INSTRUMENTS Herbert W. Myers Slide trumpet madness: fact or fiction? Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021

The existence of the slide trumpet as the 15th-century [the S-shaped trumpet] was widely used in hauts precursor of the trombone has long been accepted by instruments bands at courtly dances' His challenge historians of brass instruments, the shawm band and instead concerns only the slide, and specifically the basse dance Peter Downey's article 'The Renaissance telescoping mouthpiece extension or single slide' slide trumpet Fact or fiction7" (EM, Feb 1984, p 26) Since the melodic capabilities of a natural trumpet questions the theoretical basis for believing there was would have been limited in this period to the lowest such an instrument in the Renaissance, claiming that notes of the harmonic series, the trumpet's function in the notion is supported by no documentary evidence, the shawm band, he contends, would have been to written or iconographic Downey has gone so far as to provide a drone or simple counterpoint based upon compare the belief in the Renaissance slide trumpet to harmonics 2, 3 and possibly 4 He is convinced that the 'Bach trumpet madness' of the 1950s, when many the first slide mechanism applied to the trumpet was musicologists were convinced, as a matter of faith, the U-shde (or 'double slide') of the trombone, and he that playing of Baroque clanno trumpet music had proposes his own, unique explanation for its in- depended upon a secret and now lost art vention In refuting his arguments, therefore, it is not Downey is in the strictest sense quite correct in his enough to prove that brass instruments participated in basic assertion none of the written sources of the 15th the shawm band, it will be necessary to show how his century refers unequivocally to the slide action in account does not constitute an adequate explanation connection with the trumpet, furthermore, iconography of the known historical facts (as he says) cannot prove its existence, since still I n order to understand the role of the trumpet in the pictures are limited in their ability to portray motion shawm band we must first consider the historical Indeed, most researchers of 15th-century instrumental development of the band itself The ceremonial loud performance have been fully aware of the hypothetical band of the Arab world was adopted in Europe during status of such a mechanism in this period They have the 13th century Consisting of small shawms, nakers continued to feel, none the less, that several pieces of and other percussion, and straight trumpets (usually evidence strongly suggest its existence Taken indi- employed in pairs), the Arabic band seems to have vidually these may be ignored or dismissed, taken been augmented occasionally by other loud instru- together, however, they constitute a much more ments in the West, in particular by bagpipes and pipe compelling argument It is the purpose of this article and tabor The function of the trumpets in such a band to review the available evidence as presented by (as heard still in traditional Arabic music) would have various scholars, in order to show why the existence of been something of a cross between drone and the slide trumpet is still the best explanation for the percussion sounding a single note roughly an octave facts as we know them My aim is not so much to (or sometimes two) below the keynote of the shawms, present new data as to correct certain misunder- the Arabic trumpets 'burst in intermittently with standings of chronology and to challenge some of hoarse interruptions through which the shawmists Downey's conclusions based upon them unconcernedly play on' ' It should be clarified from the outset that Downey In the 14th century we find indications of European does not question that trumpets were members of the development away from the standard makeup of this shawm band, in fact, he says that'illustrations [c 1400] Arabic loud band First, there seems to have arisen a tell us that in addition to the usual military function it separation between the military or 'fanfare' trumpets,

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 383 on the one hand, and the freely melodic instruments when a trumpet appears in the 15th century shawm (shawms and bagpipes), on the other (Percussion band, by contrast, it is a single brass instrument might still join with either group ) Second, the tonal intruding among the reeds This fact is confirmed resources of the reed instruments were considerably repeatedly both by iconography6 and written sources expanded The small Arabic shawm seems to have (payment records and instrument purchases) 7 The been lengthened and lowered in pitch to produce a player of this single trumpet is usually depicted treble whose keynote sounded near the bottom of the holding his instrument in a manner consistent with its treble staff, to it was added a tenor size or bombarde possessing a single slide the mouthpiece is held to the (first mentioned as a musical instrument in 1342) mouth with one hand, while the body of the

whose distinguishing characteristic was a key (with its instrument is held by the other hand Furthermore, thDownloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 e protective barrel—the fontanelle) to close the bottom instrument is typically held at downward slant—a hole Just when the other major developments of the position found to be the only practical one on modern Western shawm (the appearance of the lip-controlled reconstructions of slide trumpets Players of fanfare reed and the concomitant disappearance of the trumpets also may be shown holding their instruments thumbhole) took place is much more difficult to with two hands (with one hand near the mouthpiece), ascertain, presumably both the availability of a but are usually distinguishable by their more heroic different kind of reed material in the West and the posture as befits their heraldic function 8 Western proclivity for a more articulated musical style If we are to believe iconography, the 15th-century 2 played parts in this story shawm band was most often a trio, although some Soon after the beginning of the 15th century the pictures of duos and quartets are also to be found bagpipe—a regular member of the loud band in the Some illustrations of quartets show one of the 14th century—had all but disappeared from the members (usually a bombarde player) resting, these company of shawms, so too had percussion instru- too then represent trios in performance 9 The most ments, which are conspicuously absent from most common trio consists of (treble) shawm, bombarde 15th-century representations of the shawm band One and trumpet, although again there are many ex- implication of these developments is very clear ceptions Often there appear to be three shawms, three polyphony had replaced heterophony as the basic bombardes, or two of either with a trumpet Of course, musical structure of the ensemble Near the middle of some of this apparent variety in instrumentation can the 15th century this circumstantial evidence is be attributed to inattention on the part of illustrators, buttressed by direct documentary evidence linking the the visual difference between the shawm and the shawm band to polyphonic music Perhaps the first bombarde (the presence or absence of the fontanelle) unequivocal instance is the famous performance of a is, after all, rather subtle, and a musically unsophis- motet by a costumed shawm band at the wedding of ticated artist might easily either forget such a detail or Charles the Bold in 1468,3 already, however, the reproduce it incorrectly However, it seems less likely opening lines of Le champion des dames by Martin le that the substitution of a completely different type of Franc (written 1441-2) allude to the new style of instrument (brass for woodwind, or woodwind for composition practiced by Dufay and Binchois en hault brass) can be blamed on carelessness et en basse musique, implying that these masters of The free mixture of trumpet with shawms makes polyphony composed music for the alta band (as well sense only if its melodic capabilities were roughly as for voices or soft instruments) at the court of equivalent to theirs Such a trumpet must, therefore, 4 Charles's father, Philip the Good have been equipped with some form of slide mechan- Both the pictorial and written records attest to the ism in order to fill in the larger intervals in the use of trumpets as regular—but by no means harmonic series 10 This mechanism must certainly indispensable—members of the shawm band in the have been available by the first years of the 15th 15th century 5 The instrument most often depicted is century, without it, the trumpet surely could not have the folded trumpet developed in the late 14th century, survived in a polyphonic environment A natural built first in the shape of a flattened S and then (after trumpet, limited in this period to its first few the opening decades of the 15th century), of a harmonics, would have represented a severe impedi- flattened loop As mentioned above, trumpets had ment to the free course of polyphony That the overall appeared in the earlier loud band typically in pairs, development of the shawm band was away from such

384 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021

2 Master of the Life of Mary, detail from Coronation of the Virgin (Cologne, c. 1463-6) (Munich. Alte Pinakothek| A quartet of three shawms and a proto trombone (see fn.l 3)

restrictions seems obvious; that it should have cast illustrations that show a brass instrument among aside all of the other impediments (drones and shawms, it clearly has the configuration of the folded percussion) and yet continued to accept the limitations natural trumpet of the same era. This configuration (in posed by a natural trumpet seems inconceivable. both the S-shaped and looped versions) is characterized Thus the need for a freely melodic form of trumpet by a middle branch that is significantly shorter than near the beginning of the 15th century is evident, and the mouthpipe and bell branch, causing both of these iconography has suggested a solution: the slide elements to extend well beyond the bows. The trumpet. Downey, as stated above, rejects this configuration of the trombone is radically different: solution, proposing instead that the first form of slide both mouthpipe and bell branch are proportionately applied to the trumpet was not the single slide, but the much shorter, causing both mouthpiece and bell end U-slide. He suggests, furthermore, that the U-slide to fall well within the limits set by the two bows (and itself might well have developed from a tuning slide on thus causing the upper bow to extend backwards past the S-shaped trumpet, beginning as early as the start of the player's ear).'' To be sure, a handful of illustrations the 15th-century. However, neither iconography nor (beginning c. 1440) show instruments with some subsequent developments in the design of brass tendency towards the trombone configuration, but— instruments lend any support to these assertions. as we shall see—these are highly problematic and are In the overwhelming majority of 15th-century open to diverse interpretations. The pictorial record

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 385 shows that the trumpet configuration remained dominant until the end of the 1 5th century and was still to be met with well into the 16th.12 According to Anthony Baines, the first reliable representation of the trombone (from the fresco The Assumption of the Virgin by Filippino Lippi in the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome) comes from just before 1490." Before this the iconography is vague and contradictory. The few earlier examples that have 14 been hailed as depictions of trombones lack any Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 evidence of stays, which are critical to the action of a U-slide. As Baines points out. however, only one stay (that uniting mouthpiece socket and bell joint) is absolutely essential, and an artist might easily have overlooked such a detail.15 Much more difficult to explain away is the position in which these instruments are held (which is still in the manner of the slide trumpet), as well as the fact that the branches of their purported U-slides are in some cases far from being parallel. At the same time, however, these instruments would have proved inefficient and awkward as slide trumpets.l6 They are probably best regarded as early forms of the trombone which (due to their rarity at the time) were not completely understood by the artists depicting them. In any event, these few examples occur too late to lend much weight to Downey's claim that the trombone originated near the beginning of the 1 5th century and quickly replaced the trumpet in hauts 3 Israhel van Meckenem. detail from Dance of Salome (German, c 1500). A trio of ftngerhole horn, pipe and tabor, and proto- instruments bands. trombone' on a platform accompanying dancing below In order for us to take seriously Downey's further suggestion that the U-slide might have developed from buisine (straight trumpet), are being held in the same a tuning slide, he would first have to demonstrate that manner (with two hands, one to the mouthpiece), and tuning slides themselves were part of early trumpet that this 'time-honoured fashion' was the norm for all construction. They are certainly not part of the trumpets before cordage was used to impart greater equipment of surviving natural trumpets from the rigidity to their structure. Therefore, he claims, the Renaissance and Baroque periods—tuning bits (many way they are held cannot be used as evidence for their of which survive) were used instead—and they appear having been provided with slides. Others, of course, to have become common appurtenances only in the have reversed his logic (regarding this one painting, at 19th century.17 Downey thus seems to be reasoning least), suggesting that here the buisine was similarly from an anachronism: one might just as logically equipped with a slide.111 Such a notion is not beyond suggest that the source of inspiration for the keved reason, since there is some other pictorial evidence for trumpet was the water key! a 'slide buisine' in rhe early I 5th century.|IJ Let us now examine Downey's reasons for rejecting However, the case against the Xajera triptych as what others have considered convincing evidence of evidence for the slide trumpet is actually stronger than the slide trumpet. His first objection concerns stated by Downey. This near life-size group of iconography and specifically the famous Xajera paintings (if. indeed, am rendition of angels can triptych (c. 1480) by Hans Memhng. four of whose ten properly be called life-size') has offered an almost angel musicians have often been said to constitute a unique opportunity for the artist to capture the most loud band of three trumpets and shawm. Uownev minute ornamental details of instruments and clothing. points out that all three trumpets, including the Yet a close, first-hand scrutim of the trumpets tails to

386 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 discover the least hint of telescoping tubing, either at However, there is probably more reason nowadays to the mouthpipe or at any other place One can conclude doubt (as does Downey) that such parts were performed only that these are natural trumpets, despite both the upon slide trumpets—or upon any instruments, for low angle at which they are held and their association that matter Theorists at the time, as he says, define with a shawm such a part as one imitative of trumpets, not as one Or is it a shawm7 The high placement of the hands performed upon trumpets Furthermore, actual per- (and fingerholes) does suggest a treble shawm, but formance of this repertory upon slide trumpets at such a placement would demand a series of vent holes anything near a feasible pitch for the associated lower down, of which we see no trace Of course, these voices presents extreme technical problems These vent holes could all be to the back and thus hidden are occasioned less by the purpoted 'inertia' of the Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 from view, but this configuration, would be atypical slide trumpet (cited by Downey) than by the sheer (judging from other depictions of that era, which length of instrument demanded by the low pitches 2l already show the layout common to surviving shawms) However, the existence of the slide trumpet and the Also atypical for such a late date is the lack of both a performance of trumpetum parts on it are really two flaired bell and a pirouette In addition, several other separate issues, and doubt about the second should particulars of this triptych arouse suspicions con- not affect the first cerning Memling's powers of observation and musical Downey's third major argument concerns the claret sophistication neither the frets of his lute and fiddle trumpet, whose mysterious 'claret-piece' (it has been nor the pipes of his organ obey the laws of Pythagoras, suggested by others) might well have been a tele- 20 and the stringing of his psaltery is similarly anomalous scoping mouthpiece, or single slide Downey presents Concerning the trumpets themselves, Janez Hofler has convincing evidence that the claret trumpet was a high noticed an exact 2 3 4 proportion among their trumpet, leading him to conclude that the claret-piece 21 lengths, this is a musically odd relationship for was therefore a fixed-length device used to lower the natural trumpets, to say the least, since it places the pitch of the instrument (and not a slide used to fill in 4th below the 5th in its division of the octave With so gaps in the lower register) 23 He argues further that it much to distrust about this triptych, we would be was a transposing crook of a 4th, used to bring the foolish to regard it as a reliable witness as to pitch of the claret trumpet (in F) down to that of the instruments, playing positions or instrumental group- Italian trumpet (in C) ings Its apparent photographic realism should not This is an intriguing theory, however, much of the trick us into thinking that it is a group of photographs, evidence which he presents in supporting it is open to nor should the frequency with which we now meet question First, the Felttrummet and Clareta illustrated reproductions of it give it an importance it does not by Virdung (Downey's lllus 1) do differ in length as he deserve says, but by an amount far less than the difference of a Fortunately, the question of the slide trumpet does 4th would demand (On the other hand, we may be not depend upon this one source The pictorial record, asking far too much of Virdung's illustrations if we taken as a whole, is remarkably consistent in depicting expect a meaningful proportionality, we have only to trumpets whose playing position (when they appear in compare his Felttrummet with the Busaurt just above it shawm bands) suggest that they have slides, and the to see the egregious level of inaccuracy—the trumpet few exceptions can easily be explained as artists' is huge by comparison with the trombone1) Second, mistakes The fact that the natural trumpet was also Downey's theory does not have the blessing of commonly (but not invariably, as Downey would have Praetonus which he claims for it In the passage us believe) held by two hands—and even occasionally quoted by Downey,24 Praetonus says that trumpets held at a low angle—may somewhat confuse the issue, were formerly in Cammerthon D, but had been lowered but this consistency regarding alta band trumpets by a tone (to C) just a few years before Downey remains nevertheless clear apparently believes that a tone is close enough to a Downey's second argument against the slide trumpet perfect 4th to suit his purposes, most musicians, I suspect, would disagree 25 Furthermore, in the other theory concerns the 15th-century parts labeled 26 trumpetum or something similar It was the existence of passages cited by Downey, Praetonus explains what these parts, of course, that first inspired the'invention' is necessary to take a trumpet down a 4th from C to G of the slide trumpet by musicologists of this century Two and a half crooks 'as one is otherwise used to

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 387 putting on trombones'27 are required—hardly what 3J F R and C Stainer, Dufay and his Contemporaries (London. one might refer to as a 'piece' (stuck) The fact that 1898), p 16 4G Reese. Music in the Renaissance (New York, R/l 959), pp 12-13 Praetonus felt the need to explain this practice implies K Polk in Ceremony, Ritual and Instrumental Music of the Late that it was not as common as Downey suggests, as Middle Ages' (unpublished paper delivered at Stanford University, 1 does the fact that the crooks themselves apparently March 1988) has compiled a list of references to a/ra-band players 28 whose part-ranges are specified, the earliest of these concerns a had to be borrowed from a trombone Finally, the Florentine musician hired in 1406 to play ceremella contra claret-piece was sometimes called a claret mouthpiece' tenorem' Such designations, of course, represent further evidence (claret montstruck),29 two and a half crooks do not that the texture of loud-band music had come to resemble that of 1 written polyphonic vocal music constitute a 'mouthpiece' Despite these objections, 'See Polk, 'The Trombone, the Slide-Trumpet and the Ensemble however, it seems that Downey's main point—that the Tradition of the Early Renaissance', below, for new archival data regarding the origins of this practice Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 claret trumpet was a high, natural trumpet and 6 therefore an unlikely candidate for consideration as a See E Bowles, Musikleben lm 15 Jahrhundert (Leipzig. 1977) and Musical Performance am the Late Middles Ages ([Geneva], 1983) for slide instrument—is well taken reproductions of numerous examples 7 By setting up the Italian trumpet and the claret J Manx. Htstotre de la musique et des musiciens de la com de Bourgogne sous le regne de Philippe le Bon (1420-1467) (Strasbourg. trumpet as the only real possibilities and then ruling 1939), pp 264-75 out each in turn, Downey has tried to make a tidy case 8For illustrations contrasting the two postures see A Baines. Brass against the existence of the slide trumpet However, in Instruments (London 1976) p95 9E Bowles, 'Iconography as a Tool for Examining the Loud presenting this rather oversimplified view of the early Consort in the Fifteenth Century", JAMIS, in (1977), pp 100-121, on trumpet, he has ignored other important possibihtes, pllO, and J Hofler, 'Der trompette de menestrels und sein such as Virdung's Thumerhorn (which he dismisses Instrument', Tijdschnft van de Vereemgmg voor Nederlandse Muzieh- geschiedenis, xxix (1979), pp 92-132, on p 109 Hofler cites six of outright) He has also left unaddressed the question of such illustrations and points out that in no known depiction of a the trompette des menestrels what, if it were not the four-member aha playing for dancing are all four musicians shown provision of a slide mechanism, might have dis- playing at once The preponderance of trios echoes the three-part 7 texture of most 15th-century composed polyphony and thus tinguished it from the trompette de guerre Downey has represents further circumstantial evidence of the polyphonic thus failed not only to prove that the slide trumpet did organization of the shawm band not exist in the Renaissance, but also to provide '"The alternative possibility— that the trumpet might already have developed a diatonic clanno-register technique in the early 15th plausible (let alone convincing) alternative explan- century—seems unlikely, since such a development appears to ations for known historical developments In present- have been an innovation of the second half of the century (Downey, ing his strong arguments, however, he has succeeded p 31) Furthermore, the melodic range of the trumpet would then have duplicated that of the treble shawm, given the nature of 15th- in stimulating further research and thought con- century part writing, duplicating the range of the bombard would cerning the trumpet and its polyphonic use in the seem to have been a more likely need Indeed, there is considerable Renaissance, for this he is to be thanked Much still evidence (discussed by R Duffin, 'The trompette des menestrels in the needs to be done, of course, in terms of both archival 15th-century alta capella', below), linking the trumpet (and later the trombone) with the contratenor function in the shawm band research and iconology as well as practical experi- "In equating the forms of the trombone and S-shaped trumpet. mentation with reconstructions 30 It should now be Downey has failed to recognise this fundamental difference in obvious, however, that the main tasks of such layout between the two instruments 1!Polk, in his article below, has reached the same conclusion investigation will be not so much to establish whether Instruments which look (from context and playing position) to be the slide trumpet existed in the 15th century, but slide trumpets continue to appear in art works throughout the 16th rather, when it was developed and how it was century and beyond Near the end of the 16th century the term Zugtrommet (literally 'slide trumpet') first appears, Weigel (quoted as employed a witness by Downey, p 32) was thus clearly misinformed when he claimed in 1698 that the instrument was a new development Downey inexplicably equates the Zugtrommet with the claret Herbert W Myers is Lecturer in Renaissance Winds and trumpet, even though he rejects the idea that the claret trumpet was Curator of the Harry R. Lange Collection of Instruments at equipped with a slide I3A Baines, 'Trombone', New Grove Stanford University He is a member of The Whole Noyse. a l4Hofler ('Der trompette de menestrels', pp 104-5) lists five, and the San Francisco Bay Area quintet performing on early brass same number (with some probable overlap) are mentioned by Polk in woodwinds and strings his article below ''Baines, Brass Instruments, pp 107-108 "Baines {Brass Instruments, p 108) points out why the proportions 'A Barnes Woodwind Instruments and their History (New York, R/ of these instruments are wrong for slide trumpets, since the layout 1963) pp 230-33 reduces the relative length of the mouthpipe available for use as a 2See H Mvers The Practical Acoustics of Early Woodwinds (DMA slide, with a smaller proportional length of slide, nothing is gained final proiect, Stanford U . 1980), pp 104-114 by the use of a larger instrument In addition, the repeated passing

388 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 of the upper loop over the shoulder would seem rather inhibiting to p 17 The crooks are illustrated in the Syntagma musicum n. pi VIII. the technique (although we cannot know this for sure without no 13, the half crook' (for a semitone extension) is. in fact, building and testing a reproduction) snaight "Like the U-slide of the trombone, the tuning slide relies upon 28In the Syntagma musicum in, p 175, the crooks are described stays to unite the stationary branches against the action of a U-tube simply as von emer Posaun Although in the Syntagma n a single In the absence of such stays (avoided in early trumpet construction, whole-tone crook for trumpet is both mentioned and illustrated (see possibly for acoustical reasons) the feasibility of a tuning slide is nn 24 and 27), such accessories were apparently more commonly highly questionable available for trombones 18J Montague, The World of Medieval and Renaissance Musical 29Downey. n 21 Instruments (Woodstock, New York, 1976), pp 78-9 "Several different pitches for reconstructions of the slide "Barnes. Brass Instruments, pp !03-7 trumpet have been suggested and tried, most commonly C, D, F and 20Some 60 equally-spaced strings are shown on this instrument, G One that has much to recommend it but has not (to my whose proportions suggest a range of about three octaves, thus it knowledge) yet been tried is E This seemingly unlikely pitch is seems that Memling either exaggerated the number of strings or suggested by various iconographic. practical and developmental Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 failed to group them into courses considerations Pictures (as Downey says) show a length of about 21Hofler, 'Der trompette de menestrels', p 114 175cm, producing a pitch near F at a'=440hz—or E at the high "See Hofler, Der trompette de menestrels', pp 114-18 for examples tuning standard common among surviving shawms and other of the ridiculously large sizes that would be necessary Renaissance woodwinds (Trumpets in C and D are clearly too long "However, see Baines, Brass Instruments, pp 103-7. where it is to fit the majority of evidence, and one in G is too short) The slide of suggested that it might have been a short slide used to help fill in such an instrument should be capable of an extension of a maior smaller gaps in the treble register 3rd, easily filling the 4th (b-e') and much of the 5th {e-b\ and giving a 24M Praetonus, Syntagma musicum, n (Wolfenbuttel, 1619), complete chromatic scale from g (keynote of the bombard) The pp 32-3 (not Syntagma musicum in as given by Downey, n 36) positions of the slide trumpet in E would follow the logic of the "Adding to the confusion. Downey has incorrectly translated vor Renaissance trombone, which is known from later sources to have gahr wenig Jahren ('a very few years ago') as'quite a few years ago' and been in A (a 5th lower), like the trombone, the E-trumpet would umb emen Thon ('by a tone') as 'by about a tone1 achieve its diatonic scale primarily through whole-tone extensions 26Praetonus, Syntagma musicum, in, p 175, the information, as In fact, such a trumpet itself would have been considered to have Downey notes, is repeated in the Puenamum of 1621 been in A from the point of view of the shawm and bombarde, whose 27 so man sonsten uffdie Posaunen zu stecken pflegt Gesamtaus- nominal pitches were a 5th lower than their sounding pitches gabe der musihahschen Werke von Michael Praetonus, xix (Puenamum), through the early 16th century

Keith Polk The trombone, the slide trumpet and the ensemble tradition of the early Renaissance

Music historians are a reasonably congenial lot, but tions are available before Virdung's discussion in the disagreement does occasionally ripple through our early 16th century Archival terminology appears small community One recent debate has been slippery, and iconographical sources problematic engendered by a contribution to this journal by Peter Still, when we understand the broad context of forces Downey concerning the Renaissance slide trumpet Dr acting in society at the time, the available sources may Downey proposed the stimulating notion that the slide be more helpful than we have assumed trumpet may not have existed at all, and that the The political atmosphere in the late 14th and 15th instrument thus had no role in ensemble music of the centuries was volatile In the German-speaking 15th century ' territories (to take one example appropriate for this The question is an important one, for it appears that discussion) the central force was the emperor The a slide instrument in some form was tied to the emperor, however, was elected—with several impor- beginnings of instrumental ensemble music in the tant consequences One was that power was almost early Renaissance, and. further, that such a slide always diluted in the inevitable bargaining processes instrument established itself at the very centre of of the elections, offering potential relative gain to Renaissance ensemble practice What I propose to others, especially the great princes of the empire explore here are the possible initial dates for the Another was that the power continuum was unstable, trombone (or slide trumpet), and further, what role with frequent changes of ruling dynasty involving the iconography might play in this question houses of Luxembourg, Hapsburg and Wittelsbach A The sources seem vague No theoretical descrip- consequent of this was political instability, which

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 389 again often played into the hands of the higher was music Whenever a man of high rank appeared in nobility The result was a kind of political Darwinian an official capacity, he did so surrounded by symbols chaos The strong prospered, the weak were crushed, of his position, which almost always included mus- and everyone was inexorably pulled into the conflict icians In the early 14th century the situation was more The important nobles such as those of the houses of amorphous, but by about 1350 the musicians were Bavaria, Brandenburg and Wurttemberg circled each most often either a small group of trumpets or a wind other wanly, ready to seize any opportunity they might band (composed of shawms, and at some point a slide turn to their own advantage The lesser nobles, too, instrument) The trumpets were usually reserved for grasped any chance to advance their own causes One those of the very highest station The shawms, consistent target of aristocratic hostility and aggression however, could be supported by all ranks (including was the cities, which felt themselves constantly dukes, counts, bishops, as well as cities), and had theDownloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 threatened The threat was real, of course, as the further advantage of more flexible capability They devastation of Prussian cities under the rule of could provide stately entry music for visiting nobility, Brandenburg showed2 but they could also provide music for dancing and An important facet of the unstable times, at least in banquets In any case, the nobility, high church terms of music, was that those in high station in officials and the cities all viewed it as a necessity to society attempted to create for themselves an image of project an image By 1380 musical ensembles were a stability, power, dignity or—in a favoured term of the requisite aspect of'magnificence' The connection of time—'magnificence' An integral part of the image image and music forms the backdrop for our discussion

Table 1 German cities with subsidized ensembles Dates given are those of the first record of an indication of subsidy accounts or even secondary references are available for several to a primarily musical ensemble I e a salary payment expenses for substantial cities, especially Breslau. Colmar, Heilbronn Metz, uniforms or a reference to our musicians' Dates in parentheses Speyer and Worms All of these probably had ensembles by c 1440 indicate a probable reference to a civic ensemble Cities in In addition, several cities which were seats of a bishop probably also parentheses show a possible, but not proven, civic subsidy Sw had civic ensembles, but from existing accounts it is not possible to indicates cities which are now Swiss, NL Dutch cities which were determine whether the civic group was present (most difficult in this then in the German orbit regard are Minden, Magdenburg, Passau and Wurzburg Cologne, This table gives listings in chronological order No accounts for Eichstatt, Munster and Trier are clear examples of cities which had the first half of the 15th century are available for such cities as two ensembles, one subsidized by the city, the other by the Esslingen and Leipzig The dates given below for such cities are bishop) derived from secondary references and are certainly too late No

1348 Rostock, Zwickau 1394 Gottingen, Zutphen (NL) 1428 Hamm. (Bamberg) 1350 Hamburg, Wesel 1396 Munster, Zwolle (NL) 1430 Lippstadt. Uberhngen 1356 Duisburg 1397 (Straubing) 1431 Freiburg l/B. Landsberg, Burgdorf 1358 Osnabruck 1398 Kampen (NL) (Sw) 1360 Munich 1399 Dinkelsbuhl, Nordlingen 1432 Buren, Rothenberg 1361 Frankfurt a/M 1400 Roermond (NL), Luneburg, (Isny) 1433 (Salzburg) 1363 Dortmund 1403 Braunschweig, Memmingen, Neuss 1436 Donauworth (1368) Soest 1404 Soest 1437 Windsheim 1371 Deventer (NL) 1405 Amersfoort (NL) 1439 Oberwesel 1373 Augsburg 1407 Bocholt 1440 Andernach, Kempten 1374 Calbe a/S 1408 Danzig. Eger c 1440 Breslau. Colmar, Metz, Speyer, 1375 Basel 1409 Biel (Sw) Worms, also Leipzig, Passau, 1376 Aachen 1411 Luzern (Sw) Magdeburg, Muhldorf 1377 (Freiburg I/U [Sw]), Nuremberg 1412 Sen Hall, Zurich (Sw) 1441 Konstanz. Zofingen 1378 Bern (Sw) 1415 (Dulmen) 1442 Ingolstad 1379 Hildesheim 1416 Butzbach 1443 Reutlingen 1380 Cologne 1417 Nijmegen (NL) 1444 Aalen, Hannover, Heilbronn, 1381 (Essen), Gorhtz 1418 Plauen Herford, Schaffhausen, Wismar 1382 Stadthagen 1424 Bremen, Erfurt, Halle, Ravensburg 1445 Borken 1383 Regensburg 1425 Amberg 1446 Wimpfen 1385 Strasbourg 1426 Coesveld, (Goslar), Gromngen 1388 Ulm (NL), Landshut, 1392 Lubeck Muhlhausen, Neumarkt, Stade

390 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 Table 2 Ensembles supported by German Nobility A Higher Nobility. Emperor and Kings Luneberg - 1376 Bentheim- 1382 King of Bohemia- 1352 (see also Holy Paltinate - 1369 Eberstein - 1382 Roman Emperor) Saxony- 1376 Diepholz - 1404 King of Denmark - 1402 Schleswig - 1418 Gera- 1424 Emperor (Holy Roman Emperor and/or Wurttemberg - 1380 Haideck- 1418 King of the Germans) - 1329 C Bishops (almost always drawn from the Helfenstein - 1441 King of Hungary - 1371 nobility) who supported ensembles Hoya- 1395 King of Poland - 1422 Augsburg - 1406 Katzenelenbogen - 1448 B Higher Nobility Pnnces of the Empire Bamberg - 1428 Limburg - 1371

Dukes. Margraves, etc Basel - 1421 Lippe - 1404 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 Austria - 1374 Bremen - 1387 Moers - 1410 Baden - 1380 Braunschweig - 1408 Montfort- 1418 Bavaria, various branches Cologne- 1379 Nuremberg - 1391 Straubing- 1359 Constance - 1444 Nassau - 1410 Ingolstad - 1376 Halberstad - 1439 Oldenburg- 1406 Landshut- 1372 Hildesheim - 1412 Ottingen - 1399 Pappenheim (Rechberg) - 1373 Munich- 1376 Magdeburg - 1403 Ravensberg - 1403 (Berg- 1376, later acquired by Julich) Mainz- 1386 Saarwerden - 1385 Brandenburg- 1417 Minden - 1405 Schaumberg - 1394 Braunschweig- 1384, later combined Osnabruck- 1427 Schwatzburg- 1385 with Luneberg Paderborn - 1405 Schoenberg- 1452 Cleve - 1369, later combined with Passau- 1409 Tecklenburg - 1394 Mark Regensburg - 1405 Stolberg - 1424 Geldern- 1368 •'Straubing - 1385 Spiegelberg - 1397 Henneberg - 1394 Salzburg- 1392 Waldegg- 1391 Hessen - 1424 Schleswig - 1371 Weinsberg - 1422 (Holstein - 1393, acquired by Trent - 1430 Werdenberg - 1393 Schleswig, or vice versa) Trier- 1430 Wertheim - 1389 Juhch- 1362 Wurzburg- 1380 Zih - 1414 Mark- 1376 D Lesser Nobility who subsidized Meissen - 1376 ensembles Abendsberg - 1419

The level of support for the wind bands is striking, shawm (a 'schalmeyer'), another as a player of the as the tables 1 and 2 show From between about 1350 bombarde, the tenor shawm (a 'bometter')3 (At some to 1440 at least 75 German-speaking cities initiated point a brass instrument was normally considered to support of bands (table 1), with at least 75 more be included within the general rubric of Stadtpfeiffer — supported by the nobility and bishops (table 2) Groups more on this presently) These musicians may have had appeared in accounts before 1350, but before this started out in the 14th century as shawmists, but by date, in the cities at least, these were more often the 15th century they, as professional performers, watchmen, probably playing some type of signal were expected to command a variety of instruments, instrument Beginning about 1350 we begin to and normally the term Pfeiffer was assumed to indicate encounter the term Stadtpfeiffer, which became a this flexible capacity On a few rare occasions we even general one by about 1380 We must understand that see, for example, instances of wind players being paid Pfeiffer is one of those troublesome terms that can be as 'Pfeiffer and lutenists' or as 'Pfeiffer and viol players' both specific and general When specific it referred to (I e shawmists who also played the lute or shawmists a player of the shawm This is demonstrated by the few who also played the viol)4 occasions when the instrumentation of the Stadtpfeiffer The number of players tended to vary Larger was made more specific, as in the Nordhngen in 1479, establishments (both court and urban) normally where one Pfeiffer is indicated as a player of soprano supported three, but four or even five were not

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 391 unusual Smaller courts and cities could function connection of a brass instrument with shawms I shall perfectly well with two, but three was apparently the now survey the archival evidence of early uses of the desired minimum The different sizes of instruments, various terms listed above—in contexts where we can and the naming of the voice ranges as soprano, tenor be reasonably certain that the brass (I e slide) and contratenor obviously indicate the capability of instrument performed in an ensemble with shawms contrapuntal performance The first instance I know of the term 'trombone' in Thus evidence documents the existence of specifi- Italy is an entry in Ferrara in 1439 to a tuba ductilis cally polyphonic ensembles The quantity of activity is trombonus vulgo dictus' In 1445 Florence hired a astonishing By about 1400 there were hundreds of performer of a 'trombone grosso [or] tromba retorta',

professional ensemble musicians active in the German who was one of the four member piffen band of theDownloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 areas alone, often in cities of quite small populations city 8 'Trombone' was the common term from this time Now the quality of the polyphony, particularly in on (and, of course, to the present day) One should earlier decades, may have caused gritted teeth from note that the player in Florence was German, as were the most refined composers5 Still, by about 1450 the leading wind performers in Ferrara throughout the every indication is that some of the players at least 15th century We may infer that the 'trombone' may were capable of quite sophisticated ensemble counter- have been invented earlier elsewhere (Italian docu- point, and that the general level of musical competence ments suggest Germany) and that it was subsequently was reasonably high brought into Italy 9 We know from the well-known description by Most of us have accepted the idea that the trompette Tinctons (c 1480) that a slide instrument was com- des menestrels which was recorded in the salary monly added to the wind band He termed it a accounts of Burgundy from 1422 onwards was some 'trombone or sacqueboute', and confirmed that the kind of a slide instrument Again, it fits our demands of instrument normally performed the contratenor part context it was a brass instrument which was specifi- The question is, when did this instrument evolve, and, cally linked to the players of shawms The term (or one further, was it equipped with a single or double slide9 analogous to it) appears earlier, however, in a number Possible answers to the first of these questions come of other documents from the courts of Savoy (1420 from archival documents One must bear in mind in and 1418), from Aragon (1423 and 1418), Holland the following discussion that archival terminology (1410) and StPol(1403), and in the city of Lille in 1398 , tends to be specific to particular regions and to The term appeared in the Burgundian records of court particular times Posaune, for example, was a common musicians in 1411, and as Craig Wright observed, even word in southern Germany, but rare in Flanders as early as 1386, when the instrument was played, Context usually made it clear everywhere whether a significantly, by a musician in the retinue of a German signal trumpet or a 'trumpet-with-slide' was present bishop In all these cases the 'trumpet' was tied to When scribes wished to be more specific concerning performance with the 'loud minstrels', the shawm signal instruments, for example, they might refer to players l0 6 'war trumpets' at court, or 'horns' in the cities Several The most common term for the trumpet associated terms were available for the slide instrument, with with the wind players in Flanders and in northwestern distinct local preferences trombone (in Italy), trompette Germany was one formed on the root tromp or trump, as des menestrels (especially used in French-language in Mechelen in 1433 in a payment to the 'stede pipers courts), posaune ( in southern and central Germany), met haeren trompette', the city shawms with their and simply some form of the word 'trumpet' in trumpet Similar salary or livery payments which tied Flanders and much of northern Germany In fact, a shawms and a 'slide trumpet' together occur in the form of the word 'trumpet was commonly applied to a accounts of Leiden (1412), Aelst (1410), Ghent (1409), slide instrument everywhere north of the Alps The Audenaarde (1408) and Utrecht (1402) In Deventer other terms were introduced when special clarity was (closer to Germany and an important member of the 7 desired Hansa) in 1390 the town council granted a special I believe a general consensus can be assumed in payment to 'Master Claus with his trumpet and the two that some form of brass instrument with slide other shawms who came and played at the council commonly performed in ensembles with shawms by banquef ('Meyster Clawes mit den drumpen end twee about 1420 The critical element, it seems to me, is this andern pipers die to[t] onser scepen maeltyt quamen')

392 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 A similar grant was made in 1394. A payment there in 1384 was to 'Meyster Clawes onser stad piper ende sinen gesellen'. Thus from at least 1384 Claus had been in the city performing with the city shawms. In 1372, in Cologne, the accounts recorded the per- formance of Johanni trumpenario et fistulatoribus1, that is. Johannes, (?slide-) trumpet and shawms." In central and southern Germany, too, the normal term for the brass instrument which performed with

the Pfeiffer ensemble was 'trumpet'. The favoured Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 specific term, however, was posaune. as in Hildesheim in 1427. dem nigen basuner unde dem bumbarde te dranckgelde', the new trombonist and bombarde player for drink money (with similar payments in 1428 and 1417). In Brunswick salary payments in 1403 and 1405 were to '2 piperen unde 1 bassuner'. Similar payments were recorded in Nuremberg in 1388 and 1389 and in Augsburg in 1368. Finally, in Dortmund, as recorded by a later chronicle, a salary payment was established in 1363 for two Pfeiffer and one player of posaune.12 The distinctive feature was the apparently new link of the posaune with shawms. The term posaune appears a few times in German documents in earlier decades, probably referring to a natural trumpet. Once the ensemble of shawms with posaune was established, however, scribes seem to have generally reserved the I Brussels. Bibliotheque Royale Ms 14967. f 26 (1420-30) term for the wind ensemble instrument. Nuremberg accounts, for example, make a careful distinction between the instrument with the city ensemble fading entirely just after c. 1350. The earliest traces, Cpazawn) and natural trumpets used by city watchmen however faint, nonetheless point to Germany (some- 3 ('horns').' This is not to say that posaune was yet where in a rough oval formed by Cologne to the north exclusively reserved for an instrument with shawms. It and Augsburg to the south) as the source of origin for still occasionally carried its older meaning of signal the new tradition of posaune with shawm ensemble. trumpet. In Regensburg in 1409 the accounts record Whether the ensemble posaune was equipped with a two different groups, the 'kiinigs pusawmenr' and the slide in its very early stages must remain a speculative l4 'kiinigs pfeiffern'. Far more often, however, 'trumpets' question. The consistency of scribal terminology (i.e. and posaune were differentiated, and the posaune was trompette des menestrels from 1386 to c. 1480 and explicitly allied with the shawms, as in Nordlingen in posaune from c. 1360 to the present day) suggests that it 1458, when the retinue of Friedrich III included '4 was. I believe that the terminological evidence is 15 trumetters, 3 pfeiffer und 2 posuanen'. strong from after about 1380, before that the situation 16 In sum, archival documents provide thousands of is less certain. instances of references to ensembles from throughout Now to the question of slide trumpet or trombone the 15th century which included a brass instrument, (i.e. single or double slide). Peter Downey believes that which was (we may now assume) a slide instrument. A iconography cannot be of substantial help in this number of earlier references give us a strong indication matter. I believe quite the contrary, that for the 15th that this tradition probably reached back to about century, given the context of the ubiquitous presence 1360 or perhaps slightly earlier. More specifically, the of a shawm band with trombone, iconographical evidence of the presence of a wind ensemble posaune sources are definitive on the issue. is reasonably strong stretching backwards to about In the course of a study of representations of 1380. Before that the trail becomes increasingly faint. various ensembles in Flemish miniatures of the 15th

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 393 rv Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021

2 Brussels. Bibliotheque Royale Ms 8 f33v r 1460|

3 Paris. Bibliotheque Nationale Msfr 2646. f I 76 |r .1475)

394 MRLY MLSK -\IT,1'ST 1989 century 1 assembled a file of some 150 examples of the way).20 Finally, in illus.5, from c.1470 is a four-part wind bands, at least 50 of these showed a slide ensemble, again with what is almost certainly a slide instrument performing with shawms.17 Illus. 1 shows instrument in the 'folded shape'.21 What must be an early example, from a German manuscript from convincing is the sheer weight of the combination of about 1420-30, which shows two shawms performing the sources. Any one item might be ambiguous. One, v ith an instrument we may call a 'folded slide or even a handful, of the illustrations of the shawm trumpef, which was thus with a single slide.18 Illus.2 is bands, might be an instance of an artist showing two a Franco-Flemish miniature from about 1460, and entities, one a shawm band, the other a natural shows a similar ensemble; this time the slide instru- trumpet. But thousands of documents from all over

ment is the S-shaped' one, generally considered more Europe establish the overwhelming popularity through- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 archaic than the 'folded' shape.19 Illus.3, another out the entire 15th century of the wind ensemble of depiction of the dreadful event in the French court shawms with a "trombone'-type instrument. Most of when several young nobles were burned to death when the several score of illustrations must be of slide their feathered costumes caught fire in the course of a instruments, and what they show in almost all cases is dance. The musicians are shown reacting in horror, a single-slide mechanism. Iconography suggests that and the elegant 'slide trumpet' in an 'S shape' is the double-slide form was probably known from at beautifully detailed (as is the reed on the shawm, by least 1450 (a common dating of the Adamari wedding panel—even though the hand positions are problem- 4 Detail of illus 3 atic, the instrument has the characteristic elements of the double slide).22 Still, only some five examples I have found, from among over 50, show this more modern shape. The everyday items depicted within miniatures of the 15th century, particularly those which represented secular scenes, were most often drawn from the artists everyday experience. A representation of a royal banquet from Charlemagne's day would be shown with 15th-century tableware, costumes—and music. What the painters painted is what they saw around them, and what they saw performing with the shawm band was a slide trumpet. The conclusion seems obvious. Not only did 15th-century performers play on a single- slide instrument, they preferred this instrument for decades after technology had developed the modern double slide. Finally, then, a possible chronology for the instru- ment was, in fact, suggested by Dr Downey, at least in terms of the development of the general shapes of the instrument. Soon after about 1350 a new concept evolved in the combination of a brass instrument with shawms. In the first stage this was quite likely a straight instrument, with, possibly, a simple slide mechanism (thus a 'single slide'—on this point Dr Downey and I part company). Around 1375 or so, the technology was available for the development of the S-shaped' instrument (with single slide), which would have come into more general use around 1400. Soon after the turn of the century, a folded form' emerged, also with a single slide, which became common by about 1430. Both of these last two seem to have been

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 395 (fjroiniigcri. 1968-84i. ii. p. 1 17 Several performers, pfevfern oder limensldhern' appearecl in \ordlingen in 1437 see K Polk. Voices and Instruments' forthcoming m this Journal table B3 This same table gives another listings, as. lor example, a pav merit in 1475 to one Si el a no. a (jf-rman w md pi aver who w as desc nbed as a pi I tero el sonatore de Id v iola' hven toward the enc] ol the c eniurv Adam von Hilda < ould Imcl some ol sue h perlormanc es t orrupf and 'depraved Whai seemed !o have angered him the most, though, was loo lav ish embellishment of c omposer's !e\ls Ihe plavers dt whom he was lashing oul were quile ( learlv mvcjlved m polyphonic periornidiic e Ihe text is m his Muutui-. n.iliT. 10. see H Kiemann, History of Music I neon . trans. K. Hriggh U-int c)ln. 1962), p 270. Lone erning Ihc- qualitv ot jjolvpbcjnv

imjjrov isec] bv nimslrcds see IJ lallov\s. Itufav (Londcjn 1982|Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 . p. 2 "On this pom! SPP IAD, pjj 2S-26. 29 SHC IM). \) 29 Thf word Sears unlikeh that r 1440 is the earliest date (or the appearance oi a slide instrument in such (ulturall\ advanced centres as Horem e and Ferrara. It is possible that vihat the sr ribes were tr\ ing lo note uas something nev\ in the instrument — perhaps d double slide' In an\ case. German musicians had been active in both l-errara and Florence earlier, as early as 1387 in the case of Florence. My own archival research in ItdK has been limited largely to Florence: I find the terminology in the documents there between r. 1380 and 1420 too ambiguous to be helpful in this discussion. UlTAl). pp.27-8 uIAl), p.28 5 Vienna, Ostereichische Nationalbibliothek Ms 2617. f39 "TAD. p.29 (c. I47O| "M/;. p.29 1JK. Slerl. Die Rrgeiisburger Stadtrechnungen ties Is. Jahr- hunderts als Quellen tiir fahrenc] and hofische Spielleute' Rvgens- popular with musicians until near the end of the burger Beiirdge zur Musikwissensrhafl, vi (Regensburg. 1979). p.2S6. century. By shortly before 1450 the double slide 1' /AI), p,27 Oi < a si on a 1 ainbiguiu r ontmued until the early \ears principle was known, but performers seem not to have oi the 16th r entur\ Augustem S< hubinger, the renowned plaver of tromtione land later of /inck and Intel, was termed a 'trumeter' m preferred this form until the last years of the century. Augsburg, his nati\e < ii\. in 1488; see TAD. p 29 "'For comment on the x onographical evideiu e, see fn 1 9. below Keith Polk is a music historian specializing in instrumental For a surve\ ol the earlier history of the wind bands see H Mvers, music of the Renaissance. He also maintains an active Slide Trumpet Madness. Fact or lie tion'. alxne \1\f-rs enijihasi/es career as a French hornist. and teaches at the University of th'1 poinT that in the^e bands other instruments were < omninnh addefl to the shawms earlier in the 14th < entur\. and a signal Xew Hampshire. irmnpfi w a4- of !f'!i •* ' nniji.minn ir> rhf flnnfile ref>cN r 1 300 \r< hn a I sourt es mdif ate that In ( I 350 two distint t groups evoked, one of 'See in addition to DowneVs original article. R Uuffin. [he shawms proper, the other the mi lit an' or t eremonial trumpet bands trompette des menestrpls in the 15th-Centurv Alta-Capella'. below from then on these two ensembles developed along quite different v\hir h argues against l)owne\ concerning the phvsical nature and irat kv v\ith trumpets as ihe pern.Mr musu al mark of The ver\ c.capabilities of the slide trumpet. N Gardner. In Search ol the highest station Lvidentk the highest nobihtv it he emperor m Renaissance Slide Trumpet'. ITC Journal |1987|, pp4-9. which (jcrmdii lands) attempted 10 restrit I the pm liege oi trumpets within questions Dovvnev concerning iconography: K Polk. The trombone rigid limits, from whit h the < mes were c\( luder] |,it least in the 14th in archival documents I 350-1 500' ITA Journal 11987). pp 24-31 [ entur\ i Mvers also obsen es that from i 1 330 to r 1 400 the bagpipe which discusses the possible contributions ol archnal sources to was fairlv often incorporated into the shawm band as a part of the the debate (this last will be abbreviated TAD hereaflerl interest m expansion of 'tonal resoviri es1 Fman< lal a( ( ounts I or ,i splendid survev ol the situation m ijermdiiv sec [ Bradv. sijp()ort tins, and indu ate that the brass instrument with slide was Turning 5u i.s.s < uw. and T-minre I45O-I55H u ambridge. |985i e\ identK < onsidered more su< < essf\il in ^n h a role and repla< fd (one ernmg ihe situation m Brandenburg, see V f.arsten. The Origins the baiipipt- shorth rifter the turn ot the < *--ntur\ M\ers nfjtes too ..•.' '/Vl.-v.:,: iOvfiir.-, ITJJ. j,j. 136 4!1 1M). |i 2 5 addition ot a slide mslrument a jtomi well dot umented liv IJOIII JT he at i (n nils (it [ lev enter in 14" 2 rer ord pa v met it u! 3 tU'selk'ii i' onographi' al and ar< hual soiiri K I! i'*!l plpeli rude lute!: ' r I »• \\r\ er ill1 siud'-Ti'krmn'Jfn \ an [lr\ fnlrr Tflf sliti iMies ,i^H]M"-l iTMIIlpels nia\ e\pl,nii \\]]\ t l!l--s rxi'!'1 l^^'i

396 FARLY MUSIC ALGtST 1989 towers as signal instruments Illustrations of such horns' show that Severin. Master of St Severin. Scenes from the Life of St Sevenn (early they looked and presumably sounded like forms of trumpets 16th century) Perhaps by this bureaucratic and terminological sleight of hand the "Brussels, Bibliotheque Royale Ms 8, f 33v (c 1460) For other city officials could conform to the letter of the law and slip around examples of this shape (again in chronological order) see Prado, imperial decrees The cities did conform, however to the extent that Museo del Prado, Rodriguez del Toledo, Retablo del Arzobispo the watchmen formed a distinct category, and evidently did not Sanchez de Rojai (c 1400). Pans. Bibliotheque Nationale. Ms fr 764, function in other ceremonial capacities, nor did they perform with f 214 (1430). Chicago, Newberry Library Ms 40. f43 (c 1455), and shawms Imperial decrees may also explain why the term posaune Pans, Bibliotheque Nationale Ms fr 12574, f 66 (c 1470) Thus the was so painstakingly reserved for an instrument which appeared evidence for the 'S-shape' slide instrument begins about 1400 and within the context of the wind ensemble The term appears novel in continues until the final decades of the 15th century The 'folded the manner in which it was introduced in the scribal language of trumpef form appears c 1420. and continues to be shown beyond German city accounts toward the end of the 14th century, and from 1500 The iconographical evidence before 1400 is less certain, as then on was used with reasonable consistency most often referring illustrations of wind ensembles with a brass instrument are very rare to an instrument employed with shawms Bye 1375, however, a more in the late 14th century One miniature from about 1400 (Basel. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 ancient practice of combinations of double reeds with straight, Offenthche Bibliothek der Umversitat. Ms A II 4. f 135v) shows a natural trumpets might not have yet passed completely from the shawmist and a player of straight trumpet The ttumpet is held with scene Although the terminology suggests new developments, some one hand, palm up, an impossible position for the manipulation of degree of linking with the older traditions undoubtedly took place the slide The ensemble is odd, though We have many references to Thus even if one accepts the notion of an instrument with a single ensembles of two shawms, or two shawms and posaune or of two or slide, the possible date when this might have been first incorporated three posaunen from about this time, but I do not know of any into ensemble performance can be suggested only in broad and instances of an ensemble of one shawm and one posaune The artist admittedly imprecise parameters may also have been trying to portray two differnt events, the playing "Results reported in K Polk, 'Ensemble Performance in Dufay's of a shawm and the sounding of a trumpet, which did not happen Time' Papers Read at the Dufay Quicentenary Conference, ed A Atlas simultaneously—certainly a common enough phenomenon in the (Brooklyn. 1976), pp 64-71 miniature tradition Still, the iconographical situation before 1400 "Brussels. Bibliotheque Royale Ms 14697. f26 For other needs further research illustrations of this shape see (in chronological order) Vienna. 20Pans. Bibliotheque Nationale. Ms fr 2646. f 176 (c 1475) Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek Ms 2534. f 165 (cl440). Pans 2'Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek Ms 2617. f39 Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal Ms 5087. f 394 (1454). Brussels, Biblio- (c 1470) theque Royale Ms9244. f 73(1468), Lubeck CitvMuseum Master of "Florence, Gallena d'Arte Antica e Moderna. Cassone panel the Halepager Alter, no 185 (1496), and Cologne, Church of St Adaman Wedding (cl450)

Ross W. Duf fin The trompette des menestrels in the 15th-century alta capella

The article by Peter Downey, 'The Renaissance slide example is the famous Najera triptych by Hans trumpet Fact or fiction', has been the strongest Memling (c 1480) in which two folded trumpets and attack to date on the existence of a slide trumpet in one straight trumpet (buisine) are depicted being the early 15th century It raises some important played by angels ' Since, as he states, 'the buisine is points and forces are-examination of the history and being held in the same way' as the other two, he function of brass instruments in the early Re- concludes that none of the three can be a slide naissance There is, however, some iconographical trumpet organological and documentary evidence which I In my view, however, an important detail has been believe has been misinterpreted or overlooked, and overlooked The instrument which some of us assume some musical evidence that needs to be re-evaluated to be a slide trumpet, the trompette des menestrels, is I shall answer Dr Downey's charges point by point in listed in Burgundian court documents next to the an effort to restore the slide trumpet to what I believe menestrels themselves, whose primary funtion was to to be its rightful position in the loud band of the play shawms 2 That is, the instrument is distinguished time from the trompettes de guerre, the fanfare or war Dr Downey's first argument is that iconography trumpets, which are presumably trumpets of fixed cannot prove the existence of a slide trumpet His length In the Na)era triptych the buisine and one of

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 397 shown to be acoustical impossibilities.' 1 would guess, however, that even a realist painter who knew very little about musical instruments would still be likely to get the human parts of the depiction phvsicallv correct, leaving us only to hope that the painter's model knew what he was doing. So. while the pit lure's instrumental realism might be suspect and tall short of 'proving' the existence of a slide trumpet, neither does it make it any less likeh than the documentary and

musical evidence suggest. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 Dr Downey's second point concerns the so-called trumpetum parts which occur (most often in sacred music) throughout the first three-quarters of the 15th century. He maintains that 'there are no grounds whatever for supposing the trumpetum parts were performed on any type of trumpet'. Indeed, the fact that many of the pieces in this category are mass movements suggests strongly that the trumpetum parts must have been sung, regardless of their labels or suggestive, arpeggio-laced melodies. My only quibble with Dr Downey in this section concerns his statement

1 Master of the Housebook. detail of The Children of the Sun 2 Master of the Housebook. detail of Thf children of VIMUIS (German. (1480) (Library of Wolfegg Castle. South Wurttemberg) (German, c 1480) (Library of Wolfegg Castle. South Wurttembergl the folded trumpets are shown together in the right panel while the other folded trumpet is paired with a shawm in the left panel. This latter trumpet (which I propose as a trompette des menestrels) is held slightly differently from the other two. in spite of Dr Downey's claims to the contrary. The left hand of the player does not hold the mouthpiece against the lips cigarette style' with the palm facing inward, as with the other two. but rather grasps it dart style' with the palm at 90 lo the body. This position alone affords protection to the player's lips from the compression of the mouth- piece as the instrument is drawn inwards along a stockingless slide, while still allowing the mouthpiece to be held against the lips as the instrument is pushed outwards. My conclusion is that the two trumpets of the right panel need no such protection since they are fanfare trumpets of fixed length, while the trumpet on the left is a slide trumpet and. as such, is lngicallv shown paired with the shawm. If any doubt this reasoning, it can easily be confirmed by ming the hand positions with a Renaissance slide trumpet facsimile (mythological or otherwisei But given the danger of taking Memish realist music depictions too literalh . we might be inclined to disregard altogether a painting such as this as a piece of useful e\id»'in e Instruments depu ted w ith apparent realism ha\ e been

398 EARLY MUSIC AUCil'ST I9H9 that these parts 'contain features that derive ultimately from contemporary military signal music, which was performed on a natural claret trumpet (that is. a trumpet capable of playing only the notes of the natural harmonic series)'. The implication overlooks the possibility that parts derive from the characteristic melodic motion of the slide trumpet which, after all (if it existed), made use of the same harmonic series and a few other notes besides.

Dr Downey then proceeds to make a number of Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 claims about reconstructed instruments. The first is that only half of the trumpetum parts are theoretically performable on a slide trumpet. The second is the actual performance must be extremely difficult or impossible owing to the inertia caused by moving the entire trumpet along a single slide. And the third is that the only slide trumpet that could theoretically have performed such parts would had to have been pitched in C, while the earliest known trumpet in C was the Italian natural trumpet of the late 15th century. Let me dispose of the second claim first since it is based only on hearsay evidence. My own experience with slide trumpets of a reconstructed Renaissance design has been with instruments based on plans by Herbert Myers. All three were made by non-pro- fessional makers; all were used to play presumed alta capella music from this era. Although the music included passages requiring fairly rapid execution, 'inertia' was not a problem, much to the surprise of the 3 Heinrich Aldegraver (1502-c.l 558) 'Music for a Wedding Dance', from The Great Dances. 1538 players themselves. Instruments made to professional standards in the early 15th century must surely have almost certainly have been the sizes preferred. In view played as well or better. of this, and in view of the standard transposition of the The first and the third claims, I believe, arise out of a repertoire, I fail to understand how Dr Downey arrives misunderstanding of the sounding pitch of the shawm at a pitch of C for the only slide trumpet that can in band. Because of surviving 16th-century specimens theory perform these pieces.' Nor do I follow his and theoretical descriptions, we strongly suspect that reasoning when he argues that because the earliest the standard pitches of the shawms of the 15th- trumpet pitched in C did not appear until the late 15th century alta capella were a" for the treble shawm and g century, and because it was a natural trumpet, there for the bombarde. Iconography supports this position, was no slide trumpet of any pitch during this or at least supports the probability that the instruments period. were not appreciably larger than this. The monophonic Leaving aside the trumpetum parts in sacred com- basse danse repertory which is recognized by all positions as inappropriate, the contra parts of pre- authorities is important raw material for alta capella sumed alta capella music of the first half of the 15th improvisation, consistently requires a range down to century work very well on slide trumpets pitched in D tenor r, necessitating a standard upward transposition or G, once the music has been transposed up a fifth. of a 5th for performance on shawms with a collective Such pieces include the untexted compositions in bottom note of g. This has been discussed and improvisatory style found in MS Trent 87.5 like Auxce 4 documented by Polk and Myers, among others. bon youre (Tr87, no.90) and Tandemaken (Tr87. Because of the natural scales of the shawms, a larger no. 160),6 and the setting of the basse danse melody. Je slide trumpet pitched in D or a smaller one in G would suy povere de leesse (Tr87, no.83), attributed in one

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 399 source to Dufay as the motet Qui latmt 7 In fact, the of the 15th century Third, Dr Downey has misconstrued notes fall very well under the slide, most of them in a or misinterpreted the role of the brass instrument in range where little slide movement is necessary The the 15th-century alta capella as the instrument that highest note required in the contra parts of the three played the tenor part above-mentioned pieces is one instance of the ninth It must be clear from the discussion above that I harmonic of the D slide trumpet The part can just as believe the brass .nstrument to have played the contra easily be played on the smaller G instrument, although But why9 In the first place, there is the musical there is a trade-off between the advantages of the association of the trompette with the contra voice In all lower register with regard to embouchure and the of those trumpetum pieces, if only one voice has a higher register with regard to slide positions Most trumpet designation, it is almost invariably contra- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 written contra parts of the time range about a 12th up tenor trompette' or some similar label Why would this from tenor c With the standard transposition, both D be so unless the instrument were commonly associated and G slide trumpets are almost fully chromatic over with that voice function9 Furthermore, the passage the rangeg-d" the D instrument lacks only the low b\>, from Tinctons (c 1487) which Dr Downey calls to and the G instrument lacks only the lowg« Thus the witness the trombone playing the tenor part in the alta surviving written music can readily be played by a capella actually reads as follows slide trumpet in transposition, as can improvized contra parts in the basse danse repertory, assuming the However, for the lowest contratenor parts, and often for any same relationship of tenor and contra ranges contratenor part, to the shawm players one adds brass players who play very harmoniously upon the kind of horn In his final section and the concluding footnote, Dr which is called trompone in Italy, sacqueboute in France 8 Downey proposes a 'claret' trumpet in F as the trumpet of the alta capella He gives the harmonics 9-12 after Clearly, by c 1487 the brass instrument had a Bendinelli (1614) as the standard claretto range, recognized contratenor function in the alta capella Let although he fails to say exactly what the claret trumpet us briefly review the history of the shawm band at the would be doing up there in the context of the shawm Court of Burgundy in order to ascertain whether such a band More enlightening, if somewhat contradictory, function seems plausible in the decades leading up to are his statements in note 43. a sketch of the history of Tinctons's statement I choose the Burgundian shawm the trombone band since it has been so well documented by Wright Whereas the claret trumpet was the result of the upward and Manx, and since it seems to have been a kind of extension of the trumpet's range, the trombone may have exemplary ensemble throughout France and the Low been a response to the demands of dance music for which Countries It also happens that the workshop of Hans the few notes afforded by the S-shaped trumpet were no Memhng, the painter of the Najera triptych, was in longer adequate Quickly replacing the S-shaped trumpet, Bruges—all through this period a favourite haunt of the trombone was the instrument that played basse danse the dukes of Burgundy tenors in hauls instruments bands This use of the trombone The first appearance at Burgundy of a brass [is] explicitly stated by Tinctons in his De mventione et usu instrument that apparently did not function exclusively musice in fanfares is documented in a tantalizing 1386 It seems that Dr Downey believes the trumpet in the reference to a menestrel de trompette, visiting as part of shawm band to have played drones until the early 15th the retinue of some unidentified German bishop 9 The century, when it was called upon to play basse danse first person in the regular employ of the Burgundian tenors, judged inadequate, and replaced by the Court who was recognized as a player of the trompette double-shded trombone or sackbut des menestrels is one Hennequin van Pictre, hired 10 First, there is no natural trumpet that could play c 1412 by Duke John and serving until 1421 even the few mostly diatonic notes of the basst danse Hennequin van Pictre is described as a player of both tenor melodies unless the pieces were transposed up trompette des menestrels and trompette de guerre He to where the lowest note of the melodies (written tenor achieved dubious distinction and the sobriquet c) is the 8th harmonic of the trumpet1 (Shawm players, Copetripe (cutgut) by mortally wounding a fellow- please take smelling salts1) Second, this view does not trumpeter in a knife fight in 1418 " explain what the trumpet (l e not trombone) is doing In the earliest household accounts for Duke Philip in depictions of the shawm band until past the middle the Good, Hennequin Copetripe is listed only among

400 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021

4 Woodcut from Illustrations de la chronique des cantons Suisse (Zurich. Jean Stumpf, 1548) A quartet of three cornetts and slide trumpet (?) perform at a banquet the trompettes de guerre, there being no regular listing The next piece of evidence concerning the function for trompettes des menestrels. But the year after his of the trompette des menestrels in the Burgundian alta departure, 1422, fi ids the first designation of a player capella is the consistency with which a bombarde as trompette des menestrels: Evrard Janson.12 So begins player is referred to as teneur des menestrels. In 1416 the Janson dynasty of trompette des menestrels players: Thibaut de Strasbourg was recruited for Duke John as Evrard (1422-1426), Hennequin (1432-1445) and menestrel de bombarde.14 Throughout his service at the Jehan (1447-1456). Information on most of the Burgundian court Thibaut carried the designation intervening years is missing in the archives. A similar teneur des menestrels, and that service covered the gap occurs between 1456 and 1459, in which year astonishing span of 34 years. He was replaced by the Adrien de Rechter assumes the position. Adrien serves menestrel Estienne de la Bourgade who served from until 1464 and is then succeeded by Jacques de 1451 to 1452. Estienne was not designated teneur, but Rechter, a likely relation who entered service originally his replacement. Rogier de Bey, is listed as teneur from as trompette de guerre in the same year as Adrien's 1453 to 1466. During Rogier's last year, interestingly appearance. Jacques is designated trompette des enough, there is only one other alta capella member menestrels until 1468, when the records are interrupted, listed: Jacques de Rechter as trompette des menestrels." but he apparently remained on the payroll until at The slide trumpet—and I think by now we can least 1474. Thus, we know the names of the people safely say that the trompette des menestrels was a slide who played the brass instrument in the dukes' shawm trumpet—was not the only instrument to play contra band from 1412 to 1474. or at least, to 1468. That same parts in the alta capella. Iconography does not always year, 1468. is also the earliest dated reference to a show a brass instrument as part of the shawm band, n sackbut-like instrument, the trompette saiqueboute, and therefore the contra function was sometimes which term effectively links the trompette des menestrels assigned elsewhere. In 1423, Pierre de Prost of Bruges with the sacqueboute of Tinctoris's discussion. supplied the Burgundian court with a set of instru-

EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1989 401 ments 'two called keyed bombards, one contra, and 'Printed in Guillelmi Dufay Opera omma. Corpus Mensurabihs two shawms, XIV pounds, and for a trumpet serving Musicae. i/l, ed G de Van (Rome, 1948). pp27-8 16 "Also translated and discussed in A Baines, Fifteenth-century with these instruments, X pounds' This makes it Instruments in Tinctons's De mventione et usu musicae GJ in (1950) clear that a special type of shawm was available for pp20-2l D Heartz. Hoftanz and Basse Dance, JAMS. xix(1966), p 14, contra parts, although its precise nature remains Myers, 'Fifteenth-century Shawm Band', p 1 et passim 9C Wright, Music at the Court of Burgundy 1364-1419 a obscure Myers speculates that the contra had the Documentary History, Musicological Studies, xxvm (Henryville same range as the bombarde but a different tone 1979), p41 colour, perhaps created by the barrel-bell seen on '"Wright, Music at the Court of Burgundy, pp 47-48, 53, n 208. Manx, Histoire de la musique, pp 111-13 this is not the same some shawms in late 14th- and early 15th-century Hennequin who served Philip the Good later on, since from 1428 to depictions " As he points out, there is no iconographic 1433, Hennequin van Pictre was in the service of Niccolo III d'Este, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/em/article/XVII/3/383/417713 by guest on 30 September 2021 evidence for a shawm significantly larger than the Marquis of Ferrara, celebrated in Dufay's ballade, Cest bien raison (c 1433) See also C Lockwood, Music in Renaissance Ferrara 1400— bombarde at the time in question Nor is there any 1505 (Cambridge. Mass 1984), p 17 need for one, )udging by the ranges of contra parts, "Wright, Music at the Court of Burgundy, p49 which in written music are about the same as tenor 12Manx, Histoire de la musque, p 264 The payroll lists of Burgundian instrumentalists of 1420-1474, appear in Manx, parts but with a few extra notes on the top pp264-75 One other question that seems to me to warrant 13H Besseler, 'DieEntstehungder Posaune'./lrtamusico/ogica, xxn investigation is why the slide trumpet should have (1950), p 11 Keith Polk has recently published documented early references to other terms which may refer to slide instruments, been used to play the contra parts and the bombarde including bassran (posaune) (Augsburg, 1368), and trombonus (Ferrara, the tenor, since doing so is disproportionately harder 1439) as the earliest in those categories He has also established that for the slide trumpeter than the reverse arrangement as early as 1363 (Dortmund), brass players were being paid as members of civic shawm bands, and argues that, in view of the This remains to be resolved, and in fact it may be a continuance of the terminology, a slide mechanism may already matter of custom rather than logic For now, we are left have evolved by that time See his'Instrumental Music in the Urban 1 with scant evidence which is, however, consistent in Centres of Renaissance Germany . Early Music History, vn (1987). pp 159-86, and 'The Trombone in Archival Documents 1350-1500', pointing to the trompette des menestrels as a slide International Trombone Association Journal (summer, 1987), pp 24- trumpet that was normally used to play the contra part 31 in the alta capella '••Wright, Music at the Court of Burgundy, p 51 "Manx. Histoire de la musique, pp 264-74 "Manx. Histoire de la musique, p 102 This is not the only occasion Ross W Duffin is Fynette H Kulas Associate Professor of on which Pierre de Prost purveyed instruments to the Burgundian Music and head of the early music programme at Case menestrels, a situation which emphasizes the connection between the Duke's loud band and the city of Bruges See also Wright, Music Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio He also at the Court of Burgundy, pp 50-51 presents Micrologus exploring the world of early music "Myers, 'Fifteenth-century Shawm Band', p 8 Examples of such on National Public Radio barrel-bell instruments can be seen in E A Bowles, Musical Performance in the Late Middle Ages, (Minkoff & Lattes. 1983). plates 17, 36. 49, and 50, and in F Lesure, Music in Art and Society. (University Park and London Pennsylvania State University Press. 1968) plate 35 'See P Downey. 'The Renaissance Slide Trumpet Fact or Fiction', EM. xn (1984), illus 2 For a larger, colour reproduction see R Wangermee, Flemish Music (New York Praeger, 1968), pp 188-9 2J Manx, Histoire de la musique et des musiaens de la cour de Bourgogne sous le regne de Philhppe le Bon (1420-1467) (Strasbourg, (1939), pp 264-74) 3See, for example, E M Ripin, 'The Norrlanda Organ and the Early Music Ghent Altarpiece', in Fescschnft to Ernst Emsheimer (Stockholm, 1974) Concerning instrumental realism in the Najera Triptych see H W Myers, Slide trampet madness fact or fiction', (this journal, Coming in November 1989 pOO) 4Keith Polk, in a paper read at the national meeting of the American Musicological Society in Los Angeles 31 October 1975, The baroque and H W Myers. 'The Musical Resources of the Fifteenth-century Shawm Band'. (DMA term project. Stanford U . 1980). pp 5-6 Note stage further that the pitch standard may well have been higher than A = 440, to judge by 16th-century specimens 'Trento, Castello del Buonconsiglio Ms 87 facsimile repro- duction in Codex mdentmus 87 (Vol l of Cod 87-93) Rome, 1967) 'Both printed in F Crane. Materials for the Study of the Fifteenth- century Basse Danse (New York. 1968). pp62-3, 65-6

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