AIA PUBLICATIONS AND NEW MEDIA

Two Archaeologists Comment on The Passion of the

DR. ANDREA AND DR. JODI MAGNESS*

Mel Gibson’s movie The Passion of the Christ is hardly a historical documentary. As the di- rector himself asserts, and reviewers, religious leaders, and audience members agree, the movie is designed to bring to vivid life the nature and magnitude of ’ sacrifice – an issue of theology rather than history. We are not theologians, but rather archaeologists specializ- ing in the material remains and history of Roman Palestine. As such, we can not speak to the movie’s moral message, or even to the aesthetic or cinematic vision of the director. Some viewers may wonder, however, about the historical accuracy with which events and their set- tings are depicted. For those who are curious about Gibson’s fidelity to ancient sources, we offer the following information.

LANGUAGE

How do we know what languages people actually spoke in Roman Judaea? We have a lot of written evidence from the region that is contemporary with the era of Jesus: papyri, in- scriptions, grafitti, and historical texts. From hundreds of examples surviving from Roman Judaea, we can easily document which languages people understood and used both in official transactions and in their daily lives. The ancient evidence is very clear on this point: the ev- eryday language spoken by the Jewish and Samaritan populations of Palestine in the time of Jesus was Aramaic, while the official language for administrative communication was Greek. Thus one of the film’s major historical inaccuracies is the use of Latin instead of Greek. In the context of the movie, it may seem logical to hear Roman soldiers and officials speak Latin. After all, by the time of Jesus, Latin had long been the living language of the popula- tion of Rome as well as of most of Italy. In Judaea, however, nobody grew up speaking or even learning Latin. While Roman soldiers and officials from Rome probably did speak Latin among themselves, they would have used Greek to communicate with members of the local ruling class, such as Herod’s family and the Jewish high priests. As a poor Jew, Jesus presum- ably did not know Greek at all, and he certainly would not have known Latin (in one scene in the movie, he speaks with in Latin!).

COSTUMES The Passion of the Christ For this film to be an accurate depiction of Christ’s , it would have to be rated X (NC-17). This is because crucified victims were executed in the nude. In everyday life, men and women alike wore tunics – a type of simple, one-piece dress, belted at the waist, with a hole for the head and two holes for the arms. A mantle (a large rectangular cloak) was worn over the tunic, but on the shoulders, not over the head as shown in the movie. Jewish men had tassels (called tzitzit) attached to the corners of their mantles. Long (ankle-length) tunics were worn by men for ceremonial purposes (for example, by priests) as well as by women, and short (knee-length) tunics were worn by slaves, soldiers, and for purposes of work, where mobility was required. Nothing (no underwear) was worn under tunics, except by

March 2004 Two Archaeologists Comment on by the Archaeological Institute of America Copyright © 2004 Essene men who wore a loin cloth. 2 Two Archaeologists Comment on The Passion of the Christ METHODS probably wouldhavelookedlikea60-somethingyearoldwomandoestoday. much olderthana40-somethingyearoldwomanincontemporaryWestern society. Mary thing yearoldwomaninRomanJudaea,especiallyfrom apoorfamily, wouldhavelooked years ofage),sheindeedwouldhavebeeninher40’swhenJesusdied.However, a40-some- her 40’s.AssumingthatMarygavebirthtoJesuswhenshewasveryyoung(about12-13 sites suchasMasada. Jewish womeninRomanJudeaworehairnets,examplesofwhichhavebeendiscoveredat fortheemperor rian Suetonius.InhisbiographyofNero,SuetoniusdescribedtheRomanSenate’sdecree request: owner’s hiring ofpeopletotortureorexecuteslaves,whetherbycourtorderinresponsean town ofPozzuoli(ancientPuteoli),datingtothefirstcenturyC.E.,detailsregulationsfor actually regulatedundertheRomanstate.AstoneinscriptionfoundinmodernItalian head putinawoodenforkandbeingbeatentodeathbyrods”( “great crowd”). rested bya“crowdofmenwith swordsandclubs”(Mark14:43;Matt.26:47,refersto a lowed theJewstohavetheir own army. Instead,theGospelsdescribeJesusasbeingar- and abuseJesus,arepurefantasy (asaretheircostumes).TheRomanswouldneverhave al- tims), thiswouldpresumablyhavebeenmentionedinthe . manner (thatis,hadhebeentreatedmoreharshlyanddifferently thanothercrucifixionvic- over tobecrucified”(Mark15:15;cf.Matt.27:26).HadJesus beentorturedinanexceptional in factquitetersetheirrendition:“...afterhavingJesus scourged, he[Pilate]deliveredHim is attestedbuttheonlyweaponevercitedareed(Mark 15:19;Matt.27:30).TheGospelsare length andtosuchhorrificeffectin pictorial representations,norphysicalevidenceforthebrutal implementthatisusedat ging” and“beating”are attested inancientsources, however, there are neitherdescriptions, have hadsomelatitudeindevisingandcarryingoutthepunishment hedecreed.While“flog- existed inRomanJudaea.PontiusPilate,thegovernor whosentencedJesus,would dictions. An empire-wide standard didnotexist.We donotknowwhatregulations, ifany, be imposed.). to saythatNerowassofrightenedbythissentencehecommittedsuicidebeforeitcould In thefilm,Jesus’smotherMaryisplayedbyahandsomeactresswhoappearstobein Jewish mendidnothavelonghair, unlesstheywere (fulfillingaNaziritevow). The descriptioninthisinscriptionissimilartoanothergivenbytheancientRomanhisto- Written evidencefrom thetimeofJesusreveals thattorture wasnotonlycarriedoutbut The armedJewishguardsshown inthemovieaccompanyinghighpriests,whoarrest It shouldbenotedthatatthistimesuchregulationswere the responsibilityofciviljuris- Wiedemann, Blackwell Publishers2001,pp.26-27;texttranslationfrom J.F. Gardiner andT. with thecondemnedman...( nails, pitch,wax,tapers,andanythingelsethatisnecessaryforthisinordertodeal to bereadyexactthepunishment.Heissetupcrossesandsupplywithoutcharge ments asheexactsinhispubliccapacity, andwhenorders are given(thecontractor)is gers, andthefloggersthemselves....Themagistrateshallgiveordersforsuchpunish- slave onthecrossorfork,contractormustsupplyposts,chains,ropesforflog- wishes tohavethepunishmentinflictedshalldosoasfollows.Ifhewantsput thirty-two operatives. one-eyed, maimed,lame,blind,orbranded.Thecontractoristohavenofewerthan None ofthemistobeoverfiftyyearsageorundertwenty, norhaveanysores, be If anyonewishestohaveaslave–maleorfemalepunishedprivately, hewho [Members oft]heworkforcewhichshallbeprovidedfor...inflictingpunishment The RomanHousehold:A Sourcebook moremaiorum The RomanWorld: A Sourcebook The (i.e.,inthetraditionalmanner),thatisby“havinghis

Passion ’s “scourging”scenes.Scourgingasapractice , London1991,pp.24-26). Nero , DavidCherry, editor, 49.2;Suetoniusgoeson 3 Two Archaeologists Comment on The Passion of the Christ CRUCIFIXION HISTORICAL CONTEXT Antiquities both writteninthelaterfirstcenturyC.E.whenhewaslivingRome.Theyare warnings anddeterrents.(Josephusrecountstheseepisodesintwoofhishistoricalworks, man commandersVespasian andhissonTitus bothordered crucifixion executionsaspublic Herod. Later, duringthe Jewishrevolt andwaragainsttheRomansfrom 66-70C.E.,theRo- the crucifixionof2,000JewswhohadrebelledagainstRomanruleupondeathKing year 4B.C.E.,QuintiliusVarus, theRomanofficer incharge oftheprovince ofSyria,ordered Hasmonean kingAlexanderJannaeusordered800enemycaptivescrucified,whileinthe torian FlaviusJosephusrecordstwoepisodesofmasscrucifixionfromIsrael.In88B.C.E.the 6,000 gladiatorsandslavesattheendofrevoltSpartacus(73-71B.C.E.).TheJewishhis- cal .ThemostdramaticexamplefromRomanhistorymaybethemasscrucifixionof used againstslaves,traitors,andmembersofthelowerclasseswhowereconvictedpoliti- under “Torture Methods,”whichrefers toputtingaslave“onthecross”). Itwasgenerally Idumaea, Samaria,andGalilee wascomprisedofnumerousgroups,factions,andsects, di- ing ofthecomplexeventsthat leduptotheselast12hours. theological purpose.Buthistorically itmeansthatviewersareleftwithoutanyunderstand- aside fromblamingevilJews andRomans.Perhapsthisisdeliberateintendedto serve a context andrendereditunintelligible,withnoapparentreason forthecrucifixionofJesus By focusingonthelast12hoursofJesus’slife,Gibsonhas rippedthiseventfromitshistorical choices, however, MelGibsonhaschosentoignore whattheGospelwritersstrove tosupply. and deathwithinthelargerhistoricalcontextofhislife mission.Inhisownnarrative in theplaceofeventstheywerenarrating,worked toputtheeventsofJesus’trial away: between70and90C.E.,outsideofthearea Levant. these events.Insteadtheywerecomposedtwogenerations laterandhundredsofmiles these textswerenotwrittendownatthetime,northey writtenbyactualwitnessesof to takethesetextsas“scripts”forthearrest,trial,andcrucifixion ofJesus.Thatisbecause pels (Matthew, Mark,andLuke)ortheGospelofJohn, itwouldbeneitheraccuratenorfair A Reappraisal,” Journal afterwards (Vassilios Tzaferis,“JewishTombs atandnearGiv’atha-Mivtar,” been drivenagainstaknotintheuprightbeamofcross;andthispreventeditsremoval a nail41/2incheslong.Theendofthewasbent,orhooked,apparentlybecauseithad a youngmanwhohadbeencrucified.Theevidenceconsistedofrightheelbonepiercedby cave atthesiteofGiv’atha-Mivtar, innortheastJerusalem, wasfoundtocontainthebonesof 1968, anossuary(bonebox)ofthefirstcenturyC.E.excavatedfromalargerock-cutburial vincial governor)hadtheauthoritytoimposepenaltyofcrucifixion. pending onthecharge. InRomanJudaea,onlytheRomans(andspecifically, theRomanpro- ish law, hewouldhavebeenexecutedbystoning,burning,,orstrangulation,de- however. Were JesustohavebeentriedandcondemnedbyaJewishcourtforviolatingJew- the hands. cases wherevictimswerenailed,thenailsplacedthroughwrists,notpalmsof site ofthecrucifixion.Second,manyvictimsweretiedbyropestocross,notnailed.In sentenced tocrucifixionapparentlycarriedonlythecrossbeam,notentirecross, Even if Crucifixion wasastandardmethodofexecutionintheancientworld(seetextabove In thefirstcenturyC.E.,population ofRomanJudaeaanditsadjacentareas Because theGospelauthorswerewritingforanaudience who didnotliveatthetimeor There isphysicalevidenceattestingtothepracticeofcrucifixioninfirstcenturyJudaea.In Not everyancientsocietyemployedcrucifixionasthestandardmethodofexecution, There aretwoinaccuraciesinthedepictionofJesus’scrucifixionthisfilm.First,those 20(1970),pp.18-32;J.ZiasandE.Sekeles,“TheCrucifiedManfromGiv’atha-Mivtar: andthe The Passion ExplorationJournal Jewish War adheredineverydetailtothespecificnarrativesofSynopticGos- : Ant . 13.380; 35(1985),pp.22-27). War 1.97;2.75;3.321;5.289;5.450-51). Israel Exploration Jewish 4 Two Archaeologists Comment on The Passion of the Christ should not,however, bemistakenforverifiablehistoricalfact. creating aconvincingancientcontext.Themessagethatpeopletakeawayfromthemovie moored fromdocumentedrealities.Gibsonstrivestoconveyatheologicalmessagebyre- amount ofpainandsuffering,butalsoonethatis,inmanymajorminorrespects,un- person’s essentialcharacteristics.Theendresultisamoviethatconveystremendous choices: whenandwhere tostartthestory, whattoemphasize,howdraw outeach the Romangovernor–wasinrealitymorethreatenedbyhisactions. Roman officialcouldimposealsorevealswhichauthorityfigure–theJewishhighpriestor and publictrialmightengender. ThefactthatJesusdiedbyamethodofexecutiononly demned andcrucifiedsoquickly:inordertominimizethecivicdisruptionthataprolonged nected politicalelite.ThisbackgroundisessentialtounderstandingwhyJesuswascon- large numbersofthepoliticallypowerless,butnotamongsmallgroupwell-con- high priestsoftheJerusalem Temple, Jesuswouldhavehadalliesandsupportersamongthe individual. AsapoorJewishpeasantfromGalileespeakingoutinoppositiontothewealthy seen bybothRomanofficialsandJewishhighpriestsasadangerousevendestabilizing Temple andanenormouscrowd coalescingaround him,Jesuswouldnaturallyhavebeen nor andarmywere especiallynervousaboutcivildisturbances.With hisoutburstinthe ing thePassoverfestival,whichwasaperiodofhugecrowding inthecity, theRomangover- person whothreatenedtheprecariousbalancepresentedasocialandpoliticalproblem.Dur- American Protestantsassuch. inaccurate topresenttheJewsasasingle,monolithicgroupitwouldbemodern outsized militarypresenceloomedoverallJewishfestivalgatherings.Thusitisashistorically economic movementsagainsttheirRomanrulers.Meanwhilethoserulersmadesurethatan as aboutadoptingGreekandRomanculturaltraditions.ManyJewsorganizedpoliticalor groups –includingJesusandhisfollowersarguedaboutreligiouslawsrituals,aswell gious andclasslinesintogroupssuchasthePharisees,Sadducees,Essenes.TheseJewish with Samaritans,andSamaritansattackedGalileanpilgrims.Jewsweredividedalongreli- Jews andnon-Jewish(Gentile)inhabitantsofthecountry. GalileansandJudaeans fought There weretensionsbetweentheJewsandRomanoccupyingforces, sion ofthemodern American “meltingpot,”however, butinsteadatinderboxofinstability. vided variouslyalongethnic,class,andreligiouslines.Theseareaswerenotanancientver- sity ofNorthCarolina atChapelHill,isaformer Academic Trustee. of the Archaeological Instituteof America; Dr. JodiMagness,DistinguishedProfessor attheUniver- As directorof For boththeRomanofficialsandpoliticallyaccommodatingJewishhighpriests,any * Dr. Andrea Berlin, Associate ProfessorattheUniversityofMinnesota,isan Academic Trustee The PassionoftheChrist , MelGibsonwascompelledtomakenarrative NOTES