matanga. Since the origin of our music traces as back as Sama-Veda, the sequence of the evolution of the raga concept may be stated as follows: Samagana - ^ruti, Svara, Graiaa - Murcchana - Jati - Gramaragas, Bhasas, Vibhasas. For the first time in the histoiy of music, Matanga has given a clear-cut definition of the term raga as 'a combination of notes embellished with melodic movements (Varnas), which is capable of producing pleasing effects. He has stated that the very root from which the terra is deriv­ ed contains the element of delighting. In his definition Matanga has brought out the following points: (i) A raga must I have its o\vm definitive combination of notes; (li) it must be embellished by Varnas - the four varnas viz, Sthayin, Arohin, Avarohin and Sancarin, which give rise to numerous a3-ankaras; and (iii) it must be capable of pleasing the listener, which is its essential trait, as the name itself denotes. Numerous definitions of the term 'raga* have appeared thereafter. The crux of them is practically the same as that of Matanga's definition. From Matanga's time onwards, raga^ gayana had been a regular part of Indian music, and the 1 220 musicologists who came later had to devote a chapter in their books for the study of ragas,

B) Evolution of Raga System in Indian Music

It has been seen earlier that the raga concept develop­ ed from the original Jatigayana which held the field of music, and Grainaragas were its first manifestation. Raga as the new form of melody was received popular recognition in Matanga's time and had found a place in his treatise Brhaddesi. The concept however did not remain static there, and was open to further changes, developments, and assimilation of newer ideas. The process of evolution was a continuous one, and music could not be an exception. It is out of this process of evolution that the ragagayana in the days of Matan'ga has taken the form of ragagayana of to-day. From 6th century till to-day, raga­ gayana has undergone immense changes suiting to the needs of time and tastes of the people. The history of its journey through all these centuries is eloquent enough of the progress made by it from its basic concept in Matanga's days to its present form. In Matajiga's time, there were two distinct divi­ sions of music - Marga and Desi, In course of time, the dis­ tinction gradually vanished, and there remained in the field of music only one system i.e. Desi music, containing all Desi ragas. Later, this discriminatory limitation also disappeared, and all were ragas only. Although some musicologists of the medieval period had given treatment of Jatis side by side with treatment of ragas, this was done just with a view to provide 221 historical background, since ragas were an artistic growth from out of Jatis, and potentialities of Jati modes could be extend­ ed to the raga modes. The concept of raga was thus ever in the process of change through evolution. It is therefore desirable to scale this process of change through the works of different musicologists. Out of the musicologists who came after Matanga, Nanya- bhupala is one who has given in his famous book, Bharata- bhasya, a detailed exposition of the ragas prevalent in his times. He uses the terras 'Svarakhya' (ragas taking their origin from Svaras, such as Gaudapancaraa, Madhyaraasadava etc.,) and Des^akhya (ragas taking their origin from particular regions, such as, Saurastri, Bangili, etc.). In his book, he has given description of Gramaragas and Bhasas, The term 'Des'akhya' used by him indicated Desi ragas as obtained during his time. In giving the characteristics of various tunes, he seems to have followed Matanga. Narada, a musicologist of 11th century, and the author of Sangitamakaranda, has enumerated in his book about 93 ragas. He mentions three species of ragas viz, Purusa ragas, stri ragas and Napumsaka ragas. He has also given another classification of ragas in three groups, viz. (i) Muktanga- kampita - ragas which have quivering (Kampitagamai^a) through­ out, (il) Ardhakampita - ragas having partial quivering, and (iii) Kampavihina - ragas absolutely free from quivering.'^ Classification of ragas as male and female ragas was perhaps 222 his original contribution, and has appeared in the field of music for the first time. Ragas treated in his book are obviously new i.e. Desi ragas, Some^vara (12th century), in his Manasollasa, has also dealt with the topic of ragas. He traced ragas indirectly from Sama Veda. According to him Desi ragas derived from the names of the regions were current in his time in popular and

beautiful forms. He further states that a raga develop)sS by 7 hearing and the mind is always pleased and elated by it. Ragas enumerated by him are more or less similar to those of Matariga, 1 The next important work, in which the evolution of ragas (i.e. Desi ragas) from Gramaragas has been given in full details is Sangitaratnakara of Sarngadeva. He too follows Matariga in treating Jatis as Mularagas from which Gramaragas had evolved. The number of Grainaragas treated by him as aris­ ing out of different Gitis is 30. Apart from the Gramaragas, he has given varieties and the number contained in each, as follows: Uparagas: Like Gramaragas, they too have their origin in Jatis. They are so called because they are not actually Gramaragas, but nearer to Gramaragas. Their number is 8, Ragas; They also spring from Jatis, but have a simple name 'raga'. These 'ragas', although derived from Jatis, have an independent existence. Their names, such as, Sriraga, Natta, Raktahamsa, etc. appear like those of original (and 223 not derivatory or combinational) ragas. Some of these names have also appeared as names of later ragas. That may also be the reason why they were classified by the sinjple name 'ragas' without: any qualifying preposition. It is also significant that these ragas have not been the originators of Bhasas, Vibhasas and Antarabhasas, which marked the midway journey to other Desi formations such as Ragarigas etc. The ragas number 20: Bhasa, Vibhasa and Antarabhasa; According to Saxriga- certain Graraaragas and Uparagas (numbering 15 in all) have given rise to Bhasas (96), Vibhasas (20) and Antarabhasas (^). This is in accordance with the view of Yastika. Mataiiga also quoted Yastika while giving Graraaragas as originators of Bhasas. Bhasas according to Matanga are variations of Grama^ ragas. Following Matanga, Sarngadeva too regards Bhasas, Vibhasas and Antarabhasas as graded forms of presentation of pure raga music. Although they are graded variations of Grama- ragas, they do contain the power of pleasing the listeners, and hence they are regarded as ragas. In terras of modern music it may be explained like this. There is a raga Malakarasa as an original raga. With slight variations in the note struc­ tures, varieties like Candrakariisa, Madhukamsa, Kamsaranjani, etc. are formed. Although these are different varieties of Karasa, they have their own potentialities, their own aesthetics and their own grades of presentation and hence they are treated as independent ragas. On this analogy the independent status 22V of Bhasas etc. as ragas can well be appreciated. Ra^ariga; Ragas in this category are based on rTraraa- ragas. In the exposition of these, the rales of the theory- have to be strictly followed. The number of this category given by Sarngadeva is 29. Bha.safiga: Ragas of this variety contain the shades of Bhasaragas. Here the rules of theory have a secondary im­ portance. Primary importance is given to the various regional languages and styles, keeping in view the quality of enter­ tainment. They number 20. Kriyariga; Ragas in this category have primary appeal to the sentiments and emotions. There is a rigid observance of theory rules, though here and there a dissonant note may be used, to arouse the required emotion. The number of this variety is 15. Upanga; No separate description is available. They have been included under the category 'Ragariga* . Their number is 30. Sarngadeva himself has not given any explanation of these terras, although he has given the names of ragas under these categories. Kallinatha, his commentator, has reproduc­ ed the above explanations, stated by him as given by Matanga, Ragarigas etc. have been regarded as purely Desi ragas. Bhasas etc. were an intermediary stage - a transition from the old type Gramaragas, showing the inclination of music towards getting rid of the fetters of traditionalism and going nearer 22^ to the people at large. Ragan'gas etc, indicate further pro­ gress in this direction. They are treated as Desi ragas not merely because earlier musicologists like Bharata etc, had not treated them, but also for the reason that they maintained their individuality and separate entity as ragas. All these put together i.e. from Gramaragas upto Upangas, Sarngadeva has given the number of ragas current during his time as 261+, although in one place he says that Desi ragas are innumerable. He has not given descriptions of all the ragas current in his time. He has described in detail only few Gramaragas, leaving BhSsas, Vibhasas etc., out of the scope of such a treatment. Justice to some of these has been done by Kallinatha in his commentary. However, in respect of whatever ragas Sarngadeva has dealt with in detail, he has furnished every information required, such as, for example, Jatis from which they were derived, their Graha, Arasa, Nyasa notes, Murcchanas, notes rarely or frequently occurring in them, their deities, the embellishments or graces suited to them, time of singing, main sentiments to which they had an appeal, their Alapas, rupakas, etc. From Ragarigas etc., Sarngadeva had treated as Desi ragas. Out of these, some were outdated and replaced by new ones. He has made two separate lists, viz. (i) of ragas in vogue in earlier days (Purva- prasiddha) and (ii) those current in his days (Adhuna- prasiddha). Sangitaratn'akara, like Brhaddesi, was also another important landmark in the history of Riga development. The 226 exposition of ragas given by Sarrigadeva is elaborate and authoritative. The niost valuable information that he gives is the ancestry of certain ragas which must have acquired their names as early as in 8th century. His book affords evidences as to the sources of various ragas, their character and existence. From a careful and comparative study of Matariga's Brhaddesi and Sarngadeva's Sangitaratnakara, it would be ob­ served that during the course of the few centuries that pass­ ed between the two, there had been practically no change in the system of ragagayana, except for the fact that during the period of Sangitaratnakara, a few more Desi ragas had come into being. Jatigayana was still in the field side by side with ragagayana. The concept of linking ragas with Jatis still pursued. It was the practice of giving raga characteristics in terms of Graha, Arasa and Nyasa, etc. as in the case of Jatis, Certain ragas given in Sangitaratnakara were the same as those given in Brhaddesi. A list of such common ragas, only illustrative and not exhaustive, is given below:

Giti Ragas

Suddha Suddhasadharita, Suddhapancama, Suddha- s^^adava etc. Bhinna Bhinnasadja, Bhinnatana, Bhinnapancama etc. Gaudi Gaudakai^ika, GaudapafTcama, etc. Vesara_ Takka, Sauvira, Botta, Hindola, etc. (Ragagiti) Sadharani Rupasadharita, Gandharapancama, etc. 227

Certain derivatives (Bhasas etc.) from Gramaragas were also common, such as, for example:

Gramaraga Bhasa

Takka Travana, Travanodbhava, Veranji, Chevati, etc. Sauvlraka Sauviri, Vegamadhyam'a, Sadharita, etc, Kakubha Kambhoja, Madbyamagrama, etc. Pancama Abhiri, , Bhavani, Andhri, etc. Hindola Vesari, Madhuri, MaKjari (Cutameinjari ac. (Prerikhaka ac, to S.R.) etc. to S.B.) Botta Mangala (Marigali) Bhi nn ap afTc am a Suddhabhinna, Dhalvatabhusita, etc. Bhinnasadja Suddh"a, Gandh"ari, Saindhavi, etc.

These are only few examples. It would be seen from the above that during the course of those four or five centuries, ragagayana had not much changed. From l^th century onwards, however, we find traces of changes coming in the field of music in general, and in the field of ragagayana in particular. The very important change that had occurred was the bifurcation of one single system of music into two - the north Indian system and the South Indian system. The exact date from which the two systems bifurcated is yet a matter of research. How- ever it was not there in the days of Sarngadeva i.e. in 13th century, and its presence was being felt in Locana Kavi's time, 228 i.e. in l5th century. Sangitaratnakara was very clearly a book on the unified system of Indian music that came down through tradition. Locana Kavi's Ragatarangini, on the other hand, was a book on the Northern system of music. Round about the same time, a book on South Indian system of music, by name Sangitasara, was written by Vidyaranya. Obviously the bifurcation has not taken place in a day and the process might have been going for years. There cannot also be a deliberate attempt behind it. With the advent of Muslim rule in the tiorth a material change took place in the outlook of music in the North. Contact with Muslim culture in general and Muslim music in particular had its effect on Indian music in the North. By acquiring new ideas and tunes, and with the admixture of foreign tunes with the original ones, Indian music in the North was gradually changing its face as well as its interior. New melodies were being created. Old ones were put in new forms. New styles of presentation were being developed. New forms of music, of lighter vein than the Prabandhas or Dhruvapadas, such as Khayal, Tappa, Thumri etc., were being introduced. The music in the north swallowed all these changes and fresh introductions, assimilated them, and consequently emerged in altogether a new form, showing very little semblance with the traditional music.

As compared with the music in North, the music in South could remain away from the influence of the Mohamedan culture. The Muslim influence did not spread in South as much as it did in North, and did not, as a result, tamper 229 with the system of music prevalent there, which could retain its initial style and character. Music in South paid respect­ ful attention to the Sastram or theory. Many new books were written in course of time on the system of music prevalent in South, which ultimately developed into a separate style under the title Karnataka style. South Indian musicians claim that their system is very much near to the ancient, traditional music. It cannot be authentically said that ragagayana pre­ valent in South is the same as that of the ancient days. However, it is quite distinct from that in the North, and has * its individuality. _

Names of ragas were new, and bore no semblance with ragas that were current In earlier centuries. Locana Kavi mentions some Persian ragas such as Iman, Ferodast, etc. That shows that the influence of Persian music had reached him. Names of his parent ragas or Samsthanas as he called them su:*e; , , Gauri, Karnata, Kedara, Iman, Saraiiga, Megha, DhanWri, Pur?a, Mukhari and Dipaka, These names, as well as those of many of his derivative or Janya ragas, still continue in the modern music. The only difference was that some ragas retain­ ed the names but changed the note structures and some changed the names but retained the note structures. Locana Kavi had accepted the creation of new ragas by the mixture of existing ragas. Creation of new melody modes by the mixture of the existing ones was not altogether a new.practice and existed in olden days too. The process of evolution of ragas from Jatis is a clear testimony of this. Admixture of ragas had all along been recognised as a scholarly practice bearing worthy results in capable hands. Raga system has apparently developed on various lines, such as, for example: (i) by introducing varieties of improvisations, keeping the original note struc­ ture as it is; (ii) by creating a new raga with the combination of two or more existing ragas, (iii) by keeping the name of the raga the same but changing its exposition; or (iv) by introduc­ ing regiongil variations in the exposition of the same raga. Further there are various other sources too, from which ragas

I have originated, such as tribal songs, folk music, poetic 231 creations, devotional songs, etc. The sphere of ragagayana was thus being enlarged from all sides. As a matter of interest, LocanaKavi's twelve Sam- sthanas or parent modes, their equivalents in modern music, and the system of tnusic to which the modern equivalent belongs, are given in a comparative table belov/. His work, Ragatarangini

Locana's Sam- Modern System of music to sthana Thata which belongs

Bhairavi Hindustani Todi Bhairavi Hindustani Gauri Bhairava Hindustani Karnata a Hindustani Kedara Bilavala Hindustani Iman Yam ana Hindustani Saranga Saranga Hindustani Megha Saranga Hindustani Dhanasri Puriadhanasri Hindustani Purva Citrambari Karnataka Mukhari Natabhairava Karnataka Dipaka

can be regarded as a turning point in the history of the development of the raga system. And as such, a comparative study of his parent modes with the thatas of the modern music, would be of great avail. 232

Many of the changes introduced by Locana Kavi in the field of music seera to have been followed by subsequent musicologists. His Suddha or the basic scale, i.e. the scale in which all basic notes only appear, corresponds to modern Kafi thata. In other words, the two sruti Ga ani Ni of the basic notes, were regarded by him as equivalent to Komala Ga and Ni of the modern music. In relation to this, t\ie other modifications of these two notes were Tivra, Tivratara and Tivratama, according as they took one, two or three srutis of their subsequent notes, viz. Ma and Sa respectively. This seems to have been follov/ed by many authors of the subsequent period of medieval age, like, for example, Hrdayanarayana Deva, Ahobala etc. Classification of ragas was also an issue that develop­ ed along with the development of ragagayana. In the days of Matanga, Nanyadeva or Sarngadeva, the number of ragas pre­ valent was not much and the need for their systematic classi­ fication was not perhaps felt. Narada of Sangita[^akaranda had made a modest attempt in this direction, by mentioning the species such as Purusa ragas, Stri ragas and Mapumsaka ragas. Classification of ragas into male ragas and female ragas (Ragas and Raginis) was advocated in the field of music by different systems or Matas such as Siva (Somes'vara) Mata, Krsna (or Kallinatha) Mata, Narada Mata, Hanumat Mata, etc. But this sort of classification of ragas into male and female etc. was more or less arbitrary and had no logical base. There 233 did not seera to be any definite qualities to determine why a particular raga should have belonged to a particular group and why a particular family should have belonged to a particular raga. There was no uniformity also in this sort of classifi­ cation. The result was that the system could not hold long and was later replaced by a better, more logical and more reasonable system of classification - the system of parent and derivative ragas. This was an attempt to systematise classification oh a logical base - an attempt to find out something common in the ragas so as to grouothem in one class, Locana Kavi was perhaps the first musicologist to introduce this system in Hindustani music. He has classified about sixtythree ragas under twelve parent modes which he called Samsthanas. The system gained popularity, and later musico­ logists unhasitatingly followed it, although they used a different terms for parent modes viz, mela, or thata. The raela system of classification was all the more popular with Southern musicologists. Vidyaranya of Vijayanagar was perhaps the first amongst them to introduce the genus-species system in Southern music. Ramaraatya had laid dovm about twentythree melas and included about sixtythree ragas under them, Soraanatha has given twentythree melas and has classified seventyfive ragas under them. Another important musicologist of South , Venkatajnal^hin, has gone a step ahead. On the basis of seven Suddha notes and five Vikrta notes, he has worked out seventytwo melas, which number, he confidently says, 23^ can neither be increased nor decreased. However, he uses only nineteen of them for the classification of ragas. Tulajl Bhonsle, a faithful follower of Venkataraakhin, has also worked out seventytwo melas like his Guru, but has given only twenty- one raelas as useful for classification of ragas. The classi­ fication of janya ragas into melas, as introduced by Venkata- tnakhin and Tulajd Bhonsle, still prevails in Karnataka music. As regards Hindustani music, the system continued under the title Thata. The number of Thatas differed with different musicologists, and ultimately a system of 10 thatas based on seven suddha and five Vikrta svaras, was evolved by a modern scholar V. N, Bhatkhande (19th century) under which according to him all ragas of Hindustani could be classified. Even earlier to Bhatkhande an attempt to brush off the Raga - Ragini system of classification and to introduce in a revised form the Genus-species system was made by Muhammed Reza of Patna, who had devised his ov/n system of classification based on structural similarities of ragas. (Naghmat-E-Asafi - by Muhararaed Reza). The system of Bhatkhande was however a further improvement on the subject and is yet a last word in the matter. The ten thatas devised by Bhatkhande and their note structure are as given below, C^'^^^^

The original concept of Mela or Thata was rather limited, Mela was defined as a group of notes having the o capability of creating ragas, Soraenatha explains Mela as harmonious combinations or groups of notes to which the whole 235

Thata ' Note Structure

Bilavala Sa Ri Cra Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Kalyana Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Nl Sa Khamaja Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Bhairava Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa _ _ i • Marava Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Kaphi Sa Ri. Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Bhairavi * Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha m. Sa Todi Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

raga system is confided.^ In other words, they are groups of notes wherein ragas with structural similarities could be classified. No further information or clarification of the term Mela is available in earlier treatises. Shri Bhatkhande has, after prolonged and careful study of the subject, laid down certain rules and requiretnents about the thata or mela, as follows: i) A thata must have all the seven notes of an octave in order of succession, ii) Both forms of notes, viz, Suddha and Vikrta, may be used in the formation of a thata. 236

Hi) It is not essential that a thata may have the quality of pleasing the listeners. iv) The function of a thata is to produce a raga, v) A thata is a theoretical concept and is not intended for singing.

In the original concept of raga its capacity to please the listeners has been given as an essential trait. With advance of time, the concept of 'raga' underwent modifica­ tions, and side by side with its development, certain other requirements gathered around it. The present concept of raga requires that a raga must have the following distinctive features:

1) A raga must necessarily be entertaining. The arrangement of its notes must be melodious, A raga must of needs possess aesthetic potentialities, 2) Any adjunct to it, e.g, a drone or a subordinate musical accompaniment, must be in tune with it. The concept of the drone rose up with the reduction of the system of music to one Grama, i.e. Sadja Graiiia. Now the drone will indicate the starting note, which in the case of any raga will be Sa, The drone, which controls the whole development of the raga, must be in harmony with it. Similarly, the musical instru­ ment which accompanies the singer must be in tune v/ith the raga which is going to be displayed, 3) Every raga must have its prominent notes viz. Vadin and Samvadin. This is an essential requirement. Earlier the 237 raga was characterised by the criteria such Graha, Amsa etc. With the grov/th of Ragagiyana in the society, that concept has undergone change. In the present concept, the place of Graha has been taken by the starting note Sa. The Arasa of the ancient days is the same as the modern Vadin, the dis­ tinctive note or the differentia of the raga. In relation to Vadin, the Sarnvadin note automatically follows. At present, there are no restrictive notes for movement in the lower and the upper octaves. The artiste is free to move in both directions according to his skill and capacity, without of course detriment to the raga structure. The nyasa and the apanyasa of the olden days have lost their significance alto­ gether in these days; they are now the resting places in the raga. Each raga has its own distinctive resting note(s). h) A raga must have minimum five notes. Earlier, the Jati moulds of Gandharva also consisted of five, six and seven notes. The condition still holds good in the case of ragas also. 5) A raga must have an Aroha and Avaroha. The cha^ racteristic notes of the raga are always given in their ascending and descending order. 6) A raga must employ full range of an octave i.e.

s from Sa to Sa; so it must cover both tetrachords (the first one from Sa to Ma and the latter one from Pa to Sa). A raga cannot terminate with any note in the middle; it has to proceed from Sa to Sa, 238

7) An auduva or pentatonic variety of a raga is formed by dropping two notes in the saptaka. There is a restriction here that in no raga will Ma and Pa notes he dropped siniul-. taneously. There cannot be any raga with both the notes absent. Either of the notes raust be there. 8) A raga cannot take both forms of a note (original as well as modified) consecutively. There are however stray exceptions to this general rule. 9) An important characteristic of a raga is its pov;er to evoke emotions (of the listener). A raga must necessarily be capable of conveying some particular sentiment or idea. 10) A raga must be sung at its proper time. In earlier days, particular rag'as were to be sung in particular seasons and particular times. The restriction about the seasons has disappeared practically, but the one about time still con­ tinues, and attempts are afoot to further systematise it. The principle behind is that a raga should be sung at a time when the state of mind conforms to its import; otherwise, it will not be pleasing. The consideration regarding the relationship of the raga and the time of its singing is not of modern origin. It dates as back as 11th century when Marada, in his Sarigita- makaranda, laid down, for the first time in the history of music, the principle of singing ragas at proper hours. He proclaimed that untimely singing of ragas is not only detri­ mental to the melodiousness of the ragas, but also detrimental 239

10 /^ , _ _ to the listeners. Subsequent authors like Sarngadeva, Rana Kumbha, Raj a Raghunatha, Daroodara, etc. do not appear to have taken into account this issue. Later, Locana Kavi, Ramamatya, Somanatha, Verikatatnakhin etc., have given the period of sing­ ing against their ragas. Ahobala, too, has, in his description of ragasf given their time of singing. The time theory of ragas which had its origin in the later part of the ancient period, was carried over in the medieval period and also con­ tinued in the modern period, on still more systematic bases. In the modern concept, ragas^ have been divided in categories such as: ij Purva or Purvanga ragas, having their Vadin notes in the first tetrachord. They are sung during the period from midday to midnight. ii) Uttara or Uttaranga ragas having their Vadin notes in the latter tetrachord. They are sung during the period from midnight to midday. ill) Sandhiprakas^'a ragas, to be sung at twilight periods - short periods before sunrise and after sunset. The time theory of ragas is however conventional and need not be taken to be rigid and incapable of any changes. The whole raga system itself is an evergrowing idea. All its con­ cepts have ever been a matter of research and study; and it thus admits of further modifications in times to come. Time theory of ragas is also accordingly undergoing changes; it is not the same to-day as it was before and may not remain the 2hQ same in future as it is to-day. According to their note contents, ragas have been classified as Auduva (having five notes), Sadava (having six notes) and Sampuri^a (having seven notes). Again, a raga may drop a note or two in the Aroha and may be something otherwise in the Avaroha. That is to say, a raga may be Sampurrja or Auduva or Sadava in Aroha and otherwise in Avaroha, Accord­ ingly there are nine categories of them. The total number of ragas thus produced under one mela, would be k8h as follows:

Aroha Avaroha No.of ragas

Sam puma Sampurga 1

Sampurna Sadava 6

Sampurna Auduva 15

Sadava Sampurna 6

Sadava Sadava 36

S^ava Auduva 90

Auduva Sampurna 15 i 90 Auduva Sadava

Auduva Auduva 225

Total \?^ 21+1

If all the seventytwo melas of Venkatamakhin are accepted, the total number of ragas that can be obtained by the above process will be 72 x ^8^ = 3^,8^8. There is yet another classification of ragas viz, (i) Suddha, (pure), (ii) Chayalaga (shadowed) and (iii) Saikirna (mixed). Somanatha has given the clarification of these categories in the light of the views of Umapati, Damodara has given a slightly different clarification as follows: i) Suddha - Following the rules of the ancient classical music, ii) Chayalaga - Making slight deviation while follow­ ing the path of pure ragas, iii) Saiikirna - Formed with the mixture of the two »— above.

Although apparently slightly different, both the above clarifications have a similar import. Suddha ragas are sung strictly by the laid down rules, and strictly according to their own notes, without having any admixture of notes and yet having the quality of pleasingness. Chayalaga ragas make use of notes borrowed from others. However, with this, their melodiousness will be enhanced, and not reduced in any case. Saakirna ragas are mixtures of several ragas. It has been seen earlier that ragagayana developed through Varnas viz. Sthayin, Arohin, Avarohin and Saiicarin which were the audible patterns or designs capable of being 2\Z formed by different arrangeiaeiits of notes. In the medieval period the four phases through which a raga developed were given as (i) Udgraha (prelude), (ii) Sthayi (theme), Sancari (variations) and (iv) Muktayi or Samapti (closure, conclu- 12 sion). The melodic figure that marks the beginning (of the theme) is Udgrlaha. The fixed melodic figures which do not as a rule appear at the beginning or at the end, are known as Sthayi, The mixed theme with ascending and descend­ ing vocalisation marked by free movements is Sanc)^ari,* where the mode comes to rest, it is Samapti, In modern days, the four phases are worded slightly differently, i) Sthayi - Here the theme of the raga is establish­ ed. In this phase, music rises from Sa of the middle octave and the scope of rising is the last note of the octave. The focus is made mainly on the Vadin (Sonant) note. i^) Antara - Here the music begins in the upper tetrachord and develops in the higher octave. The music in this note is generally concentrated around the SaravSiin note, iii) Sancari - Here a free movement is permissible in all the octaves. There is a full scope for the artiste for improvisation, iv) Abhoga - This marks the closure of the theme.

It will be seen from the discussion in the foregoing lines that from about l5th century onwards, new trends start­ ed in th6 development of the raga system. Musicologists of 2h3

15th, 16th and 17th centuries were not interested in saying anything useful about Jati modes, except for mentioning them as historical background. Ahobala has simply mentioned seven Suddha Jatis, The concepts of Grama, Murcchana, Jati, etc, had lost significance and had become practically obsolete. Music was confined to one Grama, viz. Sadjagrama, Ragas were described in terms of only 12 notes -Vg'uddha and ^ Vikrta. Ancient Vikrtas like Sadhara.-a, Antara etc. had become time- barred and new Vikrtas like Komala, Tivra etc. had emerged. From the humble beginning of Matanga's time, there was a vast expanse of ragas in the musical field, and requirements of the raga system had changed according to the needs of time. There was change every where - change in the outlook, change in the theoretical structure and change in the practical aspect of ragas. 2Mf

Poc*'^/ YVotes KJuf\^T cJiv- 3S

(ui) 4?p^» s ^ ^oa^^vt • \ S Ra^ \H ^ 2lf5