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Download (1917Kb) University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/66161 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. The Women Who Leave: Irish Women Writing on Emigration by K. Madolyn Nichols, M.A., M.S. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Literature The University of Warwick, Department of English & Comparative Literary Studies June 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i Declaration iii Abstract iv Introduction: The Women Who Leave 1 Chapter One: Emigration and the Catholic Church 33 Chapter Two: Departures and Destinations 74 Chapter Three: The Nostos Narrative and Treatments of Return 124 Chapter Four: Courtship and the Romantic Emigrant 170 Chapter Five: Land and Soil 216 Conclusion 272 Works Cited 289 Works Consulted 304 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As with any large-scale project that requires several years to complete, this thesis necessitated a great deal of individual and institutional help to bring to fruition. I would first and foremost like to express my sincere gratitude to Professors Elizabeth Barry and Maria Luddy for serving as advisors for this thesis. I count myself fortunate to have had the opportunity to benefit from Dr Luddy’s encyclopaedic knowledge of Irish literature and history. Dr Barry continually went beyond the call of duty in terms not only of feedback and counsel but also of emotional support. I think of her as the Gordon Lish of this thesis and am grateful for her insight, her patience, and her kindness. On an institutional level, I am thankful for the generous support of the University of Warwick Postgraduate Research Scholarship, which enabled me to concentrate my efforts fully on this project. A grant from the British Association of Irish Studies also provided a vote of confidence for my work. This project would not have come to fruition were it not for the dedication of librarians in a variety of locations. In the UK, the staff at the University of Warwick library and The British Library; Janet Wallwork at the University of Manchester’s John Ryands library not only helped me unearth archival material on Katharine Tynan but generously shared her extensive knowledge and her personal research; in France, the librarians at La Bibliothèque Nationale de France helped me discover rare work by Kathleen Coyle, and Carole Jacquet at The Irish Cultural Centre; in Ireland, The National Library of Ireland, the Irish National Archives, and Dr Teresa Whitington at the Central Catholic Library, Hugh O’Neill at the Central Statistics Office in Cork, Barry Houlihan at NUI Galway; in the US, I would like to thank Aedin Clements, the Irish Studies Librarian at the University of Notre Dame’s Hesburgh Library. Lastly, my thanks go out to librarians throughout the UK who sent copies of Mulholland’s correspondence. I would be remiss were I not to thank the many people who generously gave of their time and research. John Wilson Foster shared his knowledge with regard to Rosa Mulholland in the early stages of this project; Anthony Farmar answered questions regarding reading and the publishing industry in Ireland at the turn of the century; Dr Joanne Mc Entee shared her research on women’s philanthropy; the work of Dr Whitney Standlee proved an essential starting point for my research on Katharine Tynan, and she patiently answered repeated queries. Dr Siobhan Campbell generously shared her thesis on Kathleen Coyle, and Dr Charlotte Trinquet lent unpublished work on the folk tale. In additional to institutional support, a great many people provided much- needed intellectual, emotional, and logistical support throughout this project: Dr Alice Henderson, whose optimism and empathy have proven invaluable over the years; Jhon Gilroy, who taught me the fine line that separates stupid and clever; Ann Sammon, whose help with accessing resources was instrumental to the initial formulation of this project; Dr Mary Janell Metzger, who told me even years ago that it was possible to see this project to fruition and continually proved her faith in me; Dr Christopher Wise, who ii helped me shape this idea from its most nascent stages as my Master’s thesis; Dr Sylvie Mykowski, who gave generously both time and advice; Dr Sophie Rudland and Dr Kate Scarth, who always made themselves available to me during visits and proved to be true colleagues and friends; Ineke Louiche van Beek who gave me space and time to work; and Judith Hamery, who gave me perspective. I would like to thank my parents, Jo and William Nichols, whose unwavering faith and support sustained me even in moments of great doubt. Finally, my most sincere thanks go to my husband, Carlos Gonzalez Penelas, who encouraged me to throw my hat over the wall and then came with me to find it. This thesis is dedicated to him and to our daughter, Amélie Béatrice. iii DECLARATION This thesis is my own work. No part of it has been submitted for a degree at another university. The following book chapter, based on the material arising from my work on the thesis, has been published; it was submitted after the beginning of my period of study: ‘“The unfettered play of their own nature”: Rosa Mulholland and the Literature of Emigration’ in Écrivaines irlandaises, ed. by Bertrand Cardin and Sylvie Mikowski (Caen: Presses universitaires de Caen, 2014), pp. 39-49 iv ABSTRACT This thesis explores the relationship between fin-de-siècle anti-emigration propaganda and fiction written by upper middle-class Irish women. Specifically, it examines the ways in which Catholic authors used the medium of fiction to propound an anti-emigration message analogous to that found in Catholic and nationalist press. Often at stake in their work is the degree to which the peasant female emigrant is to blame for the act of emigration, and the degree of agency she possesses in relation to the events or conditions that lead to this event. Class is a dominant determinant of agency in the depiction of the emigrants’ actions and decisions, as peasant and gentry emigrants are treated differently; the authors’ own class is also key in determining the stance they take on these decisions. In all of these treatments, the common themes throughout the study are the construction of Ireland as ‘Holy Ireland’, a haven of moral safety and spiritual regeneration, the ways in which the difference in authors’ political intent affects their treatment of the emigrant female, and the degree of realism with which the protagonist and her context are addressed. The authors under discussion, Mary Butler, Katharine Tynan, Rosa Mulholland, and Geraldine Cummins, though well-known in their time, have been almost completely forgotten, along with their literary and cultural contribution to Ireland’s history. Aside from contemporary criticism and reviews of their work, relatively little information exists about the authors under discussion. Consequently, this study seeks to initiate a conversation about the authors and the way their adaptation of Catholic nationalist discourse participated in emigration debates. This thesis is the first full-length study to examine the works of authors who adapted literary themes in order to create a discourse that actively discouraged young women from leaving Ireland during a period of female-dominated emigration. 1 Introduction: The Women Who Leave The Emigrant Girl1 A Word with you, Father. The steamer That bears me from Ireland away Is ready to start with those hundreds Of souls you see thronging the quay. I come from the heart of the country, Not a face in the crowd do I know; But the smile of the priest gives me courage, And cheers me wherever I go. In our home by the banks of the Ara, There used to be comfort, ochone! Till the seasons changed so, that the harvest Scarce gave back the seed that was sown. The landlord lived over in London, And cared not about our distress, But sent for his rent every gale-day, Still asking for more, ‘stead of less. Very soon we were pinched by the hunger— My father, God rest him, broke down, And sleeps in the little green churchyard That lies on the skirts of the town. Then I begged of my mother to let me Sail out to the land of the West, And try if my strength could not purchase Better raiment and food for the rest. With tears she agreed, and we gathered, By ways that the poor only know, The money to pay for my passage, And now I am ready to go. 1 The poem cites that ‘This incident occurred at Queenstown a few weeks ago.’ D.G., ‘The Emigrant Girl’, the Irish Monthly, 7 (1879), 532–33. 2 But I find I’ve too much, so I want you To take what remains in my purse, And send it all back to my mother— I’m needy, but her needs are worse. Address: ‘Widow Sheehan, near Bansha.’ No fear of its going astray; Though little, ‘twill keep away hunger, And put off the much dreaded day. And now, father, give me your blessing, The bell on the steamer has rung; ‘Tis hard to be leaving poor Ireland, But then I am healthful and young. And after a while Joe and Charlie Will have grown up both willing and strong; And then I’ll come back to poor mother, And care for her all the day long.
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