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ED 126 801 HE '008 058 TITLE Report on Teaching: 2. INSTITUTION Educational Change, Inc., 'New Rochelle, N.Y.- MRS AGENCY Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Jul 76 NOTE 7tp, AVAILABLE FROMChange Magazine, NBW-Tower, New Rochelle, New-York 10801 JOURNAL CIT Change Magazine; v6 n8 Jul 1976

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$4.67 Plus Postage.t DESCRIPTORS *Biology; *Curriculum Design; Curriculum Development; Curriculum Enrichment; *English Curriculum; English Instruction; English. Programs; *Higher Education; Human Engineering; *Political Science; *Teaching Methods; Teaching Programs; *Teaching Techniques ABSTRACT Some of the best undergraduate teachingnow going on in American colleges and universities isdescribed in this special report, part of a series published twice each year. The three . disciplines focused upon are Biology, English,and Political Scidnce. Four of the best learning experiences from each fieldare presented, each the subject of an indepth analysiswritten in lay terms. In addition, five or six other teaching experiencesin,each field ,are described briefly. (JMF)

**************************************************************0****** Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished * * materials not prailable from othersources. ERIC Makes every effort *- * to obtain the Best copy available. Nevertheless, itemsof marginal * * reproducibility are often encountered and this affectsthe quality * * of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductionsERIC makes available * * via the ERIC Document Reproduction, Service (EDR).EDRS is not * responsible fdr the quality of the original document.Reproductions * * supplied by EDRS are the best that,can'be made fromthe original. ***************************************4******************************** From the eclitorsyl

Iwo lite Mass a et WOO Lean ilas I

U.S DEPARTMENTOF EDUCATION HEALTH. NATIONALA WELFARE INSTITUTEOF THIS EDUCATION DUCEDDOCUMENTHAS THE EXACTLY.AS BEEN ATINGPERSON IT OR RECEIVEDREPRO- STATED POINTSORGANIZATION OF FROM seNT 00 NOT VIEW OR ORIGIN- OFFICIAL NECESSARILYOPINIONS EDUCATION NATIONAL FtEPRE- POSITION OR POLICYINSTITUTEOF 2

ANALYSES OF SOME OF It-IE MOST NOTABLE.. TS IN AMERICAN IMPROVEMEN UNDERGRACiUATE ABOUT THIS SPECIAL, REPORT STAFF Project Director The process of selecting what is deemed worthy of wider L. Richlird Meeth appreciation invariably leavesits trail of the disaffected, of Associate Project Director those who were excluded rather than included. Politically, Joati L. Stableski the process of identifying particular excellencq is better Adenistrative Associate done by anexternal agency such as Change than internally Jeanne M. Cella by the campuses or the disciplinary associations. This much Editor-in-Chief is understandable, as it is hazardous these days forconsen- George W. Bonham sus-based organizations to make thenecessary distinctions between what is worthy and less worthy. Managing Editor I , Margaret E. Bailey What is more worrisome are the handicaps theventure- some faculty often seem tdimpose upon themselves. There is e- Articles Editor a curious self-consciousness that affects. many innovating Joyce Bermel tea hers, as a result of which they wish pot to be publicly Associate Editor iden'ed as -experimgntal"; or, alternately, believe public Cullen Murphy scrutinybe tolerable only if it ignores the warts and fis- Contributing Editors Peter Binzen sures. Such faculty either work in inhospitable climates or R. J. Lefkowitz are infected with a special paranoia, both of which are re- grettable. Either way,one needs to be aware of them, and Literary Editor institutions and professionals must confront the twin handi- Richard J. Margolis caps head-on. ti Washington Editor Teachers have their professional as well as their institu- William McNamara tional interests. There is the private andsacrosanct turf Puulisher of the faculty, only rarely invaded by external considera- Deanna Maneker tions, and there is now the corporate and collective need of Art Director educational institutions to be far more creative in .enticing Dennis Hermanson students to learn. Until these two interestsare more closely Compositor meshed, wd shall invariably find that neither is served well. Mary A. Lucas It is time to think not only of one'sown turf, but also of how Accounts Manager an openness to new possibilities in teaching May benefit Joyce Margarita Walsh a. others on campus and beyond. Until educatorsmove away Administrative Assistants from their self-directed privatism,me shall continue to be Eileen M. Duigan tied to the proyincial cottage indistry which college teach- Faith Silver ing now largely represents. George W. Bonham BOARD OF TRUSTE s Winfred L. Godwin. Southern Regional Education Board. Chairman Vernon Alden, The Boston Coral:1114 TEACHING 'PROJECT ADVISORY BOARD AlisonBernstein.Fundforthe prove- mont of Postsecondary Educatlo Kenneth E. Eble James, B. Maas Edward l. Blausten], Rutgers Univiity Cbairman. esmmittee on Teaching Department of Psychology Jahn Bredemas, United Mies ?a American Asiociation of Cornell University fie University Professors Stephen R. Graubard, Daedalus Hans 0. Mauksch Stanford C. Erickson Helen Kelley. Immaculate Hear), pullege Center for Research Executive Officer on Locating and Teaching American Sociological Association Francis Koppel. The Aspenlnslitijlo University of Michigan Wilbert J. McKeachle Clark Kerr. Carnegie Council A President Policy Studies lorry G. Gaff American Psychological Association Prolitct on. Institutional Renewal Through Irving Kristol, The Public Int t the Improvement of Teaching Nevitt Sanford, Society for Values in Higher Education `The Wright Institute lane C. Pfeiffer. internationa usiness Sheilah R. Kpoptlen Paul L. Ward Machines Diviticin of Educational Affairs Exectitive Secretary Emeritus Frank Stanton, American Nrinal American Political Science Association American Historical Association Red Cross .

This Report on Teaching Is made possible by the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary do kin. The material is not copyrighted. Teachers and administrators- are encouraged to make of it.

This Report on T-eacking 15 Number 6, Valuine 8 (July 19761.af Change Magazine, which is published monthly by Educational Chalice.I sic, a public corporation. An annual subscription includes 19 monthly issues plus 2 bonus national reports on teaching. Professianel subscriptionrate $14 a year in UBA and Canada. $ I 8 for others. Add $1.50 per year for foreign subscriptions. Student rate $10 a year. Address all editorial correspondence.subscription orders ghtl inquiries toChange gagazin BW TEWer, New Rochelle. N.Y. 10801. or call (914) 235-8705. For change of address allow four weeks' notice and ,includeboth dew address and address label from tatt issue.ChangeMagazine Is microfilmed by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106. International Serial Number00091383. USA by the grinted in Vie ne Ps, Burlington, Vt. Secondclass postage paid at New Rochelle and. additional mailing offices. /rr 3. 'REPORT ON TEACHING:2

BIOLOGY 6 THE ANACHRONISMS OF BIOLOGY EDUCATION, Richard A. Dodge, Head, Education and Commu- nications Department, American Institute of Biological Sciences. 8 THE AUDIO - TUTORIAL APPROACH TO LEARNING, Fred M. Hechinger. Surrounding 'students with objects and events that invade all the senses, the audio-tutorial approach to learning is q truly individualized mode of study applicable to a wide tiariety of disciplines. Samuel N. Postlethwait, Purdue University. 12CREATING A CORE CURRICULUM THROUGH COOPERATION, Jerrold K. Foot lick. A consortium involving two-year colleges and a four-year institution demonstrates that core biology courses can be cooperatively planned and taught. John Patrick Jordan, Colorado State University. 16SYMPATRY VSt STANDARDS: TEACHING THE UNDERPREPARED, James P. Degnan.. When properly taught by a concerned professor, introductory biology can be a stimulating and rewarding experience for educationally dis'advantaged students. Vernon L. Avila, San Diego State University. 20 COURSE MANAGEMENT BY COMPUTER, Charles J. Sugnet. Computer management of instruction can be effective in helping faculty chart the individual needs of large numbers of students. Gerald A, Myers, South Dakota State University. 15 MODULAR MICROBIOLOGY Lois Beishir, Antelope Valley College. 18EXPLORING THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR James A. Mulligari, S. J., Saint Louis University. 24 A CULTURALLY RELEVANT CURRICULUM Paul Winkler, Lummi Indian School of Aquaculture. 24MAN, NATURE, AND SOCIETY: THE STUDY OF BIOETHICS E. Peter Volpe6 Tulane University. 26BUILDING BLOCKS FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY Richard A. Dodge, American Institute of Biological Sciences.

ENGLISH

BETWEEN WAS AID WILL BE: ENGLISH, Elizabeth Wooten Cowan; Director, Eitglish Programs, Mod- ern Language 'Association of America. 30 COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN A WRITING COMMUNITY, Ronnie Dugger. Through peer tutoring, undergraduates anguish over writing difficulties together.and in theprocess come to understand that learning is a cooperative venture. Kenneth A. Bruffee, Brooklyn.College of the City Uni- versity of New York. 34 TOTAL IMMERSION IN LITERATURE, Henry Weil. In-depth exposure to the subject matter combined with a high degree of personal interaction makes this experienc'e with literature of value to both instructors and students. Miriam Gilbert, University of Iowa. 38LITERACY THROUGH SOCIOLINGUISTICS, Evan Jenkins, The sociolinguistic approach to literacy translates material relevant to Navajo life and emphasizesan understanding that slow learning does not reflect a lack of intelligence. Randall Ackley, Navajo Community College. i g.

4 42IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THOREAU, Judith Miller. Urban students set umhousekeeping in the New Eng hind countryside relating pastoral literatureto the pastoral life. Walter H. Clark, Jr., University of Michigan. 36 WHEN THE SUBJECT MATTERS THE STUDENT LEARNS Velda Poage Asher, EI;Rso Community College. 44 A NEW APPROACHTO COMMUNICATION Mildred R.eele, Drake University. 46 THE WRIT LAB: SERVING STUDENTS AND THE COMMUNITY Mary K. Croft, University of Wisconsin. 46 A WHODUNIT APPROACH TO THE FRESHMAN RESEARCH PAPER W. Keith Kraus, Shippensburg State College. 48 HOW TO SURVIVE IN COLLEGE Charlotte. P. Mecke; Orange Coast College. 48 ORIENTING THE PROSPECTIVE ENGLISH TEACHER Alan B. Howes, University of Michigan. 49 TEACHING THE FORM AND CONTENT OF POETRY Sara deFord, Goucher College.

POLITICAL SCIENCE 50 POLITICAL SCIENCE AND POLITICAL LIFE, Evron M. Kirkpatrick, Executive Diiecror,'and Sheilah R. Koeppen, Director, Division of Educational Affairs, Anierican Political Science Associati9... 52 THE SCIENCE IN POLITICAL SCIENCE,John Egerton. A course in political inquiry introduces students to concepts of science in the broadest senge, 441, involves them in the use of quantitative research methods without denying the eclectic nature of the distiOline or the liberal educational focus appropriate to effectiv7,-Teaching. Richard A. Pride, Vanderbilt Unipksity. 56 GAMES POLITICAL SCIENTISTS PLAY, Jean Dickinson. A network of nation-teams from various universities allows students to play seriously at the game of in nationalaffairs as a way of understanding the intricacies of real-world politics. Robert C. Nog, Universi of California, Santa Barbara. 60 EQUALIZING THE OPPORTUNITY , C. EricLincoln. As an effective means of coping wi e widening gaps in potential level and pace of learning among students, the proctorial system onstruction allows the underprepared to catch up without slowing down those performing at no e levels. Willard B. Stouffer and George Weinberger, Southwest Texas State University. 64APPLYING POLITICAL THEORY, William R. Grant. Through integration of practically oriented field studies,and analysis of political theory and policy making, students learn both the academic and practical skills needed to be effective participants in politics and administration. Elinor Ostrom, Indiana University. 62DEVELOPING 'RESEARCH SKILLS Paul Allen Beck, University of Pittsburgh. 67 CONVERSATIONS IN AMERICAN GOVERNMENT James T. Myers, Unwiversiky of South Carolina. 68 TEACHING THE FACTS Roger D. Masters, Dartmouth College. 68 THE POWER OF A GOOD LECTURE Wilson Carey McWilliams, Livingston College, Rutgers University. 70 INTERNSHIPS IN THE NATION'S CAPITAL: THE TOTAL PROGRAM CONE William Burke, Washington Center for Learning Alternatives.

3 THE STATELESS ART OF TEACHING EVALUATION, L. Richard Meeth.* 27 BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEACHING

71INDEX OF REPORTS # 1 AND # 2

TOO \An Overview

a THE STATELESS ART OF TEACHING EVALUATION

by L. Richard Meeth

Systematic,comprehensive, and valid evaluation tant to least important in terms of producing learning. -./ of teaching has been an educational problem for Each college faculty that develbps an evaluption form many years. It continues to evade educators, although lists those items that they value as most important most administrators and legislators desire it as a mean- without knowing Whether or not their items are signifi- - ingful way to determine rewards and sarictions far cant,peripheral,. orincNsequential in termsof faculty, and most serious teachers seek itasaway of learning. improving their performance and more elevely relating The problem is not only deciding what should be what they do to what students learn. Most evaluation improved about teaching, but also knowing whenor if of teacl;inz has resulted instead in unfair and inconclu- things have improved. In other words, there are .few siVe distinctions among teachers without establishing standards by which teaching can be judged. The reliable or valid relationships between what teachers Change Reports on Teaching, for example, focus on do and what students leaih. "improved" tattling primarily because improvement ) The evaluation of teaching presumes consensus provides a comparative standard for evaluation, i.e., a among educators about what constitutes effective behavior is more effective today than it was yesterday. teaching. Buteducators don't know what makes up ef- When an absolute standard of good or best teaching is fective teaching; they don't have a good research base, implied, it is hard. to find agreement on what that don't agree on the validity of what research they do might be. Some have settled simply for words like "in- have, don't believe the evidence that is presented in novative" or "different" as a standard, but these have that research, and don't act on any of it in a broadsys- no necessary 'correlation with quality or learning out- tematic way throughout higher education. comes. Accepting what exists as a base and attempting More than 80 centers have been developed in col- to improve it by appropriate, responsible evaluation, leges and universities in the last decade that focus on while plodding along without an overall frame of ref- improving teaching. All have in common a lack of erence, seems best in the absence of definitive research consensus about what is most important to improve. or agreed standards. This problem springs from the dearth of research If there are few standards, the're are even fewer cri- about the relationship of teaching to learning. If we teria against which effectiveness or improvement can better underhood how students learn, we Might better be evaluated. Robert Thorndike, writing in another iindegstand how and what teachers ought to teach. context, suggested three categories of criteria ulti- The many lists of teaching activities prepared over the mate, intermediate, and immediatethat can be ap- years, while isolating both overt andcovert behaviors, plied to teaching. Ultimate criteria have to do with cannot be ranked very conclusiyely from most impor- learning outcomes, intermediate criteria with the process of teaching, and immediate criteria with the sense I.. RICHARD MEETH directs the Change Mewing National Project on Un- of experience,s of teaching or learning. Obviously, im- der/re le Teaching. He also teaches at the State Unlifereity or New York. at H ado. mediate criteria are furthest removed from learning 4

DEFINING IMPROVED TEACHING

II. Intermediate Criteria I. Ultimata Criteria The students ed what the instructor was trying to teach Students were motivated to learn in cotive, affect' d/or psychomotor development The structure of the teaming experience was deteimined by the goals of the Vin- and/or absolute ac vement experience Lea g continued after the form I experience ended The content was well ordered, comprehensive, and appropriate to the MAL- r. to and/or extent of later loam known ties of the learners St ents retained what was learned Teacher inv_plvement in the learning experience was in harmony with the achor goals, and/or outcomes for thlearning experience were mot goals crffie experience 'Student goals and/or outcomes for the !coping experience were mot Time was provided for students to contemplate and respond The learning experience related to otho!earning experiences students Rewards and sanctions wore appropriate to the goals of the learning might have had (congruence, continui sequence): prior earning was experience \ capitalizectupor !earning increased in ofr formal exponoes the stu- Students understood what they were doing, why they were doing it, and dents hadat the same time; learning impro ed In the r't of a sequential how they would be evaluated in the learning experience series the students had afterward Goals and/or outcomes wore clearly specified The learning experience positively affected the attitudes. and/or behavior of the teacher, other faculty meMbers, and administrators within the immo Evaluatios criteria, standards, and methodologies were clear and appropri- Mato learning community ate to the goals of the experience ho learning experience cost less than traditional ways of delivering the Student products reflected the goals of the learning experience same experience: the same learning for less money; more learning for the The kind and vartoei of instructional resources were congruent with the same money; mole learning for less money goals of the experience and abilities of the learners Enmilment levels wore sustained or increased in subsequent offerings of the Methodology was appropriate to the goals of the experience and the abilities learning experience of_ the learners

, outcomes. Student evaluations of teaching fall, into way of classifyingthe hope of seriously moving this category and, while better than nothing, are still a ward the evaluation of teaching. They are reprinted long way from relating teaching to learning/The sense here because they are generally applicable to postsec- of learning assessed during or immediately after the ex- otclar teaching and may expand and focus the debate perience frequently has little to do with the long-term about what should be included in such a set of criteria. effect of the experience. (Copies of these criteria are available by request.) Many institutional programs of faculty evaluation Another problem confronting serious evaluators is center on methodology without much regard for cri- the lack of effectivemaels. Barak Rosenshine of the teria.Itoften appears more important to decide University of Illinois wrote recently, "The number of whether a colleague visits the classroom by invitation studies which have lOoked at both teacher behavior or by chance than to determine what will be observed and student outcomes is embarrassingly small. The. during the hour. Very few peerwbservations of teach- quality of many of these studies is questionable and ing are based on a predetermined set of criteria to be the results of these studies are not sufficiently strong or assessed. When these do exist, as often as not they* clear to direct...evaluation of teachers. What is lacking have been borrowed,froanother list at another col- is research demonstrating an experimental or correla- lege. Even when indusioof each item is hotly de- tional connection between teaching skills and mea- bated, the discussion is rarely grounded in a researched sures of change in student achievement and affect. The rationale of effectiveness. For example, edttors state of the art, then, is one pf a lack of research." This know that immediate criteria (a sense of the experience dearth of research became clear as we sought a bibli- of learning and teaching effectiveness) may have noth- ography on teaching effectiveness and-cliscoyered that ing to do, with actual learning or °teaching effective- none existed that covered the last decade. Attempts to ness, yet the primary criteria applied to postsecondary put together a set of references (see page 27 of this. teaching relate to student perceptions at the time of the Report) with the help of the advisory board produced formal experience. no more than 225 significant entries and even some of The criteria selected to apply to the teaching experi- these set forth questionable research rthodologies ences described in these issues were developed by the and outcomes. The situation is no different today than editors interacting with the teaching project advisory it was in 1967 when Donald O'Dowd reported, "Both, board. Some of their ideas about the difficulty of de-. in summaries of research and in original repdrts, re- veloping criteria were reported in the February 1976 sults of relatively rigorous studies are hopelessly con- issue of Change (page 44). In most cases intermediate fused with results of studies that have employed non- criteria Were used in selecting experiences for these. Re- experimental or otherwise inferior methods; and ports primarily because even the most improved teach- methodological requirements for sound inferences ing has not been well researched:These criteria are by about the effects of variables are grossly violated." It no means r end; simply 'a point of departure and a does seem strange that a profession as broadly practi- 7

s 7 if

cal and important to the society would continueso long on such a shallow base af evidence. It seemseven stranger, hoiniever, that the society would not have in-- How Does Change's sisted along ago on more evOence of what -works and Undergraduate why, and, if empirical evidence is not appropriate asa base, would not have urged moving toward another Teaching perhaps more humanistic base of understanding of Program Work? teach i ngkeffect iveness. m What is known about teaching, however, does go Twice each year, Change publishes a special beyond what is practiced in most colleges araLl univer- Report on Teaching, devoted to describing sities. The review of research by Wilbert McKeachie some of the best undergraduate teaching;ricTW and Stanford Ericksen's 'Memos to the Faculty, for going on in American colleges and universi- ise example, offer every faculty grt?up new insights into ties. The major disciplinary associations are improved teachin e are cited in the Change bib- cooperating in this effort by serving as-the liography, which, available by request. initial screening mechanism for identifying Finally, evalua teaching lis suffered from good teaching efforts, after which leadingau- gross inattention. uoting °Dowd \ gain, "Higher thorities from each field assist Changeln making the final selection of those projects to be education, by its very resistance or inatttio the featured in each Report. study of its major activity, has denied itsehe very 44' The basis for selection is a set of carefully means by which it can improve." In spite of the ni- erous teaching improvement centers, developed criteria (listed on page 4) that de- researchoil fine improved teaching ill terms of learning teaching is nominal and incidental in most colleges and goals and outcomes, +kith special emphasis on universities. The privacy of teaching, the disinterest of the adaptability o the learning experience to some disciplines, and limited rewards for improvement other institutions d other disciplines. have all contributed to Ibis inattention. By failing to Selection also pre es a special coopera- give serious thought to the evaluation of teaching be- tive spirit of those teacre involved, sp that fore trying to improve it, faculty, in the sciences at they may serve'as a source of information and least, deny themselves the essence of what they are at- assistance to others interested-in adapting tempting to provide their studentsthe knowledge of their methods. The 29 teacyng approaches results. Thus, the standard for students is higher than presented in this Report ar e. accompanied by it is for teachers. the name and addess of the faculty person to And yet teaching goes on and learning contiNes. contact for furthdr information. Failure to solve the problems of evaluation hasnot Each Report on Teaching focuses.on three stopped the activity of teaching or its ultimate effect. disciplines. Four of the best learning experi- There is ample evidence that students are learning and ences from each field are presented, each the changing as a result of their college experiences. Nor is subject of an in-depth analysis written in lay it appropriate to cease teaching until the problems of terms by one of the leading education writers evaluation are solved. But it is fitting that more atten- in the country. In addition, some five or six tion be paid by governments, disciplinary associa- other teaching experiences in each field are tions, professional associations, and campus faculties described briefly. to finding ways of rewarding both the research on The first Report, publ(shedin March 1976, teaching and the evaluation of teaching based on that covered the fields of chemistry; history, and psychology. Later Reports will fops on the research. As one effort to increase this attention, fields of economics, physics, music, sociol- Change is 'sponsoring a national meeting of the educa- ogy,art,mathematics, tion officers of the major disciplinary associations to philosophy,and others.Faculty interestedinparticipating discuss further ways of evaluating and _improving should contact their disciplinary association. teaching. The evaluation of teaching effectiveness is a stateless art. The problems are serious and difficult to overcome. Inattention to the development of evaluative Evaluatethe standards and criteria will never produte researched models of effective teaching or methodologies for de- REPORTS ON termining effectiveness. The effort to improve teaching will not be complete until there is a better base for -TEACHING Ct evaluating that improvement. To This end, the Reports See Back Cover' on Teaching are dedicated.

a B oLOGy

THE ANALRON ISMS OF BIOLOGYDLJCATION

by Richa A Dodge

raditional biology programs are rapidly biological sciences is certainly perceived as german -becoming anachronisms for too large a Social scientists, too, are recognizing the need for segment of the constituency of higher edu- more biological emphasis. A recent Natidnal Science cation." This recent statement from the Foundation (NSFreorganization placed biology and education committ e of the Ameri6an In- the social sciences under the same directorate. Still the stitute of Biological Sciences ( ) reflects a growing emerging marriage of the social and life sciences has concern that biology education haseither kept pace not been well received by more traditional biological with realistic career training developm nts nor pro- educators, and asaresult, social science departments vided for the pUblic'S need to understand the disci- are teaching more and tore biology while biology de- pline. Many studies and reports have pointed to an partments often teach little of a social nature. overproduction of conventionally trained biologists, Cognilant of this trend, however, some two-year . and they question society's ability to absorb ever in- and small four-year institutions are beginning to effect creasing numbers oirem. While biological educators a merger of the disciplines. Such courses as biology are currently enjo g slightly improved employment andethics; the social concerns of biology; or biology, prospects, the increase in teaching positions may an, and society now compete for undergraduate reflect recent concern for environment, energy; and enrollment. For as society becomes increasingly aware health-related topics, rather than for biology in thy' of the influence of biological knowledge on population traditional sense. Students appear to be pursuing he control, disease, food production, environmental pro- subject as preparation for what they perceive asore tection, genetic regulation, and so on, more and more idealistic careers. nonbiologists will be involved in what must be con- A recent editorial in BioScience suggests tht these sidered at least "semibiological" fields. How will, tradi- students are seeking the "other biology.' .The other tional academic biology departments respond. to this biology is seen an application of broad biological changing application of biological knowledge? Unfor- understanding to fields that onceeither required nor tunately, many programs are 411-equipped to provide expected such knowledge. The mergence of environ- flexible and adaptable training for these students. On m tal legislatiOn, for instae,__has stimulated a need the other hand, the programs described in this series fo praceitioners to conduct the necessary studies for at Purdue, South Dakota State University, Antelope irepact statements. While placement announcements Valley College, San Diego State University, Tulane, for these positions more often indicate a preferenCe for and elsewherehave in fact focused on the need for a legar of economic backgrounds, some training in the broader outlook on biology education and for more flexibility in the teaching of the subject matter. RICHARb A. DODGE is head of the Education and Communication. Depart- mint of the American Institute of Biological Sciences. The AIBS education committee believes that the I O

needs of biology students are more far-reaching and NSF projections indicate that by 1985, a large propor- expansive than many academic departments realize. In tion _of .science and engineering graduates will have discussing the problem of anachronisms, the commit- found employment outside the' academic and research tee concluded that a desirable program of biological fields as currently defined:ihe present system usually education must improve the ability of' individualg and -..,does not provide an .educationi, that permits the learner society to adjust to rapid change brought about by ad- career mobility, flexibility, and adaptability. Tradi- j vances in biological knowledge; emphasize the poten- tional trainingprepares fhe graduate for narrow career tial role of biology education in social, political, and choices. Once a biologist, traditionally trained for re- economic decisions; recognize and endorse the need in search, enters tktteaching field (at least 70 percent of higher education for alternative programs of study in all biologists hafe,,primary -responsibilities to teach- biology and for pedagogical alternatives in its instruc- ing), there is littletopportunity to bring his or her ex- tion that will address themselves specifically to the pertise to focus on the c,ducational enterprise, The ped- first two goals mentioned; encourage the develop- agogical aspects of the bi'ologist's training and oppor- ment, testing, and implementation of alternatives in tunities to explore alternative fields have been neglec- biology education in prestigious institutions across thet ted in favor of researCh.And soihe cycle repeats itself, nation; and perform continuous evaluation of the im- and biology education/drifts further from the needs pact of these programs and revise them accordingly. and concerns both off4tstudents and of society. The concern is that conventional biology instruction Generally, the first,van'd only exposure to biology 'a ii, tends to serve the field's several subdisciplines rather nonmajor receives isr in a required freshman course. more than those areas of interest or concern outside AM/ Because many intrOictory courses are designed for the discipline's traditional purview. All tooften, it the potential inljor, a typical freshman° botany, zool- serves an elite clientele with little regard for the needs ogy, or. generalbiologyprogram has little practireal of the larger society. The old-schodi-biologist may value for the nonmajor. The last thing a nonmajor look with scorn on the applied aspects of the disci- needs is tunderstand molecular biology, microscopy, pline, and the attendant concern that erosion of aca- or t e !ifcycle of a liverwort. Yet the discipline per- demic rigor results from the teaching of applied sub- sisinromoting the myth of the necessity of tradi- jects may help to explain the banishment of many re- iology in general education. The fime has come lated and dependent studies from the biology depart- e programs that explore biology as it pertairis ment. Thus, in contrast to chemistry, applied biology citizen's life, environment, mental and physi- must often ow be taught in schools or departments ealth, and political decisions. other thaniologyl--in the school of agriculture, for e BioScience editorial referred to .before suggests 4 example, orf natural resources. ch a program would be directed toward what have This escape of satellite subjects from biology's orbit }teen called th r parabiological4professions, such as the let has occurred largely because biologyprograms are not 'social wor who must know enough physiology, flexible or 6 en enough to provide th9 specialized/ anatomy, d nutrition to be able to organize effective training requi d in applied fields. There have been ef- outpatient programs for the aged; the staff officer for forts to design i dividualized, modular, or minicour a regional environmental board who must combine biology program represented in this series by Pos ecology, soil science, chemistry, psychology, political thwait, Myers, Be' hir, and Jordanbut they science, and ?esthetics in implementing a generalized emerged in response o the special needs of stude in land.use program," Instruction should provide multi- such fields as agriculte, health, social biology 1.d- disciplinary training programs designed to provide life management, andther areas. .,students with the resources to meet changing career By contrast, the usual 'introductory co n biol- goals. A few such programsthe minicourse and BIO- ogy may reflect the biological subdiscjpline sdied by TECH projects, Mulligan's zoo experiences,, and Jor- the instructor, who has probably hadlittle t aining in, dan's BioCO-TIE programhave already met with or exposure to, law, politics, economics athe social some success. And certainly Avila's work with disad- and psychological sciences. Frequently, he isill- vantaged students has demonstrated that. nonbiology equipped to explain the subtle les of continually students can and will profit fr(m meaningful biologi- evolving career market. Devel pment of open-ended cal experiences. But mare is needed. and multiple-track individualized truction, how- If NSF and Bureau of Labor Statistics data are to be ever, allows for varied learning experiences, and the believed, the system will be full of life science PhDs recent work of Volpe andtthers beginning to fill within a decade. Many will be underemployed or em- the need for a more synop c appr ach to the subject. ployed outside the field of biology. The teaching and A great deal of evidentindic es that most people research opportunities for these tleveloping biologists will follow a single career duri their lifetime. How- will not be met by programs now found in traditional , ever, the notioof "career" ielf,,has expanded, and departments. What about the "other biology"? 0 1 10 I Biology

.11

THE AUDIOTUTOFfIAL APPACJAChtsTQ LEARNING

by Fred M. Hechinger

-fiftto that time, I had thought that, In 1961, quite by accident, he visited aexpenditureof fixed hours and while education was the delivery of whatcolleague in the school of education's de-doing Weir work at their own time and you know. Now I'm convinced that edu-partinent of audio-visual aids who sug-copienience. cation isn't a delivery system at all.gested he tape a specialtlecture to whichie'At that point, Postlethwait asked his Learning must be'done by the learnerrstudents could then listen individually,/students what basic ingredients they He must be involved." Postlethwait followed the advice, butthought would be necessary to restruc- The speaker was S. N. Atlethwait,quickly realized that "recorded sound onture freshman botany. They listed: (1) professor of biology at Purdue Univer-its own can be a pretty poor conununi-independent study; (2) a general assem- sity, 'and the "up to that time",fyhiscation tool." At first he tried to help stu-bly session at least once a week ("If:you reminiscence refers to his teaching daysdents overcome that handicap by havinghave 800 students in a course, they Want prior to 1961 when he developed thethem use illustrated textbooks while lis-,to know how all tliose different people audio-tutorial system of teaching. Ortening to the taped lecture. Soon he ad-are involved. It's something of aC para- rather, as he would insist, of learning. "Ided special materials to supplement thedox that in an individualized learning had the hipeCof the. typical professor,"books. After a while he began to preparesituation you also need shared activity. he recalls in gentle self-mockery. "Youinstructional programs by surroundingThere simply are no absolutes."); and know, a Nobel Prize for growing somehimself with these materialsplants, (3) one weekly half-hour small assembly special kind of corn." But his dreamsspeciMens, photographs, laboratory im-for no more than 10 students in which were soon submerged in the reality of aplements, and so onwhile he taped athe students could teach each other as student body that came predominantlyconversation as if a student were in thethey reviewed what they had learned. from the farms of Indiana. The diversityroom with him. Before long he would("The only time you really learn a sub- inbackgrounds betweenthefarminterrupt himself to observe and handleject is when you start teaching it. There youths and those from more conven-'a particular plant before describing itsmust, therefore, be an opportunity for* tionally middle-class backgrounds wasCondition. students to behave like teachers.") wide enough to pose a serious problem "It wasn't a lecture anymore," Vostle- From these concepts a pattern devel- in an introductory botany course. thwait explained. "It was the beginningoped that now constitutes the audiortu- Many of these were firstrgenerationof a new system. It's not perfected yet,tonal systema system without forinal college students who were "perfectlyand probably never should be. Thelectures, recitations, or laboratory ses- intelligent but not up to academic work.c,longer I teach, the more I find thatsions. At its core is the learning center, a They needed help." But the convention-nobody really knows what .teaching is."bright, cheerful room with 62 booths set al delivery system evolved over the In,.the early stages of his experimentup weekly 'with materials for a specific years made it difficult to offer such help,-Postlethwait selected 36 students andsection of the students' work. The basic Sam Postlethwait began looking for newgave them only the tape and its associ-equipment in each booth is a tape re- 'ways to deal not with masses of fresh -'.ated learning assignments, but withoutcorder (and sometimes an 8mm movie men but with individual students. - the usual lectures, section meetings, oror 35mm slide projector) and a variety, nen M. HECIlltint is the assistant editor of the laboratory sessions. The students did noof objects to help illbstrate ,he week's editorial pass of New York Tin.es He is theo for-better and no worse than those whostudies. "Most l&apfing delivery sys- ger education editor of the Piper, and author. with Grace Hechinpr. of Growlna Up in Americawent through the conventional academictems," says Postlethwait, "provide an-, (McGraw-Hill). requirements; but with considerably leisswers to phenomena about which stu-

11 dents do not yet have any questions.' Igaged in the same studies. Throughouton (the proceedings. The only intrusion don't believe you aught to lecture aboutthe day, an instructottlir teaching assis-of academic forinality is the periodic use thunder and lightning on Monday andtant is on duty in the learning center toof assembly time for examinations. then have the students see and hear it onensure that any student can take any The half -hour small assemblies, on Wednesday afternoon," question ,to a faculty member at anythe other hand, are group presentations time. and discussions of the material covered To make the student master of his orthat week. While the teaching assis- The student may assign himself to aher learning time, all but two residencetantwhomay be an undergraduate booth at any time of the day untilhalls have also been equipped withis theoretically in charge and actually approximately 10 p.m. and, after ar-learning centers serviced weekly withgradeg each participant's performance, ranging the appropriate textbooks and a\tile required materials. Thus, studentsthe stress is on the students' exploration study guide outlining the week's 'objec- tivet, listen to the tape. What the student hears through the earphones is the "The fundamental ,issue in education is change. But individuals voice 'of the senior professor inthe start fromdifferent levels. I have to make students understand that course guiding him or her through a va- the initiative must be theirs and that they must move aggressiVely riety of observations, exercises, and ac- toward their goals. It means retraining them." tivities. At any moment the voice may

ask the student to turerbff the tape and . perform a relevant experiment, collect and record specific related data, confirmmay literally learn at any Mime of day oroPthe topics."We do have tests," trays an observation by 1 oking through anight: Resort to unconventional hoursPosgeOvait, "but the goal-is really not microscope, or read a *c reference proved a major initial hurdle to be over-the grade as much as getting the students in a professional journal. come. Maintenance staffs objected toto organize the subject In their own Example (the tape speaking): "Whatchanged closing hours in the academicminds. This can be very successful if the were your conclusions concerning thebuildings; supervisors of the dormitor-instructor understands a little psychol- first part of our hypothesisthat someies jealously guarded their limited spaceogy.I'venever met anybody, who pigment other than chlorophyllmight-beand often were pelactanikto set aside theknows something and doesn't. want to, involved in a growth even,t7 le,bu might required footage 'evenfor miniaturetell about it. Sure there's pressure on like to look at the seeds alain...." Orlearning centers. 'They seem to thinkthose who don't know, but that's what (again the tape): "Earlier in the semesterresidence halls are for sleeping and eat-college is for, too." you viewed two films on the germina-ing, but not for learning," Postlethwait At a recent small assembly, the teach - tion and development of the bean seed- observes with the smile of one whoring assistant asked what symptornwhe ling and one on -the germination and de-knows the ways of the establishment. students had noticed in a plant deprived veloprnent of the corn seedling. I'd like Near the end of each week's work, aof potassium. One student described the you to view these films again and see ifgeneral assembly is scheduled, but with-plant's condition and how it compared-) ,you, can identify a growth phenomenonout any set format. Sometimes a guestwith that of a healthy specimen. "How affected by light that we have not dis-lecturer is brought in for another pointcould you tell that it was the potas- cussed yet. Will you turn off the tape.of view; a movie may be shown to backsium?" a classmate asked, adding that he now, please, and view thefilm...." up some of the tutorial observations; or,had noticed a similar conditio&-in a Bulky materials, or items toocostly tostudents may report on some of theirplant with adequate access to potassium be placed in every booth, are on view atdiscoveries. "For us the assembly hasbutseemhig,lylackingsomeother. central locations for use by all students: become -a tool, not a pattern," saysnutrient. Others registered their assent Indiiriduatstudy can be interrupted at Postlethwait. "If we don't have anythingordissent.Theteachingassisjant the s iria-ent'sconveriience:- allowing him Ur take up, we just cancel it." To en-returned continually to a basic ques- to move on to scheduled classes in othercourage student participation, the lasttion: 'What was the process involved in departments, to takebreak, or to ex-part of the assembly is reserved for theobserving these changesr change observations with others en-writing of individual summary reports Postlethwait used WS system experi- ...... 4 ..... : : 4k *

.Teaching and learryng: S. N. Postlethwait prepares ail. audio-tutorial lesson, which the student on dui right is using. , 12 4

10Biology 4

mentally for some seven years until,during the second semester,students woman is given alarge cardboard on irt' 1969, another enthusiast joined the say:"You're not the teacher. You just which to write his or her name in heavy program. Robert N: Hurst, now seniorgive out glades." black letters. A photographer snaps in- professor in Biology 109, a required To reach that point calls for muchdividual pictures, showing the oversized freshman course in zoology, extended subtlepersonal attention and somenameplates. All the while, Postlethwait'. the new method to include both botany ingenious initialtactics.Postlethwait...memorizes faces and names, and when and zoology. (The zoology and botanyplays his part with the skill of a seasonedhe meets wit ittle group minutes learning centers now occupy adjoiningpolitician. The SS-year-Old, tall, hand-later for a-minute pep talk and ex- k space.) The expanded subjectarea,some, silver-haired biologist (BA, Fair-planationf wh#t's ahead, he startles moreover, gave special relevance to an-mont State College, West Virginia; and calmse most worried or sullen by other vitalingredientof the Postle- PhD, University of Iowa) exudes goodaddressing them as if they were old thwait-Hurst audio-tutorial system: thehumor and perpetual concerp. Although friends. "There's Old Grinny Sam com- minicourse. endlessly engaged either in improvinging out telling them it's all going to be Before Hurst's arrival, the programthe system, explaining it to visiting ex-terrific," he chuckles, giving a credible lackedtrue_individualization,evilperts, or lecturing about it from coast toimitation of what some of the more 6yni- when students were encouraged to pacecoast and abroad, he seems utterly re- calold-timers have occasionally been themselves.Theyperiodicallycom- laxed with students. "On the whole, myheard to say about his well-knovpn exer- plained that they were covering a lot ofcontribution has been pretty small," hecise in mass psychology. the same topics in both the basic zoologysays. 'The students' input is what makes, After 20 minutes, "Sam" then turns and botany courses. This is a recurringthe program. Some people are shockedthe group over to its teaching assistant problem in collegiate education, and aswhen I say that I often know no morefor some more speeific explanations of students continue their undergraduatethan my students,thatIlearn withthe rules. The information, moreover, is work such repetition often affects a widethem. I'm not shocked. Some have high- backed up "133, a 22-page mimeograph'ed range of courses, One graduate studenter IQs than I. People don't understandpamphlet ("What's It All About7") that testified that five of his Undergraduatethat the role of the teacher is not that ofanswers such questions as, Where do my courses had all begun spending weeks °fountain of knowledge." classes meet? How canI do excellent covering exactly the same. definitions. When Postlethwait's annual army ofwork in this course' How canIget 'That," says Postlethwait, "is using rep-880 freshmen first arrives, it is dividedhelp? (telephone numbers included), and etition irrespontibly," into groups of20,each assigned to aso forth. By the time the over 800 stu- A solution wais sought in the creationseparate time. Each young man ordentptitave had-their-first meeting with of courses within? coursesminicourses theorprofessor, a relationship has designed, to give students a' maximum Le mg,experience: been 'establiihethat will not permit the number of options. Each minicourse is IntrOductory Botany and Introductory imtlefgonalfrigiyofthetypical :covered in a separate manual, and the Zoology. :throughthe, .audio-tutorial lecture course to develop. two courses of Purdue's botany and zo- system. No prerequisitet.'Entolltnent: ology audio-tutorial system now encom- over 800 students in each course. pass 70 or more published minicourses. Although Hurst and Postlethwait A minicourse may involve as little as 15 Other descriptions: An Audio-Tutorial Approach id Learn- agree that on average the total minutes or as much as two or more ing. Minneapolis: Bu rgess, "1972, amount of time required for coverage 9f weeks, depending in large measureoh Study Guide: Minicourses-What Ate the material is less than thesix hours per the prior knowledgejhe student brings They? West Lafayette, Indiana: Pur- weekrequiredbyaconventional to the particular tigigiyA student who due University Research 'Foundati8n, ,four-creditcourse,theaudio-tutorial has completed the enti e array of mini- 1972. students generally have the impression courses that make up thecontentof the icourses in Biology. Philadelphia: that they work longer hours with the whole course is eligible for a C. An A or W. .Satroders, 1976. unconventional system. 'That's because B requires a demonstration of excellence A ore* extensivebibliographyis they begin to think of all the hour's they over and above mere completionindi- av liable from the Minicourse Devel- openent Project, Purdue University. s end on it 'in the learning center as ,viclual research, additional reading, or a 'teir own time' rather than mandated variety of other efforts. s Similar programs: at endanceand that's not a bad way to *The fundamental issue in education," Theaudio-tutorial system is being v 1Eone'seducation,"Postle thwait Postlethwait says, "is 'change. But indi- used in a wide variety of subject areas sa viduals start from different levels, and and inst* iatiRns, among thein the Atthe conclusion of each year's you must" keep that in mind all the State UniversityQf New York College course, a questionnaire is given to stu- time.", When students confront a new atBrockport and the eleuvary dents to solicit their reaction to the sys- system, they are inevitably worried, education program at Cornell Univer- tem. Over the years, 80 percent of the since they have generally been trained to sity. In addition the system has been students have considered the course to expectthe initiative tocome from the adopted by institutions in Canada, England, Germany, Australia, France, be the. best method of learning within teachers. "I have to make them under-. Ireland, Costa Rip, and Puerto Rico. their academic experience. Among the stand that the initiative must be theirs 20 perceryt who disagree some violent - and that they muse move aggressively Contact: ly ire those who dislike the subject to toward their goals. It means retraining -S. N. Postlethwait, Department of begin with as well as others who regard them." Oncetheyunderstandthis Biological Sciences, Purdue Univer- solitary booths, without traditional ar- change in roles, many (but by no means sity, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, rangements such as compulsory class- all) are converted. The professors con- 13171 494-4080. rodip attendance, as a threat. Deprived sider the battle won when,usually of 'Erie security blanket of fixed routine,

1`) You should then go to the Learning Center during the hours listed belOw. (e sure to bring your Study Guides.) Once at the Learning Center, check the tag boards in the coffee room to see which booths are open. Once you find 0 booth open, turn the tag over to indicate that you are using the booth. Then go to the booth and start your work.

After you complete your study of minicourse. you should take the formative quiz for that minicourse. The quiz will be posted in the display call*, outside Room 317 for 109 minicourses and will be gailable S using the computer for 101 minicourees. W a piece of scratch paper to jot down the answers and then check your answers with the key posted in the Learning Center. These formative quizzes should help you asses your readiness to master this mini- II. HOW IS THE CONTENT ARRANGED IN BIO 108-1097 course. Though success on the formative quiz does not uarantee success on the minicourse quiz iiiERe Figure 3. houc y exam, it will serve as a pretty good indica- Minicoureee permit the content to be adjusted to tor. individual need.. Several things are very important to your success A. NnIcourses - What Are They? In ISS!

1. Bring your Study Guide. I. MiniooUree - A oomplete unit of subject 2. Start your study by reading the objectives In ter. Eaoh has a setof objsocives the front of the Study Guide. wh oh should be mastered oompletoly. Ap 3. Do ALL of your studying4in the Learning Center. instructional program (Figure 4) consisting Doarexperiments and look at all demonetrattone of a series of learning activities has been ;Nen you are asked to do so. TI lull meaning oarefully designed to help you achieve all and umefulness'of many of these will be lost if the objectives. you don't do them at the proper time. Aek questions!! The instructor is being paid 2. Learning Aotivities - The thing% you do to to help you -- take advantage of it. 1.1101, aohieve an obJeotims. (Making Clean up your mess when you are finished. obeervations, doing experiments, watching Adjust your.chedule to suit yourself. a video tape, reading a journal artists, 7. Please turn your tag back over when you are talkipg with the instruotor or friend, finished so that someone else will know that labalinp diagrams, etc.). your booth is open.

3. Objeotives - The minimal achievement 166 Learning Center Hours (Rooms 316 and 317) required for eaoh minioourse. Exam questions are based directly on thefts Both Learning Center. are open74 hours per week. statements fobjeotivee). Monday, Wednesday . 4. E.ipe - The learning activities have been Thursday 4 Friday from 7:30AM sequenoed (A3CDS) and coordinated by audio - 10:30PM Tuesday from 7:30AM- 5:30PM tape. An instructor iv available Saturday,. from 1:30AM- PM at all time', to assist when any part of the content is not understood - use them. Many textbooks are available from a variety of 'toupees.

Two pages from the student handbook What's It All About?

they feel as if they are adrift. campuses and in many subject areas innancy and Birth Co.ntiol, and Venereal The fact that students are'graded con- the United States and abroad. It is beingDisease) is already available. tinually on their weekly, half-hour small used, for example, in chemiptry at Clem- Sam Postlethwait approaches thea- assemblies tends to counterbalance the son University in North Carolina andperimenthe still deliberately views his lack of compulsory attendance. It allowsAuburn University in Alabama; in psy-task as one of changing, questioning, re- students to judge their progress while re- chology at the University of Cincinnati; visingwith a mixture of perfectionism taining their independence. "But remem-in geology at Ohio State and the Uni-and diffidence. An out-of-synch movie ber," says Postlethivait, "the basic phi-versity of Michigan; in geography at theprojection that impedes the students' lo*ophy is to treat students as adults. University of Wisconsin; in sociology atprogress evokes a flood of obviously What they know is important ratherColumbia College, Missouri; and insincere apologies in public and self-criti- than where iiiaey've spent their time." westerncivilizationatSouthwesterncism in private. A student's impetuous Postlethwait insists there is little va-Michigan College. Several hundred pub-attack"I hate the audio-tutorial"is lidity in statistical comparison of test lic schools have adapted the system togreeted with an invitation to sit down scores with cventional programs since their level of instructiore American Air-and discuss such blanket condemnation. the approach and actual coverage of ma-lines uses it in its training of flight crews("Audio-tutorial is too big a thing to terial differ so greatly from the tradi-in Dallas, Texas. "It is difficult to keephate altogether.") tional course. Within broad limits, how-an exact court," Postlethwait says, "be-- But another part of Postlethwait's re- ever, he found that grades of students incause programs move wit& their sup.action ttx mounting signs of interest the audio-tutorial courses are persis-porters from one campus to another."within the 'academic community is the tently higher, especially among students Moreover, tapes and minicourse out-veteran teacher's caution. "I've seen too in the A and .13 category of achievement. lines are already being produced inmany people come out here, pick up a An offshoot of the system in Australialimited numbers forcontinui. ndtape recorder and a study guide, and has borne this out. off-campus, community-basedlerning.think they've got the program," he says. The success of the audio-visual pro-A four-part course on sexuality (The"But that's not it. What we really are gram seems to be underscored by its Human Reproductive System, Sexualafter is putting an end to education as a widespread acceptance on a variety ofMaturationWhat's Normal?,Preg-mere delivery system." 14 12Biology

tk CREATING A CORE CURRICULUM THROUGH COOPF:=IATION

by Jerrold K. Footlick

On a cool September morning intechnically responsible. opmental Biology), and relies heavily on 1969, Garnie Johnson and Willie Johnson &A Gore hoped to enlist theaudio-visual material, slides, graphicS, .Gore, biology instructors at Northeast-aid of Colorado State University (CSU), and videotapes produced at the color ern hinior College in Sterling, Colorado, butatfirstencountered skepticismtelevision studios at CSU. The courses began the 105-mile drive to fort Collins. among other faculty members. Yes, itare so constructed that instructors at They had a problem and thought thatwas likely that CSU could help provideany institution may adapt the material John Pitrick Jordan, who directed Colo- a better sophomore core program inas they chooseto provide nearly all of rado State Univer s biology core cur-biology; but surely that would mean thethe instruction, for example, or only ,riculum, could hel emtolve it. Awedbig land-grant unilrersity in Fort Collinssome of it, or to serve simply as enrich- by Jordan's reputon, they were no less,would haughtily take over, "Fear wasment. It can be offered to a class of 500 anxious after theeeting ended. "This.issPelled CSU," says. Johnson: In Colo-students, or of 25; or to individual stu- your problem," Pat Jordan told them. "Irado, as almost everywhere else. thedents working at their own pace. "Each can helpbut 'if you want to make pro-mutual suspicion of four- and two-yearuser," says Jordan, "believes the system gress, you'll have Ko win the support of colleges runs deep. is built for her or him. It is not so much your colleagues in the community col- Yet everyone was willing at least toours as mine," leges." talk, and out of these talksand a com- The courses themselves are serious What the men had discussed wasmon intkrest in improving the, teachingand more` difficult an junior college sophomore biology. Johnson and Goreof biologygrew BioCO-TIE (Coopera-sophomores usuallf see. Cell Biology in- were confident that the freshman pro-tion via Televised Instruction in Edyca-troduces the students to the building gram they taught at Northeastern wastion). It offers a sophomore core pro-blocks of biological units and the mech- sound. Like most freshman courses, itgram in biology that has demonstrably'anisms by which they function. The was a survey, a sweeping outline of theraised both the performance level an thecourse covers cell structure and organ- field, and they could comfortably intro-interest revel of college sophomore?. Itization, energy flow, the chemical com- duce their students to the subject. Buthas also proved that two- and four-yearposition of cells, nutrition and metabo- theywerealso awareand securecolleges can, in a concerted display oflism, and the genetic aspects of cell enough to admitthat the sophomorerespect and cooperation, solve commonfunction. Developmental Bidlbgy traces program was not as good as it could be.problems: Or as Johnson says lightly,a continuum : the impact of genetics, cell By their sophomore Year, students were"we have captured the resources of thr%multiplication and specialization,the ready to 'dip deeper into biology, thusfour-year institution." maturation of organisms, the results of requiring special skills from the profes- BioCO=TIE is operated by a consor-uncontrolled multiplication (as seen in sor. The problem was that a single in tium comptising Colorado State Uni-cancer), and finally, the aging 'process structor simply could not be competentversity and 12 two -year campuses in theand seneScence. The third course, Eco- in every area for which he or ,she wasstate (with 2 Whers scheduled to join insystem Biology, treats principles in pop- the fall of 1976). It provides a completeulation genetics, the flow of energy in fEtioLo K. VOOTLICK Is a g Iidltar of Newsweek swat formerly the segszlae's 'digestion package of three core courses (Ecosys--ecosystems, and population dynamics sitter. tern Biology, Cell Biology, and Devel-and distribution. It introduces popula- 1 5 tro- 13

tion sociology and community biology. about $5,000. The only other significInt"! throughout an explanation,'''\ do you The course focuses on natural popula-expenses would b a video playback unit-blink it on'and off, do you simply flash tions and man's interaction with them. ($1,200),amyl perhaps two mdnitorsit at the start and at the conclusion? ($350 each)a total expense of roughlyThey searched for, technical precision, $7,0071. which sonittimes meant ho the The processof designing BioCO-TIE The, originaltelevisions productionbest Fingle teem among seve1 in co-rnosing began with a series of conferencesproveddifficult.BioCO-TIE coursesulor),1 usage, They even argued the in the spring of 1970 involving facultycould be taught by either CSU or junioreasterners and the westernersover from CSU and the two-year institutions.college faculty, but turning a classroompronunciation:IsitparENchyma or It was clear from the outset that a deliv-instructor into a television instructor re-parenCHYrna? - ezy system would be needed, and thatquired training. Print-oriented faculty`,BioC0-TIE's directors believe these audio - visualtechnology,particularlyhad to be weaned to television. Their/debates glUed the program together. videotape, should be at the heart of thattest efforts were tense and uncomforr/'We subjected everything.to peer eval- system. able. They moaned aloud at the results:, uation," saysfordaro "the videotapes, For this, the biology planners had an It took diiectorial patience, hours -Of re-advance sheets, class notes. Nothing existing model : CO-TIE, developed bytakes, and considerable imagination towent out that both the teacher and user CSU's Office of Educational Media, andproduce finished tapes. . faculties did not discussand approve." the college of engineering, was already ' The planners,meanwlfle, debatedNeither the four-year milk the two-year being widely used in offices and factor- over and over, hours at a time. Theycollege instructors found it easy at the ies around Colorado. It distributed 50-argued over length anconcluded thatbeginning to overcome a natural reluc- minute, stand-up lectures by Coloradoshorter was better. (One tape runs to ,40tance to criticize. But everyone learned State faculty to adults on the job. minutes, but others run less than 4 Min-gradually to participate in and relish the But the lecture pattern would not, do.utes; the average is under 12.) T ey give-21nd Mice. The biology teachers doubted their teen-struggled over such incongruous is ues Indeed,peerevaluationhasnot aged students would respond toa as whether to add musical backgrndsended. The two-year colleges are con- straight TV lecture. And in biologyto the tapes. (Some of the tapes,Dsh Ainected with each other and to the uni- especially,a black-and-wtitl picturea delightful graphic presentation ona-versity by telephone and computer link-

could not carry the messagO! But totality, carry twinkling music; mor > serfup to swap information. Before each coo modify the system accordingly would ious presentations do,not .) The plcers,course is offered, teachers are brought to cost money that_was in no one's budget. debated redundancy. How much reti- the CSU campus for fOur days of brief- Jordan, a Well-organized and persua-tion is necessary? If ydu are introcingings;after each course's conclusion, sive Oklahoman, first convinced thea new term, do you leave it on thcreenthey return for a day of debriefing. Denver-based Boettcher Foundation to. _ plant $15,000inseed money. (The . r Charles F. Kettering and Alfred P. Sloan Foundations later' became additional sponsors.) For the big money Jordan went to the National Science Founda- tion, NSF sent a 'team of biologists to look over the plans; the result was a $500,000. breakthrough that npt only sent BioCO-TIE on its way, but also .made possible a number of ancillary benefits. For one, it allowed Colorado State to purchae four color television cameras and support equipment. (The neighboring UniversityofNorthern Colorado was given CSU's black-and- white equipment.) And the grant enabled the two-year colleges. to buy microscopes, sptIctrophotometers, and a variety of other equipment. Purchaseof equipment consumed about half the NSF grant, with most of the remainder used for evaluation and to pay the teachers who prepared the ma-

terial. With initial expenses now out of , the way, the cost of BioCO-TIE to other institutions is and will remain remarkably low. All materials are being sold at reproduction cost and as production rises, cost falls. Jordan estimates,that a set of BioCO-TIE materials for all three 6 courses, including slides,,transparencies, -61111 notes, and color video cassettes, costs A videotape is being fijed while professors -conduct a peer-evaluation session. 16 0 14Biology

views to create, for each of the courses, three"profiles":astudentprofile, "Since most frdshman and sophomore students arp enrolled in school pro-files for both the high schools two -dear colleges, biology offerings could be improve` ci both in the from which the studerits were graduated universities and the two -year. colleges if consortia weie established and the colleges they would attend, and to plan biolpgy curricula.'' faculty profile. Ted F. Andrews ' We wanted to fly over the course be- Vice President for Academic Affairs Governors State University fore we played it," Jordan explains. If , we did something wrong, in terms of our a goals, we wanted to know why." By any measurable standard, BioCO-TIE did From such scrupulOts" planning hascation for students to use on their ownvery little wrong. The heart of the evalu- emerged an IhiPressive package. Fortime. Before examinations, the materialsation was a comparison between stu- ssroom instruction, almost 100 video-can be reshown in either informal or or-dents who had taken BioCO-TIE courses tapes have been prepared. Nearly- 2,000ganized study sessions. both at the two-year colleges and at slides and transparencies are available CSU with those who had not. Those for individualstudy or overhead projec- students with BioCO-TIE backgrounds tion in the'classroom. Each student re- The central concern, of course, re-were found more likely to take advanced ceives class notes thatlining the topic to l. mains the student. "From the begin-biology courses,to take higher-level be covered in each session. Advance ning," says Gore, 'iwe always asked our-courses, and t9 receive higher, grades. sheets set the goals for each class ses-selves, What are we trying to get across- The enthusiastic facility knew how sion : provide an index to relevant slides, to the students7" To make sure that thegooc1P4OCO-TIE was because they had' tapes, and other resources; and givegoals were never out of sight, BioC0-taA:t the courses in other forms, For suggestions for discussion. The-advance TIE built a "front-loaded" evaluation.students, these were the first sophomore sheets are intended primarjly for thePsychologists from CSU's Human Fac-biology courses that they had ever seen, teacher, but mlny instructors distributetors Research Laboratory sat in,,on theand they had complaints. "Yo,u can't them to their students. planning conferences and constructed astop a TV set and ask questions," ob- In addition, BioCO-TIE offers a com-remarkably detailed testing mechanism. served one CSU senior. Some found the iilete set of laboratory exercises keyed toThe evaluators used questionnaires, in-class notes less than instructive, others classroorrio?Acs. One, for example, is adividual. interviews, and group i,nter-found the tapes occasionally too long, tape that explains the process of stain- .1 and, as the planners discovered some- ing. "Instead of having to explain stain- what to their amusement, still others ing to small groups of students and work Learning experience: were annoyed_ when instructorsat, through it with them,;' says Jordan, "we ProjectBioCO-TIEinvolvesthree tempted to add humor to their segments.. can let the entire class watch the process courses: Ecosystem Biology, no pre- The final test for the students is how demonstrated properly, and in 10 min- requisites, enrollment:1200; CellBiol- BioCO-TIE compares with their other utes they know what to do." Laboratory ogy, prerequisit sic zoology and basic botany, enroent: 800; and courses. On that basis, they seem just as supplies are alse-a-vglable, prepackaged captivated by the program as their in- Developmental Biolo ,prerequjsite: if so requested. BioCO -TIE offers re-, Cell Biology, enrollMe t structors. A woman who had trans- source materials,reprints of articles, ferred frorn Community College of Den- audiotapes, and additional laboratory Oda* descriptions: ver's Red Rocks campus to the Univer- exercises. If the teacher wants them, Bio- "BioCO-TIE: The Genesis of a Coop- sity of Colorado's Denver campus sum- CO-TIE will even provide examinations. erative Curriculum Improvement Pro- med it up: "It didn't take me long to find Some instructors use the exams virtually gram,"Junior College Science out that I was just better prepared than verbatim ; others pick the questions they Tea6hing, Vol. 2, No, 4, 1973. the kids who didn't have BioCO-TIE." want. For any of them, the examinations "CooperativeCurriculumImprove- In late 1974, the American Institute of. ment Program: Biology (BioCO-TIE)," serve as a guide to what the, developers Biological Sciences sent a team of four to expect students to learn. Ninth Report of theInternational Clearing House on Science and Math- evaluate the results on behalf of the Na- Each instructor is free to use the Bio- ematicsCurriculumDevelopment, tional Science Foundation, and its con- CO-TIE program as he or she finds ac- 1972. clusions provided a resounding stamp of ceptabls. Typically, in each of the three approval.The committeedidfind courses, a student will begin preparation Similar programs: flaws: some inadequate management of for a class session by perusing the class In addition to the 14 colleges in Colo- laboratory equipment, occasional weak- notes. These explain the sequence of the radoparticipatinginthe program, nesses in planning, difficulty in schools topics to be covered and highlight the otherinstitutions using BioCO-TIE without proper faculty or administrative key points in the videotapes..In class the materialincludethe University of support. Yet its report was overwhelm- teacher is likely to give an introductory Florida at Gainesville, Purdue Univer- sity, and Wayne State University 'in ingly positive. The committee described lecture. Then he will switch on f the Detroit. the audio-visual material as "of very videotape. Afterwards, the instructor high quality." It praised the low cost of may. lecture again and open the class for Contact: the.program, and the increasingly warm discussion. Sometimes two orthree John Patrick Jordan, 203 Adminis- relationship between four- and two-year tapes as well as ckt her visual material tration Building, Colorado State Uni- college faculty; Sand it, determined the may be used in one session. Outside the versity, Ft. Collins, Colorado 80523, exportability of .BioCO-TIE to be high. classroom, the audio- visual materials (303) 491-5371. In fact, as word of BioCO-TI'E'S suc- are made available in a central study lo- cess has spread, so to has the export

1 7 15 process. It is already being used in suchagree that the BioCO-TIE courses havehe says, "the students have already had states as Indiana. Florida': and Michigan, improved their own core,surriculum asso much of the material. It enables us to and inquiries have arrived from more well. dig that much deeper into biochemis- than a dozen others. Soon, with the co- 'There is 'no question that our coretry." operation ofthe Burgess Publishingcourses are different, and better," says Already BioCO-TIE's developers are Company and Encyclopaedia Britannica Thomas Sutherland, a CSU professor oflooking to the future. Having made their Films, mass production will begin, animal science who teaches Ecosystem' initialcapital investment, they need a One of the most significant results ofBiology. 'We can show a tape andremarkably lean budget to succeed for the program can be found at Coloradoquickly touch the high points Then wethe long term. The continuing process of State. Accustomed to' enrolling more timeme to talk about the ramifica-self-evaluation allows them to smooth academicallyoriented eshmen andtions." This improvement is not lost onouttheroughspotscoursesare sophomores than the for colleges, the CSU students. 'We found that thealready being updated and modified. CSU could offer its I er-division stu-biology core program was developing a'With time, we're going to change the dents tougher core grams. As a re-reputation for having good courses,"people in this program," Jordan says. sult, the juniors seniors who hadsays Marvin Paule, a biochemist who"The new people may not be sure how been on theF rtCollinscampuscoordinates Cell Biology. "That leads toto deal with it. So we must consider throughout theicollege careers per-better students coming into them andways to bring the next generation of formed more ly in advanced classesthe whole course lifts." Paule seems justfaculty into the system." And he adds than the juniOr college transfers. Nowas pleased by the effect that BioCO-TIEwith a confident smile, "but that's only the gap between the two groups is al-has had on his biochemistry classes.while we waitfor our studentsto most nonexistentand CSU faculty "When they take my advanced coursed,"become the teachersY

ModulOr Microbiology When Antelope Valley College insti-challeriging, effettive, and enjoyableperforming related experimental tuted a two-year certification pro-for student and instructor alike. work that will increase their compe- gram for registered nurses six/years The self-instructional labf programtence, knowledge, and understanding ago, the general .microbioldgy classconsists of 53 printed modules, eachof the subject. at this 8:000-student community col-a self-contained unit concentrating In addition to reducing student and lege promptly doubled in size. Theon a single laboratory technique orfaculty frustration, the self-instruc- sudden increase in enrollment signifi-concept. Listed first in each lab,,mod-tional lab program has markedly in- . candy aggravated a condition thatule are prerequisitesskitts (from pre-creased student interest and compre- had already existed for some time atvious modules) needed to completehension, as evidenced by the under- this thriving school located in thethe experimentation,followed bytaking of voluntary laboratory pro- desertcommunityof caster, materials and equipment requiredjectsand bysignificantlyhigher f,..1CaliforniLToo much tr. i structorall standard for any ordinary micro-grades on midterm examsan aver- e was being devoted toasic lab-biology laboratory. Then objectivesage score of 78 percent now as com- atory techniques for students whoare stated, including specific behav-pared with 65 percent before adop- were often underprepared.:, ioral objectives that clearly tell thetionoftheself-instructionalap- Registrations for the one-semester student what he or she should' knowproach. A drop in the attrition rate general microbiology 10 include, inor be able to do upon successful com-from 12 percent to 2 percent further addition to science majors, studentspletion of the module. N factual dis-documents the success of the new in nursing, premedical and predental cussion presents information andprogram. For the faculty, reduced ex- programs, and public health, as well concepts necessary for understandingplanation and demonstration time as home economics. Many havethe experimentalprocedure,aftermeans more time for the advance- weaVscience backgrounds or, having which the actual activities to be car-ment of complex conceptual material, been out of school for a number ofried out are dekribed in a carefuland more time for paying attention years. have lost confidence in theirstep-by-stepmanner. Illustrations areto individual student progress and abilities in a laboratory situation. Asused freely to amplify the text and toengaging in meaningful4 laboratory a result, instructors found it neces-diagram complex experiinentaldiscussions. The Program has been sary to preface laboratory periods schemes. adopted by a number of institutions, with lengthy explanatory lectures, Concluding the module is a self-including the University of Portland, and to repeatedly demonstrate -rou-evaluative review that enables theSan Antonio College, and_the Uni- tine laboratory procedures while labstudenttodetermineforhimselfversity of North Carolina. sessions were in progress. whether he has successfully comple- "My laboratory environment has In an effort to relieve the tediumted the experimental process and ful-improved so much," remarks Beishir, and frustration she sensed both filled the specifi, objectives of the"that it is no longer work,. It is now a herself and in her students, Lois Bei-module. If he concludes that he hasmost enjoyable teacher-student learn- shir designed and implemented fournot, the student can repeat a rrioduleing experience." ' year's ago a self-paced, self-instruc-or any part of it. For those studentsFor more information: Lois Beishir, tional modular program that iMpartswho have mastered the concepts andDepartMent of Microbiology, Ante- neededinstructioninlaboratoryprocedures of a given module, therelope Valley College, Lancaster, CA techniques? in a way that is at onceare suggestiotist for designing and/dr93534, (805) 943-3241. 18 1$Biology

SYMPATHY VS. STANDARDS: TEACHING THE UNDERPF=EPARED

kly James P. Degnan 4

most universities during the Seeking a valid solution to the prob-dowed or better equipped intellectually 1-1-chaotic late 1960s, San Diego Statelem, Sanders explains, the EOP, withmust be preferred in admission and rec- established (some would say largely insthe full support of the San Diego Stateognition.... If we give in to the armed response to the threats and demands ofadministration,' decided that a specialdemands of militants to admit persons student militants) a federally sponsoredprogram for educationally disadvan-to the university because of their race, Educational OppOttunity Program tagedminoritystudentse.g.,high their poverty, their illiteracy, or any (EOltthat made it possible for academ-school dropouts, parolees, students whoother nonintellectualdistinction,our ically unqualified minority studentshad failed or never taken science in high,universities can nn longer serve all of us blacks, Chicanos, American %dians,schoolwas, needed, a program thator any of us." and othersto 'enter the university. Thewould be 'sympathetic to their special Regarding the controversial nature of idea behind the EOP at San Diego Stateneeds yet would maintain standards ,atAvila's-program, .one of his colleagues and elseWhere was that such students,least as high as those in the regular biol-say4*: "I take pragmatic attitude, to, 4 even though conventionally unqualified, ogy courses. Vernon Avila's programward the, pro m. It's a good program; somewhere. along the line had demon-one that he had developed and directedit works; desperately needed it and stratedabilities indicating thattheyin 1972-73 at the University of Colo-continue o need it. The people who -WI- could succeed in the university and thatradowas chosen. 'Sven if in prin-icize it because it is designed primallry they should be given a chance to try. ciple people are against such programs,"for EOP students forget, that when the "But," says Gerald Sanders of SanSanders remarks, "they have to admitprogram was established it was too late Diego State's biology department, "thesethat Vernon's works." to debate the issue of whether we should students were not succeeding. Blacks It is clear that at least some people,have an EOP; the EOP was here, a fact and Chicanos made up 10 percent of ourincluding a few of Avila's colleaguesof life. The students, who needed Avila's introductory biology courses and mostwith whom I spoke, are opposed not:program were here. The time for debate of these students [8 out of 10 as opposed only to special college programs for the'of any meaningful kind was over We to 1 out of 10 whites] were failing oreducationally disadvantaged but also tohad a specific, urgent problem to solve dropping out. The administration wasthe basic idea of the EOP. They argueand, as far as I'm concerned, Avila desperate. Its reasoning was, We've gotthat EOP represents a kind of reversestepped in and solved"it." them here now, we can't let them fail.racism since it is based directly or indi- Specifically, what Vernon Avila ac- Something's got to be done.'" Somerectly on what amounts to a predomin-,complished in one year was to lower things were being done, Sanders relates,antly racial quota system. Because thedramatically the failure and drop-out inchIding a few not so ethical things. "Inuniversity must accept, say, 10 percentrate among minority students to 1 out some cases,"0. he says, "minority studentsconventionally unqualified blacks, theyof 10, the standard failure and drop-out were being allowed to droli the coursepoint out it must, given a limited enroll-rate for whites "And he' did this," says after they'd taken their final exams." ment, reject 10 percent conventionallySanders, who coordinates the lower-dili- YAMS P. DEGNAN has published fiction and non- qafieduli whites. In 1970, the historianvision biology courses at San Diego fiction in assay nagallaas axd periodicals. includ- Daniel Boorstin outlined the oppositionState'shuge 33,000-studentcampus, Ins Atlantic, Esquire. The biddies. and The ?rapes- live. He teaches advanced writing courses at the case when he wrote: "In the uniyersity"not by watering down content, not by University of Santa Clara in California. all men are not equal. Those better en-lowering standards, but, if anything, by

19 7.- '14 A 6ilinqual teaching jissistant helps studentswith an enzyme investigation as Vonon A.vila (right) observes. raising them higher than the st'andaras are whites and would like to include chancthe teacher ordinarily does no that prevailed o' many of the regularmore. (The percentage of whites in the have biology sections. He his enables him to make ap was tough,so program varies roughly according to the son detertnination ajlout wheth- tough at first I thought he the was going topercentage of whites enrolled by the pros ective studentis truly "e cation- have riots on his hands But the students, EOP: since that percentage is increasing, ally disadvantaged." The t means rather than. resentinghistoughness, Avila's program will doubtless reflect mor , to Avila than a po high school 5 seemed.to like him all the better forit. that rise.) ac ,A thin, intense Mexican American emic record or a dearth of introduc- in "A numbers of factors account,for the to y science courses, "It can mean," he his middle thirties! Avila is the son of a success of the program at San Diego ys. "that the student comes from an coal miner, born in- the bleak,mesa- S,tale.:For one thing, with the coopera- studded country of southern Colorado environment that has actively discour- tion of the EOP, Avila has the opportu- aged-him from being interested' in sci- and raised in New Mexico. Of the ugly nity toInterview and choose which EOP ence, an environment whiCh ha repeat- scar on the left side of his neck, he casu- studentswillenterhisprogram, a ally explains edly told him, 'People like youon't go 'The result ofa high into science; that's a foolish..inter st you schoaargument, missed the carotidar-, tery by abOut half ayt inch.- When he learning experience:' must forget about.'" For such a -sTirdent., says Avila, "I can serve as a role model. wasn't dodging knift\-wield,i,ng school- General Biology for educationally,un- The student can look at me Andsay, mates, Avila was engagedinthe even derprepared students! N.o prerequi- tougher task of trying to convince his sites. Enrollment: 75. 'He's from the same kind of background aSI, from a ghetto or bart'lo; if hecan, teachers'and counselors that heseriously Other descriptions: make it, so can 1. - intended to become a scientist. "I'd al- cr "Science andWathematical Prepar-, Another advantage is that Avila has ways had a high IQ,:* says Avila, "but ation of Minority Students with Impli- fewer students irS his classes than are in that made little difference. Back in those cationsforIntroductory Biology the regular biology cpurse (about 75 days (the late 1950s( nobody couldeven Courses," ALBS Educational Review, March 1975. compared with 150). This,meansmore imagine a person of my background be- of that all-important factorpersonal coming a scientist' They all wantedme "Biology 101-102, Section 4: Biology to take courses in woodshop. Never- for -educationally Disadvantaged aterre attention for each student. Again and again, Avila's students say the same theless Avila overcame the opposition: dents," Journal of theColorado- thing: "Whenever I have a question He tgok and.did well in the required Wyoming' Academy of Science, April or a sci- 1973 (Abstract). problem thatI ence and math courses, and eventually can't straighten out in class, I know that he is there' to tryt%. wenkm to complete his PhD in biology Similar programs: answer it or solve it in a private confeic at the Jniversity of Colorado, compil- Univeisity of Colorado atBOOlder. ence. I never feel that I am intruding; he ing an outstanding- academic record Various versions of a special course is always willing to work with me until I along the way. a for educationally disadvantaged mi- understand what I and doing. And he Despite his background, ACiila is far noritystudentsexistacrossthe country. constantly reminds us to call .himor from being an embittered campus milt-, come to his office for an appointment if tant. He is pleasant, urbane, highly ar- Contact: we have problems. I have never had this ticulate?and reasonable. While hesees kind of attention in other;, classes," his program as essentially designed Vernon L. Avila, Department .of Zool- to ogy, San Diego State University, San The program's organization is also a serve the needs of minority students and Diego, California 92182, (714) 286- sIghificafit asset. Insteacrof the tradi- to attract this group into careers in sci- 5235. tional system in-which lectures and labs ence. about 10,percent of his students are often taugF different instructors, 18Biology

Avila's students have the same instruc-types. They conduct experiments dem- tor for both. Further, in addition to oneonstrating, for example, why parents three-hour lab pet.- week and two one-with type AB blood cannot produce off- hour lectures per week, there are weeklyspring with type 0 blood; why certain discussion groilps, something not fea-races are predisposed to certain diseases; tured in the regular biology courses.why people are destined to have eyes, These groups, made up of 25 or so stu-,hair, and skin of a particular color or dents, meet for one hour three times asuch physical characteristicsas free or week and are directed by the Same( lec-attached ear lobes. Then Avila might ture-lab instructor. This organizationhold one of the small discussion sessions enables the professor to achieve a num-during which students have the oppor- ber of desirable goals. not the least of'tunity to raise questions about matter which is'a tight coherence between what covered in the lectures and labs. is said in the discussions and lectures Always striving to involve his stu- tr# and what is done in the labs. dents totally, to get them to see how the The course textbook is Sherman and science of biolOgy relates to every aspect Sherman's Biology: A Human Ap-of their liyes, Avila uses discussion ses- proach. There are three major (60-ques-sions not merely to cover scientific and tion) objective tests given during thetechnical matters but to point up the semester, five or six write-ups of variousmoral, philosophical, and political ques- A studentexamining,bloodforthe - lab experiments, and about an equaltions biology raises and often helps, to presence of sickling. number of short essay quizzes (e.g., dis-answer. Controversial topics such as cuss the'major differences between mito- abortion, birth control; euthanasia, anda moral agent with the responsibility for sis and meiosis). Avila uses the quizzesecology verses economics are broached,using science in ethical ways. to help students with their writing, aand difficult questions are confronted,: In keeping with his major goalto skill in which they, like most college stu-When does a fetus become human7 Is it persuade minority students to enter dents, are notoriously deficient. Themoral to destroy a 'fetus that islikely to the natural sciencesAvila also uses the three object' ve'lests the prime sourcebe born deformed? Can "pulling thediscussion sessions and every other op- of the student's gradeAre essentiallyplug" be morally justified? Isecologyportunity he gets to talk about career the same as the tests Avila and other in-another name for racism? Not only areopportunities and to urge his students to structors give in the regular biology sec-these topics of compelling interest to histake advantage of them. "Minority stu- tions. And last semester, random stu-0students, Avila say4OlutriP discussingdents are grossly underrepresented in dent samplings of performance on thesethem and explaining that the studentsthenatural sciences," he maintains. tests demonstrated that students in themust eventually come to their own con-"Only 5 percent of them major in the special course actually performed betterclusions, he is able to make a point too.natural sciences. There are over 200,000 over the semester than did students inoften neglected in the traditional teach-earned PhDs in the sciences (including the regular biology sections. ing of science: that the scientist is moremathematics] in this country," he says, If students do learn more in Avila'sthan a technician; he or she is first of all,:'and of that number onlyi; 900 are course, it is because they,pre highly motivated;itis because without talking down to his students Avila makes biologyto use that overused but in this Exploring the Psychology, of Animal Behavior case perfectly accurate wordrelevant. "You can try to explain the action of gan, That the bird is making music! A typical day for Avila and his students And, indeed,if we apply existing proceeds as follows: first, a lecture on automobiles by taking them off the road and tearing them apart," says psychologies of musical p ception to genetics with special emphasis on Gregor James A. Mulligan, S. J., of Saint the bird, such psychologie offer an Mendel's theory of hereditycharacter- explanation of its activities. thanintr ducIngthe Louis University in Missouri, "but istics.Rather the nuts and the bolts don't explain This holistic approach requires one theory in the traditional w ,y i.e., by a to examine animals in complex terms oils experi- anything. You've left out the driver." discussion of Mendel's Before you can understand an auto- that take into account evolution, he- ments with smooth and wri kled peas redity, local ecology, environmental Avila, whose classes - typ' allyenroll mobile's behavior, he explains, you must acknowledge the driver's psy- competition, and the behavioral dif- large numbers of blacks, employs a ferences among different species of He cholOgy. much more germane approach : According to Father Mulligan, that the same family. Students enrolling begins by discussing sickle-cell anemia, explaining how and why this disease same dilemma exists in animal bein his introductory course in animal exists primarily in blacks, and what havior. Most biologists, he suggests, behavior, each of whom has some are reductionists, striving to explain, background in either biology or psy- Menders theory has to do with our un- chology, are trained in the descrip- derstanding of the disease. Having cap- say, bird songs by chemical and genetic analysis. Their goal is eventually tion, classification, and quantifica- tured the interest of his class, he moves to predict phenomena. But a bird tion of animal behavior. First, the on to a more traditional presentation. students (approximately 30 per class) Following the lecture, Avila's students with a repertoire of six songs may repeat them in no consistent order. It is observe fish in a laboratory aquar- might have a lab demonstrating some of ium. Then they go off to the excellent . the truths of Mendel's theory. Students entirely po'ssible, says FatherMulli- learn litiw to determine their own blood 7 21 1 19

blacks. As for Chicanosof whom best proof that EOP students, thoughother outstanding, untenured professors there are about 12 million in the Unitedthey may be educationally disadvan- in American colleges t , has been Statesonly 100 have science PhDs, taged, are not intellectually inferior. Oncriticizedat least indire lyfor giv- and only 24 of those are in the biologicalthe contrary, given the right incentivesing too much of himself teaching. sciences. The statistics for American In-and the proper pkgram, they can over-There are those who think that he, dians are even worse: At lait count, come scholastic shortcomings and go ondevotes too mulch time to the program only about 12 had science PhDs." in the regUlar curriculum. and its ancillary activities (e.g:, chairing Avila cont s that minority'students When Avila cartini San Diego State, panels and speaking as a member of the have an al st "irrational fear of sci- there were no minority students major- board of directdrs for. the Society for the ence. At the University of Colorado," he ing in biology. "Since Avila started hisAdvancement of Chicanos and" Native says, "we found that 75 percent of the program here," says Gus Chavez, direc-Americans in Science) and not enough minority .students who dropped out oftor"of the EOP at San .Diego State, "the time to research and publication in his the university did so because they could not pass or were simply afraid to take the required science courses." Com- "Every university should strive to identify special professors who pounding-the problem are well-meaning can effectively plan and teach natural science courses that attract but rather short-sighted academic ad- minority visors who almost always steer minority Ted F. Andrews students away from the natural sciences Vice President for Academic Affairs into "less difficult" majors that "are dead Governors State University ends as far as leading to significant 'careers." He points out that even the relatively few minority students who plannumber of minority students majoringspecial field of endocrinology and ani- careers in medicine or dentistry are ad- in the natural sciences has risen from 50 mal behavior. Nevertheless, his publi- vised to get out of the natural sciences 'as to 244. There, are those who' would-saycations and research efforts are impres- soon as they experience difficulty with athat this dramatic increase can't neces- sive compared with those of many ten- s ience or math course. 'This," he.con-sarily be attributed to the existence ofured faculty. tiues, "is what my program is designedAvila's program; but I know from talk- Avila realizes that he could probably to.. bat:" ing with .many of the EOP students now advance his own career more effectively Evidence in tes that Avila's pro- majoring in science that a large percen- if he were "much less deeply involved in gram is w. ng in this respect. Five of tage of this increase is because of the teaching, if he devoted more time to re- the studenfromhis special program at program. I tell people it's an elective that search and much less time to his stu- the Univers' of Colorado are now inought to be required of everyone." dents, but he says he can't do that. "It medical schoo, three in,Mental school, Although Avila's efforts seem so suc-might,mean that. I'd get along better, at three in nursing chool; and all are do-cessful that other campuses might dothe university,"he concludes,"and ing well. At San Diego State, 15 minor-well to emulate them, he runs the risk ofthat's a highly desirable goal. Unfortu- ity students are now majoring success- not being promoted from his rank as as-nately, though, I don't believe I'd get fully in biology. They are perhaps the sistant professor or granted tenure. Like along very well with myself."

Izoological gardens in St. Louis where theless that, for his students, simple course to go on to further projects at they are introduced to 'a variety of scientific observation is complicated the zoo, her as independent re- species in lectures delivered by the enough. Using insects,birds, and search or in a graduate seminar in park's staff. In addition, they observe mammals found locally or in the animal behavior. One' graduate of a different species each week, and field,this approach can easily be the course Vent a year graphing the attempt to explain the animals' be- t,adapted outside of a formal setting, territoriality of each member of the havior. thereby encouraging students to view zoo's prairie dog colony. Another Finally, they select one or more the world as a laboratory. student submitted a senior project species to analyze in depth through When he first turned to the zoo as that analyzed the behavioral results individ4a1projects supervised by a resource, Father Mulligan wdrtin- of putting apes in cages. "Psychology Father Mulligan along with a teach- sure of the warping effect such an en- majors who enter the course usually ing assistant and the curator of edu- vironment might have on its inhabi- come out with a broader awareness," cation at the'zoo. Occasionally a stu- tants' behavior. Fortunately he has says Father Mulligan, "ancrsome take dent will concentrate on species of been largely reassured. A "scholarly my graduate seinar after they begin inner-city birds or on laboratory in- ,film produced by Rockefeller Univer- graduate wo in psychology. One sect colonies. But most students pre- sity on the behavior of patas mon- or two have e en switched their mafer to work in the gardens; and keys in the wild, recently screened at jors to biolOgy." though the zoo does not have enough Saint Louis University,confirmed For more information:James A. duplicatioh of species to allow stu- patterns that students had already Mulligan, tiology Department, Saint dents to isolate animals for experi- observed at the zoo. Louis University,St. Louis, MO ments, 'Father Mulligan thinks,never- Many students are inspired by the 63103, (314) 535-3300. ,

2 20 Biology

COURSE MANAGEMENT e/- BYCOMPUTER

O by Charlep J. Sugnet

outh Dako.tState University atal two lectures and one lab each week.using the same specimens and exhibits SBrookings,,,is not a lavishly funnedThe following year, the course was put they used in the learning center while lis- school . Struggling Wiith a low popula-on teleVision to acco modate rapidly tening to the week's tape. Given the tion andloo many institutions of `hig,herrising enrollm It was a disaster. budgetary situation at SDSU, ,.twhere education, the state is inclined to cutWithout profe directors or cam-there are 1,000 students enrolled in two b'aek on bread- and-butter items rathereramen, and overworked facultyintroductory courses each semester,it than appropriate development moneywho could nd ord the special effortwas impossible to institute Purdue-size for experiments with the latest educa-necessars7 to make a good Videotape, the quiz sections for all students. Some biol- tional technology. Yet the biology staff...sesult was a flat, static series of 45- -ogy falulty have over 20 contact hours thete, under the strong leadership ofute lectures with poor technical quali y. per week as it is. Instead, they decided Gerald A. Myers,' has successfully in- At about this time, Myers heard of t eon small sections of about- 30 students stalled its own variation of audio-tutor-audio-tutorial method being develop dthat meet once a week for an hour of lec- ial instruction and has katticip,ated inby Postlethwait at Purdue (see page 8. ture, discussion, and quiz. The quizzes the creation of interesting new biologyand ecided to adopt it, though he kneware largely multiple choice, with an minicourses. Moreover, SDSU, is nowmollific tions would belticessary. Theoccasional 'short-answer! essay. Such testing; with a modest number of stu-first thing Myers needectwas a learning 'paper" tests lack the Concreteness of dents, a form Of computer-managed in-center where students could observePostlethwait's hands-on lquiz method, struction that has potential for handling,specimens, use equipment, and listen towhich makes use of the ame materials large numbers of stuOpts working in a tapes at their own speed. He applied forthe students work with ithe learning modularized Program. . and got a modest HEW grant for tape re-center. As a-result of usin writteicquiz- Through the middle sixties, SDSU'scorders and equipment, then ordered azes,, a certain percentagef students do introductory courses in biological sci- sample carrel.from a leading educationalnot feel obliged to go tot the learning .ence preserved the old taxonomic hesis. supply house. When the carrel arrived,center. Students took asurvey of the plant king-the staff was horrified by its unit cost. Originally the lab work was iritegra- dom and a s ey of the animal icing-Instead of ordering 40 °more, they took it"ted into the learning center activities, as dom, taught bdifferent departments,apart, used it as a template, and spentin the Purdue Course. But at SDSU there and it was quest' nable whether theythe summer building their own for aWere complaints from other depart- were getting an adeqto introduction to fraction of 'One retail price. The supplierments over whether to coninue to allow such matters as poRation genetics, was not especially pleased by this,- butintroductory biology to the lab ecology, and moleculariology. After' acceded to it when Myers placed anscience, requirement, so Myers went some disagreement betwe n the botanyorder for 40 tape machines. At the samehick to the traditional, sdparate lab sec- and zoology divisions (and his seems al-time, the biology staff began making itstion. Staff and students both seem to en- most universal' n the histoof biologyown tapes and . produced a series ofjoy the lab (participantslooked enthusi- departments), an introductory biologylarge-format workbookswhich theyastic; and it was not unusual to hear a course was established in 1965-66, undercalled "Conceptopaks," foi-Use with thestudent say that dissecting a fetal the direction of Myers. The', coursetapes. was the best part of the course). Some involved a new approach to the subject An importantfeatureofPogue- instructors Piave carried lab work off matter, but its format was the tradition-thwait's format is the small quiz sectioncampus in interesting ways. One class cataloged-rand uses and drew 43 a land- CHARLES f. SUGNET teaches literature at Ike Uni- (10 students or less) in which students versity of Minnesota. ' teach each other the week's material, use plan for Brookings County. .Another

V 21

copied dat s from headstones in local cemeteries z nd made a computer analy- t., sis of theto arrive at a demographic history o I the area. For stu i ents who are particularly in- "*. terested ibiology or who wish to ob- ''4641 4i:4771, tain extr points in the course, the learn- AWL"' ing cent r maintains a. file of "quests." Each q est consists of a prepared student act vity with exercises and a ready- madeestatthe end. Two sample quests View a film showing the behavior of wo similar grouse species, write dtscri tions of them, decide on their pecif c differences, and try to determine whet er they interbreed; or regd, aSci- entifi Aptericanarticle describing a ser-Students compare resultsesults of their localwater studies with state standards. ies f4vater-ba)anCe experiments on dese t rats, then:decide which of a list oaudio-tutorial program in place, he tookmodule) related to the specific "objec- inferen4s can legitimately be madea sabbatical and went to Ohio State to tives of the particular module; a prede- ftom th& data in 'the article. Myers be-do research in plant anatomy. Before terminednumberof these pertain to lieves strongly that lower-level studentslong, however, he was working witheach objective, depending on its impor- need directi6n, and it is charncteristic of two Ohio State staff members (Bentance. It is unlikely that a student will his ingistence on programmed organiza-Meleca, director of introductory biol- see the same questions, twice even if he tion that even these extra-credit projects ogy, and Michael Allen, research coor- has to repeat the test three or four times are set up in advance by the staff, avail-dinator for computer- assisted instruc-before'lnastering a given module. able in the learning center according to ation) to develop a transportable corn -' Using Bloom's taxonomy, Myers has definite schedule, and evaluated by mul-puter-managed instruction (CMI) model determined the degree of cognitive skill tiple-choice or short-answer tests. for use in biology. When he returned, he each question requires; approximately Last year, the department tried a fewbegan to transport to South Dakota the 75 percent of the items on any given test new minicourses (developed by the Pur- system he had helped put in place atare of low cognitive level,with 25 due/Biological Sciences CurriculumOhio State. He convinced the adminis- percent requiring higher skills such as Study Group) which Keith Morrill, onetration to fund a CMI center and even-synthesis and application. Many ques- of the staff members, had helped totually to hire a programmer and hard- tions are, of course, routine tests of fac- shape. This year; the minicourses, now. ware wizard to run it. Recognizing thattual material, but some are very ingen- published by W.B. Saunders Company, the needs of a. single department would . iiius and sophisticated. Some use visual with their professionally made audionot be an adequate reas9k to support materialsavailableattheterminal; tapes, are coin* into use. They are asuch a center, he encouraged other de- others describe "an experiment and ask great improvement over the old home-partments such as German, geography, the student to evaluate a series of hy- made tapes, whose technical quality leftROTC, and economics to make use of itpotheses on thebasis of the experimental much to be desired. The new mini- also. data. Correct answers set off a buzzer; if courses require many more specimens The computer has a record of,*hich asponse-is incorrect, the machine pro- and exhibits, and this has made setupsmodules the student has already mas-vides the correct one immediately. If a for the learning center more expensivetered. Once the student has chosen astudent achieves mastery on the first and difficult.`1Despitetheincreased module, he or she may proceed to adiagnostic test, he is offered the oppor- .headache, however, the staff agrees that diagnostic test on the unit. From a banktunity to see a list of the learning objec- the richer materials used in the carrels of about 4,000 multiple-choice test itemstives in the module which he has not will make for a much beiter course. Myers has compiled, the machine willmastered. These are stated very specific- randomly generate a small number ofally ("Identify the stages of mitosis in the questibns(15-20,depending onthe onion root tip."), and by pushing a he variation of Postlethwait's for- button the student can get a clarifying mat as set up at SDSU, then, in- Learning experience: restatement of any objective he does not cluded audio-tutorial instruction in the Introductory Biology. No prerequi- understand. When a, module has been learningcenter,aone-hour-a-week sites. Enrollment:Logo. mastered, the student is offered the op- small section of 30 students, a relatively portunity to choose another. If mastery traditional lab section, and the quests Similar programs: is not achieved, the compUter first dis- forextra-creditwork.Thiscarried" Purdue University and Ohio State plays a list of the objectives that were .SIDgU through the enrollment peak of University. mastered, then shows a message advis -. - e sixties and early seventies, and it Contact: ing further study and listing the objec- pear likely to continue as the' basic Gerald A. Myers, Botany Biology De- tives that still need work. format. partment, South Dakota Statd Uni- Neither the questions nor the objec- But Jerry Myers is not a man to stand vergity,Brookings,SouthDakota tives refer to particular texts or study still where technological innovations in 57006, (605) 688-6141. materials, so that it i5 not necessary to pedagogy areconcerned.Withthe change computer data when instruc-

to 22Biology o-

tional materials are changed. Especially bright students, or those with previous instruction in biology, may well master some modules without referring to the particular set of instructional materials keing used at SU. Myers plans to have the machineroduce a printed, individual study presption every time a student fails to achieMastery. Doing so, however, would invoe limiting the program's flexibility by linking particu- 4,11,40444:: lar questecans.'4* or objectives to specific pages of a 'text or sections of a tape. ./ Jerry Myers has always been inter- A student collects data from a local cemetery for 0 project on'Population. ested in pedagogy, perhaps because ofoccurs off-line, either at the audio-tutor-wheyE individual students need help, but his background, and the idea of a com-ial learning center or in the weekly labalsthe effectiveness of particular in- puter-managed course that could event-sessions. Students in both introductorystructional materials. After answering ually be extended throughout the statebiology courses attend the small weeklyeach question, the student is ilso asked had a special appeal to him as a Southsection meetings for lectur6. or discus-to rate, on a one-to-five scale, or her Dakotan. After receiving his bachelor'ssion and a weekly quiz. But the 60 to 90_confidence in the correctness of the an- degree inbiological education fromstudents assigned to one of the pilot sec-swer selected. The confidence rating has Nebraska State Teachers Collegein tions of CMI have no weekly quiz; in-great promise as a tool for evaluating Kearney, he taught for a number ofstead they go on their own time to thequestions: Those which get high ratings yearsinelementary and secondaryCMI center with its several Hazeltinefrom students giving the correct answer schools in Idaho, Illinois, and Nebraska; 2000 terminals, each with a cathode rayand low -ratings from studentsgnaking since becoming a college teacher he hasdisplay and a typewriter keyboard.errors are good measures of learning, directed summer and academic-year in-,After a tape-slide presentation on howwhile those showing low correlation be- stitutes for elementary and secondaryto use the CMI center, an attendanttween confidence and correctness can be teachers. opens a computer file that identifies eacheliminated as tricky questions. In addi- Biology is.very important to an agri-student by name, ID ntirnber, course,tion, students can type in comments di- cultural state like South Dakota, and asand section number. Only a few simplerectlyat any time, and while these ar a public-minded citieen (he is a regionalcommands are necessary for access to`hot relayed routinely to the instruc tr, officer of the South Dakota Lions Clubthe computer, and the attendant is al-they are stored on tape for futu use. and an elder of his church), Myers is in-ways there to help. After some prelimin-Myers hopes to review every item terested in extending education to meetaries, the machine displays a list of allquestion bank, using the c idence the needs of those off campus. Souththe modules in the course. Some mod-rating and the student mments to Dakota has a small pcipulation spreadules are sequenced, but the student isweed out weak ite and replace them over a wide area, and due to historicaloffered a wide choice of where`to begin.wittr better o accidents in the w4y that population dis-Since instructional tapes are available in Titer. main some practical prob- tributed, itself,allthe institution s _of--the learning center for only one week at le ince phone lines belonging to a er learning are on its eastern anda time, this freedom is at present cir--local telephone company have too much western edges. Some citizens in the cen-cumscribed, but Myers hopes to reTe yinterference to carry computer signals, ter of the state must drive 100 miles or this in the future by having tfionalstudents on CMI must go to a separate more to reach the nearest college. For all materials available forsevenodulesbuilding to be tested, far from the in- these reasons, the idea of a biologyat a time. structor` and the learning center. Thi coursethat could eventually be extended separation is inconvenient at best. by wire to terminals all over the state other difficulty at present is that a stu- has a great appeal to Myers. A t regulantervals during the semes-dent need only enter his code number Moreover, as the instructional mater- ter,,ach h instructor receives a print-on the terminal in order to get-access to ials themselves become more and more'ours Ewing the students' progress. From *modular, his file, and the code numbers are dis- extension education becomesit e instructor can readily see howplayed on the walLin the CMI center. more feasible. Myers hopes eventually, ong it took a given student to masterThis makes it easy for a student to send through the combination of the mini-each module, how well the student didsomeone else to pass a complicated courses and computer management, t on items involving high cognitive skills,module for him, or for a prankster to al- make the whole introductory biolog and whit objectives the student failed toter a student's record. With the small program modular and individualized, s master. With all this information, anpilot sections, these problems are not that depending onthe departmental alert instructor can evaluate not onlyacute, but before the entire enrollment major program pursued, the stude t could construct his or her own tour e from a wide variety of minicourses. Evaluate the The emphasis of CMI as it is develo - ing at South Dakota is on management REPORTS ON TEACHING (testing, record 'keeping, prescription) rather. than instruction. MoSt learning See Back over A.

goes on CMI, it will be necessary to findits computer-management component. practicing scientist.It is important to better ways of identifying students. He believes that machine-managed in note, however, that the same criticism The cost effectiveness ofMI has not struction offers a great opportunity to'could be made of many noncomputer- been determined. .Lee Stert, the pro-free teachers for "the soft humanizing ized courses and the department does. grammer, estimates thate cost was in- function" of "stimulating interpersonaloffer opportunities for inquiry in ad- itially about $2.50 forery hour spent communications." vanced courses. by a student at therminal, but that If the machine does free teachers from Myers has not yet done any compara- this has dropped w increased use to grading and record keeping, it will have tive evaluations to determine differences around $1.50. T se figures, however, done a great service. But administratorsin attitude or actual learnihg between include only puter' time, terminalwill undoubtedly be tempted to absorb students in theipilof CMI sections and rental, and Acup costs. They do riot the resulting free time by adding morethose Making the course in the normal include pr :ramming costs for setupsections. to the teachieg load and re-manner, but he has conducted an 'attitude survey. of 'students on CMI. The he computer is an exceptionally effective tool folf) managing in- survey asks .the 'hard questions about structional materials or assisting with instructional processes. Biol- and finds that there is very little- ogists would be well- advised to experiment with the retistance among the etude jrna-^ use of cit: : chine instruction pet's te. Wit.ttiOe.rifs -puters in instruction." Ted F. And, 's Vice President for Academic Affairs report that th0 dianot feel bored: or Governors State University isolated, or tense while Working.ifith the computer. The only questions which. `drew distuibing responses with any con - and. modification of the course, nor the &Icing overall stafrsize, rather than,de-sistency were"! found myself just trying enormous initial investment of e re- voting it to "soft htirnanizing functiohs."to get through the material tattier than quired. Myers did the instrucr's work Even if they.don'esuccumb to that temp--trying to learn," which litany sfudenti sabbatical and on his wn time. tation, instructors will haire to learnreported was true most or all of the e is of the programmes and thehOw to me 'and maintain.Rersonal time,and"As a result of study,., computer center apaid by the admin- ontact With, students on CMI. SDSU am interested in trying to find out more istrkion, so there no. charge againstri.has anielvantage overmany largeIiiol- about the subject matter," which drew the department bget.. jrne has tried bgy programs in this respect, since themany responses of "Uncertain," dr 'Dis- to figure thescosts in 'dollars per stu- majority 'of its staff is not composed ofagree." Of course, any, introductory dent hour,ut, as with all development,first- and seeonfi-year graduate studentscourse will have some students who are costs, ty.wo-uld be substantial. And'tut of peanent faculty. This pre:videsjust trying to get through and do not man ore terminals will'haye to be in; experieryCe and continuity; 'so that thefind the subject intetesting. But these rest ed befoq the entire enrollment of staff can' benefit cUmulatively from the', sponsis suggest that computer testing ntroductory biology can b_ e accommo- experiment, though their heavyl,Faching inal.turn the learning experience into a dated. Stewart and Myers are presentlyloads may make it difficult! sort of obstacle course .for many. 4 debating whether it will be more effi- There remain other pedagogical ques- It will not be possible to. draw niore. dent to buy or lease, whether portable tions as well. The mode of testing has an:''definiteconclusionsuntil alarger minicomputers will goon b developed enormous influence on other aspects ofnumber of students, has taken introdtic- to, the point of being :ablelo handle the any course; as PoStlethwait puts it, in..torybiolOgY on "CMI:'!, One thing, entire course,'and other technical ques- e)eplaining why he insiftecl on small oral however, is relatively.- certain: Myers tions. Plans have been made for a teamquiz sections. at yeetattaikspite of. thewill iipplerrient a fully computer- man -7' of educational researchers to develop an cost.: "The style ofIestarlends to dic-aged program faster and for lett money assessment program for the CMI pro- tate the way students study and learn."than anyone now thinks potsible. As he f' jeet, including a Cost-effectiveness study. Since 4CMI works almost entirely bydrove me to. the Sioux Falls airport, The history of change in SDSU's in- multiple-choice testing, it may be that inacross 60 miles of South Dakota prairie ,troductory biology program makes itspite of the sophistication of the ques- on the first warm, sunny day of-spring, I appear likely that Jerry Myers will not tions, students are being taught thatasked him my last prepared question: be deterred by such practical problems. learning is a matter of preparing forIf there were no budgetary restrictions, However, he makes it clear that he doestesten1 that knowledge is a static,whit introductory biology course would not 'see CMI as a cost-cutting adminis-. u ivocal body of right answers.you create What is your ideal course" trator's dream. One of his reasons for The -entire course (with the exceptio The prairie still rolls beautifully, even starting on a sinall scale was to avoid of the labs, where some open-ended though it has all been plowed. As- we promising a cheap, easy way of hand-quiry takes place) has a tendency to whizzed over the bare but' soon to he ling large courses until he felt confidenthermetically sealedit doesn't point theplanted land along Interstate 29, he de- that CMI would work, technically andstudent outside its own programmedscribed his ideal. Course: "Five, hundred educationally. He believes that a form oflimits. A student tan, decide whichlearning modules on CMI with visual education which demands that the ttu- module w be tested on first, or can selectloops so questions can include diagrams , dent make choices. about the pace and a particular quest, but doesn't have op=or films, available to anyone in the A order of his or her learning will be more portunities to initiate new lines of in-state,at home,. through a computer effctive than one in which the student isquiry, to express himself in his ownterminal adapted to home television mekely a passive.recipient of course con- language,omo decide which areas of in-sets. Also complete course content on tent, and counts this to be one of thequiry seem irnportint and interestingvideotape,for transmission to any home major advantages of the program with all of which are necessary skills, for thein the state."' .26 'o C 24 Biology

A ,Culturally Relevant Curriculum

'On the beach at Lummi Island, one granting of a one-year certificate as members to encourage the economic of the smaller islands of the Juan well as a two-year Associate of Arts development of aquatic resources Archipelago situated off the northern, degree. Credits earned at USA are found on Indian reservations. Fish coast of Washington State, stand a transferable to other two- and four- and shellfish hatcheries, spawning cluster of five unimposing buildings year colleges in the state. Enrollment channels, and other commercially that hold great hope for Ameri6n is open to all students over the age of viable aquacultural projects can do Indians of the nearby Lummi Reser- 18 who are of.at least 25 percent In- much, the school believes, to relieve vation and those as far away as dian ethnicity. the conditioes of poverty and unem- Maine. Once a marina, the small The overriding pUrpose of the ployment so commonly found on complex now houses the Lummi In- Lummi school is to increase .the em- reservations throughout -the United dian School of Aquaculture (LISA), a ployment potential of its students States.. practically oriented institution 'now through training in -such vital and Each morning that school is in ses- in its third year of offe education marketable skills 'as aquaculture and sion, USA's 50 to 60 students are andtrairiginaquaculture -and fisheries management. Over 100 stu- picked up bvan at their rented aquatic sciences to Indians of, all trib- dents representing more than 25 apartmentsn the mainland, and affiliations. tribes from all over the country have either feed to Lummi Island or 7L While seeking the status of a com- already been trained in these and transported to any of several nearby munity college itself, LISA is present- other skills connected with aqiih-Evocational trItiterfacilities, such as accredited throughnearbyWhat- life sciences. Additionally, the.schobl the Lummi oyster` hatchery or, fish co Community College forthe hopes through its training of tribal farm. The main campus onutruni

and Society: e Study of Bloethics

, In 1970; E. Peter 7,01 e of Tulane line and the intellectual effort be-,,tuba fertilization. Scientists have pro- University developed a`course called riddistinguished, biologicalre- duced fully developed rabbit and Man, Nature, and Society. Intended rch. mousg, embryos from artificial,in for the beginning, liberal-arts-orieT he course dispenses with tradi- vitro fertilization, They'have similar- ted student, Volpe's year-long course rtional surveys of anatomy and physi- ly grown human embryos to the blas- is designed to demonstrate that an ology dnd becomes instead an intro- tocyst stage during which the egg understanding of biology can be per- ductory biogthics, course 'similar to°customarily implants itselfinthe tinent to all of us, that new biological others being offered with growing uterine wall. It is reasonably certain discoveries continually impinge on frequencytononsciencemajors that such an artificially fertilized egg the value judgments we must all around the country. Readings and could be reintroduced into a human make about our lives, and that a lectures con entrate almost exclu--uterus where it would iniplant and study of the sciences can serve as a sively on thbiology of man and grow successfully to maturity. The- ,,forum for discussion of the, moral how it affs his life, values, and cul- question is: Should scientists attempt !questions that arise. tire. The iiaterial requires, two se- it? Specifically, the course offers stu- mesters& c mplete, and students are Such meddling innature's way' dents the information necessary to free to Take either, neither, or both. troubles many people theologically understand such societal issues as During thefirst semester, students and also poses a clear potential for abortion, aggression, birth control, study Man an His Development, be- abnormal fetal development. And euthanasia, malnutrition, overpopu- ginning with sual reproduction and there is an additional danger of con- lation, and pollution. The course re-, going on to human developmental fusing the eggsend sperm of several quires stud ?nts to apply this knowl- processes. Next they study Man and donors and mismatching either hus- edge to an intelligent interpretation His Inheritance, in which they,explore bands and wives or mothers and of the issues. Even more broadly, genetic concepts. During the second children. however, Volpe intends his course to semester, students begin with Princi- yolpeoffers no solution to this di- provide a sense of the fervor of sci- ples of Evolution and then consider lemma, nor, he says, is there time in entific inquiry and an insight into the P6pulati namicS, pfobing how the course td plobe methods bf ar- methods.by which man observes phe- man intocts with his environment'. riving at resolutions. A scientist's nomeallrid-theirforms and com- Each secn of study leads to the \--duty, he asserts, is to lay out the is- municates ideas about them. Volpe consideration of different ethical or sues and avoid all personal biases wants students to understand how social problems. For instance, one is- or at least acknowledge those that scientific investigatjons are conduc- sue currently facing thescientific appear. Afterward, it is the duty of . ted and tttappreciate both the disci- community is the potential for test- each of us to come to individual ' exo

27 ..

A Island houses classrooms, laborator- couraged to take responsibility not Small class size, high teacher-student ies, a seawater system, and library, merely for their own research but ratio, and the provision of special and it is here that students receive also for the well-being of the aquatic services such as tutoring and remed- their primary education in basic biol- organisms under their care. ial programs are also credited with ogy, ichthyology, limnology, par- In order to round out its curricu- generating student enthusiasm. asitology, aquacultural science and lum and at the same time deal with One clear indication of LISA's suc- management, and related subjects. the common problem of inadequate cess in its endeavor is that 80 percent 51 Approximately half ofth-itu- preparationofenteringstudents, of the entering students do complete ictnts' lime,. wever; isspent' on LISA requires .that all students take a their training satisfactorily. And 70 field trips and on-the-job training, program of liberal arts courses at percent of LISA's graduates have utilizing USA's own research vessel Whatcom Community College, in- been placed in relevant employhtent, and specialized laboratories as well cludinganthropology,economics, many of .them returning to their own as aquacultural facilities in commer- speech, and remedial reading. reservations to initialor operate cial operation on the Lurnmi Reser- Responses of students to the LISA commercial aquacultur projects vation "on the mainland. Curricular program have been very favorable, which is what the .Lu mi Indian interest is enhanced by the opportu- and school officials believe that such' School of Aquaculture is all-about. nity to undertake individual research responses are due in large Measure to For more information: Paul Winkler, projects during the second year, gen- the provision of a culturally relevant Director, L'Unvni Indian Sool of erally dealing with the growth of curriculum within an academically Aquaculture J.O. Box 11, Lummi

aquatic organisms. Students are en- supportive and relaxed atmosphere. rsland, WA 98262, (206) 7584368.,

moral judgMents and to help society First of all, cloning has been ac- periences teaching the course and resolve suchlissues. But such action complished successfully only with thus is a reflection of his programmed is not the province of Volpe's course. frog eggswhich are approximately instruction; with few exceptions the Rather, students are led to the point 12 times the size of human eggs. Sec- chaptersaresimplyassignedin of decision making without being ond, there have been many instances order..Enrolhvent ranges from 80 to forced to reach conclusions. They are of gross abnormalities in fully devel- 125 per semester. There are four given the best available scientific evi- oped cloned frogs. Before we experi exams scheduled during each semes- dence, the possible,alfernatives, and ment with human cloning, scientist ter, and in the fall, when enrollment the ethical questions involved. Their caution, we must decide what we will is lower, Volpe also assigns a term decisions, and how they reach them, do with our mishaps. And finally, paper. Suggested topics include the , are personal. cloning only works with the exchange effects of radiation on a fetus, a study , Pihally, Volpe's course raises ques- of embryonic cell nuclei. In other of a disease with a known genetic ba- tions that, upon investigation, turn words, the decisiot to clone must be sis '(such as phenylketonuria, sickle out. not to be prohlems at all. Clon- made before the organism to in dup- cell anemia, thalasSemia, or cystic ing, for instance; a tracts a great deal licated is born. How can we foretell . fibrosis), the proceSs of aging, or the of stunent interest.t is the proCedure whom we will want to duplicate be- study of a genetic trait that can be by- which scientists ave replaced the fore he or she has functioned in soci- traced through a student's family. nucleus of an une tilized frog egg ety? So far, no scientist has shown Several biology majors take the with a nucleus take from a develop- the slightest interest in pursuing these course each year, but it is specifically ing frog embryo. W en all goes well, experimehts because of the awesome intended for (and primarily attracts) the final, fully dev loped frogs are potential for wholesale debacle. As a freshmenwhowillnever .take carbon copies of e ch other. The practical ethical issue, the probleln, another science course. Yet in the media have forecastvariety of po- therefore, doesrk really exist. spirit of genuine general education, tentials for this pro ess, Volpe sug- The course is taught by, lecture Man, Nafnre, and Society produces gests, and have implied thaf someday three hours each week; thereis no informed citizens who have acquired we will be able to dtq ourselves laboratory work. The reading as- the scientific knowledge necessary to 'simply by replacing the nucleus of an signed comes.from a. text by Volpe understand and deal effectively with Unfertilized httman,egg with the nn- called, appropriately, Man, Nature a wide variety of urgent social issues. cleus of one of our body cells, But and Society (William C. Brown, For more information:E.Peter this, Volpe observes; is a distortion 1975). The text (which, Volpe re- Volpe, Department of Biology, Tu-' of our current stateofscientific ports,. 'isalsoinuseon other lane University, New Orleans, LA knowledge. campuses) is the result of Volpe's ex- 70118, (504) 865-4011. 2$ Biology

Building Blocks for Biotechnology

People are different, Even 'studentsMicrobiolo y conducted a sympos- and teachers. adjunct or supplement to the tradi- -more than biolo-ium on trai ing for careers in micro.,tionallaboratory,orappropriate gists ought to be i ed aid guidedbiology. A number of fow-up-cort,-modulesay be 'arranged into de- by thaLtruth? And yeuntil recent-ferences on training biot clinicians signed segie3l ces to meet the needs of ly; little has been one toshionbio-led in 1970 to the birth of. BIOTECH a given curriculbm. These needs may logical teaching thods a mafer in the AIBS Office of Biological\kau- include qualifyinea, student for par- ials inaccwdanc with that principle.cation. ticular employment opportunities, The rigidities that have character- Today, says Dodge,therearelearning particular biological-skills in ized the cone s and techniques 'nabout 7,000 adoptions of BIOTECHundergraduate and graduake la a- the teaching -leang process are be modules in more than 1,000 settings,tories, or for on7the-job traiping ing broken dOwn part by BIO- ost academic,throughoutthe industry and jovernmen't." TECH, a system thatakes into ac-count. Field testing and evaluation Wisely and realistically, Do count the breadth an.. iversity ofat nstitutional level,collected, and his colleagues acknowledge th skills needed in biotechnology and and f er analyzed at the Humanthe modules should not be seenas the attendant impossibility build-Factorsesearch Laboratory, Colo-teacher substitutes. They are inten- ing tidy curricula to meet eacandrado State University, suggest wide ded, rather, to free the ,teacher from every need. The BIOTECH answisacceptance of the project as well asthe more Tontine, mechanical tasks to develol) and distributeeachin -verification of the claims for modular'associated with operational, m nip- learning materials that areasy-to-learning pedagogies and techniques handle blocks to be inse ed as ulative teaching. "They willpe it biology. the teacher to concentrate on wht a needed anywhere in the biolo cur- forerunner of the modular meth- teacher should do best," says the p ricula. The blocks are modules, small,od biology instruction was theject director, and that is "affectin units of learning, each with a s' gleherald audio-tutorial,self-pacedthe motivational, attitudinal aspect and often modest instructional o 'ec- mirticose project of Sant Postleth-of learning." At Columbia. Junior tive. The module is a-self-contain d,wait at P due. According to ElwoodCollege, Dodge got to know hi audio-visual package of programm dEhrle, deaof arts and sciences atdents much better once biology n- instruction, serving as a guide sMankato StaUniversity, the BIO-struction was' modularized, and he patient as itis epeatableto theTECH modules may very well so ef-hopeful that other user-teachersare completion of a sp'fic task at a pre fectively complent those of Postle-reaping at least this benefit from the determined level of c petency in athwait's group as bring 'about a experience. short period of tinie. long-awaited revolutn in biological Now that the NSF-supported de- The qualityofthe OTECHeducation.' methodology and pr duct is depen- velopment/experimentation stage of The BIOTECH sharef the im-the project is,coming to a close,can dent on the develop eth approachpending revolution is paa ed. in taken by the American Institute BIOTECH be sustained as a self-sup- 150 titlesfrom "How to M porting endeavor? Dodge is pessimis- Biological Sciences (AIBS) in Arling ial Dilutions" to "How to Maea tic. The institute alone could not ton, Virginia. AIBS farmed the job anual DeterminationloPfflemo carry on its rog in cooperation with out to the most promising people inb bytheCyanmethemoglo a corporate producer (the modules the fieldpeople who could thinkMet od" wider five series topi are manufactured by Communica- small but creatively. (The cost prob-General,Skills,Animal Handlin tion Ski s Corporation oy Fairfield, lem was answered by the NationalSkills,Bvironmental Skills,Fiel Connec cut), and market t e mater- Science Foundation (NSF), which has and Mus m Skills,and Allied ialstnything hke the rsonable funded the project since 1971.) WithHealth ,Skills. ch program includesprice g that now prevail.Most guidance from a national advisorya set of slides ofilm strip in color, rogra s now sell for $40 *e ch. A committee of leading researchers,a compact casset e for coordinated w ar packaged ip series:a ecent teachers, and iiommunicators, thesound, and a 'studyguide. The vel pment, Hernatology Labech- work of the field biologists was pal-module focuses on a single,' well-de-niques, being an examplefor or- lished and refined by a staff led by fined,task. The BIOTECH concept ofrespondingly higher prices. Buif 7Richard A. Dodge, who had left hisa task is "the simplest unit of activityBIOTCH makes its mark, as ea y faculty post at experimental Colum- which has as its product a preci4e,soundi4s indicateitshould,t bia Junior College in California tomarketable skill." join AIBS. market will be there. An firms lik As Dick Dodge describes it, "EachCommunication Skills may find the Project BIOTECH was intended tomodule is designed to stand alonefield profitable, even if pris rise as fill what AIBS regarded as a criticaland each will be available to the userthe field work and refining process need for supplementary skill-trainingas an independent, teachable blockcome at a higher cost. materials for so -called middle man-which may be incorporated into anFor more information: Rich d A. pottres. needs in the life sciences. Theinstructi8nalprogram when andDodge,'American,Institute Of -B olog4 need Was discerned as long ago aswhere it is needed. A module may beical Sciences, 1401 Wilson BOule- 1959 when the Society of Industrialinserted into an existing course as an yard, Arlington, VA, (703) 527-6776.

29 1

27 BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEACHING 4

Cited below are 10 works judged bw the Teaching Project. Director and the Advisory Committee to be essential reading for all who are concerned Wout improving the quality of teaching. The books, articles, and pamphlets' listed here were selected from an extensive annotated bibliography on college and university teaching which in over 250 entries. The complete bibliography is available as part ofChange'sUndergraduate Teaching Project. Requests should be addressed to "Teaching Bibliography,"ChangeMagazine, NBW Tower, New Rochelle, NY 10801. Please include SO cents per copy requested to defray the casts of postage and handling..

Bloom. Mit ael, et al. "Patterns of Faculty Resnse to Analyzes current approaches to instructional improve- Growing S dent Diversity." New Directions for her ment and the ideas behind them. Shows how conditions Education, 'rig 1973. San Francisco:Jossey- s, such as "tenured-in" faculties, a tight job market, e uca- pp. 29-48. M tional technology, nontraditional programs:, and new Three profiles of faculty who react differently to changes dents lead to more emphasis on teaching aid less up- in student interests and needs, primarily because of their grading academic specialties. Workshops, se ars, and own, upbringing and their concepts of themselves as othey programs are described that help ty acquire teachers. tD owledge4ills, sensitivities, new attitudes, and alter- nab teaching.triethods. The author examines ways of Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. 'Memo to the organ' 'ng prograins diiected by administrators, faculty Faculty. The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor: Center committ, and/orconsultants and shows the advantages for Research on Learning and Teaching. a"se instructionalimprdvementcenter." A series of leaflets on teaching theory and practice, each of ra m ors are surveyed for strategies to induce Published per- dir focusing on a particular issue faulty ticipaon and to assure administrative support. Givprosp e-future. Css, K. Ilatri .a. Accent on Learning:Improving\fnstruc- Lee, Cal rnji.roving tollege. TeachIng. Wash- ti, n and Reshing the Curriculum. San Francisc :Jos- ington.. .C.: Ameri ;Council on Education, 1967. seyass, 1976. . - Paperfr the 1966 annnal meeting of the American Sho how revoltonary methods of instruction and in- CounTil on ucation and artfelekfrom the 1966 issue of novati e programsr personal development can help all the EducationRecord. It containi-valuable material for students o learn and row, while maintaining high aca- academic admintrators having indirect yet real responsi- e demic sta dards: In pcise, nontechnical Itmguage the bility for teachinmprovement. uthor expl *ns how a lar e amount of untapped research in rmation c.be effectiv used to reform education. A McKeachie, Wilbert J.'aching Tips: A Guidebook fOr the tun ular model is presented hat demands high academic Beginning College Te er. Lexington, Maisachusetts: standas for all students, yet accommodates student dif- Heath, 1951. ferences setting realistic goals, using new instructional Offers numerous effectiveaching methods and general strategies,nd reshping course.. content. . acI4ice on how to test theoductiveness of particular methods. Widely.quoted, it isn idealistic yet practical Eble, Kenne Professors As Teachers. San Francisco: guidebook for the beginning collet; teacher. Preparing for Jossey-Bass. a course, meeting a clasp for the ftt time, lecturing, or- Final report, o the Project to Improve College Teaching ganizing effective discussion, gradinthe psychology of sponsored by th erican As ociation of University Pro- learning, student ratings of faculty . I are colorfully re- iation o American Colleges from fessors and the viewed, teMpered by personal experiee. 1969 to 1971. The, ngs ofeveral commissions and conferences are presee as well as theuthor's observa- Milton, Ohmer. Alternatives to the Traditional: How Pro- tions of teaching in many college classro ms. Teaching is fessors Teach and How tudents Learn. San Francisco: described as conventional, predictable, and uniform. ___Jossey-Bass, 1972. Among the recommendations are systemat c yet informal Traditional instructional pactices demand reappraisal, . inservice staff development programs,deliberate Prepara- yet a strange emottonal 'aurakeeps faculty, studentS; and tion of graduate students for teaching, recognition of ex- the public from looking clearat learning and teaching. cellent teaching through reward systems, and better learn- The author providespractic factual basis for Making ing environments. decisions: research evidence aboutow college students learn. ricksen, Stanford C. Motivation for Le'arning: A Guide for sa ,the Teacher of the Young Adult. Ann Arbor: The Univer- Trent, J. W. and A. M. Cohen. "Resea ch on Teachingin sity of Michigan Press, 1974. Higher Education," Second Handbo of Research on An especially helpful guide for "the apprentice teacher." It Teaching, R. M. W. Travers, ed. Ch cago: Rand Mc- stresses the idea of the student a individual and develops Nally, 1973. a theory of the learner. Referees cited. Considers the literature of the 1960s pertinent to teaching and learning under five main headings: teaching environ- Gaff, Jerry G. Toward Faculty Rene al: Advances in Fac- ments; student characteristics and the learning process; ulty, Instructional, and Orgatlizatial Development. San teaching technology and methods; teaching recruitment, Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975. training, and resources; and evalu tion of teaching. ENGLISH

BETWEEN.WAS AND WILLBE ENGLISH by Elizabeth Wooten Cowan

he problems connected with teachingun; .students won't produce. Moreover, becausemost dergradtateEnglishcan be divided into teachers of college writing are forced to train them- two categories: how to 'teach the skills of selves on the job, to supply\ theirown graduate educa- literacy, particularly writing; and howto tion in rhetoric, language study, andeven in effective -continue to teach the literature courses that teaching methods, the course textbook bearsan espe- re the discipline's stock-in-trade. Ito is a case df too cially heavy load in the teaching of the class.A trial- m ch and too little. For a discipline that has always and-error. approach in'selection of textswith the lov to deal in paradoxes, tensions, and ironies, it teachers always dreaming that tomorrow the definitive may e a case of life imitating art. textbook will appearrencourages book publishersto The is, for one, the "too much" of the basic produce writing texts in astounding numbers. (At ses a V writing, TIcese were in the past at the bot- recent convention of college writing teachers Iover- om pf t e department hierarchy, done grudgingly heard an editor asking very seriously; "Ha,ve a d with m n you seen hell'', and thought to require nothing anybody who wants to writea book?") Such prolifer- mo e than a .e? ee in literatu taught success- ation naturally results in more heat than light-,a con- fully. es,owever, are now seen'in a diffe - dition not entirely helpful to the teacher of literature ent ight as 'a re saltoth of criticism from the publl turned teacher of writing who is totally befuddled and the economic\de ands of departmental by sUrvival. the competing approachesrhetorical,humanistic, The trend in; school afte- school, including many of the linguistic, word to sentence to paragraph, paraaph prestigious Ivy League u iversities, is for those who to sentence to word, personal awareness, prescriptive, haven't taught freshman courses iiI.mnio_teadv-them descriptive, model, deep structures,patterns, ad intin- nowotherwise, there simply would not be enough Rum. With little unifying theoryamong them mem- courses to make a load. To come to a courseas diffi- tIers of the professionargue the effectiveness of a per- cult as the teaching of writing oul of expediencerather sonally espoused method to unconvincedothers. If than genuine interest is an obstacle to beovercome at ne maintains, for instance, that success lies in tradi-. the outset. ti nal methods and content, another recallst at the The situation is complicated by the students them- m t widely used textbooks of the past 25 yearwere selves. In most cases unable to write anywherenear just hatand test scores still-fell. The searchgoe on. the standards set for them, they horrify thteachers. Fther complicating, the college English teaer's The situation often becomes one of confronts!deed role a a teacher of writing is the doublemessage in- ing t*Otalemate:. The teachers ake demands; herent in the values upheld by the profession. Onthe E IZABETH W.Q.D.UN-COWSigis currently the d actor of Englishprpgraiss Is tkeitleilWoasuguage Association of America. Thls fall shewill Join the one hand, the road to status and security lies in the it if of the Wish Department at Texas Mal I1it7rsIty, publishing of literary research. On the other,more and more time and energy must be spent in the teaching of ern writers, ethnic studies, advanced rhetoric.Faced writing and reading, tasks for the most part more re- with ,a buyer's market, faculties offer these courses, quired than rewarded by the profession. The values often hoping,'however, that they are just biding time and expectations set by graduate training in English until the cycle returns to a central core of studies. have never beer more in conflict with the realities of There's hardly a place to rest. If college English dailylifeincollegeEnglishdepartments.Little teachers aren't agonizing over how to find an effective wonder, then, that this disparity results in frustration way to teach a subject they never plannedto teach,' and sometimes anger. , they are searching for ways to present their own spe- While college English professors strain to find corn- cialty so that students will take the courses they do, petence in the teaching of an aspect of the discipline want to teach. There are signs, though, that 'this un- they didn't choose for themselves, they are faced at the ess is producing beneficial results. Thestudy and e witN too little demand for What they rin suppprt of rhetoric are increasing at a most encour- fact trap themselves to do. Undergraduate English aging rate. The profession's' recognition of the impor- majors ctinue to decline. (A recent national survey tce of teaching is evidenced by the fact thatthe en- of freshroeindicated that only 1.8 percent were inter- rotent in the four teaching divisions of the Modem ested in pu uing a major in English.) Thdse who con- Langge Association (MLA) has put them in'the top tinue to stud literature are, for the most part, doing it 20 of 70 available divisions. The presence of nearly 400 on their own t rms. Refusing to sign up for traditional . special sessions at the MLA's 1975 convention likewise survey courses period specializations,. and historical\ attests to the experimentation and variation noW approaches, the oruhajors (now a majority in upper- found in the study of literature. Professors seem to Jae level undergadu te English courses) are choosing in-' exploring a middle ground between weak populza- stead areas of stu by and large considered-peripheral tion and sound democratization. The English pro - I to the "great tradi ion "science fiction, psychology "°sign,. if perhaps more slowly than thany would like and literature, film, fantasy, children's literature, Mod- seems to be getting the point.

For th se interested in a broader view of improvements in ergraduate-English teaching, 'a list is 'avail- .able o more tha 20 additional learning experiences ,subrnitt o the Modern LanguAge Associatinm Includeis a brief abstract of each course and the name, institution, and phone number of the personts;:i contact for further information. Please send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: Teaching Iinprove- ments in English, Change Magazine, NBW Tower, New Rochelle, Nr10801. 30Ent! Ilsh

OOPERATIV LEAR 71N'A WRITING COMMUNITY

by R6rinie Du'gger

with many original teaching re-sions, he regarded it as one antidote toI had to teach it.'" Asforms, the idea for the Brooklynthe severe overall writing difficulties at The preparation oftther tutors, how- College writing center grew out of athe college. k" ever, is not left to chance. Rather; while teacher's close observations of his stu- Peer tutoring is the name of the pro-they are engaged in tutoring at the writ- dents' behavior. hi 1970, Kenneth Bruf-gram, and collaborative learning is the ing center, they must also take a three- fee was teaching English to-, tie firsttheory behind it.. A premise of the pro- credit course in intermediate composi- open-admissions students enrolled atgram is that students have trouble writ-tion designed to improve both their Brooklyn College of the City University ing because "they'ie writing in a, situa-writing and tutoring skills. The first se- of New. York. He noticed that theytion in which they're always subordinate mester, Bruffee made up the course learned to write better if theyere help-to the teacherthey're always writing-scratch.,The initial chaos, he says, was ing each other than if they workedup," asBs :Lifer- says.Collaborative"the Fetult,of his note knowing how Io singly orincontact only h thelearning seeks to replace "top-down" teach tutorThand writing in the same teacher. Moreover, students wer, not education by changing what Bruffee seescourse. Althoug riting is now empha- making use of professional to ser-as its power relationships. sized in the first an tetoring in the sec- vices offered free of charge by the uni- Tutoring, he says, can be authoritar-ond half of the course, '6 plaints have versity. Student's were already gettingian, merely facilitative, or truly collab-persisted. Marcia Silver, anstructor' credit for peer-group counseling in suchorative. In theast case not only the stu-who teaches the course, says stu- area as drug roblems and food coops; dent receiving help but also the tutordents' felt shortchanged on their Bruffee saw no reason why they, shouldlearns. In the Peer tutoring at the tenterwriting, and she is now trying to alter- not also be aw,a ded credit for improv-two undergraduates are brought togeth nate the focus from one class to the next. ing each ciller's writing skills. He con - er,"neither of them expert in what In selecting tutors,. "we look for stu- ceived of ihe.writing center as a store-they're doing, though perhaps one a lit-dents who have shown themselves to be front -operation, a place where any oftle more sod one tutors the other." Inespecially C pabre of working welt with BrooklynCollege's35,000studentstheory thestudent being, tutored "cantheir fellow tudents," Bruffee says. "A could drop in for help anonymouslylearn some things the he unable tofew are not ry good writert,The con- without fear of being .giaded`or judged. learn, or at least.hadnearned, in the cedes. "We d n't insist they have good With the -blessing of the colleg 'sresi7 traditional situation bticau res-grades, All the have to do is pass fresh- dent, John Kneller,nd the En ish, de--.5pre is off. He's not bein'That hed.Avith man English wit a C. The idea is that if partment chairMan, he plunged head. refence to grades; the p sone's talk-they're interested writing, they can be it was," Bruffee says, "a tremendouskig toanother sItident...' The reallyhelpfuleven more elpful than\th stu- opportunity to be able to do something Iare peers. d the tutors ''11 le todent who has it do pat heAloesn wanted to do.'" Although, the programwrite better bTying to 'tea someoneknow kow-that kidho can't write is was intended to support open admis-else how to write:,Just by bei g aware,feeling." Why not, thgh, require that RONNIE DUGGER Is publisher and editorat-large their standards go 'tip" in ac i5rdaricethe tutors achieve, say, an A in fresh- of the Texas Observer. He recently served as visit- loafer:Asset at Hatapshira Collage andlbe Uniser-with what Bruffee calls "the old t achingMan Englistil Because,e retorts, the ,shy of Illinois. principle, Z never knew the subject untilcent`'about writing pa alysis, and a 31

tutor who feels such paralysis can iden--ac "".`"". ":-'' lblidahlikilli p tify with the erson who needs help, and secondlecause "some of the kids that comewith As tend to be quite cocky. )If , Th;re impatient with failure." ,.0 . eititors are nominated for the peer- Z eoka Oilg utoring course,and the writing center by freshman English teachers, who tra-' 1 OW is clonally know their students better than any other teachers In a college. But recently, the idea has developechhat the tutors slibuld be better writers. "We want the best we can get," says Leo Zanderer, director of the center. "A good B is better than a gOod C." As a result, the center began specifying that although C students withexceptional empathy'could be recommended, on whole potentialtutorsshouldhave- passed freshinan English with a B or better. About 2,500 tutoring sessions occur each year at the writing center, which occupies half of a yellow, barracks-type tin shack near the college gate. Its location across from the college library on a path most students travel each day has been carefully chosen. Inside, the space is divided into half a dozen' work areas by eye-level dividers. There is some A peer-tutoring Ission at Brooklyn Col egei writing center.' comfortable °furniturein one Ofthe areas, and this, along with an 'informal, go for help, already they've shown the . There is no red tape for the student amiable atmosphere, has given rise toAcid they are working with how toseeking help; but tutors 'are asked to some criticism by faculty and students learn." r write in a log the coursein connection that the center is "a county Some students are referred to the cen- with which each student is seeking help, But inside Betty Wells very patiently ter by their teachers, but others comean account of the problem, and what works with a young woman who is try-voluntarily because they have -hearcl--e. A file of these logs goes back ing to summarize some articles for a pa-alTt the center or seen its flyers or adsto 1973. Most of the entries report work per. Karen Heller discusses how one stu- inhe student paper. One problem is'done on organization, grammar, and dent followed her instructions, how an-that students and faculty alike some-supporting arguments. Here are a few other's paper could get only so good, no times expect either quick results or de- entries: - better. Frank "McGann, a tutor with a tailed remedial help, while Ziagerer Grammar,translati--repeat stu- reputation for bluntness, sayethat some- he says center is committed to 'clea dent. Problems with va r.. ni:usion times the center seerI s like "a noble at- that learning to write is "a slow pro- between masculine and feminine, tempt," other times like- "a great fail-cess." The tutors agonize together over plural and singular.--- M'any students who seek help arewhen to give information and when not so poorly prepared, he says, that the tu-to and they try to emphasize broad cob- I he d a student pla)P an outline discuss, her job as a secretary. tor behaves basically like a teacher, notcepts. Professors who worry about au- a peer: some of the work is teachingtheicity, plagiarism, and grades some---,Helped ana e a poem about love blacks and Puerto Ricans a new dialect,timese. hat S tutored student's paper .cntd dirty faun . He'll be back. 'standard English.Staff mem)er Bruceis not his or wn work. Zanderer in- I elpi-asid en t re ange and clar- Chadwick helps a girl anal }A a philos-sists that the tutorsre told not to be ifya very well -wn n, ophy text. Then he and a tutor help aconned into doing other people's work searched paper on Antine andA Chinese student. (who speaks little En-for them, Doll's House. She had been upset. glish) work on apaper\ eventually Some faculty fear that the collabora, because her prof had yelled at her. referring him to another office fora tes tive concept steals their students away Please note the following c1 mments in English comprehension. an irects them into a relationship with" made by the instructor [on aper]: At least e of the six toine staff ,other dentsthatisnotfruitful 'If I was'"in English, I'd qui .- and members\ ass ciated with theenter isenough.ut Zonderer believes one pur- irwritingis` .,atrocious,too present ataltimes, and, sayBruf-\pose of the ter is to help the tutors damn wordy. and the esst\y doesn't fee, "the tutoare taught that whentemper, their ideam and deal with de- make sense.- they get stuck eshould go anget feat by realizing: re are some stu- Eng-h.seminar student in Shake- help. They're tohit's not a humi 'a-dents I can't help.' Failure has to be a speare required help in writing .a on not to know nswer. When t part of our experience." ?onnet in terms of meter, rhyme,

34 - 32English

and the accenting of words for a themselves in clusters of three or four Writing,and into what are called peer poem. Wediscussedthe basic stnw- with Silver seated aloneart informalcritiques. Thtse are a series of increas- ture of, a sonnet semicircle.Frequentlyotherfaculty ingly complex analyses devised by Bruf- 1 worked with a young man today members sit in; in this case Zanderer, fee. Each student is ,required to wx,,jt who told me that his teacher asked and Bob Nelson, who will teach the' ft)* papers (on which he or she iien- him to drop English 1.2 because he cuursenextyear,joineddiffer/ntcouraged to consult with a staff member was doing poorly. .and would have sr\odps. Silver maintained a certain dis-at the center), plus four critiques of fel- faded. After 16oking over his shoul- .fancethroughout'the hoursetting the lowstudents'papers."Thesystem der whilee was writing. 1 panicked because,f all the errors 1 saw.... My scene, giving some instructions, thenworks this way," Bruffee explains. "The fear d. appeared when we went over mostly asking and listening. She askedtutors first read their work aloud in tit e per with him and he corrected each group to read the reality essay andclass. Then the teacher staples to the sr-of his own errors. write down their evaluations of front of every paper two blank peer-cri- dents asked, "How do these peofile gettique sheets. The tutors exchange 'pa-

-> 34English

TOTAL IMME SION IN LITERATURE

by Henry Weil

Ther are days when students takingwould be like t aining for a sport : Ideal-lowstlt offers a total of 12 course cred- the Literature Semester at the Uni-ly the rigorous, mental discipline wouldits \and Students may take one additional versity of Iowa ini wa City feel as ifproduct supple, subtler, more graceful3-credit Course during the seme ter if they ar l,,drowning in aa of words literary' ditits,' they think they can handle it (mos do), 6 weeks thstudy liter ture=reading n di asit developed,the but they may also take the Liter ture it, in: : nd ling about`it,co rse resolved one n ipartmen-Semester and nothing else. Enrollme t is all day every day. Yet fort ose who sur-tal 'ssatisfaction: the sense of isolationlimited to 30 students, and today, with vive it becomes a semester 4k sing>ttlarand anonynity that inevitably arises inthe job market easing the pressure on educational and persohal value,T a department with nearly 50 instructors English departments throughoutthe Literature Semester was Itt andove s . very least, country, it is rare that more than 30 try 1 tatfght in 1968, Priously, the Englishthose who su to enter during any one semester. Usual- department had ofufded an annual sum- semester's massive literary as well as y een20 and 30 students mer institute for high school English\ personal) exposure wouldcome LO-krtp&Ai in a class. There are no prerequisites, teachers during which intensive study ineach other very well indeed. but the student must convince one of thi team-ta'aght classes allowed them the The first semester was called "English nurse's teachers that his desire-ksincer, opporttinity to refresh their personal re-Literature Before 1900." Beginning withanhat he understands how geling lationships wittkerature-. U of I's En- The Seafarer and Beowulf,, it traced En-the wo Kwill be. Perhaps half the -ash department chairmany-John C.glish fiction, poetry, and drama up todents who'disCuss taking the course are Gerber, thought that the ph)am hadGeorge Bernard Shaw. Five semesterstalkedout of it:Most who enter are up- potential value for ergraates. At later, a similar semester was first offeredperclaismerriam 'have already taken his urg'ng, it w seveloped by Robert\ verhlg:American and Contemporary,one or. two literature courses, but hack Scholes (no' Brown University),Li erature."This .retinestersurveyednot yet had the- intense exposure the se- John F. untley and Ric and Lloyd-Arican iterature from Jonathan Ed-mester offers. Jones, no'gilt ct r of radu a te warto K t Vonnegut and also dipped Classes meet fp, two hOuis every day, studies inMnglish departent. into twentie-century British literature.five days a week.udents and teachers, prenitors envision d it, theOne. semester the department offered atypically discuss on work (or a group cose woulonsist of close reipgs of:Continentallerature Semester" fromof short works) during the first hour jor literaryorks in the cont xt of aThe Odys ey tUlysses; but while thisother material during the se ond, after a"c torical su =t Genres,infl ences,course still has some supporters among10minute respite. Three ifa ulty mem- periods, and en q s would be trace7 the Englishculty,has not been givenbers, one of whOm is al aysfull pro- interrelated. easeless, intens co a selmd tie. fessor, teach the cpurs e pies- \ centration,as holes 'described \it, Each teachr hasttem ted his' ownent for all discussions. nodificatonsnd resionso tt a Class work is outlined in a syllabus HEN!.WELL is a fre0ance writer ased in Nsv detailed of themes er's ev lu- York . tie was an assistent professor at Union that explain&daily reading assignments, Collage ew York where be beaded titdrama tion is no imossibl o tr ce. A itClass discussions, writing assignments, 'program. exists today, thcou s run as f l- d other, projectsapsually entire works -are assigned (The Prelude, Emma, Moby Revaluing discussion material : Except '(on Spenser, Milton, Austen, and Eliot); DiCk) rather than selections, and assign-when a paper is due (and students prob-Usually papers on novels or epic poems ments are often designed_ to explore lit- ably have studiedonly the paper's topic)are assigned at the beginning or in the erary relatictnshipsn(the- comedy of witor a play is being performed, no twomiddle of discussion ofthework. fr 'bin Shakespeare' through th estora-consecutive hours are spent on the same Subdividing the group: Once every tion to Oscar Wilde; the view o mar-text. Longer works, such as The Faerieweek or so, the 30 students are divided riageinAUsten, George Eliot,andQueene or Paradise Lost, may be dis-into groups, that meet separately with Ibsen; the different 'uses of source ma-cussed over two weeks and, will be as-one of the instructors. The subgroups terial in Chaucer's Troilus and Criseydesigned along with shorter works. Chrorr-are composed of different students each and in ShakeSpeare's Troilus and Cres-ology may ago be interrupted. For in-time, and their purpose is to encqurage sida). Certain assignments are constants stance;The Crucible has been read thequieterstudentstopdrticipate. in the course (Book I or II of The Faerie Queene; Paradise Lost, Gulliver's Trav- it els, Middlemarch), but there are -usually "The LiteratuiSemester faces the vacuum created in most large one-time-onlyexperiments,suchas universities te emptiness in Student and faculty lives arising in Vat iek, Mansfield Park, and Frankerz. part out of toching and learning being anonymous, fragmented, . unshared expriences." KennethE. Eble E ery faculty member who has taught Department of-English the course has struggled to avoid monot- pniversity of Utah ony. The following are the most success ful techniques devised for varying e material and are now standard 'int ealong with works by Jonathan EdwardsThose who regularly do'n to discus course. and Anne Bradstreet; Boswell's Londonsions are separated from stents wh Revolving discussionleaders:TljeJournal has been looked at prior to anyare easily intimidated. Freque those three faculty rdembers take turns dire other eigeentk.kenturytextas haswho begin to blossom in less co eti- tindiscussions and each leads at lea tMill's Aut'ograPhy from the \nine-tivt subgroups also start to contributt one hour's discussion of each major.,teenth centur Sut disruption of\ his-regular class discussions. The semester work. Since the instructors k-quentlYtorical Order can h 1p Arient students,schedule often provides one unplanned interrupt each other with questions andproviding them with bothforecast andhour each week when such sessions are responses, by the semester's fourth oran introductory perspective. held, but that hour is also sometimes fifth week students begin to feel comfy VFrying written assignments: Papersused by the entice class to,discuss topics table doing the same. Some have even,are assigned weekly. Some require text-given short shrift earlier in the week, or learned by pedagogic example to takeual analysis, others comparing and con-to pursue virtually anything students discussions away from the leader. By thetrasting; in others students must tracewish to introduce. Occasionally, sub- end of the course, two-student teams of-recurring themes or a particular author's .groups are left on their ownto discuss ten prepare and lead an hour's discus-poinkof view. Often, instead of literary coursematerialamongthemselves: sion (following some consultation withanalysiS>,students are assigned stylisticOnly once has an instructor reported re- an instructor). imitationsi"Write a Shakespearean son- turning at the end of the hOur to find all Staging plays: The class is divided in-net," or "Compose a Spenserian stan-the students gone. to three acting groups and twice duringza"). The three instructors rotate devis- the semester each group performs por-ing (and grading) written assignments. tions pf a play under discussion. Perfor-Last fall there were 12 textual exegeses mantes are held in the classroom after aand 4 stylistic imitations. Students were y and large, the teachers avoid lec- week or two of rehearsal; though thereexcused from any two assignments they Bturing, though one may occasional- IS no 'budget for production elements,chose (and most chose the two that fell ly deli-Ver.-4, shalirt monologue when the students often become ingeniously cam-during weeks when they were acting), assigned reading comes to his or her spe- petitive-at devising their own costumes,but four assignments were inescapablecialty, or there is a need to summarize and props.Byand large, these are stu- or when a crop of unsuccessful papers is dent -run performances,Ahough 'oncein returned. Occasionally guest lecturers a while an instructorwill bevre sed into are invited tr$ class, but they seldom are serviceas director or actor. The oint of Learning -experience: satisfactory. Students tend to 'resent Literature Semester. Prerequisite: one theseexercises,_bes'clesprove inga previous literature course. A pre-en- guests, who usually seem determined break ithe censtanliterary plica- rollment interview with the course only to pontificate.Butoutsiders who tion, is examine thelays asrama,. chairmaRis required during which the are willing to accept group participation to discor productionroblems posed work load isclearly explained. Enroll- often find theselves at a loss: "It's as if by the pia Wright,, and texperienthe ment:30. they've s epeeat° the middle of some- effect ofthe,text in ive, 1amateur,er- one else's cony rsetion," explains one formances. Iowa's catty have fo nd, Otherescriptions: instructor. for intance; that R stora 'on comedy Pamphl t available upon request. ----StulentSre giiren frill'. grades ("to communiCates to stu tintsuch more keeppeagg'th the compUter," explain Contact: effectively \in performatce t an on the Miriam Gierti Department of En- Lloyd-Jones) and these grades can be page. ClaiSes 'have alsex erimented glish, Univsit Y of Iowa, Iowa City, \ any combination of letters that the in- with poetry'rearlings and with excerpts Iowa 52242, (319) 353-3736. structors think is appropriate (AABB, from various works that offer different BBBC\ICBCC). The grade is arrived at approaches to t e same theme. by eva ating bothi.the student's papers

-f 3 and class rtictation. During .dne se-to themeven during the two or threeclassroom changed dramatically. I.beer, are in ructor met weekly withsemesters when the instructors person-gan to see myself linked by interest to eactudent to grade his or her contri-ally felt the course had not succeeded.members of a profession, 'with some- butionclass discussion during the pre- Many students go on to enroll-in the thing to contribute as well as much to ceding weekwhich goestudents partic-second semester, and most take addi-learn.' ° Nipating ina hurry. But most instructorstional literatureourses that are team The terature Semester has influ- use less powerful methods. Strong-arm-taught and discus ion-oriented. (Having.enced other lish courses at Iowa: ing isn't necessary. "It's hard to hide indiscovered that teir discuss riontri-some of which w rehearse and per- this coursefor students or for faculty!"butions are value most- fi they areform scenes from dramatic literature. comments Lloyd-Jones. . no longer able to tolerate tr tion4lec-And though the semester was not the Veteran instructorsave charted stu-ture courses.) Many studis majoringfirst Iowa course to be team taught, dents' emotional cycles ine course andin other disciplines add English to a many more have arisen because of it note nadirs of despair durinhe 'fourthdouble major, and some exchangere- The cost of the semester is slightly andtwelfthweeks' when udentsvious majors for English. A few also rea- greater than it might appear. It requires become sullen and feel overwhelmbylize tliat English is not for them. ,no new equipment, of course, but it the ork. In fact,the workload Perhaps most impressive, graduat s takes up one third to one half of each lighteed (by about 20 percent) ovetheof the semester return repeatedly to t 11 teacher's load. Assistant and associate years instructors have,discovered the eir former instructors how valtab e professors teaching the course get credit limitsf student endurance. The firstth course has been for them. One gra for two courses and full professors get year alincluded a six-hour final exam. uatenow a candidate for a PhD in E credit for one. Thus students get fo9r Therere no longer any exams in the glish,'scovered in the course that E courses at a cost to the university of course. glish of precisely the sort of hu five. Then, too, the burden on instruc- Even though no one, student or facul-manity he'as seeking. "I expected a tors-is substantial. The amount of credit ty, finds the -course less than arduous, overview," hxplains. "What I got was received does not reflect the extra time there are rewards. Students arrive withan understandin f the human elementrequired for class preparation, and the an active interest and instructors dis-inresponse to literre." Another grad-hours spent in class and advising still. coverthey can concentrate more on con-uate, also pursuing'sdoctorate in. dents outside of class are also more tent and less on presentation than inEnglish, explains, "My en concept of numerous than teaching credit acknowl- most undergraduate courses. More is re-teacher-student relationshipsi hin theedges. Indeed,. the demands, froth, stu- quired of the students, but they receive , more personal attention in return. And the students do grow. As the se-4 mesterprogresses, instructorssee the S Matte-TS the dent Learns marked improvemeI ents' writ- i" Ig, and analytical abiliti In El Paso Cmunity College in Colo- time is spent demonstratidns, addition, stud begin to restt each rado Sngs, Colorado, has had an oratory work, mu edia presenta- other'scontribution, istentocol- dpe oor- admissions policy since it tions, and group discussio In addi- leagues, and respond to the (in con- b gan seven years ago. Many of its tion,formaFtextbos are lai idle trast to most courses where students 6,145 students come seeking retrain- and-every attempt isale ttailor tend to ignore each other,-knowing they int4and the average age of all stu- :.----"the course 4o meet te ind victual won't be examined on 4 fellow student's dents is 33. From the outset, one of needs of the students. uch of ' the comments).. Sometimes,enthUsiasms the aims of the communications de- sequence is designedo strt soar. At the end of one legendary class, partment was to create for the ca- basic English skilli. Bwhile'e En- a student announced, "I think we should rer-oriented student an alternative glish student writes I' erary aalyses, have a round'; of applause for John o theEnglishrequirementone the' Communications studentwrites Milton," and the whble class joined in' that would be releyant to the special job reports. This does not mean, of course4 at needs of the vocational student both From, Communication It1irough Iowa produces a new,,,, crop .of Edmund in college and on the job. Communication' the sequence ---Wilsons and Leslie Fiedlers every semes- Originally developed by John D. continually reinforces what has been ter. Final grades reflect the typical U of I Huff, nov:scchairman of the.Commu- learned previously. While the first spectrum and -student insights are not ni ions and livmanities Depart- course concentrates on basic speak- usually \overwhelming. Nor is there a ent, Communicallons Sequence, as ing, listening, and writing skills the lathered elbowing among students to the course is called has the second proceeds to the more detailed contribute to discussions. But there is- wholehearte royal of both the mechanics of writing, while continu- obvious readiness to particiPate, vocationa andl d English E 'sfaculti es, who inwork _on .kornmunication skills. for vArieties.ryt-er 'anion, and a mu- believe that the course meets. the The-third trains ,students in presen- tual intellic ualconcerf during class dis- needs of vocational students 13etter-- tational techniques, requiring them cessions tha one i'are y encounters out- 'than a traditional approach would. to present both short reports and side graduatseminars. Teachers in all three courses in the lerigthier, more formal ones. And At thel.endf each semester, students year-long sequence avoid lectures whatever the acti4ity -at hand, the are asked:r 'evuate the'course. About (except when introducing a new student is constanthrremjaded to use 80 percent of thresponses reflect satis- topic4ince they believe that few vo-* listening skills, organizatilmal tech- faction. Studentsho survive thd course cational students learn best from a niques, and other effective. communi- (perhaps five don' during ,a typical se- lecture4pproach. Instead, rnost,class cation devices. mester) report that it"has been valuable 39 dents for emotionai- support' are far fessional improvement. T&) begin with,current members of the department, 29 greater., inthis course than in most the teachers are under\ constant scriiiiny.haVe participated in the semester at least -others Everyone is thrown together on by 'their colleagues. Should a teacher-once, and some, such as Miriam Gilbert, such n intense and personal level thatcome to class' ill-prepared, associateswho has taught the tourse(five times ents apprbach instructors for advicewill know it. On the other hand, if, a since coming to Iowa in 1969, ret rn to and understanding, %sometimes withteacher has been legitimately kept fromit often. Most of those who ,have not enough frequency to cause a few instruc- adequate preparation (because of illnesstaught it probably never, willa matr tors to complain they spend more timeor family crises, for instance), there areof temperament rather than abilit3i. as therapists than as educators. Such de-other instructors prepared to take over. As forthestudents,itisnear' mands have, frightened some facultyFurther, when a teacher is not gettingimpossible to generalize about those away from teaching the course. through to students for whatever rea-who choose to lake the coutse. Gilbert sons, other minds are present to helpsuggests there are usuallS, a few transfer clarify. And, of course, "colleagues learnstudents in need of English credits, and evertheless, Iowa's English faculty from their differing perspectives andone or two malcontents looking for I Id make it clear that the reason thispedagogic techniques. something different. A few others seem course is offered every semester has to The formaf'of the semester, clearly, isto enter the course hoping to punish do less with its educa 'anal value thanndt one even/ educator would feel com-themselves with hard work for diverse st instructors enjoy fortable with. The profes-i.z."--n. who prefers neurotic reasonsit is Gilbert's impres- y speak of the escape Itto lecture or insists on reigning unchal-sion that they are usually the first to. e narrowness of a specialtylenged in his classroom may well panicWash out. But most denTi&m to fit into opportunity to, renew, their ro-in such an exposed position. Indeed, theany set pattern. e with the sweep of literature two or three semesters that have been The English department grants that, any also adinit privately that theless than fully successful failed, suggeststhe course is as highly specialized experi- course allows them to read texts theyRichard Lloyd- Jones, because the facul-ence. Yet in many senses, this specializa- should have looked at year ago butty mix was wrong. Lloyd-Jones now,,tionlasanideal embodiment of the 8601- never did, and virtually every° agreestries' always to include atleast oneayly commanityin which all,participants that his or her teaching impr ve tiringwomastprthone young instructor of probe, question, ilia-learn together. For the course. nec nlyseparateindividuals).. inmost,the value ofthis community Several factors account fthis pro- ery three-member team. Of the 45--proves as precious as it is unique. .

The course sequ has been students' experiences. Secretarial stu- termined that' goals are not being taught every year since theollege dents are-asked to share their knowl- met,.course adjustments and/or in- first opened, and it has been com- edge of ldter writing,' and students in structor reassignments are made. pletely revised three times. Currently police-science, fire science, and nurs- Significant ;I-Umbersofformer its texts include .the American Herr- ing, in)ity of whom are, already on students from local hospitals, service: ,tage Dictionary, several writingman- the job, discuss writing reports. This stations, businesses, and police and a- uals, and an Original syllabus. for kind of sharing increases the interest fire departments respond informally' each course.. These syllabi rim 50 of the working students and others in. that their courses were both appro- pages or more in length and cont n the class as well. priate and effective. Many'graduates -samples, exercises, and step -b, step the three courses of the sequence of the course, Asher sa go straight communication techniques (e.g., Be- are offered every quarter. Recently to mid-management levels d nearly ore delivering a speech you should there were 24 stctions, each averag- every student finds a gob. hu ask yourself the following questions: ing 27 studentsd this was de- dred percent of the.,`course's nu How many listeners will be present? scribed by the szqnce's instructor students seeking employment fin How old will they be? How large is coordinator,Veld Poage Asher, positions, and the placement of fire- tlie room?) as a light quarter. As instructor-co- men and policemen is nearly as suc- Whenever..possibIe,instructional ordinatdr, Ashenteaches nothing but cessful. A great many secretarial stu- resourcesareborrowed(usually communications. She supervises all dents are hired right out of class, 'and - gratis.) from .the surrounding. com- sectionk dOelops new materials and they continue course work in the eye- munity. The Colorado State Library new. course Content when appropri- nings,After completing the cominu- Film Service, for instance, has many ate, and coordinates and develops nication sequence, students frequent- films from business'and industry that new audiovisuals. She meets regtilar- ly decide to contintie An the more demonstrate typical job interviews, ly with both staff and students to see sophisticated -writing'courses offered and a local hospital has given pit- if students' goals are being met. Stu- by the English department.. sentations on cancer, ,health car& dentsalsoevaluatethecourse For more information: Velda itiage and the terminally ill. However time- through questionnaires administered. Asher; `Communications and Flu- ly the information. presented, stu- by Chairman fluff and by an, instruc- nianities Department, El Paso Com- dents concentrate ton, analyzing the tor of a 'Action other than their own. munity College, 2200 SO4 Avenue,. speaker's effectiveness. Huff digests this information, then Col ado Springs, CO 80904, (303) The coarse also makes use of the meets with instructors. When it is de- 471-7546,

a. 4 0 O

a LITERACYTHROUGH SOCIOLINGUISTICS

by Evan Jenkins N

avajo Community College,the tural pride is still deprivation, and the adapt th re schools to their pupils. In N Nfirst college in the country run bycollege must strive to prepare its stu-fact, t reverse has generally been the Indians for Indians, is an extraordinarydents for competition in a world domin- case s a result, many Indian students place in many respects. And it is prob-ated partly .or wholly by non-Navajohav reacted negativel3 and defensively ably unique among institutions of higherstandards. One of these standards, ofto an atmosphere that was at best for- education in the emphasis it places on acourse, is a degree of literacy in English. gn and at worstl hostile to what was very fundamental goalliteracy. But literacy. has been impeded both by Indian. Navajos refer both to themselves (thecultural barriers and by Anglo officials Teddy Draper was one of the famous reservation population is.about 140,000)bept on assimilation. Randall W. Ac Navajo code talkers who befuddled the and to their land 125,000 square miles,ley, himself an Anglo, is chairman of Japanese in the Pacific in World- War II. mostly in Arizona but spilling into UtahNavajo Community's Division of.m-A self-taught linguist who teaches the and New Mexico as well) as the "Navajomunications, Fine Arts, and HumRies. Navajo language at the community col- Nation." Aside from the implicit asser-He speaks angrily of white ecationlege, he loses his wonted geniality when tion of ethnic and cultural identity, thefor Indian children. 'The f ling hasspeaking of his early encounters with term reflects the reality of social andbeen that the student shoul. either givewhite-run education on the reservation. geographical isolation: The Navajo re-up Navajo languagdand ture or "I didn't see a white man until I was 6, main, in a way that even other Indiangate them to the privat part of his life. and I couldn't speak English until I was tribes do not, a nation within a nation.I've encountered that yen among facul-13," he recalled one day between classes. And it is a very poor natiOn indeed;ty here. A numberf kids who've gone"And in school, no Navajo, they forbid per capita annual income is roughlythrough school h. ye built a shell and re- it. They say, 'Speak English,' and I can't. $900 a year. By Anglo standards, it is asisted education just a Matter of sur-When I need something important, I nation that is educationally backward.vival. And of courtelthey don't learn!'speak Navajo and they punish me. The tribe estimated last year that 30 per- It is precisely because they don't learnMake me stand in a corner." cent of4hose aged 16 or older had nounder such conditions that Ackley has The experience of punishment for schooling whatsoever. Some 50 percentsought. to bring to"the literacy programbeing Indian is common among Native were unable to read and write. And ac-at Navajo Community the perceptionsAmericans. Many have suffered worse cording to a federal study, of the 3,000of sociolinguisticsthe examination ofpenalties than standing in a corner; for Or so Navajo children who enter schoolthose attitudes; socially induced, thatothers, the punishment wab more subtle. each fall, 70 percent know no English.affect the learning of language. Allan Begay, a Navajo who is director . For the tribe and its college, preserva- As Ackley points out, Indian educa-of the community college's Navajo Re- tion of the nation's separateness is per-tion is essentially alien' education. Vir-source Center, speaks sadly of Indian haps first as far as educational purpose tually all Indians with any schooling areparents who see the value of white edu- is concerned. Yet the other goals are noproducts of schools run by whitespub-cation; parents who have been partly less imperative. Deprivation with cul-lic school systems and church schools, assimilated and failperhaps from em- for example, and those run by the Bu-barrassmentto teach their children the, EVAN JENKINS Is an assistant news editor of the New York Tines He Is the paperts former nations] reau of Indian Affairs. Until very recent-Navajo ways and language. "You can education poetised. ly, there havbeen fqw attempts toget bruises inside your mind where it doesn't show,just the way you get bruises on your body," he says. For the typical Navajo student, this sort of insecurity is likely to be com- pounded. For one, English is virtually always his second language, though he is made to learn it as if no other existed. In addition, Navajo cultureohas a fairly rich literature of its own, but it is an oral One. There is still a dearth of written material in N-avajo, and so for many who speak the language, print itself is a strange and intimidating medium of communication.Andfinally,notes Ackley, there is a vast difference in .structure between English and Navajo. Given all .these impediments the sociolinguistic approach seems vital to the colleges litee-sky program. In practice, it translates lirt into the use of material relevant to Navajo life when possible; and second and more importantly, into Navajo language instructor Teddy Draperexplains a difficult sentence. an emphasis on understanding that slow seems to be very much Randall Ackley's pejorative on its face and fears may in- learning does-not imply stupidity. creature, and apart from his formal ad- still a damaging kind of condescension. Most of those who find their way to ministrative duties, he doubles as the"Ifyou're using standard measures, Navajo Community have had some for- program's chairman. A graduate of the maybe 90 percent of the people at this Mal schooling, and many arehigh University of Minnesota, Ackley began college would need remedial work," school graduates. Few, however, canhis doctoral work in Elizabethan andsays Ackley, from whom "standard" read and write at the level of high.Jacobean literature and finished it witha and "standardized" often sound rather school seniors. To get them that far, degree from the Union Graduate School like curses. "It doesn't make sense to call there is a program called Directed Stud- in American Studies. He has been a big- it remedial; you're uming that the ies. a precursor to the College-LeVel Lit- university English teacher (University of student is stuiid, that tere's something eracy program designed for those who Texas at Austin, University of Utah), wrongwitk( him becausee reads at an choose to seek e?re associate degree. (It small-college department chairman (Mc- eighth -gde level. You as me that be- also prepares students to pass the Gen-Murry College in Abilene, Texas) and cause he reads like a 12-year Id he must eral Educational Development test loPa curriculum consUltant-cum-activistbe thinking that way. It just 'sn't true. high school equivalency diploma, and (Pembroke State College in North Caro- And when the first part of his e is car- many stop there.) At the college level, lina,most of whose students,- wereried on in Navajo and you're ting to proficiency in reading, writing, and dis- Lumbee Indians). teach him English,it's a partic larly cussion must be demonstrated on three At 44, Ackley is an odd mixtureaca- dangerous assumption. We've got a ult levels, roughly those of a beginning demicallytraditional in his insistence people here. They carry on adult li s Freshman, an advanced freshman, and a on the importance of effective commu- and we deal with them at that level. sophomore. The program stresses indi- nication;rather unconventionalbut Ackley became a faculty member at vidual attention in an informal tutorial quite pragmatic about what that is; andNavajo Community three years ago (he style, arid workshops and labs supple- iconoclastic to the point of occasional had been a consultant there for a year) ment classroom work. Over all, about contempt when he speaks of the educa- expecting to teach college English. "The two thirds of the school's 350 full-timetional establishment. Spoken in a softfirst day here they told me I'd be teach- students this spring were enrolled in one'monotone, the words alone"absurd,"ing a class in reading," he recalls wryly, amore courses designedto produce lit-for instanceconvey, his harsh feelings "so I taught a class in reading. And as I eracy at one level or another. toward 'such things as "academic lock- looked around, I saw that things were at Common to both the Directed Studies step." Or "remedial," which he findsbest indifferent in the area of reading and the college-level program is the con- and writing, and at worst criminal." The ceptof competency-b.as0-- education. faculty teaching basic language skills, Goals are established for each level of Learning experience: College Level Literacy Program. No including himself, were simply unquali- proficiencyat the firstlevel, for ex- fied for the task. ampli, writing a complex paragraph and prerequisites: students accepted at all levels. Enrollment: 300. With an assignment from the college reading an introductory college text. A to develop a program for promoting lit- student must demonstrate that he has Similar programs: eracyinacollege-agepopulation, reached the exit. level for each phase of Michigan State University. Ackley set out to improve 4,is own the program before he moves to the knowledge of linguistics and learning next. Thus, he moves only when he is Contact: theory, At professional meetings, he ready. That may be after three weeks or Randall W. Ackley, Navajo Commu- says. he found three classes of seemin three semesters, movementisdeter- nity. College, Tsaile, Arizona 86556, (602) 724-3311. successful teachers of reading and writ- mined by achievement, not by times ing, Those who set up their own criteria' The College-Level Literacy program for student success found the students

4 2 40English

achieving, but Ackley concluded that"With the Japanese, I seemed to spend afiers as they are called for. And instead the criteria were too mutable and that alot of time working on grammar, and it'sof pass or fail in one,semesteror pass self-fulfilling prophecy was at work.somewhat the same here," he says.with a D without having learnedthere Those w'ho worked a hundred hours a"Remember, the Japanese were doingis competency-based movement. week seemed to have had a measure ofgraduate work in this countryyou His remarks about the 28 skills reflect genuine success, but only by dint ofweredealing withexcellentminds..Ackley's view of standard English. It is a plain perseverance.Inneithercase, Again, there's an obvious parallel to the tongue, he asserts, universally taught in Ackley decided, did the teachers reallysituation here." the United States but almost never used know why they did what they did, or The language skills requirement for anoutsideschool.Communication,he what worked and what didn't. associate degree at Navajo Communitysays, is the key, and assuming one com- A third class of people convinced himonce comprised no fewer than 28 separ-municates clearly and depending partly that they -worked from a method, thatate component:- grammarparts ofon one's career goals, itis not terribly they understood it, and that it worked.speech; grammarphrases and clauses;important if one drops the "-ed" from Along with sociolinguists,' these peo-sentence strucniremaking wordsthe past tense as Navajos tend to do. On ple included psycholinguistsstudentsagree. Ana so on, through essay writingthat score, Dennis Schneider reluctantly of the mental processes involved inand a research paper. "It was sort ofdemurs; he is more of a structuralist mastering speech, reading, or writing.ridiculous," Ackley says. "Some of thesethan his boss. Some held, with B. F. Skinner, thatkids would write a perfectly good essay "I do try to teach standard English," theprocessisbasicallyimitative:but flunk some subsidiary thing likeSchneider says. "It's a tool, a credential, The learner copies what accomplishedmodifiers and they wouldn't pass. Ora qualification that helps people get language users say, write, or read. Butthey would flunk the punctuation part ahead. They're more versatile,better those who excited Ackley adhered to thebut give you excellent punctuationin able to handle different situations. If the view of Noam Chomsky and others thatcontextin their writing. The word got student doesn't put the '-ed' at the end of language learning is essentially genera-around and attendance dropped off and the verb, I feel he hasn't finished the tive:The need for communication,after a while nobody even signed up folrequirement, although at some point I however it arises, and at whatever level,the classes. Which was a terrible shamemight give him a provisional pass.I sets off experimentation, selection, prac-because practically everybody at thisthink you just have to try to work with ticein a word, experiencethat im-college needed help with language. Thehim until he gets it." Although they proves skills. idea was, 'All you people go in this doordon't quite see eye to eye on standard Ackleylikesthe sycholinguists'and come out at the end of the semester English,the program's chairman has phrase "the languagexpenence ap-with certain skills.'It was an absurdmade Schneider its evaluator because, proach" because it sugg sa continuumkind of democratic assemblyline educa-he says, Schneider will be demanding. in which one learns priarily by doing:tion. It didn't work." The program seems to be in a constant to talk by talking, to read by reading, to Under pressurF. from Ackley, andstate ofchange. In addition to the three write by writing. All, of course, withamid considerable faculty turnover, thebasic skillssentence, paragraph,. es- guidance by the faculty. "We see the28 components have been narrowedsaythe college has required students to whole language process as somethinggradually to three broad categories theproduce a research term paper. Ackley that begins when you start to talk andsentence, the paragraph, and the essay. is working to eliminate that requirement continues in no set time frame,"AckleyStudents are required to handle all three as an unnecessary consumer of time; a says. "As the middle-class white "kidas reading, writing, and speech' skills.course in using the library would make goes up the scale, he moves in a prettyIdeally, but in practice so far only on amore seise, as he sees it. 'straight line until he levels off, maybe atsmall scale, reading, writing, and dis- As the spring semester ended; Ackley the college level. Our kids, with nocussion are weighted equally in a single and the others in the literacy program home experience with print and withclass, the theory being that they are in-were preparing for a rather radical de- perhaps a history of being in and out ofseparable in the mind as parts of oneparture. Starting this summer, students school,have leveled off somewhereoverall process. are being offered two options in fulfill- much further back. We have to bring There is some regimen in the differen- ing the language-skill requirement be- them to the college level in a reasonabletiation between entry, intermediate, andsides literacy in English. One permits a time. We assume that the process is nat-advanced (sophomore) levels. And instudent to fulfill the requirement in both ural and depends on experience. We try fact as students progress through theNavajo and English; the other consists to give experience that is both concen-levels of difficulty they should encoun-of Navajo alone. trated and enriched. We're not reallyter all the components on the earlier list. The idea seems drastic, since in con - teaching the student; he's learning." The key difference, as Ackley and histemporary American society Navajo is a Dennis Schneider, who joined Navajocolleagues see it,is that the 28 skillsforeign,language. Ackley's view is that Community's faculty last fall, earned hisemerge naturally from the experience ofsome students leaving Navajo Commu- doctorate. in applied linguistics with apursuing basic goals. Instead of drill in nity College will need only their own dissertation on Japanese learners of Eng-the use of modifiers, there is writinglanguage as they pursue careers on the lish. He is a believer in sociolinguistics.repetition of the process of usingpodi-reservation, and that those seeking a bachelor's degree at a four-year college will have had an adequate start in the Evaluatethe mastery of language."Students here should have a choice, a choice they have REPORTS ONTEACHING nowhere else in the country. Many will be working with Navajos, and training See Back Cover'in their own language may be more

4 3 vp a

a valuable than training in English. And class of 38 that combined the lowest and they'll be learning Navajo at the college Now in his e,arly twenties, married next-lowkst level of the literacY and a father, Waters graduated in 1973 level. We find most of them are at about gram. Two students failed to pass. the the age of b in 'Navajo, and behind in from a public high school in New Mex-i, lowest level. Nine passed that level and ico. The 'subject English too, so when they get here thatinterested him we one the next level by the end of the term. most, he says, was English. have to make up the whole language-ex- One dropped out, and onewas dropped "I like to make up poems and stories," . perience ladder. If they can do it in Nav- because of poor attendance. The rest he said as he submitted uneasily toa ajo here, the ones who go on can do it in Were either advanced on the basis ofper- English somewhere else. They'll have the brief interview." I dead Robert Frost and ability to ,handle language." Miles Zintz. a professor of education needs to be done to break down the barrier to acquiringIan- at the University of New Mexico, shares gaage skills which formal English instruction setsup for almost Ackley's view of the relative -unimpor- even/one except those who have already acquired. suchskills." tance ofotandard English in some situa- o Kenneth E. Eble tions. In discussing a teacher-training Deportment of English program involving his school and the UniversityofUtah University of Arizona at Tucson (some of whose participants are graduates oformance on a diagnostic test or trans-other poets. In 4h school I had trouble Navajo Community), he said:"The ferred to a more difficult course before witk English, thlugh. I study day and people in this program may well have a #le semester ended, having demonstra- night and fail and had to keep on it." psyChological advantage over an Anglo tedthe desiredompetence. 'With his high school diploma, Waters teacher with middle-class values who Reporting tthe college's administra-was placed in Directed Studies, the pre- has to deal with children he didn't un- tion on the Eng i-language and litera-college program, when he entered Nav- derstand at all. I'm aware that some may ture program for the fall of 1974, Ackley ajo Community College. He finds tenses not get through all the competencies we proposed a number of changes ,;r1 thedifficult, but feels that readihg and writ- expect (Anglosi t o get throught but I feel type of personnel required for efTective ing have helped with the prbblem. He is that if these teachers can meet a young teaching and in the structure ofprogram extremely soft-spoken and, according to Navajo child coming to school, and and courses. He had this to say about Schneider, has difficulty applying him- show the child that school is a nice place two basic courses: "Our evaluation ofself. "Mostly what I would like to do is to be and Navajo is an acceptable way ENG 120 and Reading gaveus a success teach my young people," Waters says. to speak, the compromise will be well rate of about 30 percent. I was told that "We need teachers very much." This Worth it." that was the usual rate for comMunity There has been no formal evaluation spring, Waters was struggling in the colleges. I think that is absurd and that lowestofthecollege-levelliteracy of the college's literacy program by out-the program and/or instructors must be siders at this very early stage. Ackley courses. Schneider seemed to think there changed to give us a more acceptable was achance the young man could make has had encouragement from linguists' success rate in these required courses." respectable progress ("He's obviously. and others laminar with. what he is try - Most of his major recommendations bright.") on the basis of his performance ng to do, partly because much of it, if it"seem to have been followed, and he has in works, would be replicable elsewhere writing paragraphs. .One, written put together a team with the academic near the semester's end, went this way : the competency-based approach,the background to press them forward. The supportive bilingual and kicultural em- "When I wattim first grade itwas initial data suggest that his hope fora phasis, the use of psycholinguistic and lonely and so sad'ou only hear the higher rate of succiSt ,bas been realizedbirds are singing O'ctside and the dog sociolinguistic approaches to learning. at least in part. barking. When'l was in class I only hear But the amalgam ,of the new linguis- Jeanne Hailstorm represents a success tics and a kind of custom -made peda- my teacher voice with mean looks in his story for the program. Married and the eyes. I always lost in the school building gogy has produced some statistics that mother of two children, she is a licensedand they have to find me everytime. I Ackley finds encouraging. Enrollment in practical nurse whO wants to becomea used to see only a small bird in a bird- English courses has risen from 145 in 10 registered nurse. She was able to attend house above classes in the fall of 1973 me..Sometime my tears to 278 in 45 Navajo Community for one semesterdripping down-in the classroom for classes this spring, with the college's my this spring for nursing courses and liter- parents and for my sheeps. Everyday I total enrollment more or less stable over acy classes. Starting at the lowest level used to see the same old things, -and it that period. In the spring of, 1973, a of the litera-c'y program, she moved in seem like the same day again. I used to workshop in essay writing enrolled 18 that semester to the highest, havingget lonely and sad everyday with no students, 13 of Ahem repeaters. Five did written an extremely well-organited,hope in my mind. I used to haredmy not complete the workshop, and 5 of the thorough, and lucid report on medical teacher, because he make me cry eyery- 13 who did got only a provisional pass screening of schoolchildren on the reser-time, so I run away lots of time back to to the next level. A year later, 39 signed vation. The term paper she was working the sheep camp." up for a workshbp in basics (se` ences on as the semester neared its end dealt Schneider said of Waters, "He's very and grammar rules), and 8 completed it with alcoholism. dramatic, and he emotes so muchsome- with a recommendation to go on toa Dennis Schneider is quick to point out times that it comes out garbled. This more advanced writing workshop. The that Mrs. Hailstorm is"notaverageclass is encouraged to write clear, hard instructor dropped 16 for poor atten- she's working, she knows what .sheprose, but I don't step on him." dance, 6 left the course on theirown.,ini- wants,andshe'smotivated."John He said he planned to pass Waters, tiative, and 9 ,received incothpletes. Waters (not his real name) is a some-provisionally, to the next level of the lit- Last fall, Dennis Schneider taught a what different story. eracy program. I*

b 42 Eng Nth

IN THE FOOTSTEPS pF THOREAU

by Judith Miller

pastoral is a state of mind, A stu-New Hampshire, the source of much ofinterests. D ing thik evening, stents Thedent from New York University orAmerica's pastoral literature. This wasstudy and ni eet with Clark and Ho es the University of Chicago would prob-the inauspicious beginning of what isto discuss their work. Two days 'a week ably find the quality of life in Ann Ar-now known as the "Neiv England Liter -`they take field trip?to\ nearby towns, bor, Michiganucolic. Yetfor'Walterature Program.", the Maine seacoagt, and the neighboring Clark, Jr.,an glish professor at the There is nothing particularly innova-White Mountains. Sometekday eve- University' of chigan who was raisedtive about the concept of on-site learn-finings are Spent listening toWolfeboro in New England, the university complex ing, which hhs been with us as long asresidents lecture about pollics,early with its over25,000 undergraduates is asthe university field trip and the juniorNew Hampshire history, AbnakiIn- urban and .anpiymous as any sprawlingyear abroad. What soimpressive aboutdiare culture, or New Englandishing. modern American ,city campus. ClarkClark's, program, however, is thatit Originally the two-creditourses began to wonder whether his students.'Strives fo relate the students' learning towere required: Major AmericaAu- ,.. Would"ever be able to comprehend intheir style of living. Clark sees it as anthors to 1870;°Literature and Cultre j this impersonal environment the pastor:-attempt "to clear away, the artificial im-the New England Experience in POery; 'al literature of Thoreau, Frost, Haw-',pedimentS to learning." and Creative Writing. Now the cr . thorne, and, others. Clark decided there The program begins once the officialhours have been upped to eight, a had "to be a better way and place inschool year is over; early in May-HustClark and Howes would like to add op which to approach the alien world of theas the ice is breaking on Lake Winnipe-tional courses in biology and history i pastoral. After some thought, he settledsaukee in Wolfeboro, New Hain shirefinances and staffing can be arranged. on a solution and a setting far more con=and lasts six weeks. In 1975; the univer- . The prose course concentrates heavily ducive to the instruction of his favoritesity rented Camp Belknap, a YMCAon Thoreau, Emerson, and Hawthorne brand of Americari literature: Why notboy? camp situated an the shores of thebut is not limited to them. Students be- study the literature of New England inlake. In 1976, the program moved togin with the journals of Thoreau and New 'England?' Camp Kehonka, a private girls' campEmerbon, and then mon to read a series And so, in May of 1975, Clark, ,hisdown the lake. Studentslive in the campof Hawthorne short stories and perhaps department colleague Alan B. Howes, acabins and hold classes in front of theMelville's Pierre. Thoreau's accounts of cook, a nature instructor, and 20-under-main lodge fireplace or in a field or on ahis three trips to the Maine woods were graduatesreplete with sleeping bags,dock when days are sunny. Staff andread the first year while students visited backpacks, camping tents, hiking gear,studehts share hdusekeeping chores,the real thing, and the course ended with musical instruments, typewriters, writ-.wash dishes, and assist the cook. Hawthdine's The Blithedale Romance, ing journals, and an impromptu port- Students meet for two-hour classes inwhich provided an occasion for review- able librarypiled into two Universitythe mornings, five days a week. After-ing the communal living experience. of Michigan minibuses and headed for.noons are devoted to reading, free time,Students also suggested contemporary , nature observation,field,trips,andworks that were incorporated into the JUDITH MILLER Is the Washington correspondent for The Progressive and a frequent contributor to meetings of special subject'groups thatprogram:- A Separate Peace by John Change Magazine. may arise spontaneously out of students'Knowles, and Annie Dillard's Pilgrim at 45 43.

. Tinker Creek,a work previously un-glared out the window. My first thought.ing record players, televisions, and ra- familiar to Clark or Howes. The poetrywas : They're strip mining the baseballdios. There was no friendly local pizza course focuses largely on Dickinson, field!!! Then, more realistiCally, butnoparlor to frequent. Students were en- Frost, and E. A. Robinson. Frost re-less angrily, I realized what wasoccur-couraged to spend time by themselves ceives special attention because of his ring.Ihated the men driving thoseand in small groups. 'We didn't want poetic explorations of the pastoral, andbeasts. I thought, Why wasn't it in the,their trooping around like Caesar's le- because of his special connections withcontract that they couldn't inflict thisgions," said Clark. this and other parts of New Hampshire. on us pastoral people? Some found it In -addition, students read anthologies difficul(toadjust. Sev- containing the poems of other New England poets. "Obt of the legacies of the sixties thatshouldn't be forgotten is. The heart of the program, however, is that ex-betience and learningcan often proceed side by side. A key creative writingor more accurately, question, however, Is how to make suchprogram accessible to journal writing. Many participants had students. The intelligent part of thisprogram is their confronting, ver kept diaries or journals befqre. the problem that students withmoney and/or leisure can take ad- Ma vantage of such opportunities and others can't.", were unsure about what kinds of Kenneth Eble experie s and thoughts should be en- Department ofglish Whi the journals. of Thoreau University f Utah and Emerson provided some guidance, Clark and Howes have also presented Another student summarized the dif- eral of the most eloquent passages in stu- t F students with a list of "17 Things to ference between formal classes in Anndents' journals concern their responses Do in a Journal," their compilation ofArbor and the New England program.to isolation. "Curiously and larnent- . mundane anclaxotic suggestions aimed"I've been reading and writing out onably," wrote o e student, '"I have not at making students feel more comfort-the grass again, and thought of anotherfound a se,9se 9 release here; there is able with their spiral notebook compan-difference between this place and Anntoo much bustle without and. within. I Mns. "Copy poems, sentences, para-Arbor. That is, whenever I go outside tohave uncovered an odd thing about my- graphs, graffiti, cemetery inscriptions,study in Ann Arbor, I find I cannotcon-self; I thrive on contention...I am not a road signs, sayings," counsel Clark andcentrate: I spend all my time lookingpeace-loving creature." Howes. 'Tell lies. Give commands. List around, listening, and smelling. Here I Many of the journal entries concern books you want to read. Write 'Kilroydon't ignore nature, instead I'm more athe-works being read or considered in was here.'" The instructions are indica-part of it." class. They reflect the students' efforts to tive of the informality, spirit, and en- consider the, material not only on its own thusiasm'that Clark and Howes bringto merits, but compared with their own ex-, the program. Their attachment to New tudent journals ale useful vehiclesperiences in the woods. Hampshire and New England is infec- Sfor self-dikcovery,an important rIn keeping with the idea that the learn- tious: certainly the students whowere component of allleaming. Many of theing experience can be consonant with 'in the origirkal group are still imbuedentries dbutss loneliness. Some of thethe entire lifestyleof the camp, classes with it. students were-struck by their rootless-are often held 4pontaneously. On the The journals reflectthe extenttonesg, 'compared with Wolfeboro resi-way to visit a dairy farm in Maine, for which most of the, students were stimu-vdents. 'The townspeople have a tremen-example, a group stopped to hold a dis- laced and sometimes jarred by their half- dous sense ofiiving history," said Mitchcussion of Hawthorne on the lawn of the semester in New Hampshire. For someMeyer, a political science major. "Forcapitol building in Augusta. "The dis- this was a first encounter with countrythem, history is not found in museums,cussion of Hawthorne, the dairy farm, living in or outside of New England.but in their bones." and the trip itself all fitted harmoniously Many entries reveal an initial discomfort For many of the students, this markedinto certain overall concerns for pastoral r with an alien culture and environinent.the first time they had been cut off fromform and substance," said Clark. "Something there is about New Englandthe accoutrements of city life: movies, Both Clark and Howes stress that stu- that I so dislike," wrote one student afterconcerts, noisy student bars. Clark anddents were very aware of their special a trip to a neighboring town. "Its cute Howes discouraged students,from bring-status in New England. They quickly contrivance...everything so beautifully came to understand that they were not trim and appealing, but unapproachable really rural; that their roots were in the , as all has been long spoken for. The land Learning experience: city. 'We were still tourists in Wolfe- seems tobe possessed,not merely , New England Literature program. No boro, which bills itself as the oldestre- owned." - prerequisites. Enrollment: 25. sort town ' in America," said Mitch Gradually, students seemed to los Meyer. 'We didn't haveto earna living their wariness of this new world. The Other descriptions: in an area which is really quite poor; we journals provide a written testament to "Literature and the American Wilder- existed in somewhat contrived circum- their transition from discomfort to a ness," Yale Alumni Magazine, Febru- ary 1976. stances. I loved watching spring come to deeply felt attachment totheirsur- New Hampshire, but I could never hope roundings, to a strong resentment of any Contact: to understand what it means to a native, disruption from the outside world. "I Walter H. resident New Englander." woke up this morning and groaned in Clark, Jr: or Alan B. Howes, Department of English, University of Clark agrees with his student's' assess- . unison with the .din supplied by the Michigan,AnnArbor, Michigan nient. 'We were able, gradually and equipmentoutside,"wroteBarbara 48109, (313) 764-6330. through our own experiences, to come Starr of an incursion of bulldozers. "I to an understanding of the difference be-

O 44English

dormitories or in isolateefour-person artments, students tend to associate on iththe people they live with and those itheir own field. he prram imparts to students far mo than ply a love and under- stan 'ng of Ne ngland and its litera- tuie. hat it ate is to teach is difficult to measure in t s of academic credit.lark and Howes hare a somewhat offashioned respecor liberal arts education in its broadest s e. The New Englind Literature program, here- fore, includes far more than just reid.,, ing, writing, and discussions. Noncredit instruction in canoeing, camping, climb- ing, hiking,"'sailing, and cooking are also Outdoor classes are a standarV feature of theew Sngland Literature Program. part and parcel of the program. We tween a pastoral experience (which ours narrow. The original participants camewant students to become competent and was) with its essentially urban back- from a variety of levels and disciplines.assured of their ability in these areas," ground, and t,he rural life of earlier New There was even a graduate student fromsaid Clark. "We found last year's stu- England inhabitants," hesaid.Alan the School of Music; fewer than half ofdents amazingly receptive to this con- Howes also points Put that the programthe' students were freshinen. "While wecept. They broadened their notions as to helped give students neW.perspective on didn't find any reason to change ourthe nature and aims of liberal-educa- their college education. "We- Hoped that minds about the. usefulness of the pro-tion; tl..._nortacademic activities served our students would come to that gram' for freshMen," said Clark, "we--tbCreate an aura of competency and what was happening in Ann Arbor s now believe it has just as much to offerVenture that overflowed into the study not so different from what could bemolder students. Thestu ents who got theof literature," said Clark. made to happen in New Hampshire. Wemist from the exper ence were often Clark was amazed that so little disci- . hopedsthat students would return to thethosein..teir senior year or those whoOhne as such was required. "We did university refreshed and with a renewed had dropped out of the juni,ersity to'haverules about water safety and enthusiasm for what it had' to offer,"- work for a while and, had come back."drugs)" he said. "But most of the re-, said Howes. As a result of the broad mix, p;rtici-wards were inherent in the program_ Clark and Howes-initially thought the pants getchance to know well studentsThere was never a need to employ sanc- program would be'ideal for students at they might never have encountered intions." One reason may be the small size-- the end of their freshman year, butAnn Arbor. At the university, whereof the group, which makes for strong admit ,now that their views were toomost students live either in enormouscommunal ties.

A New Approach to Communication When the chairman of the English tional handouts of her own. through free writing(allstudents department at Drake University in Basically, Steele seeks to develop maintain journals), nonverbal activ- Des Moines. Iowa, gave Mildred fundamental communication skills, ity,dialects, mass media, business Steele the task of developing a com- throughempathiclisteningand management, and problem solving munication course forupperclass- response, working successfullyin all of which, Steele Suggests, pertain. men, she faced the challenge of creat- small groups, having command of to the problem of human liberation. ing a new approach to the subject. problem-solving techniques, and, be- Students make, observe, and re- Such courses are 'usually rhetoric ing able to analyze and rectify com- spond to a v riety of class presenta- classes for freshmen and sophomores munication breakdowns. The course tions. some o which are given by or Courses in applied communication also discusses many theories of com- guest speakers. Steele also requires skills for career students in two-year munication that are tested in practi- each student to select two projects colleges. cal exercises-using reading, writing, from six options. One project must Steele's course combines the theory lecture,discussion,projects,role' come from the following three: par- and practice of writing with speaking playing, and media presentations. ticipation in a writing workshop, giv- and nonverbal communication skills. Each skill and theory is approached ing an oral report on acommunica- But she couldn't find a text that did from the perspectives of content, - tion project, or taking an hour-long the same. Finally settling for Jean M. methods, and feelings. Finally skills exam on course material. The second Civiklv'sMessages.along withThe and theories are applied to many projectmust come from another Elements of Styleby Strunk and problems of communication, includ- choice of three: two written and"Prte White, she found it was still neces- ing listening and response,small- oral report on reading in the field of sary to create approximately 40 addi- group dynamics, self-disclosure communication.a communication

4 '7 46

The progracn has neither a midtermtherefore, can earn the same number of Jay L. Robinson, chairman of Michi- nor a, final; kistead, Clark and Howescredits they would in an eight-week per-gan's Department of English Language examine the journals after three weeksiod and still earn an extra two,weeks ofand Literature, believes that Clark's (skipping those sections that studentspay at a summer job. fledgling effort is needed in a university wish to `keep priliate), and make sugges- Nevertheless, many students at Mich- like Michigan. "The multiversity has not tions about ways in which students canigan and elsewhere areincreasinglyproved a hospitable locale for liberal expand their explorations and improvehard-pressed to pay for their college tu-arts education," wrote Robinson. "The their prose. At the end of the six weeks,ition and personal expenses. Many how size of such places has tended to separate they examine the journals again. Inad- work the entire summer as well as part.;students from nonacademic environ- dition, in a half-hour oral examinationtime during the academic year. This bas ments, and tendencies toward Npecial- each student is asked to discuss the im-tended to depres interest in the pro-ization have made the integration of plications of what he or she has beengram. "I would love to go to Newsubject matters difficult." It was in order doing, and td make overt connectionsHampshire again," said Vicky Price, ato counter tenderuges and situations like between the literature read and the othergeology major, 'butI really have tothese, that Clark initiated his, experi- experiences of the six-week period.' Fi-work all summer jus6 to pay for nextments in residential, on-site education. nally, students are expected to producea year. I know a lot of my friends are in Robinson also has piaisefor Clark as written self-evaluation.Clarkandthe same boat." a teacher. "Professor Clark is a key fig- Howes do give grad s. In the firstyear, In 1975, the program attracted 20 stu-ure in these experiments, not merely as all the students rec 'ved high grades. dents; in 1976, 18 participated. Cost is aorganizer but as philosopher and teach- "They all deserved tm,said Clark. bigfactor,butstudentuncertaintyer. More than anyone I know, he is con- about the nature of the program maycerned with education that changes peo- also limit applicants. Clark and Howesplenot in ways described by the terms T n 1975, the' six-week program costwould like to broaden participation.of 'behaviorists, but in ways described students the normal tuition for a half-There have been no students from mi-by the habitual terms of estheticians and term, plus $480 (what students wouldnority groups, for example, in eithermoral philosophers.... His experiments ordinarily pay in Ann Arbor for roomyear's session. are likely to bring change." and board) -cover round-trip trans- For those who participated there is Because much of the program is so in- portation to Wolfeboro, room, boaid, little doubt. that -the-p;ogram was ex-'timatelydependent,onClarkand transportation for a number of trips, tremely successful. All but one of the 29'Howeson their love and knowledge of books, laundry, and a few extras such asoriginal students came to a fall reunion. New En land, of the subjects and stu- money, for visiting lecturers. The figureTwo of them went back to New Hamp-dents the teachit is difficult to predict does not include personal expenses, butshire for the second session as staff; these are very light. According to the whether other institutions could success- others have asked about the possibilityfully emulate the program. Still,the Michigan scholarship office, the $480of returning to study further. Clark andconcept of integrating the literature of Am is well under what a scholaishipHowes also note expressions of interestart area with the environment in which it student would be asked to budget for anfrom fellow faculty members and ad-was created 'seems natural, and it de- tight-week summer, session. Students, ministrators. serves a broader audience.

, research paper, or an essay derived down; and the details of Steele's courses, and there appears to be evi- from the student's journal. availability : her office hours, phone dence supporting this. Steele began Steere's desire to communicate ef- numbers, places to leavemessages teachingCommunicationinthe fectively has led her tocompile even a map showing how to get to spring of 1974 and within a year, the lengthy syllabi for all her courses. her office. faculty of Drake's College of Businesisi The one she has written for Commu- Steele has taught two sections of Administration had noted such a nication runs 18 pages. She describes the three- hours - per -week course each improvement in the work of students indetail what each classsession semester. Enrollment is limited to 40 who took the coursethat They adde will cover, spells out each assign- in each section.(though she prefers no Communication to the list of ele ment, tribes all' exams, and ex- more than 35) and there is always a tives that can be counted toward a plains h w the various components waiting list. Asked to evaluate var-. business administration major. In ad- of the final grade are weighted. She ious aspects of the course at the end dition, the director of Drake's career also includes a list of optional assign- of each semester, students have given planning office believes that the prac- ments with space for a student to re- Communication an8.73average tical skills Communication teaches cord his choices; a Record of Pro- overall., on a scale fiom 1 (low) to 10 can help all studentsin liberal arts gress to help the student chart his (high). At the end of the most recent or career training - to enhance their growth; a two-page list of the crucial semester, Steele reports, nearly half. employment opportunities. factors in effective communication; a her students, asked for information For more information: Mildred R. /single--single-spacedfour-pagebibliogra- about other writing courses. Steele, Department of English, Drake ' phy ;a diagram of the points at Students report that their work in University, Des Moines, IA 50311, which communication canbreak Communication helps them in other (515) 271-377X

4 8 M EE fts! \ A Whodunit Approach .to the Fre hman Research Far)er When W. Keith Kraus received the, came are tkat the researg-stye, able instances Of p giari`Sm, no scis- Shippensburg (Pennsylvania)State term pape routinely assigned in sebiesors-and-paste jobs, no pleas of'''I College distinguished teaching award and -term eshman English classes" couldn't find out any hing about the in the summer of 1975, he was cited often turned, out to be little mote topic." The papers w e thoroughly in particular by the awards commit- than "a boring chore, resulting in a researched,carefully thought out, tee for "the use of murder mysteries badly written paper which discour- and clearly presented. And the qtu- as an innovative method of teaching ages students." Seeking to relieve the dents had fun while learning some research procedures...in such a way`boredomhis own as well as the stu- valuable research and writing skills. 'as to interest his students in the ac- dents' and to inject a sense -ex- Now using this method for assign- tual profess of research." Hardly the citement and a feeling of enjo ment ing all of his freshman research pa- run -of- the -mill research topic, and intothe writing of freslithan term papers, Kraus seeks minor historical considered by some of his colleagues pers, Kraus compiled a' list of notable events that were popularized in the to be "latking in high moral serious=`-.murder cases cited in the. New York press at the time of their occurrence, ness," a good whodunit, from the Ties,lndex since 1851. Giving each but are now forgotten. A typical murky past seems nevertheless to student ortk the name of" a victim murder case to be selected would be Kraus to be the best available incen- and the date 'qf death, Kraus then one that was big enough to generate a tive for a class of freshman students asked for a 2000 word paper on the lot of publicity in the newspapers and who not only lack the skills necessary crime. , perhaps the popular magazines of the to write a research paper, but are The results were littleless than time, but not so big as to have been generally devoid of any eagerness for astonishing. Students responded with the subject of a book. Cases' 'are the experience. enthusiasm to the challenge, and chosen that unravel over a period of It all began, as the inspector might 'delved into research materials with years, so that new developments kept

say, slew years ago, when Kraus be- unusual zest. There were no identifi-,0 occurring to cloud the issues and

The Writing Lab: Serving Students and the Community In the fall of 1972, Mary K. Croft, an of the university, the community at such students often feel toward seek- assistant professor of EngliSh at the large, and the state of Wisconsin. ing help with their academic prob- University of Wisconsin at Stevens Users of the lab have nearly quad- lems. Care is taken to avoid the criti- Point, sent to the dean of the College rupled in number from the early days cal manner of helping to which these of Letters and' Science a memoran- of its existence,- while total 'Visitations students have often been exposed in dum that began: "My work with the per semester haive increased almost the classroom, and an effort is made freshman English exemption progr\im sixfold. Three faculty members now to provide a comfortahle learning ex- for the past two years has reinforced devote significant. portions of their perience through supportive peer tu- my observations about our incoming time to the lab, assisted by four grad- toring underfacultysupervision. students, They can'twrite( And uate 'students. Students chosen to serve as peer tu- many...still have seriotis deficiencies Only about one fourth of the stu- torsthose who have an interest- in after completing our basic composi- dents whO use the lab come irr by re- the teaching of composition and have tion courses. Some kind, of addition- ferral from faculty members urging demonstrated superior writing abil- al...intensive, personalized help is (or requiring) them to seek help on itydre given intensive training both needed...." their writing skills. They are offered prior to and during their work in the There followed a plan for the form an assessment of their needs and an lab. Apart from helping to staff the. that help could take, who could ben- individualized program for improve- lab (there are currently nine such tu- efit from it, and how it could hest ment of their skills. The other three tors),these students gain valuable serve the interests of both the univer- fourths enter the lab of their own vo- practical experience in teaching writ- sity and the surrounding community. litionsome making regular visits ing, and inevitably their own skille iven immediate and strong support over an extended period of time, improve in the process. y the dean for a multi-purpose writ - others dropping in only once or The lab has become host to a i g laboratory, Croft recalls how just twice. All users of the lab are encour- varied clientele. Students seeking ad- three months later "one graduate as- aged to return as often as they desire, mission into teacher training or other sistant and I opened the door to our and casual yisitors are not discour- programs of the university's College lab *-asmall,windowless,gray- aged from making use of the facility of Professional Studies come to the walled room made bright with post- on a drop-in basis to deal with spe- writing lab for help in meeting mini- ers a d pictures and plants." cific writing problems. mum English requirements. They are Th ee years later, and in larger and Culturally or educationally disad- given evaluative tests of their writing morettractive quarters, the writing vantaged students, many of them abilities and then supervised in a pro- lab is a'firinly established and heavily minority:group members, are given gram of improvement up to the point utilized\facility of the English depart- priority at the lab and treated in a of their acceptance into the college. ment, serving the needs of that de- warm and personal manner that Foreign students seeking help with partment\ as well as those of the rest helps to overcome thereluctance English as a second language are wel- 49 /

'tangle the thread. The point here is to and These are often ingenious, and in the comments- challenge the student to organize Shippensburg convincing. Murders constitute the awards committee, ictnoted that , scattered and even chaotic informa- bulk of die topics, but studentsare tion into a coherent scheme. "gtudent response is ellent in a also assigned papers on political course that is tr4ditiona There is also an attempt to select dull," and scandalS, espionage cases, treasure that the student papeis re ewed by -cases that reflect in some w4 the hunts, and other colorful historical peridd of their occurrence and diet members of the committee showed "a events that spark student interest and thoroughness, an interest, an excite- throw light on local or national offer the challenge of an exciting in- moods, attitudes, and customs. A ment inteseech not demonstrated in vestigation. many other instances." Largely for gangland,murder, for example,may, In order to prepare the students for his creative treatment of the fresh- reveal in its untangling much, about the task, a library tour is arranged, at the flavor of the Milieu in whith it man research paper, Kraus has been the outsetof the course, during awarded a-*stinguishedteaching took placeabout police effective- which they are introduced to such re- chair by the ness and corruption, rivalries in or- monwealth of search materials and equipment as Pennsylvania, and has also received ganized crime, and public interest theNew York Times Index,the and reaction, high recommendations by former Readers' Guide to Periodical Litera- students urging incoming freshmen Finally, kraus seeks tases that ture,and the microfilm readers, to take the course. "And most lin- seem interesting, pr vocative, per- Class time is s ep_,r1 problemsen- portant of all," notes Kraus, "I enjoy haps bizarrecases th t will be chal- countered in research and on difficul- reading the papers." lenging and fun for st dents to in- ties-arising from the use of footnotes For more informatton: W. Keith vestigate, and puzzle o r. Where a and quotations. Kraus, Department of English, Ship- case is unsolved, the st dent is in- The success of this new approach pensburg State College, Shippens- vited to construct his own solution to freshman composition is reflected burg, PA 47257, (717) 532-9121.

c, come, as are handicapped students\ other English department membersto 4 as a model for other schools seeking whose disabilities have resulted in develop a number of innovative writ- to establish a similar facility. The lab unusual writingdifficulties. ing courses, some of which operate in provides teachers and speakers for Graduate students come for help in conjunction with or through the lab. off-campus presentations, in-service he editing of their theses agwellas These new courses include Develdp- programs, panels, workshops, and for explanatibn of the mechanics of ment English (a flexible alternative to consultations. In the lab itself, pro- footnoting and bibliographical nota- first-term freshman English), Inde- grams are held in which noted writers tion. And even faculty members have pendent Writing (for anyone from or writing specialists talk informally made u of the lab: some for help in foreign students seeking to Ameri- with 'students who crowd the facility preparin a paper for publication in a Can4e their English to housewives to hear them. scholarly journal; some for assis- editingorganizationalreports ,or There can be no doubt that the lab tance in reducing their academese to newsletters), TeachingofHigh works. Students who use it exhibit straightforward and appealing Eng- School Composition (for experienced improved communication skills and lish prose; others for help in prepar- teachers as well as graduate andun- attitudes 4n the classroom and rec- ing more effective examinations and. dergraduate students), Editing and ommend it to their peers. Instructors handouts for use in the classroom. Publishing (offering practical experi- increasingly refer their students for From inside and outside the uni- ence in the preparation of manu- advisory assistance and counseling versity, a diverse array of people scripts and production of books), with respect to specific writing prob- have arrived at the lab for a wide and a Practicum (offering advanced lems as well as for direct tutorial aid. variety of purposes: a historian pre, students practical experience and col- And the lab staff finds excitement paring a paper for presentation at a lege credit in ret for tutoring ser- and gratification in their work and In historical society convention; a devices in the,lab). One significant ef- the spontaneous, expressions of grati- partmental secretary striving to bring fect of this enrich ent of the depart- tude from those they help. "It may cohesion and readability to the min- mental offeringsas been to make be," muses Croft, "that this particu- utes of a staff meeting; a graduate possible a minor n writing, hich lar writing laboratory is a singular, student seeking to translate a seven- has recently been adopteand is happy accident; but we have seen the teenth-century comedy fromher meeting with consi erablinterest. beginning of this same kind of glow native Italian into idiomatic English; In addition to itsrimary work in whenever our staff has carried the a seventh:grade pupil from a local direct tutorial assista ce and involve- Idea to other schools. We believewe school entering an essay contest. All ment in a, program, of innovative may be finding a new way." have been welcomed; most halve writing courses, the writing lab acts For more information: Mary K. been helped to their satisfaction.' as a repository and resource center .Croft, Department of English, Uni- Along with the institution of tie for materials in varied media on writ- versity of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, writing lab, Croft has worked with ing and the teaching writing, and WI 54431, (715) 346-3568.

5O v.

Flo *

4 O How to Survive in College --- Charlotte P. Mecke's course How to merits are com leted. One on-going that will be on an exam. Students Survie in College attracts students assignment: daily entries in a journal studyogic breathing, akido center- r nging from dropouts to holders of which studen s record personal ing, ar Cayce head-neck/exer-

a yanced degrees. The nine-week growth,. Mecke reads every journal cises, anmeditation. c urse, taught since 1971 at Orange and gives each student extensive.. There armimeographed hand- C ast College in Costa Mesa, Cali- written comments, providing for a outs in the co rse but no assigned fornia, is so popular that there are ontinual teacher/student dialog. texts. A list of c mended read- four sections with approxithately 25 Focusing on process as well as con -L ings includeg The Ma age Book by, students in each, aQd.all four are of- t Mecke tries to break down ste- George Downing, Psyccybernetics fered four times year. Because reotypic teacher /student behavidr, by Maxwell Maltz, and I'm O.K.; Mecke's appointment is in the English emphasizing that students can learn You're O.K. by Thomas Harris. department (she holds a master's in from one another, Chairs are rear- Mecke claims that by the fourth English and American literature as ranged constantly (sprite ,days they week of her coursestudents' body well as one iri..couriseling and guid- are not used at all). Everyone ad- language has changed completely. ance). How to Survive in College is dresses everyone else by first name owns, lowered eyes, tense shoul- nominally an English course. But only, and Mecke insists that all sen- de s and slouching postures have all while it covers language skills (read- tences begin with the first person disappeared. She estimates that b ing, writing,listenft, speakifig), it is forcing students to take responsibil -. the end of the course 75 percento3ix- equally, concerned with psycholOgy ity for their own opinions, Observe, her students go on to earn straight \ (giving the studerij a positive self- tions, and feelings'. A's, even after transferring to senior image, self-awareness, and the ability Students are taught how to take colleges(where many tutor new to establish productive interpersonal notes and how to listen. They are roommates in Mecke's techniques). relationships). taught a five-step memory process Other members of OCC's faculty re- Believing that organization is the (intend to remember, react actively, port to Mecke that they can always basis for all skills, Mecke demands refresh your memory constantly, at- spot- her students by the way they that students precisely organize theirtach what you want to remember to handle themselves in class. and a few time and materials. Regular atten- something you already know, _and-- have even sat in on classes to learn dance is compulsory. After three ab- write it down) and bow to survey, her techniques. "I used to care more sences, a studentisinvitedtoa question, and rd,a book. After pre- about the courseontent thanhe conference to discuss his or her com- senting a study sI, Mecke follows it students," Mecke s ys., "Now I care mitment to education and whether or up immediately wi a learning game more about the stu erits." not he shoUld be allowed to complete in which the technique is applied. She For more informati. Charlotte P. the course Tardiness js also frowned ,teaches students how to take exams Mecke,Depart-men ofEnglish, upon and no late assignments are ac- and how to tell from subtle changes Orange Coast Collc, 2701 Fair- cepted. There are no grades; a stu- in an instructor's body language view Road, CAA Mesa .,CA 92626, dent is given credit only if all assign- when he or she is discussing-Material (714) 556-5594.

Orienting the'Prospective English Teacher As a more complete orientation to week, allo g students to watch handle)allows for an increased op- the teaching profession, Alan B. professio s 3 and 4 hours each day, portunity for students and teachers Howes of the Uniyersity of Michigan, for a totof 60 hours every semester. to learn from one another. along with his colleagues Walter This ismuch more compressed and Through integrating topics, the se- Clark and Margaret Lourie,has interexpe 'ence than that offered mester provides an alternative way developed a Prokssional Semester innostpro rams, and it gives stu- to satisfy the heart of the require- Program of unusual intensity, char- den s a mor realistic view of the de- ments for the sec ndary teaching cer- acterized by a high degree of student mands of t e professior. tificate in Eng,lis. The subject matter involvement inthe planning and ThePr fessionalS mester is components we chosen to allow evaluation of the \proarn, an integ- taught by Howes andpother 'in- students to recive transcript credits \ grative approach tp f ve distinct sub- structor, t gether with a teaching as- for five exist'g courses (Introduc- ject areas, and cork ntrated periods sistanteafall. Team teaching pro- tion to ModeEnglish, Intermediate of classroom observation. vides forore open class discussion Exposition,udies in American4Lit- Team taught 13y two illstrnctors by givinstudents the chance to hear erature, Teching of English, and whoremainwiththeprogram alternati e or supplementary views Practicum iTeaching Methods). \ .throughout the semester,tudentq and creates an atmosphere,in which Students are given the tools for lin- meet for 14 hours each we in 2- all join as equal participants. And the guistic analysis. They discuss atti- hour blocks. In the middle of the 14- constant presence of Howes and his tudes toward language and the inter- week semester, 5 weeks are reserved colleagues, as well as a consistent relationship of rhetoric and Writing. to observe teachers inlocal high group of dedicated students,-8 ,in A number of formal and informal schools. During the wes of obser- 1974, 17 in 1975 (Howes feels 21 or papers are written and students ana- vation, class timeis cut.6 hours per 22 is the maximum the program can lyze what they've gone through dur-

5. '

Teaching the Form, and Content etry' Sara AeFord of Goucher College in; Moreover, students usually changet applied to students' exercises, but de;. Balti ore has Iten -teaching :the their minds about poets whom they lord 'always appends detailed corn- Studyf Poetryor 30 years 'and had failed to appreciate in the past. ;Merits suggesting how successfully finds the Igor just as effective today "The best example of this reversal," eachstudent'seffortsmeetthe as it was in 1947. Brooke Peirce, deFord continues, "is the evaluation course's standards. chairman of riptiCher's English de- of Pope's couplets, its.ually despised DeFord, herself a publid poet, partment,says heconsidersthe b9 students as mechInical and plati- is exclusively concerned with corn- course in the same league asthe lec- ludinciusbut not after they have municating that "poetry is a combin- tures of Billy Phelps at Yale, Kit» tried to write one effective heroic ation of form and substance, not sub- tredge at Harvard, or Stringfellow, couplet." stance alone," apdshe always allo Barr at St.lohn's. It is the kind of ex- From rhythm, the course goes on students to arrive at their own, re- ',Vence out of wit,h legends are to rhyme (both accurateand variant), sponses to poetry. Thirtyyears' ma e. and then covers five-foot rhyming worth of comments from graduates The course, !milted to 20 upper- couplets, fair-foot rhyming couplets, indicate that they have absorbed he?' classmen, meets three times a week. quatrains,sonnets, French forms, insights'and continue to benefit from During classdeFordconcentrates odes, and free verse. Students study them, both ip later courses and in on formal elements, seeking, to illus- not only final versions of established _reading for p16 ure after they have trate how form interacts with con- poetry, but earlier drafts asWell from graduated. tent. She begins with rhythm and such poets as Keats, Spender, and Student-poet's 'N also benefit from presents examples of effective verse` Housman, noting in particular the their discovery that there is as much along with those of ineffectifre verse. different effects obtained friim alter- (and usually more) discipline as there udents are assigned poems to read native words and phrases ("To beor is pure inspiration in successful poet- c bined with daily written eker- not to be? What shall I dor). Stu- ry. Throught the semester, deFord cise designed to help them analyze dents study the effects of alliteration willingly readsd cortifne,nts on any formal aspects of the reading. Class and assonance, and they make listsof independent efforstudents care to discussion centers on what the stu- imagistic- words inpoems,after show her, and she ne ly\always sees dents have learned from doMg the "which they attempt their own imagis- their poetry mature. T e rewards of written exercises. tic verse. the course, deFord comments, 'are At the end of studying each new The syllabus is quite detailed about apparent to our graduates who fiat form, students are required to write .what students are expected to do become highschoolandcollege their own poetry using that form. from class to class, and deFord makes teacheri, publishing poets, and mem- Their efforts are then discussed in class discussion equally, precise to bers of the cultural community which class as if each were a poem by a Ma- show why they are doing it. The text reads, hears, anc enjoys poetry." jor poet. This, notes deFord, "almost for the course, Forms of Verse, was For more information: Sara deFord, invariably results in deep apprecia- written by deFord and her colleague 1995 South UniversitAvenue, Den- tiori of the skill of major writers." N Clarissa Lou. Letter grades are never ver, CO 80210, (303) 722-7647.

ing the writing process. They aCly tion 'as operators of audiovisual de- necessary, revised. ents find the various theories of rhetoric and dis- 'ices. For the five weeks of classroom. program sd im ti thatalleys' cuss their potential usefulness in high observation,studentsarepaired have organized extra class sessions school teaching. A balance between wherever possible with courses and on their own time and have even re- theory and practice is achieved by schools which most reflect their in- assembled for discussion after com- working with actual highschool terests. Students also meet for at least pleting Ihe program. students' papers., one two-hour class eachtweek to dis- Howes has made no formal study While focusing on literature, stu- cuss what each has observed. of the progranf,s ultimate impact, but dents sample various approaches to No final exam is given. Instead, the he has seen enough of its graduatesto texts, Seeking to separate those which students write self,evaluations and feel that, in addition to maintaining make literaturestimulatingfrom engage in a session in which the group identity, students continue to those which renderitstultifying. whole program is evaluated and dis- learn in the reflective,integrative They go beyond traditional literature cussed frankly. In fact, all partici- patterns established during the se- to study films; ethnic writing, comic pants in the program evaluate,itron- mester. So far, only two students books, andngs, and analy$ such stantly. Because of the opportunity have decided teaching was not for texts as Invisible Man, As I Lay to respond to the material and to them. The rest have found their in- Dying, nd Beyond the Melting Pot. plan future classes, student motiva- terest confirmed and deepened. As part of the discussion of teach- tion tends to be very high. Students For more infoation: B. ing methods, students take field .trips understand what they are doing and Hovies, Dep nt of English Lan- to media centers and to reading, why, since they have a hand in the guage and Li hire, 7620 Haven writing, and film labs. In addition, decisions. Also, the 1p ogram's goals Hall, UniVersi of Michigan, Ann they train and qualify for certifica- are constantly diss d 'and, when Arbor, JAI (313) 764-6330. it> 52 POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICAL SCIENCE AND 'POLITICAL LIFE by Evron M. Kirkpatrick and Sheilah R. Koeppen

There is too little excellent teaching. The fixed views? The student of physics knowS very little reasons are not hard to find. Good teach- about the field when he takeS his first physics course. ing requires careful thought and extensive The beginning student of politics knows a great deal, preparation. Good teaching is hard work. and much of it has to be unlearned before he can gain Yet today there is at least increasing con- more adequate. knowledge. The trouble is not that he cern with improving teaching, with finding new teach-. doesn't know anything, but that he knows too much ing methods, techniques, aids, and materials. This is that isn't true. true in all disciplines; political science is no exception. All disciplines have to establish channels for intro- It is not the intent of this essay to explore in detail ducing research and new information into theiF pro- what is being done or what ought to be done, but rath- grams. But for political science this mission has an er to concentrate on two contributing difficulties. The added imperative. Not only must the conscientious first is the immediacy of the relationship between the teacher be knowledgeable and up to date in his field, he subject matter of political science and the world it must also be aware of the current events that bring deals with. Everybody knows about politics. People about changes in the institutional and personal pro- read about, politics in papers and news magazines; cesses that his course focuses on. Texts and profession- they hear about politics on the radio and television; it al journals cannot keep pace with events. Hence, the is the subject of conversation with family and friends. political science teacher must also assess and make It evokes strong feelings and leads to inflexible opin- judicious use of newspaper and media reports in teach- ions. How then does the substance of political science ing the theories of political science. The oppoitunities differ from what people receive from these many and the pitfalls of relating scholarship to current issues sources? How does it differ from the daily news and are felt keenly by political scientists. , daily 4ossip? How can students be freed from their A second major difficulty confronting the teacher of EViON#4.KMKPATRICK isdh executive director of the American Political political science is not unique to this digcipline. It is the Science Association. SHEILAH R. KOEPPEN is the director oE the associations Division of Educational Affairs. . dilemma of how to Contribute to a sound liberal edu- , .

58 'cation, while at the same time providing careerlefated courses are important for prelaw students; and in fact, study. Much morehard thought should be, direetedto many master craftsmen in the art of teaching are con- this question, How, different isa professional from a stitutional law professors. 'philosophy and liberal education? Can the two be combined? How?If political theory are importani, not only fora liberal they are separated, what isincluded,ire the one and educatiom but alsO for preparing students toexecute what in the other? Certainly noone tan make political professional tasks ethically and respOnsibly through- scientists out of undergraduates whose professional out' their lives. careers will be in medicine, law, engineering, business, SuCh questions, demand priority attention.Discus- physics, or mathematics.' What should be donefor sions of techniques, pedagogical method, ,and mate- them? ,What can be done for them? How shouldit be rials, can be resolved only after teachers have addressed done? themselves to the issues of.what to teach andto whom. These are the questions political scientists need to There are instructional Methods suited to the Various. ask when they Make decisions about course offerings Specializations, in pOlitiCal science:- internships and and when they advise students. Subfields, of the disci, field wqrlc, personalized andpeer instruction, data pline do introduce undergraduates to the skills, policy 'analysis exercises, simulations andgames, and, of issues, and ethical principles they will need in choosing course, lectures and seminars. Teachers ought to be a career and pursuing professional training even out- provided with training in and information about alter- side the discipline. For example, the analytical skills native instructional techi?iques, strategies, and materi- taught in conjunction with courses on methods ofpo- als to enable them to develop and evaluate the instruc- litical behavior analysis are required formany staff tional methods best suited to theircourses, their own and managerial personnel in public agencies and busi- skills, and their students' .needs. And, most of all, the ness. enterprise's. Public policy courses are important (profession needs to reward adequately those political practical and substantive training for engineers, scien- scientists whq give serious attention to central issues tists, prelaw and premed students. Constitutional law and help to resolve ,them effectively: , 52Political Sciatica

THE SC ENCE IN POLITIC L SCIENCE

by n Egerton

political science a science or part ofclear, comparative studies of politicaland presentation of his material he fol- Isthe liberal arts? Are its closest aca-philosophies, systems, and institutionslows the traditional path of the teach- demic relati es philosophy and law, ordominate the fare; courses emphasizinger lectures, discussion, labs, individual journalism nd sociology, or economicsscientific method and technique do not.. counseling, standard forms of testing and ma atics? Is it and should it Nevertheless, almost every college and and assessment. He has, by the force of bedes riptive or prescriptive? For asuniversity department of political sci-his personality, put his personal stamp long a there has been a discipline calledence does offer a few of these courses on the course, but the emphasis is on ef- political science some say since the in public opinion analysis, for example, fective teaching and not on different or days of Plato and Aristotle.students o or in research methodologyin order to innovative techniques. politics and power have been debatin equip its students with the 1:taSic tech- Beneath the surface, however, the /those questions. And the debate contin-niques and paraphernalia of quantitative coming together of Pride and his stu- ues without resolution. research. At Vanderbilt University, onedents around the subject matter of PS The boundaries of political science iresuch course is PS 201: Political Inquiry, 201 frequently produces a creative ten- imprecisely marked and its interior ter-an introduction to "concepts and pro-sion not commonly found in undergrad- ritories as diversely governed as the na-cedures of scientific investigationin uate classrooms. It is peihaps inevitahlp tion-states its scholars study. The disci-politics." that he should arouse mixed feelings pline has been shaped and structured Political Inquiry has been a fixture in,among hisstudents and,attimes, more by its evolving membership thanthe Vanderbilt curriculum for manyamong his colleagues. He is a complex by any external set of exact laws or anyyears. It is required of all political sci-than teaching a complex course in his ancient philosophy. Before the advent ofence majors, the only course in a list of own distinctive way; a disciplined, de- computers and other forms of modernabout 30 that every undergraduate inmanding, driven individual, pursuing technology, the art-science debate in po-the department must complete. For the excellencein himself and in his stu- litical science was more academic thanpast eight years, in every semester savedents with. single-minded intensity. specific. The term "science" as it wasone, it has been taught by Richard A. The content of PS 201 is peppered then used pertained not so much to Pride, who is now, at 33, a tenured asso- with scientific concepts and techniques. method as to attitude; it involveddisin- ciate professor. During his advance It requires a working knowledge of com- terested inquiry rather ,than formulasfrom the rank of instructor, be\th he and puters and a familiarity with statistical and measurements. Now, however, thethe course with which he is so closely analysis. It has to do with quantitative term is often meant literally. Quantita-identified have acquired an ambivalent research, with theory and hypothesis tive measurement and statistical analysisaura. The same adjectives are often used formation, with interval data, ordinal are now thought to be essential tools inby students to describe the man$andAhe data, and regression analysis. The work- political science research. course. Both are feared, respected, dis- load is heavy and the pace is swift, cul- However much the methods Of scienceliked,enthusiastically ,praised.The minating in a term paper of original and have permeated the study of politics, itwords of one student, written on an quantitative research. All in all, the ex- seems apparent that most political sci-evaluation form, are appropriately typi- perience is viewed by many students as entists, bylraining and inclination, stillcal:"Mustpoliticalscience majors fearsome and formidable, a dreaded view their discipline as belonging to theknow this nonsense?" he asked, adding: ,trial by fire. And Pride is typecast as tkt..E._, liberal arts. As a quick glance at almost"If this course has to be taught, it's damn department's Mr. Methods, the heavy, any department's course offeringi makeswell Pride teaches itl" the cold-eyed analyst doing a necessary JOHN ROSTON is a Implants writer based In On the surface, at least, there is noth- but unpopular task. NnebrWe. Tennessee. His moat retest book le /kg ing extraordinary about .the way, Pride tHarpeee Magazine But appearances are deceivik. Far russA1111,1161 , teaches the course. In the organization from being an impersonal taskmaster,

55 he continually tries to "read" each of hi. itbut not be fooled by it:I also want tors to determine why the Tennessee students, to determine their interests an them to learn that social science inquirygeneral assembly ratifiedtheEqual capabilities and to tailor his respons scan be a very creative process. I'm not Rights Amendment, and then rescinded and demands accordingly. The sta trying to make them into professional the ratification two years later; and- dards he holds before them are the sae political scientists, into academicians. I a systematic examination of the high standards he requires of himself just want them to be able to define prob- Watergate transcripts to measure the hard work, seriousness of purpose, d lems they're interested in, ask the right progression of psychological instability mastery of the subject. In spite of hisd- questions, marshal the evidence, reach in the words and actions of the partici- herence to the scientific method ndsound conclusions, and put them to use. pants as the pressures of disclosure inby implication his devotion to it is I'm not a superquantitative typebutcreased around them. in fact critical of it And skeptical of t ose I'm intent on getting them through this." Pride characterizes Vanderbilt's stu- who would assume that anything ca be The best research papers his studentsdents as "intelligent,ambitious, and measured. In the end, his purpose s to develop not scientists but indepen ent, "The uniqueness of this course is that it is not directedso much at self-motivated thinkers who under tand the establishment of an exclusively scientific epistemologyas at an science and know how to use it. W at he understanding and application of the rigor of ,scientific analysis in seeks to nourish in his students is a criti- general, and the potential uses and limitations of quantitative cal perspective of the processes anda methods in particular." VVilliam C. Havard creative application of theskills.In Dean, College of Arts and Sciences short, his objectives -seem more charac Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University teristic of the liberal arts than of the sci-have produced combine gut interests tremendously talented. But their propen- ences. and originality. "Many schools teach sity is to sit bayk, take notes, and please Nevertheless, Pride is unyielding in students quantitative techniques, but al-the professor. They're very grade con- his insistence that every one of his stu-low them to use secondary analysis scious. Most of my students want into dents produce a tompletely independentother 'people's data. In this course, the law school in the worst sort of way; and original piece of research, and it is data collection and quantitative mea-they know that every grade counts, and that requirement more than anythingsurement must be original. Measure-they work for that. That bothers me. else that does in fact, separate outstand- ment is the great challenge of social sci- They're unwilling to take risks. Yet I 'feel% ing students from ordinary ones and dis- ence, and students in this course are re- that risk taking is one of the best ways tinguish the course from others in thequired to confront unique measurementfor them to realize their potential." department's curriculum. "The research problems in their papers." As examples Reluctantly,Pridegrades hisstu- paper is the key," Pride says. "The.entire of some of the best papers his studentsdents: "I don't like to, but it's impor- effort the idea, the hypothesis, the datahave produced, Pride cites the follow- tantthe students need it, the university collection, the analysis, the final pa- ing: needs it. And I can do it ;I can recognize permust come from the' individual an analysis of certain key votes in quality. Evaluationis verydifficult, student. There's a terrorinthat for the Ninety-fourth Congress to determine though. On exams I sometimes ask ques- some, but there's also a joy in the ac- whether political ideology, more than tions not directly related to the material complishment." any other factor, explains why somewe've covered. Some students think Most of his students, Pride says, "see.members of Congress support environ-that's unfair, but my intent is to make political science as a preparation. for lawmental legislation and others oppose it; them apply what thee learned. I want school, or perhaps journalism or gov- a comparative analysis of four pre-them to show the ability to think for ernment service. They tend to be unin- trial release methods in criminal courtthemselves, to show growth, not just terested in science, statistics, computers, cases, to determine whether bail bond- mechanical thought. They need to know the whole positivistic approach. Many ing is more or less effective than thea lot from me, but a lot has to come faculty members, on the other hand, see other methods; from them, too. There is a need for am- political science as a professionally ori- an examination of individual votesbiguity; there has to be room for cre- ented disciplineleadingtograduate and personal characteristics of legisla-ativity. I'd have to say there is some ten- school, to the PhD. But not all of us sion between my views and theirs on have a keen sense of what the discipline these things." is: it's very eclectic and the boundaries Learning experience: As seriously as he takes his evalua- are not distinct. What I'm mainly inter- tions of his studen he takes their eval- ested inis getting indergraduate stu- Political inquiry. No prerequisites. En- rollment: 20. Required of majors. uations of him. The stu ent make such dents to recognize their talents. to attain judgments atthe conclusion ofthe something beyond the requirements, to Similar programs: course, and they have other opportuni- reach out and do something they didn't Manyuniversitieshave research ties to express themselves anonymously. think they could do." methods courses; however, few are, From those records, a predictably mixed As for quantitative research, Pride be- required and few require as much of picture emerges: "He pushed me, made lieves his students have to grasp it he- the students. me work and grow"..."too heavy a .cause it has become so basic to political Contact: workload"..."best experience so far"... science. "My job is to give them a handle "brilliant but hard to get along with"... on technique, a feeling for the substance. Richard A. Pride, Box 83Station B, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Ten- "demanding, critical, one of the, best so they can see the virtues and the limi- nessee P235, (615) 322-2461. professors"..."exciting to work with a tations of social science research. They professor v.rho is so caught up in what need to.be able to use it and understand he's doing.."too much expected."

56 54Political Science

The evaluations cause me to alter myout, to think for themselves, to show science and at least one other course in behavior:, Pride says. "I have modified that they don't'have to depend on methe department. Most of them,too, the course somewhat over the years they're the ones Iset the pace by. It's have come forewarned and forearmed. pared down the reading assignments, easier to scale down your expectations, Midway through thesemester,they things like that. And if I could, I'd make to make it more, fun. It's easier to be seem to be holding their own, beginning ita two-semester course. Maybeitliked. But if it comes at the expense of a to relax a bit with the man they were would be sound, realistically and intel-diminution of the standardsyou have, told was 'so tough. lectually, to require less of them. But Iat the expense of bright ,students who want so desperately to have them reachdon't accomplish a lot, then you haven't this level, because I know they're cap- really done your best. And neither have On a Friday afternoon in late March, able of it, and I can see no other way to, the students; they're the ones whopay thesubjectiscomputers.The do, it. I worry about it a lot. It's a tor-the penalty. Maybe my expectationsare dreadedresearch paper looms; and ment. I know Pm not always sensitive too high. Mu they're such good students, somehow the computer, a foreign and ,enough to their fear of failure. My .per- , so capable and talented. I couldn't teach forbidding instrument to most of the sonality is not entirely warm, and when this way just anywhere. So I do it, at students, will probably play a part in it. Ichallenge them, make demands, set very great cost to them and me. It's not Pride enters, erases the blackboard, and high standards. it's difficult for some of,always a happy thing." goes to work. He is soft-spoken, busi- them. They take it personally.I chew There are 15, students in PS 201 now, nesslike, unsmiling, "What I want you some of them out, and take others bydown from a high of about 35 a few to see is how simple it really is. Remem- the hand and vtalk them through it, all years ago. The figure reflects a reduction ber, everybody in the computer center based on how I read each one individu-in the number of political science,ma- once came in the front door knowing allyand sometimes f fail,Imisreadibrs, and is, perhaps, another reason fornothing, just like you. Disregard the en- them. On the whole, Pd.have to say I Pride to be concerned about the rigorous gineersyou've got as much right to be reach to the brightest students. I get my standards he sets. (The fact that politicalthere as they do." Behind his rimless kicks when they aim in their great pa-science enrollments are down almost glasses,theslightesttraceof mirth pers. I don't like to admit that, but that'severywhere in this post-Watergate era is shows in his eyes. "No matter iv,hat I tell the way itis. very much on the minds of Pride and his you, you're not going to know' what it's 'The people who are alive intellectual-colleagues.) Mot of the students havereally like until you do-it." Step by step, ly, the ones who are willing to reachhad the introductory course in politicalhe decodes a Fortran statementfor

Vanderbilfs Television News Archive:"A Record of Today for Tomow and After" One of the limitations of television duce most of that information tend to t is it§ fleeting image. Unlike a news- keep little or no record' of it. Tran- paper, which can be kept, clipped, or scripts, logs, videotapes, and audio Microfilmed, the words and pictures recordings have not been readily, that appear on the tube,,quickly dis- available. The purpose of the Van- appear a6c1 retrieval has customarily derbilt project is to fill that void, at been a practical impossibility. least partially; in the words of a uni- In the summer of 1968, Rauk C. versity statement: "to preserve a rec- Simpson, an alumnus of Vanderbilt ord of today for the usefulness of that University, hit upon the idea of vid- record tomorrow .and /after." eotaping the news broadcasts of the For a fee of $2 an hour, users may three major teleyision networks view the tapes in the archive on the, BC, CBS, and NBC. With the uni- Vanderbilt campus. Selected tapes versity's cooperation and with funds .a..y.fists be ordered by mail, subject raised from private donors in Nash- to certain restrictions pertaining to ville, Simpson initiated what has be-apublic showing,rebroadcast,and come the Vanderbilt Television News duplication.Basicrentalcharges Archive. The' collection now com- range from $30 per hour for corn d prises some 4,500 hours of news pro- materials on a specified subjec to $5 grams with about eight hours of tape per hour for audio tapes. A efund- added. to thefiles each week. A able deposit on the materials is also monthly apnotated indexispub-, charged, along with mailing costs and lished. and the tapes are available for research (above and beyond routine rent. reference work) done by the archive Public polls and surveys have staff. The "printed index, with its ab- shovtm that almost two thirds of _the stracts of news broadcasts, is sent American people get most of their in- monthly to about 450 'locations formation from television. Surpris- around the country. Itis currewly ingly, though, the networks that pro- available free of chdrge, but a sue A student compares NBC and CBS news.

1 ' .57 them. frequently interjecting an invita- Another student, Ann McDaniel, took ther on the Political Inquiry course tion:"It there's something you don't PS 201 earlier and is now enrolled in an- and his, handling of it. There is some- understand, please stop me." other of Pride's coursesPolitical Com- thing almost Puritan about his instincts: One of the students is Paul Dickson, a munication. She is using the Vanderbilt Social science research is a necessity; it sophomore. He says later: "I was told toTelevision News Archive (see box) for a cannot be evaded; it must be confronted take this course 'as early as possible be- research project on Henry Kissinger's and,mastered. 'This course is one head- cause it's yery demanding. It's hard, allmedia image, and considers what she long flight to accomplish a goal," he right, but he gives you every chance. I learned in PS 201 a valuable preparation says. "'That headlpng flightis what thipk we're learning how to do research, for her current effort. "Pride kept insis-makes the course uncomfortable for and how to question it. I think I'm doingting that we do our own arfalysis, andsome, but if I didn't do it, they wouldn't -' pretty well." James Powell, a senior, not accept other people's studies uncrit- be prepared to handle the assignment I tried the course once' before and with- ically," she recalls. "Now I'm ,doing that expect them to do. I want to capture drew. Now he's back for a second shot and I feel very confident about it. Attheir attention, to arouse their interest. at it, and after much apprehension is afirst, people are a little afraid of him; he There's a time to lean on them, and a little more at ease: "I used to resent the demands so much of you, and he cantime to make things happy, to relieve fact that this is a required coursethecome off as a bit arrogant. But he al- the pressure. It sounds incredibly man- only oneand I'm still not exactly fasci-ways says, 'I won't know you unless you ipulative, but 1 think that's what teach- nated with the subject matter. But it'scome and talk to me,' and if you go to ing is: a willingness to say, 'It's my re- not as bad as I thought it would be. I ac- him personally, he's very helpful andsponsibility to judge where people are tually enjoy it, really. I'm going to dosupportive. People work hard for him, and hoW Lain get them to where I want my research paper on voting patterns in partly out of fear, but mostly becausethem to be.' And, 6f course, you can the Arkansas state senateLittleRock isthey want to learn. In most courses, ifsucceed and failand I do both." my home townand I'm beginning toyou don't work, you can still get a C. In Despite his misgivings, Pride has com- see how quantitative analysis is essen- his, you'll flunk. I haven't had;a better piled an impressive record of success.% He tial. I think I've really changed my ideas. professor,though.The courseI'm is, says one of his colleague, "a complex I've come to appreciate this approachtaking from him now is more casual guy, not an outgoing person but an, ex- and how it can be used and abused. As than 201, more fun.I really feel very cellent teacher. The department wants for Pride himself, I'd rate him highly in agood about it." its majors to master quantitative re- good department." Back in his office, Pride reflects fur- search; thanks to him, they do." ': (

C. David Philp() ---- scription fee is being considered, Vanderbilt has kept the networks apprised of the project from its be- :et ginning. Neither ABC nor NBC has arcs 1,0 br a.. made'any official response, but CBS eg, has expressed disapproval, and in 1973, five yearafter the tapings were started, the network filed a suit 4. against Vanderbilt in a federal court, charging the university with copy- right violation. While there have I been lengthy depositions and filings in the case, no hearings have yet been held and no injunctions issued to pre- vent further taping. Meanwhile, the service remains available to students and scholars. As a research tool,its potential is enormous. As a supplement to the collections of newspapers and microfilms kept by most libraries, the tapes enlarge the record of the times, and their value appreciates with each passing day. For more information: James P. Pilk- ington,Administrator,Vanderbilt Television News Archive, Joint Uni- versityLibraries, - Nashville,TN 37203, (615) 322-2927.

.5 8 QS. Political Wanes

GAMES / POLITICAL SCIENTI S PLAY

by Jean Dickinson

MESSAGE # 39 ment even from "natural causes"was . (WASHINGTON, D.C.) PRESIDENT FROM: USSR an unexpected embellishment by theFORD SAID TODAY THAT HE WAS TO': *OIL STATES CHINA *SYRIA Soviets (in this case, represented by stu-PERSONALLY GRIEVED AT THE *EGYPT *IRAN 'ISRAEL *USA dents at .I.oyola-Marymount University DEATH OF USSR LEADER BREZHNEV. SENT AT' 13:56 29-MAR-79 in Los Angeles). Were they signaling, byHE SAID THAT HE HAD-FOUND THE way of a flattering obituary, that SovietRUSSIAN SECRETARY "GENUINELY SUBJECT: STATE FUNERAL foreign policy would remain unchanged?INTERESTED IN MAINTAINING. WORLD PEACE AND STRENGTHEN- LEONII3ILYICH BREZHNEV, FORMER Or was this, on the contrary, a subtleING SOWET-US RELATIONS." THE FIRST SECRETARY OF THE COMMU-repudiation of the Brezhnev regime, aUNITED STATES WILL BE REPRESEN- NIST PARTY, DIED IN HIS SLEEP LAST hint of new directions to tome? TED AT BREZHNEV'S FUNERAL BY NIGHT OF NATURAL CAUSES. SECRE- The Santa Barbara students heatedly SECRETARY OF STATE HENRY-KISSIN- TARY BREZHNEV HAD BEEN LIVING discussed the implications of either pos-GER AND VICE PRESIDENT ELLIOT IN RETIREMENT SINCE 1977. SINCEsibility in terms of game strategy. A RICHARDSON.... SUCCEEDING SECRETARY KHRUSH-change in foreign policy could mean in- William Hyder, associate director of CHEV IN OCT. 1964, SEC BREZHNEVcreased stonewalling in the SALT talks. Santa Barbara's POLIS Laboratory, re- HAS PROMOTED RUSSIA TO A POSI-Soviet hardliners were already known to gards the vigorous obituary discussion TION OF PREEMINENCE IN THEbe dissatisfied that SALT had not cov- WORLD TODAY. UNDER HIS GUM: as an important learning experience for AkICE SOVIET TECHNOLOGY ANDered the question of nuclear weaponsthe U:S. team. "The Soviets had some- CULTURE 'HAVE MADE GREATstationed in Western Europe or the pro-thing very definite to convey through ACHIEVEMENTS THAT BENEFIT ALLjected American B-1 bomber force. Itthat flattering message,, but it took the OUR CITIZENS AND WE SHALL RE-could also affect the diplomatic crisisU.S. team a while to see it. That's one MEMBER HIM WITH PRIDE.... hypothesized in the Persian Gulf, where thing we're trying to teach in the game a Soviet naval vessel had collided with a what do these actions really mean?" _The announcement. Brezhnev'sfully loaded Japanese super tanker, re -. POLLS Network diplomatic exercises death came chattering over the tele-leasing some 150,000 tons of crude oillire unique : Such large-scale simulation type terminals'at seven university cam-into Gulf waters. And of course, thereland gathing in international relations puses. As an opening move inthemight be ramifications inthe...eastern has not been attempted. before for edu- POLLS Network spring game, however,Mediterranean, where Egypt's move-cational pOrposes. Over the past seven its significance remained unclearpar-ment away from the Soviet Union wasyears,approximately 1,500 students 'titularly to the United States team at theconsidered by some to be a crowningfrom some 36 colleges and universities University of California's Santa Barbaraachievement of U.S. Toreign policy. have participated,including,during campus. True, the scenario had hypoth- In this instance, the U.S. team de-spring 1974, students at Tokyo Univer- esized recent changes in top Soviet lead-cided, quite correctly as it turned out, tosity, Univerhite Catholique de Louvain ership,butthis"death"announce-interpret the move as a reaffirmation of(Belgium), ind Southampton University Brezhnev-era policies. Several days later (Great Britain). IRAN DICKINSON la &M -laace writer based la the team released the following story to The recent spring game (March 29- Califeenla. the 'World Press": April 23) involved nation-teams from

59 57

Loyola-,,Marymount University, Rutgers University. the University of Kentucky,

California State Universities at Sonoma. szi Chico, and Stanislaus, and the Univer- sity of California at Santa Barbara. It _4.401144 was the twelfthsuchinteruniversity game, to be conducted on the system. Students negotiated with each other via standard teletype terminals linked to a computer-based communications and Information management system at UC ,.

Santa Barbara. . ,POLLS Network isthe creation. of Robert C. Noel, a professor of political science at UC Santa Barbara and director of the POLLS Laboratory (the acro- nym stands for PoliticalInstitutions Simulation/.Noel'srecentlyrevised 22-page scenario. "International Rela- tions ina Multi -Polar World,"isa working scriPt,that encourages students to maneuver thr6"gh a maze of plausi- Noel meets with thecontrol teams while studentscoordinate the U.S. team's plan. ble future foreign .policy .Rroblems, including NATO W. rsaw Pact relations, The exercise is designed to produce good allowing POLCON to monitor commu- strategic armame tnegotiationsbe- analysts of foreign policynot goodnications betweennation- teams. It tween the United S ates and the Soviet actors. 'maintains a canplete data file of the Union. the Arab4 raeliconflict,the Technical requirements for participa-,,gime, and at the conclusion of the four balance of power in the Persian Gulf, tion at each campus location are mini-.weeks provides a printout of the entire ,Sino.Sovietrelations,and thegreat mal: a standardteletypeterminal exercise: Copies are then sent to all par- ower relations in..te Far East. equipped with an acoustic coupler, and ticipating schools. Until His year, Noel "It's not that stuchints learn anything a telephone line to the minicomputer in experimented with student-run control nethrough the game', but they develop the POLLS Labogatory. Students have teams using experienced seniors and the k?towledge on 'a different level,"little difficulty adapting to the equip- first-year graduate students as resource sayseth Thompson, a professor of po- ment. As one UC Santa Barbara student persons. Reluctantly,however, he litica \science at LoyolaWarymount and put it, 'The teletype terminal is just a abandoned the idea. POLCON's role is a four. ear veteran of the POLLS Net-typewriter that spit's back." simply too great a responsibility. work stem. "Students Can take cla ses Overall coordination of the"game is Noel, who has taught at UC Santa and learabout foreign policy dec. Ionmore complex and occurs in the POLLS Barbara since 1963, has a long history making.ut when they're in a P LISLaboratory where Noel and Hyder func- with simulation and gaming. As a grad- game and crisis happens, they nowtion as the umpires or political control'uate student at Northwestern Univer- how itfee s. They know itintheir team (POLCON for tort). POLCON's sity, he assisted Harold Guetzkow, the bones."., role is essential: It makes final decAsions founderofInter-NationSimulation The conseus among instructors inas to plausibility, and thefefore admissi- (INS). His own POLLS Network exer- terviewed is t t the game, Can serve as the corerof an upper-divisiOn course in selected aspects \ of international rela- "A wejliconstructed game does two things that few othei teaching tions. Its effectiveness as a to thing tool, hs devices do as well: It brings the student as close to the experiences however, inevitably depen s on how of decision makers as possible, and it encourages the student to seriously' each -nation-teampproaches seek out the broadest contextual understanding of the problem." its task. "Occasionally there will be a William C. Havard team that doesn't take its part serious- Dean, College of Arts and Sciences ly," says Fred Pearson, a political sci- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University ence professor at the University of Mis- souri. "When that happens you get the bility, of all actions; it provides infor- cises, however, owe more to the work of frustrated feeling it's just a bunch of col- mation on the progress of the game and Herbert Goldhamer and Hans Speier at lege kids fooling around." ; ,, developments inthe world. through the Rand Corporation in 1954', and the Cast in the role of(high-level foreigo news releases aii'd periodic updates of work of Lincoln Bloomfield at MIT in ministry advisors,the students must the scenario; and finally, it takes on all the 1960s. Unlike Guetzkow's carefully plan policy and Implement.it in written of the roles not already provided for in controlled, man-machine simulations in communication on. a daily basis kV the exercise, including all nations and which interaction among hypothetical four-week period. Although encouraged international organizations not repre- nations was ultimately influenced by a to take on the perspective of their as- sented by actual teams, all intranational formal model, Goldhamer, Speier, and signed nation, they are warned againstelements, and all "acts of nature."0 Bloomfield worked on all-man exercises mimicking such redoubtable role models The computer functions as a super in which outcomes of diplomatic and as Henry Kissinger or Andrei GromykO. secretary, processing all messages and military encounters were determined by

6 0 9" W Political Scioto'

a set of umpires. good persons' (about 20-25-)2These dip-volved in the exercise,," says Mann. Noel's own experiments with politicallomatic exercises tend to be quite °in-"They dedicate an enormous amount of gaming via a telecommunications net- volved.". timefar more than they would in a work originated out of the POLIS Lab- For this game (only one week underregular class." oratory, which in turn grew, out of hisway whertI visited in April), Noel was Noel's course demands that students long-held beliefthat simulation andexperimenting with a large, highly spe-prepare a position paper that analyzes \ gaming "addto a student's overallcializedteam..the- UnitedStates.In.-the situation described in the scenario \ learning experience." Early in 1966, aorder to pvide Incite adequate struc-and the problems it poses for their na- routine,bureaucratic announcementture and supervision, he had divided the tion (a requirement for all POLIS Net-, Crossed then assistant professor Noel'sstudentsintoareaspecialtiesU.S. -work nation-teams); participate in pol- desk. The university was building a newRussia,U.S.-Far East, U.S.-Indianicy-making sessions in class; maintain a faOility to house the social sciences, andOcean, U.S.-Eastern Mediterraneanjournal and documentation file on their did thepolitical science oc:epartmentas well as three task forces of economic, role in the exercise; receive and analyze want instructional laboratory space? "Imilitary, and domestic advisors. Themoves sent by the other nation-teams; really 'Limped when I saw that," Noel re-class convened two days per week inaand prepare moves and send them out callsith laughter. quasi-National Security Council/Stateover the telecommunications system. AfterinnumerableproposalsandDepartment high-levelstaff meeting,Students are graded on their participa- much n gotiation, the laboratorywaswith Noel, as "chairperson," hearingtion in the exercise and on a final exam- completed in 1968 and Noel went' inac-oral summations of what had occurredination or paper tailored to their area of tive pursuit of,funds: two competitivein the world and overseeing policyre- specialization. Grades tend to be high grants for innovative teaching projectsvision and strategy discussions. because less enthusiastic students pull ($50,000), a competitive grant from the One begins to see why Noel' is'candidout after the first class meeting, National Science Foundation ($50,000),about his search for "a few goodper- Grades, however, seem refreshingly and special allocations*om the chan-sons." A student can spend up to 48insignificant as a motivating factor. Stu- cellor'sbudgetarysavingsfundshours in interteam interaction, plusup dents refer to the course as "fun," "en- {$70,000). , \ to 9°0 hours in research, preparation ofjoyable," "a reaKhance to apply what Today,, the fOLIS Laboratory \ housesbackground papers,moves, and the we already-rriow." They feel a sense of its own _computer (Digital Equipmentfinal report. "There's no question butresponsibility to teammates; the com- Corporation's POP 11/20)';six low-that Noel gets his students verymuch in-petitive drive is directed outwardover speed, hard-copy terminals; oneigh- the POLIS Network. Seth. Thompson at speed, hard-copy terminal; onegh- Loyola-Marymount has a convincing speed, soft-copy terminal; a comp ete explanation: 'The game buildsan esprit television system withsix tamer s, Learningexperience: de corps because it requires tremendous switchers, and two dozen video mo Laboratory/Seminar in Foreign Policy individual and collective responsibility. tors; an interlab telephone system; an Problems. Prerequisites: International There's also a lot of country identifica- an audio-monitoring system. One larg Relations andlone other coprsp in the tion. When we first started talking about room has moveable walls that can be ar- foreign policy of the major powers, the game last month it was 'us''and 'this rangedto meet the needs of a variety of Enrollment: 25-30 upper-division students. country we're playing.' Now there's no lab classes for the department as a question. 'Us' is the Soviet Union, or whole. Other descriptions:- since we're playing two nation-teams Noel conceived of the laboratory as a "The POLIS Laboratory," American the 'Oil States.'" (As an interesting side- center for wide-ranging, laboratory-or- \Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 12, No. 6, light;it is noteworthy that in over 2,000 iented, social science instructional and 969. I hours of gaming, war has been resorted research activities. Eight of ,the depart: Laboratory for TheoryDevelop- to only once as a means of settling dif- ment's twenty-one faculty Members reg- ent Through Simulated Environ- ferences.) ular,ly use the 'facility for lab sections. mOnts," in R. Smith led.), Social Sci- Noel's Foreign Policy Lab/Seminar Others are occasional users, and some enee Methods: A New Introduction., NeW York: The Free Press, forth- students are unanimously enthusiastic. have rarely entered the facility: Noel's Teri Weiner, a senior who has com- departmentchairman,. Dean Mann, coming. "Addifonal publications are available pleted two political science internships hoWever, remains unconcerned: "Not throb h thb POLIS Laboratory. in Washington, D.C., and Mexico City, everyoue should use the jab- Simulation expressed her initial misgivings: "At is only one approach to understanding Similar programs: first I'thought it might turn out to be just add learning. Students would be heartily Over 35\ institutions participate in the a game. But people are seriously work- "sick of simulation if every class had an POLIS Network exercises, including ing, and it's the most exciting class I've exercise." Dartmouth College, the University of had in four years, other than my intern- Spring quarter, 23 UC Santa Barbara Kentucky, Douglass College at Rut- ships." Michael Fitzpatrick, a senior on studentsenrolledinNoel'sForeign gers Unixisity, Memphis State Uni- the U.S.-Economic task force, talked Policy Lab/Seminar, a three-unit course versity,:anthe University of Missouri at St.. Louis, about the game's value as a "tough ap- built around participation in the POLIS proximation of how the world works." Network game. All were upper-division Contact: \'' Gathering up his books, he was off to students with considerable background Robert C. No8I or William D. Hyder, the library to research the productivity in international relations and' foreign DepartmentofPolitical Science, Uni- of the OPEC nations. "After studying policy, ,courses. As Noel put it in his versity of California, Santa Barbara, economics for fOur years, I'm finding course announcement :"We, like the California 93106, 1805) 961-3628. that what is good economically is not U.S. Marines, are looking for a 'few necessarily °good politichlly," he said

61 -

POLIS LABORATORY (partial floorplan)

moveable "Trackwalle"

I N TER70ft CC GNOMIC AFFAIRS INOLKA,11111 1001Amr LIBRARY.

NEAR EAST WESTERN EUROPEAN ARMS C AND PACIFIC AFFAIRS CONTROL SOUTH ASIAN AFFAIRS AFFAIRS AND DISAPAANOM 'MILITARY W AFFAIRS

CONTROL CENTER NMI PLENARY MEETINGS A]IA mews. fr.w.,4 IAO /SAWN LASTEAN ., n A 30V ( AIWA COSINIAl trICIAA 41C (Hat M10. A5 olk Awar 1.111.1,1 CUROIL COMAS T °MI Facilities.are available to itudents for terminal access, individual study and research, and ad hoc meeti Igs. ruefully. Guy Leo, a military advisor on Noel insists that his students becomefrom the game e perience. the U.S.-Middle East task force, said hesophisticated analysts of the internation- As one of the -products of his ex- took the course because he was inter-al sceneeven if they never seek em-perimentation, Nol plans to write a ested in power balances. "I'm learningployment at the State Department. Hemanual that willuide instructors in thatdiplomacyisacat-and-mousedoes not, however, argue that simula-running larger, rnor specialized teams. game. Right now we're waiting for the tion should reforace the lecture method,"I'm convinced now that students need Soviets to come to us with specific pro-case studies, or area studies. In responsemore supervision," says. "For, one posals on SALT, If they initiate first, to the criticism that POLIS Network ex-thing, it's very hard to :et students to do then we'll have the upper hand." ercises are "fun and games" andWit"easy the detective work A if bibliogiaphic out" for the advanced student, Noel'ssearching. Few will really track down reply is simple: "What's wrong withreferences, and there'so use blithely For those who question the value of ,having a course which allows studentspretending they do." el dreams of experiential dabblingininterna- to apply ideas learned from backgroundsomeday providing PIS NetWork tional diplomacy, Noel and hiscol- reading and other, more traditionalparticipants with manua s,bibliogra- leagues muster convincing arguments.classes?", phies, reprints, and ,perhap even news- "We try to create a realistic environment At present, no formal, t ystematicclippings. Having such aet of docu- for students, but it is also very impor-evaluation is under way for either thements, he insists, will upgra A e the qual- tant for them to occasionally step out- POLIS Network or Noel's own Foreign.ity of each team's performa ce. side that environment and look at thePolicy Lab/Seminar. "Motivational ef- Noel's biggest concern at the moment, game as observers," says Associate Di-fectiveness has been the principal finding however, is the communicatio s cost for !Actor Hyder. "Just as they would ob-in past evaluations of simulation andcolleges and universities that p rticipate serve the real world as social scientists,gaming," Noel says. "I don't need to dooutside ofCalifornia.Altho gh he it's important for them to ask criticalanother systematic study to discovercharges only $100 per nation- am to questions about the simulated world: that games motivate students. I alreadyplay in a POLLS Network gamlong- Where is the behavior irothe simulatedknow that happens.", distance telephone gatesforastern world actually modeling what goes on in He does, however, plan to modify hisschoolslan run $500 or more, a st, wr- the real world? How isitdifferent?Foreign Policy Lab/Seminar to include aing financial burden for some d part- What can I learn from it? At the sametechnique from international relationsments. Noel is mulling over several pos- time we're building something, we'reresearch methodologyevents/interac-sible solutions,for example, a regional trying to get the students to tearit tion analysis. Students will be asked tosatellite network that would make com- down." relate every move to an explicit list oflhunication from the East Coast the Jonathan Wilkenfeld at the Universitysome 22 types of interaction :Is ita equivalent of a local call. of Maryland insists that learning is fur-,threat? A yield? Who are the intended Meranwhile, in spite of Ma Bell, there ther enhanced when students represent a direct objects? Who are the intended inis enough enthusiasm fr students and country other than the ,United States. direct objects? The technique is designed faculty alike to guarantee e rtsion of "There's great value in immersing one-to sensitize students to more subtle gra-the POLIS Network system. "let now self in the perspective of another coun-dations of actions in international we've got enough regular player to run try,particularlya Third or Fourth It should also provide (through either one big game or two medi m-size World nation. At its most bask level,pretests and posttests) useful, .data togames a year. With a solution to, the the game teaches students to be betterassess whether students do indeed learn long-distance telephone call, w could readers of the newspaper." intellectually, as well as emotionally, really open it up."

6A., 110' Political Science

EQUALIZING THE OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN

by C: Eric Lincoln

San Marcos is the home of South-students with greater effectiveness with-PSI students scored higher Than their west Texas State University, the in-out increasing the course load of full- traditionally taught counterparts; there stitution from which Lyndon Bainesiiine faculty andwithout hiring anywas also a wholly unexpected result: Johnson received his baccalaureate de-more part-time teachers. To that end, it Spanish-American students in the PSI gree in education. It has come a longwas finally decided to give the Kellersections scored 9 percent higher than way from a small teacber's college, andMethod a trial run. The Keller Method,theii coVadres inthetraditionally today with 13,000 students it is looking of which PSI is a variant, had earnedtaught coilfses, and managed to perform for distinctions besides the alumnus whohigh marks in certain disciplines (partic-as well as the Anglo majority in the first. brought, itto national attention. ularly psychology) at some very respect-same sections. 0- The recent work of two young politicalable institutions. It was enthusiastically Despite the fact that Spanish Ameri- scienceprofessors may helpthings urged on the department by professorscans constitute a slight majority of the, along. Indeed, the implications of thewho had seen it at work. Named for itspopulation in San Marcos, they repre- preliminary findings by professors Wil-originator, Fred S. Keller, a Columbiasent less 'than 6 percent of the college lard B. Stouffer and George M. Wein-University psychologist, it stresses inter- population at Southwest Texas State. By terger may reach far beyond anythingpersonal instruction and typically re-college standards, they are considered the two professors had in mind whenquires the student, proceeding at hiseducationally disadvantaged, which is they issued-their "Preliminary Report onown pace, to master a giverunumber ofto say they lack certain fundamental ex- the Impact of PSI on Spanish Surnamedunits of carefully selected material. A riences tom tostudents who Students." tendance at lectures is optional, and t me from white, middle-class back- PSI (Proctorial System of Instruction)student's responsibilityislimited to rounds. As a result, and to no one's was first used at Southwest Texas Statepassing short, objectiire unit tests based'surprise, they, scored significantly lower in 1973 in an effort to find a practical on what he has read rather than on whatthan Anglo students at the beginning of means of dealing with a required coursehe has heardor is presumed to have the course. What did astonish everyone (Political Science 2.310Principles ofheard. It was thus assumed at Southwest'was that by the end of the semester, the Anierican and Texas Government) thatTexas State that Posi 2310; a surveySpanish-surnamed students enrolled in had too many students, too many sec-course, could be effectively taught viathe PSI sections of Political Science 2310 tions, and not enough teachersa ratherthe Keller MethO4 using graduate stu-had closed the performance gap between common phenomenon in contemporarydents as instructors with no sacrifice ofthemselves and the Anglo majority. higher education. The hopeequallyquality. The graduate 'students would be The unusual' success of this course,. commonwas to devise a means where-under the supervision of a full time fac-particularly for educationally disadvan- by fewer professors might teach moreulty member. taged students, suggests a closer look During the spring ofb1973, six sections C. ERIC LINCOLN'S essays on education have ap- from the perspectives of both content peared in Daedalus, the !ennui' of Negro Educa- of Political Science 2310 were taught byand methodology: In the first place, it is tion. and other major liters I, and seven were taught by the tradi,- professor of religion at D e University and the important to emphasize' that the Keller tenser director of the Division of Humanities at tional lecture-discussion method. At the thod rekq,heavily on the assumption risk University, . end of the course, it was noted that thetha immediate positive reinforcement

s3 7 61 ).

the reward a student nets from success- structor, who discusses it wi h the stu-fered in the spring of 1973, the teaching fully negotiating a u it of instruction of dent to see if he understands te materialfaculty had already been prepared in a passing an examin tionis critical to covered. If so, the student ma then begraduate seminar on the Keller Method. continued motivation. Delayedrein-tested orally on any 10 cards s lected by Literature on PSI was studied and dis- forcement informing the student of his the instructor. If he passes at 90 per-cussed, and drafts of units for a Keller success days or weeks afterit,has oc-'tent level, mastery is assumed and theMethod approach to Political Scienle curredis considered oflittleor, nostudent may move to the nextnit. The2310 were prepared and evaluated value as an incentive. Hence, in the PSI courses, every effort is made to grade a student's unit test and return it to him within the hd'ur that the test is admin- "The effectiveness of thKeller Method as a means of teaching istered. educationally deprived st dents provides a. general lesson in how to Similarly, punishment is c,pnsidered cope with the catch-up problem without resorting to remedial edu- detrimental to effective learning.If a cation or frustrating the goal of universal higher education" student fails a test, he is not chidedarid William C. Havard re is no penalty for failure or retest- Dean, College of Arts and Sciences ing. If the student wishes, the instructor Virgibia Polytechnic Institute and State willp int out weaknesses and suggest

*Naysofercorning them. Students are 0 - urge& to to full advantage of the in-deck option is designed to avoid re-'When classes began, students were given structor's ow ility for constructivepeated testing where there is little evi-.handouts carefully explaining the Keller help, but instructorre very careful hot dence that a- written test would be suc-Method, and the 'study guides were to impose counseling on their own initi- cessfully negotiated.' ready for\distribution. Of the six PSI ative. One student admitted that only'in Principles of American and TExas sections,four weretaught by two thePSIclass did_he really feel like anGovernment is the first half of a two- graduatestudents, and two were taught adult. "14.26 it OK," he said, "I havecourse sequence required of all degree by a full-time member of the faculty. done it ror myself. IN flunk it, nobodycandidates' at Southwest Texas' Statg. It Similarly, two graduate students taught makes me feel foolish," introduces the student to the nature of four of the sections using the conven- A second element of critial impor-political science and the major political tional lecture method, while the other tance to the PSI approach is that learn- institutions in 'the:nation and the state. three sections were taught by a full-time ing is a matter of recall rather than .of Acsnoted earlier, 6 of.13 sections of the member' of the faculty. recognition. The cultivation of memory, course are taught by PSI while the re- It soon became apparent that the stu- even to the point of memorizing, is en-maining 7 are taught by conventional dents' choice of section& was made pri- couraged.To.facilitate the developmentmethods. All sections use the same re- marily on the basis of convenience, but of recall techniques, the materials to be quired texts, althOugh each professor since both the PSI and the conventional covered in the course are organized into may offer supplementary rnateciall. sections were offered at both convenient 15 units of 4 parts each. These four parts When the PSI courses were first of-&and less convenient tinies,there ap- include a philosophical objective,as- peared to be no qualitative difference signed reading, a list of behavioral ob- Learning eVerience: between the students registered in the re, jectives, and a sample test consisting of Principles of Ambrican and Texas spective sections. Nor is it dear yet that five or more objective questions. The Government. No prerequisites.En- one section or another stimulated more behavioral objectives (for example, "list rollment: 1500. interest in the subject matter of the six characteristics that all political sys- course because of the method of instruc- tems have in common") require in-depth Other descriptions: tion. the attitudes of students in both "PSI at Southwest Texas State Uni- re4ing that inevitably broadens the stu sections (other than those planning to detrt's information base beyond what is versity," Division of Educational Af- fairs Newsletter, American 'Political major in political science) seemed to be needed to answer the specific questions Science Association, Summer 1975. that the course was a requirement that he-is researching. A, kind of holistic per- "The Impact of PSI on Spanish' Sur- had to be dealt with rather than a unique ception is acquired that contributes to named Students: A Preliminary Anal- opportunity to learn about the systems: the student's overall academic readiness. ysis," paper presented at the annual of federal and state government. This ap- Since mere recognition is uncertain and meeting of the Southwestern Political peared to be no mere or less true of the Prcontextual, it is unreliable for a long Science Association, 1975. Spanish-surnamed students than of 'the haul covering'not 1 but 15 units, and a Similar courses: others. It would seem a reasonqible ex- final comprehensive exam. pectation that since more Spanish stii- A studentmay take a written unit test Oaklancltommunity College, Bloom- field, Michigan; University of Texas at dents do well under tlKeller Methgd at, as many times as necessary to earn a Permian Basin; University of Utah; the introductory level of political sci- passing grade. While there is no penalty and State University of New York ence, there might be increased interest forfailure, after five unsuccessful at- College at ,Brockport. alid achievement in that discipline at tempts on the same unit he is given an more advanced levels. A more refined oral test known as a "deck option." A Contact evaluation of the data now being accum- deck is a number of index cards, each of Willard B. Stouffer or George Wein- ulated will undoubtedly shed light on which has a question on one side, -with berger, Department of Political Sci- that possibility. For now, the burdbn of the material from which the answerde-, ence, Southwest Texas State Univer- sity, San Marcos, Texas 78666, (512) the findiit.Southwest Texas State is rives on the other. After studying the 245-2111. that the Proctaial System of Instrue- deck, the student takes it backto the in- tion may well be a solution to the re- ) 6,4. 62Political Science

quired course prdblem. for reassessment or change of opinion. or slowing down the majority students PSI avoids large lecture sections, prb-However, when iti seemed clear that the performing at normative levels. If true, 0. vides for more students; .and givesperformance of the Spanish-Americanthis could signal one of the more signifi- graduate students ,some teaching exper-students' in Posi 2310 was definitelycant educational advances in many de- ience. The cost of teaching Political Sci-atypical,StoufferandWginbergercades. ence 2310 via the Keller Method is onlywidened their research interests to pro- The ,critical quatfon of courseis $11.66 per student per semester hour asvide statistical docuMentation of whatWhy?, and that is the question the San compared with $17.88 for traditional in-was in fact taking place. Marcos report does not answer. Unfor- struction, a savings of $6.22 with no Their, ,operating hypothesis correctlytunately, therOreliminary nat re of the sacrifice of learning on the part o*therecognized that most American institu-research cannot provide the d to needed student. All of this is supported by sta-tions assume as a matter of course thatfor reconstructing some ofur educa- tistical measurements offered by thetheir significant clientele will be white, tional concepts, but Stouffer and Wein- L teachers involved inthe experiment.middle-class Americans; that studentsberger have offered some tentative sug- However, it is the incidental and unex-who are not from thiS group will be at agestions as to why certain normative ex-, pected findings concerning the perfor-disadvantage because of the prior as-pectations about the educationally dis- mance of underprepared students thatsumptions of the educational system; advantaged may have been upset. First, may in the long run outweigh the valuet tea t the impact of underprepared stu-any lecture course would be especially of PSI as merely a way of dealing withdents on the educational system issignif-taxing for Spanish Americans because it excessive required course loads., icant but not yet fully determined; andwould be offered in English, a second that thesuccessful,integration of the un language for many of them. This would derprepared into the larger society is re-pose problems of attention span and. Despite the fact that their initial related% to educational performance.It vocabulary. By extension,this may search was directed toward han-seemed reasonable, therefore, to regardapply to other minority groups. PSI, dling a nuts-and-bolts course in politicalany deviation In academic performancehowever, .focused on private reading seree, professors Stouffer and Wein-as important and worth investigating. rather than on trying to catch and inter- erger were sufficiently sensitive to thee. When Stouffer and Weinberger found pret an oral lecture. learning problems of minority studentsthat Spanish Americans enrolled in the The lecture-discussion method may to recognize immediately any shift in PSIsectionsperformedbetterthan also be intimidating to minority students theirtraditionalpatterns ofperfor-Spanish Americans taught by traditional in a majOrity group. They tend not to mance. This kind of alertness is not to be methods; that they performed as well as ask questions needed for clarification, , taken for granted. A more common re-Anglos in the same sections;' and that and are often: self-conscious and over- sponse in the teaching profession is toAnglo students in PSI sections scoredanxious when asked to participate in dis- accept in the beginning the stereotype ofhigher than Anglos in the conventionalcussions. PSI eliminates the traditional underperformance by educationally de-sections, the implication. was that PSI physiell setting and does away with prived students, and to .be from thathad apparently enabled .the minorityclassroom discussion. A student with point oneforever oblivious to any reasonstudents to catch up without penalizing problems consults' the professor on a

Developing Research Skills

In 1965, the University of Michigan's of the statistics. But through a pro.- American govemmen, duringa Center for POlitical Studies conduc- gram called SETUPS, Jennings's fas- summer workshop in 1 74 funded by ted lengthy interviews' with gradu- cinating data are currently being the National Science Foundation. ating high school seniors and their analyzed by undergraduate students After a year of extensive field study pIrents drawn from all social and on many college and university cam- and evaluation had shown them to be geographical areas oftheUnited puses. effective teathing tools,the seven States. The purpose of the study, di- SETUPS, which stands for Supple- .modules on American politics were rected by M.. Kent. Jennings, was to mentary Empirical Teaching Units in releaied for distribution. obtain the opir>'ions of the two gener- Political Science, is a program de- Each module ,contains an essay, a ations on a wide variety of political weloped by the American Political..series of integrated exercises, a dis- and nonpolitical subjects. Eight years Science Association '(APSA) incol- cussion of the methodological tools later, in 1973,othe Michigan research- laboration with the Inter - University needed to complete the exercises, and ers interviewed some of these same Consortium for Political an a data set, with notebook to guide Individuals again (in all,e62 pairs of Research in Ann Arbor. imect at access to the data. Now being uoed at parents and c , making it pos- stimulating undergraduate students 145 colleges Ind universities,the sible_to-see ow opinions of this large to independent and critical thinking, SETUPS monographs on American -santilitig of Amerieans changed over the program has produced a series of politics cover a wide variety of sub- one of the most turbulent time spans modules that give students access to jects: political participation, votin in the nation's history. timely data otherwise not available behavior inthe 1972 Presidential The overall results of the survey for classcoom use, allowing them to election, a comparison of, political were widely publicized at the time, learn quantitative skills often devel- parties, representation in the U.S-. but the enormous amount of data oped only in the, hard sciences. Congress in 1973, analysis of the generated was so unwieldy as to The mo ule ere prepared by Supreme Court, energy and environ- make itdifficult for teachers and group of. po iticalscientists,all of mental problems, and the budgetary even .researchels .t o Take wider use Whom hadexperienceteaing process, Over 11,000 copies of the

_ 6 5 personal basis to clear up whatever isSpanish-derived cultures are not initiallyothers outside the normative experience bothering him. Each studentis. alsogeared to the concept of time inheritedof white, micldle-class America whose given a study guide at the beginning offrom the protestant ethic. Stouffer andacademic and cultural readiness is none- the course. The guide is very clear aboutWeinberger also found that students ac-theless measured by such normative what is expected;as lecturersoften customed to being spoon-fed were soonstandards. Some nine million American aren't. Reading can, therefore, be moredisench'anted.with PSI. One protninentschool-age childrenareoutsidethee precisely and more profitably focused.feature of the Keller Method is that theAnglo tradition, and so by normative The student no longer needs to listen tolocus of responsibility is clear atall standards must be considered cultirally an entire lecture while trying to memor-times. This in 'itself is frustrating to stu-deprived. English must be considered a ize it in prayerful hope that the'part re-dents frightened by the realization thatsecond language for atleast h of membered will turn up on the examina-they.are essentially on their own. Andthese, and a large majority ofe se- tion. Finally, because reading is stressedfinally, there is an unusually high drop- mainder probably have no fuctional in PSI, the educationally deprived stu-,.,out rate; the rate of failure for bothcommand of English at the Ang level dent is continually forced to use theSpanish-American and Anglo studentsof communication. Disillusionmet sets most basic academic tool. This is self-re-in the PSI sections is.much higher thanin early, the drop-out rate is high,and warding. And again, when he turns in afor those taught by traditional methods.the "superior virtues" of the Anglo s c- unitexamination,itisimmediately Stouffer and Weinbergeiare under-trum ,,of values become unchallenge scored and returned. This instant feed-standablky cautious when interpretingself-fulfilling prophecies. back is another incentive for pushingthe results of their preliminary research. Such a situation cannot be healthy for ahead. The student proceeds at a com-"Our findings," they concede, "do nota e nation of diverse population. fortable pace, avoiding the lock-step of rove anything; they simply suggestPerhap for that reason it is otir educa- traditional instruction. ssibilities for further research.... (But)tional stem itself that has the greatest That said, the picture is clouded by iour preliminary findings are substan- stake in what seems to be hap- certairt, disadvantages that seem to ac- tiated by further research, then PSI t San Marcos. In the world we company the Keller Method. First, thereoffers, a real opportunity for Spanish- tomorrow, so arbitrary", a provin- are problems of time managemeht. Sincesurnamed students to close the perfor-cialism in the education of the American students may take (and fail) the unitmance gap between themselves and the people may be an anachronism we can tests ariunlimited number of times with-majority of the student population." N. ill afford to maintain. Nor should the in- out penalty, the tendency to procrasti- That is as far as they are willing to go. terest in the experiment be limited to po- nate is strong. The question of timeAnd that is far enough on the basis oflitical science. PSI has been tried exten- management remind§ one, too, that notthe data on hand. But hope is neversively in classes in psychology. Now enough is known about possible varia-bound by what we know;, indeed, hopethat it shows. promise in at least one tions in time perception and applicati-63v,is the willingness to risk a stake in whatother disciplin,other' experiments in within various American subcultures.we don't know. The stake in the Sanother fieldsould seem to be in order, There seems to be good evidence, for ex-Marcos experiment is not just for Span-perhaps all levels of the educational ample,thatAfrican-,Indian-,andish Americans, but for the millions ofenterprise.

American politics modules have.been ofchildren and parents changed things on faith. They really learn by ordered from APSA, which serves as party affiliation from 1965 to 1973 doing." the distributor. A new series of mod- to more sophisticated analysis. Helping to develop and use the ulescoveringcross-nationaland Ideally, the SETUPS materials pro- SETUP aterials has been,for world politics is presently undergo- vide students with a fund of empiri- Beck, "the ost gratifying and ex- ing field study and is expected to be cal data and teach them how to ana- citing expenee of my six years in available in January 1977. lyze the information. Students thus undergraduateaching." He repolts One enthusiastic SETUPS user is get both the medium and the mes- that students only enjoy working Paul Allen Beck, 32, associate profes- sage. In the process they are given the with SETUPmaterials but also sor of political science at the Univer- opportunity to do definitive investi2 acquire"considerableinsightinto si ittsburgh and coauthor gations of real-world phenomena this type of political research." And, with Jereruner and L, Douglas hands-on experience with data from he adds, many are so strongly moti- -Dobsonof the monograph based lar§e 'statistical bases otherwise un- vated that they do much more data on the Michigan- gineratdonalre- available. analysis thaa4s required. As -with search. A highly important objective Beck, for one, believes the SETUPS may of the professOrs using SET- of the SETUPS' program, Beck be- modulesrepresentasignificant UPS' modules, Beck has nate& that lieves, is to "involve students in the breakthrough in higher education by his own ratings as a teacher have process of empirical research." His getting students directly involved in risen dramatically. He feels. assured' students reach their own conclusions research.The conventionalpro- that his effectiveness has been "influ- based on their own computerized ex- cedure in political science courses is enced substantially by the SETUPS amination of the data, all the while for students to read textbooks and m4dules." ing about Americans and about belieye what,they read," he says. "In For more information: Paul Allen thems yes. In the case of the genera- a sense, they become captives of Beck, Department of Political Sci- tional re earth, students move from those who write the books. With ence, University of Pittsburgh, Pitts- relatively raw datawhat percentage SETUPS,theydon'tjustaccept burgh, PA 15260, (41.,) 624-5501.

6 olkical Scionci

APPLYING POLITICAL THEORY

by William R. Grant

linor Ostrom, an Indiana Univer-borhood-based departments. The Focal fining their work, they inake decisions Esity professor of political science,government had been discussing theabout what kinds of activities can bp has focused much4f her resea ch On thepossibility of combining all of the de-measured, what makes a good question, implications of various poll choices, partments into a single metropolitanwhat are the most useful observations especially those proposed as aearls ofpolice agency, and Ostrom's studentsand records to keep, and what effect reforming the &livery of urban services. decided to try to determine which sys-their data can be expected to have on She arrived at the use of field work as a tem delivers better service. The primarypolicy recommendations. teaching tool for undergraduates almostmethod they used was survey research Research is studied not for its'own by accident. In the fall semester of 1969,to measure the perceptions of 'citizenssake but as a prelude to the field work, , Ostrom taught a graduate seminar inabout their experiences with police andas one method ofputtingpolitical which students surveyed the literaturepolice services. theory to the test. The field work is crit- on different methods for measuring the The theoretical underpinnings of theical, Ostrom believes, since "it is pos- output of public agencies as preparationIndianapolis study are typical of Os-sibleto reformand make things worse." for field work the foUowing spring.trom's approach. In all of the courses,As the field work gets under way, stu-. During the spring semester she was also Ostrom explains, lere is an attempt todents are constantly encouraged to keep assigned to. teach a sophomore honorslook at some major political, institu-clear the connection between what they seminar. Those students wanted to gettional variable that is being consideredare 'flg and the theory behind it. Ulti- into field work and it was decided, afterfor the reform of the delivery of urbarimate the 1970 Indianapolis study, long discussion, to combine the work ofservices." the stude uestioried the wisdom of the graduate and undergraduate classes. In the ear es of each of Ostrom's creating sile cotaywide agency, Indiana University, located in Bloom-field study courses, s is first focusconcluding that smal munities were ington, is a large and complex institu-on the broad social theories tainflu-served best by their independent police tion, and its political scienc?-depart-ence policy making. In the case of policedepartments. ment, with 35 faculty members and 120reform, this might include readings that A second study, undertaken at the graduate students in residence, is one ofdescribe police activities in diverse set-suggestion of black students, involved a the nation's largest. Some 110 under-tings, literature that presents opposingsimilar look at police service in largely graduates and 30 graduate students haveviews of the role of police, and studiesblack communities, in and around Chi- taken four courses^directed by Ostromthat have attempted to quantify services. cago. That study found that, although that involve field study and are designedStudents go on to examine' the limita-14 times more money was spent in the to relate political theory to a real-lifetions of previous research and the diffi-Chicago neighborhoods, citizens in sub- petting. In 1970, the first group electedculties of measuring public goods in gen-urban neighborhoods felt they received to measure the performance of the near-eral. Then the students and instructorsimilar levelsof service. These two byIndianapolispolicedepartmentdesign their own instruments for mea-small-scale studies spawned a much against that of several smaller,S neigh-suringwhich may^ include intertiewlarger effort in the spring term of 1972 schedules, observation forms, record or WILLIAM R. GRANT is the education writer for the when about 55 graduate arid undergrad- Detroit Free Press. accounting sheets, and the like. In re-uate students spent 10 days doing simi-

rr lar field work in the St. Louis area. partment of the Workshop in Politicalcies, including some that normally do In the spring of 1974, Ostrom's stu,Theory and Policy Analysis. She andnot underwrite student-conducted re- dents went back to Indianapolis to mea- her hushid,..also an IU professor Of po- search, are satisfied with the caliber of sure two other urban services,street litical science, were the moving forces. the work. lighting and road conditions. ManyThe Aorkshop provides a headquarters This is all the more notable,since un- preparation session's were spent in thefor thj field study courses, as well a's adergraduates who take one of Ostrom's middle of a Bloomington street arguing regular secretarial staff and other amen-courses are not required to have com- about just how big a hole in the pave- ities that were lacking in the early years. pleted any prerequisites. The courses are ment had to be in order to be considered.It is a loose confederation of studentselectives, and Ostrom or one of her as- a "pothole." Amoigg the results of theand faculty whose basic common de-sociates interviews all students before project was a published packet of in. aterials that describe the various deVic'es "Starting from an established base of theory, students are able to students developed to measure street-- - examine its application to concrete problems, and in the process light output and road conditions. arrive at conclusions that confirm, challenge, or modify their theoretical preconceptions." William C. Havard Dean;College of Arts and Sciences h he fifth field study, which will take Virginia Polytechni d Institute and State University T.place ddring the 1076-77 academic yeartn three as yet unchosen metropoli-nominator is their interest in the politi-they are permitted to enroll, to deter- .. tan areas, will again focus on police ser-'cal theories that have characterized themine that the student has "a little matur- "vice. The earlier courses involved sur- Ostroms's work. The workshop's nameity" and that hee, or she i-ecogniies' the vey research, for which students werewas chosen carefully to reflect the con-amount and kind of work that will be, extensively trained in interviewing tech- cern for linking theory and policy. done. niques. This time the field work will in- In a littletbver two years the work- .The course is a difficult one to teach, volve observation. Students will ride in shop has generated $951,890 in grantssince students are involved from the in- police cars and observe at the dispatch and $236,426 in overhead funds to theitial research design to analyzing the desks in police stations, and training will.university, including a grant from thedata, and Ostrom walks a narrow line focus on observation techniques. TheNational Science Foundation that sup-between running the course herself and experience of earlier courses has taught ported the 1974 Indianapolis field workletting the students run it collectively. Ostrom that theory and practice do not on gtreet lights arid roads. The outsideStudents are lost if the instructor does fit comfortably into a single semester. funding is important, Ostrom says, notnot provide structure,she says. She From now on,wheneverpossible, only because it allows the projects to bekeeps the work well grounded in politi- courses will extend over a full year. undertaken but because it underscores incal theory and is responsible for seeing The field work has.brought theory iothe students' minds that the research isthat the research design of any field life. "So much of undergraduate educa-genuine and thatthe methods usedwork is of a quality that will yield data tion is passive," Ostrom says. "You read "must be professional from ground zero.worthy of publication. a book or see a film." It is possible, she This is a real study with results that will Students have, considerable .latitude wrote in one review of her courses,for be published," Ostrom tells her students, within those bounds, hoviever, and Os- preparations in regular courses to dealand the work is expected to measure up.trom cautions instructors who would try with a formal body of knowledge with-The fact that grants continue to come into use such a class simply as a means of out encouraging students to become in- isan indicationthat funding agen-carrying out a faculty designed research dependent thinkers and pursue work as package. "Don't tHink of undertaking productive scholars." research with students as a cheap way of For the first three years these coarses Learning experience: Workshop inPolitical Theory and getting tour research done;" she says. were an idea in search of a home, The Policy Analysis. Three courses of- Students will be "doing your busy work first Indianapolis study wasdeveloped fered: Public Policy Analysis: Police, and they'll know it." quickly, in response to thetudents' de- enrollment: 25; Service Delivery in An instructor also should pot under =, sire to get into the field, and it repre- U.S.Cities,enrollment: 15; and Politi- take such a project unless prepared for sented a last-minute reshaping'of a po- cal Theory and Policy Analysis, enroll the conflict that comes from what Os- litical scienceclass that ,had been in- Tent: 50. trom calls "intellectual ferment." There tended largely as a reading course. Time was plenty of argument among students was not available tcbsearch for funds, Other descriptions: in each of the courses over which spe- and the whole project was carded out --'-'VenturesinTeachingand Re-" search," The Review (Indiana Univer- cific questions-'would be asked in the for less than $g00. Other courses we're sity -Aluynni Association), Vol.. 16, surveys. One student remembers hold- offered through whatever department Winter 1975. ing out at length for one series of, ques- had funds,to support them. The Chicago Urbah Policy Analysis: An Institution-, tions until finally his views were ac- study was aided with a grant from the alApproach.WApington, D.C.: cepted by the others. The student found, I'Ll Afro-American Studies Program ; 'the American Association for the Ad- however, that the data collected were not university's urban affairs program has vancement of Science, forthcoming. very useful because the questions-had contributed some aiiiii; and the St. Louis not been specific enough..Ostrom is the project was support by a grant from Contact referee in these sessions, which some- the National Institutes of-Mental Health. Elinor Ostrom, Department of Politi- cal Science, Morgan Hall 121, Indiana times have gone on late into the night, Finallyin1973 Ostrom's courses University, Bloomington, Indiana and she tries to intrude only when she found an administrative home with the 47401, ($12) 337-0441. thinks it necessary to protect the quality creation within the political science de- 91 the research. r z 68 work its?crZ:s7rtT..cmiri'ward the , 'grade. Studentsmucients are told at the outset that they cadChoose not to go into the field or can return home if they find door-to-door interviewing-111ot to their liking: That option has been exercised rarely; although some .students have found themselves better suited to telephone follow-ufthan lace-to- ace interviews,and some have ask to be shifted from one kind of neigh orhood z to another. 7 Students attest to the worksh6p's success. David Allen, who went to St. Louis The street fighting simulator is osed to determine perceptionsof lighting Cond. s an undergraduate, says Ostrom "was always willing to talk and listen and to A commitment to this approach is a carried as much weight as those of the take time for students. As a result commitment to many frustrations and graduate students. This has helped keep were willing to work yourself to death long hours. but Ostrom believes tt pays morale high, and it has demonstrated. for her.- Virginia Dodge Fielded, now n oftin genuine studentlearning.Stu- says lames B. .Christoph, acting chair-IU grachiate student.. says simply that dents, she says,are participating in man of the political science department, Ostrom has "developed a great way, of something they held 19 plareand theythat properly trained undergraduates mixing teaching and pleasure. Learning are interested in doing a good jih. All of can operate at the same level as the from her becomes apleasure." The us were in the held together. The stu-average graduate student." group, says Christoph, has in effect "be- dents caw me put in as long a day as these hdve'been difficult courses to come a community which exists beyond theydoing the same work.they were." to h, they have also been difficult to a-single semester." In all the courses, graduate and under- grade. Grades, Ostrom says, have been graduate Stutlents have explored politi- based on exams assessing students' un- cal theory in separate css m differ:derstanding of theory, participation in 4 T n an effort to give students individual en levels. But whe -came tc the held class discuytion, and a final paper that 'attention, the department now re- work` starting with the designitself, each student writes analyzing "'some as- quites undergraduate majors to take a they worked together, and the under- pect of the data. Ostrom is careful toseminar, which is limited to an enroll- graduates believed that their opinionsmake clear to. students 'that the field ment of about 16, in some aspect of po-

Conversations in American Government President Ford teaches at the Univer- willing to participate. (President Ford talks about "Citizen Action," and sity of South Carolina. So do Hubert was contacted while he was a Repre- Hugh Sidey (of Time), Sander Van- Humphrey, Ronald Reagan, George sentatiue, and finally met with Myers ocur (formerly of NBC and NET), McGovern, Edmund Muskie, and as Vice President.) and Peter Lisagor (of the Chicago Barry Goldwater. They are allin- Ateachexpert'sconvenience, News)discuss different aspects of structors in -a political science course Myers arranged a meeting'either at a government and the media. The col- called "Conversations in. American television studid or elsewhere with a lection now numbers 70 tapes, Government,", anintroductionto film crew, and together Myers and Each conversation was recorded in AmeriCan politics put together by the guest discussed a preselected sub- color, in a stylp deliberately deriva- James T. Myers at the university's topic in front of the cameras for half tive of commercial televisiontalk Columbia campus and first offered in an hour. No payment was ever of- shows. Myers, together with South the spring of 1974. fered or demanded, although a num- Carolina's ETV network, also de-. In creating the course, .Myers first ber cg experts requested an advance veloped opening credits for each tape outlined three major topics (funda- agenda of subjects to be covered. and commissioned fife- and -drum sig- mentals, machinery, and agenda), This resulted in a collection of tele- nature music Worn Don. Gillis, USC's which he then divided into a total of vision tapes that. includes, among composer-in-residence and head of 60 subtopics. Next he proposed an others, Carl Albert on "Congress and its Center for Media Arts Studies. ideal governmental. spokesman for the Congressman," Melvin Laird on Each week students are required to each subtopic, and, backed by an un- "Presidential Power," Earl Butz on view four half-hour tapes and to at- restricted grant Front the university, "Government and the Farmer," and tend one 50-minute discussion ses- proceeded to contact each spokes- Justice Thomas C. Clark on "The sion in groups of about 15 each, su- man. While a few proved elusive, Structure arid Operation of the Fed- pervised by graduate assistants. The Myers discovered to his astonish- eral Judiciary." Important govern- first two tapes are shown continuous- ment that, in general, the more im- mental opponents are represented as. ly all day Mondayoand Tuesday; the portant theindividual,themore well. George Meany discusses "Gov- second twoare shownallday easily he was reached and the more ernment and Labor," John Gardner Wednesday and Thursday. Students 17

lit ical setence during the junior or senior Precisely that kind of learning experi- lected have been studied by students year Some of the seminars involve fieldence came for Mark Giaquinta in 1974, taking more traditional courses in data work. Some areadings courses. How- the afternoon he talked with an old analysis where no field work has been ever. d are aimed at bringing students woman in Indianapolis. All of the Os- offered. A workshop newsletter thatre- into c10 touch with at least one faculty trom studies have involved an attempt ports on findings also goes out 'to local member duringtheirundergraduate to determine the socioeconomic levelurban affairs offices. years, But this effort. as with most edu- (SES) of those interviewed. The woman There have been two specific spin-Offs cational opportunities. of. greatest...Giaquinta interviewed was "very, veryof the IU project. A former student now value to those students who are moti-poorly dressed." lived in a ramshackleon the faculty at Grand. Valley State vated to take advantage of it. This is house, and had little formal education. College in Michigan made a study simi-' especially true of electives like the field She would, not bile rated high on anylar to Ostrom's of delivery of police ser- study courses whiLh require a fir greater SES scale. but Giaquinta talked with her.vices in the Grand Rapi4. Michigan,' wmmitment of time by students thanat length after their formal interview area. Two faculty members at the Uni- most tither classes. Much of the field was completed. "She talked about In-- versity of Tennessee's Nashville branch work h,.is been done during vacation dianapolis and her perceptions of it, andmade a similar study of police service in periods', and the long planning sessions what she was getting for her tax money. Nashville-Davison County. Those stud- add to the time and energy required bf She appeared 'to be one of the brightest ies involved students, but they were student'. Individuals I have ever interviewed. I replications of the work dome at 11.1 rath- Students who have become involved stillhave 'someconfidencein' SESer than new student projects. in Ostrom's .field courses say that they scales," says Giaquinta. "But now every Even though Ostrom believes her ap- have found ita complete learning ex- time I see an SES level I think of that old proach to field work can Lie used by perience that made even"the most excit- woman, and I remember that containedother social science departrmints, and ing reacbng and lecture course dry by within each figure are many individuals, extended to areas outside political sci- comparison. Students whb have done and some cont?attions." Understand-ence, so far therehas not been much at- this kind of y..evrk. says Roger Parks, ably,. Giaquinta's paper at the end of the tempt to try, even at IU.''The diffusion, Ostrom's principal associate in the field course was on SES. of innovation lure has not been very Studies, will never again look at a data For undergraduates, the course endsfast," Christoph says "And certainly the table in a icrurnal article or report andwith the paper. But the graduate sitapproach is not for every instructor. Believe that it is chiseled M stone., "Thedents along with ()Strom and,her asso-The met ha takes someoneOstrom best way to learn data analysis.** Parks ciates (have produced a variety of pro-says, who has "energy and patience,and says. "is ro have collected the data your- fessional papers and journalarticles Wit° is not upset by conflict. If students self. You begin to learn the limitations of using the data to argue.points on a pub- are going to have ideas," she says, "they the figures. "'. ` lic policy tissue. In addition, the data col- are not all going to agree."

are tree to drop inwhenever they throughout the university's regional years in a row, and Myers continues please. Al4o. each eving from 7 to campus system and over the statrtis to update the material with new in- Q,all day Friday, d for several ETV network. The university has terviews whenever an old one be- hburs on Surrcla ernoon all four also made the tapes available to outcomes out of date. tapes are show secutively. siders, though so far the only institu- Myers admits that he has not ade- "We found v uickly." Myers tions to have purchased any copies quately assessed whether students has written, "tha the [interviewed] have been The Brookings Institution learn or retain more in this introduc- practitioners..are, by and large, ex- and the Container Corporation of tory course than jn others. But opin- cellent and effective teachers. It is not America. USC offers the interviews ion surveys suggest that students gen- uncommon for a single 28-minute in- on cassettes at a cost. of $200 each erally like the course. And last fall, terview to contain 100 or more teach- (they cannot be rented) and also sells .when Myers's two television sections ing points." To help students absorb Myers's study guide for $4.95. Be- had a combined enrollment of 3401 such concentrated material, Myers cause of the high costand probably the other three political science intro- and two colleagues wrote a study because few professors are eager to ductory sections, using traditional guide that. for each taped interview, teach from someone' else's lectures lecture fS rats, drew a toted 150. includes a biographical sketch of the to date no college or university has Still, television has in no way elirrtin- expert. an outline of the conversa- purchased them. attd the need for student-tepcher tion. questions about each important The tapes have cost the university contact. "There is a strong correla- point in the interview (with space to in the neighborhood of $1,500, each, tion," observes Myers, "bet een at- writ 'down the answers), and a list of which is a bargain. South Carolina's tendance at class discussion nd suc- new a d unfamiliar terms (defined in ETV network donated time,tape, cess on examinations." an appendix) that arise during the personnel, and equipment, and start- Formore information:amen T. conversation. up costs were defrayed by a $4,000 Myers, Department ofovernment Exams are multiple choice. stan- grant from the Ford Foundation's and International Studies, University dardized, and computer-graded, Venture Fund. South Carolina's ETV of South Carolina, Columbia, SC which has permitted use of the course network has aired all the'tapes two 29208, (803) 777-2675

0 \ 411 Political Science .

A-

/leaching the Facts

The Ivy League schools are consid- courses on political theorists. Each of .Masters himself had never touched meof America's most selective his students gets a special computer:a computer terminal bere preparing olleges. Yet one of their students account number on the Dartmouth his first computer-assistecourse in thought that John Locke, the English, time-sharing system and instructions 1973 with Joseph Harris of Dart- politicaltheorist,wasinfacta on how to run the machine. Once or mouth's physics department. Since Frenchman. Another suggested that twice a week, true/false or multiple- then the computer has helped Dart- St. Augustine was a "major intellec- choice worksheets aredistributed mouth students understandbasic tual influence" on Cicero: who prede- that focus on assigned readings. Be- propositionsinthethigkingof ceased him ty about 475 years. fore class, students go to a terminal ,Hobbs,. Rousseau,Plato,Marx, Such egrelMis errors of fact in the and run the appropriate program. Machiavelli, and St. Paul, among study of famousoolitical theorists They are told immediately not only others: convinced Roger D. Masters, aisNo- whether their answers are right or The notion that computers can z fessor of government at Dartmouth wrong, but also why the question is help strengthen instruZtion in the so- College, that even the best students important..Computerizedrecord called "soft" social sciences is rela- need basic drill. They 'need to get keeping gives Masters a list of the tively new. And using a computer to their facts straight before they can students who hilN completed the examine the basic propositiort'of grapple with concepts. They need to worksheets,togetherwiththeir Jean Jacques Rousseau is rather droll remember what they've read. They scores and the time required to run since Rousseau distrusted machines. must gain an exact knowledge of the the programfive or six minutes is (On the other hand, Rousseau be- subject to make informed judgments. average.Theexercisesarenot lieved that, purely passive reading To help them with cognitive learn- graded, hilt a fairing score is given to was generally unreliable as a method ing, Masters, since 1973, has called those (few) students who refuse to do of leayning, and computer-assisted on the computer to assist in teaching them at all. inslruition discourages passive read-

The Power of a Good Lecture Color the room gray. Bare walls, a deity." Lewis, an Ian who worked on repetition, McWilliams refers his 'blackboard, hard wooden, chairs.. in the mines from th age of 12, came class to the third hapter of Ecclesi- Nothing more. No electronic gad- from a "militant low-church back- astes: 'To every thing there is a sea- getry. no audio-visual material, no ground." He was loyal to his social son, and a time to every purpose computer-assisted instruction. Just a class; Roosevelt was a "traitor" to under the heaven. A time to be born, ° 24-by-24-foot room with 17 students his. a and a time to die." and a professor up front. McWilliams, lighting a second cig- Now McWilliams lowers his voice The scene is a classroom at Living- arette, notes that both FDR and John several octaves and pretends he is ston College, Rutgers University in L.Lewis were "classicalrhetoric- John L. Lewis cautioning the U.S. New Brunswick, New Jersey. The ians." Talking in public was almost labor movement a ainst a Commun- course is Political 'Leadership. The second nature to them., 'The very ist witch hunt inits own ranks: c lecturer is Wilson Carey McWilliams, idea [of either, man' hiring a speech 'Thou shalt not m zle the ox that 42, professor of political science and coach would have been unthinkable." treadeth out the co." He quotes chairman of the department. Mc- The teacher digresses to explain the Lewis's inspired attack on his fellow Williams lights a cigarette /and starts difference between Hebraic and Hel- uniorrleaderd: "This mo ement does talking about two men who "helped lenic rhetoric. Adlai Stevenson, he not have a headit hasneck that shape the character of American poli- says: used Hellenic or Greek rhetoric. has growed up and furred over!" tics in the modern era." One is Frank! It is marked by "the bon mot, the McWilliams has been lecturing for lin D. Roosevelt, thirty,- second Presi- quick phrase, not an excess word." 50 minutes. He has used no flamboy- dent of the United States. The other' Hebraic rhetoric is democratic; it is ant gestures, no taped speeches or is John L. Lewis, longtime head of the pitched for the ear of the peasant. as film strips.Just straight talk plus United Mine Workers Union. well as the king. It is poetic and re- some marvelous impeisonations and For the students the two men are pititive and filled with biblical allu- learned allusions to Plato, Socrates, Merely names in history books. Mc- sions; it instructs the least infotmed. de Tocqueville, and others. ,Williams quickly brings them to life. To illustrate his point, Carey Mc- Now he's winding up. He notes He notes the similarities: both Prot- Williamstheprofessorbecomes that tactical skills of statecraft can be estants, both "terribly ambitious," Carey McWilliamsthe actor. He learned. Richard M. Nixon, he says, both superb phrase makers. Roose- mimics Roosevelt taunting his politi- learned them. But a broad moral v a true aristocrat,a "rentierk" cal foes, and he imitates. the rolling foundation, a basis for decent living ere was a dissonance betwee jhetoric of John L. Lewis. He notes and behaving, can't be acquired. It's Roosevelt's class and his religion. the skillful repeating of FDR's jibes at either there in the man as a ret of After his father died he had engaged three Republican isolationists, Mar- "early socialization, or it isn'toth in a "reflective inner search for the tin,Barden, and Fish.For more FDR and John L. Lewis, he inks,

71. mg.l This use of the computer has tive, there are other advantages. Some students question whether a helped demystify itfor many stu- requiring students to go to the com- college -level course should focus on dents, Masters believes. And he's puter ever.), week or so with their rote recall of reading material. And convinced that its help in teaching worksheets, Masters thinks he has some rebel against the computer. 'But basics is badly needed. 'We made a helped them pace themselves better. most seem to like it, Certainly, Mas- terrible mistake in abandoning rote With computer-assisted instruction ters does. He emphasiies, though, learning. Even memorization of ap- it's not as easy to loaf all term and that the computer is not a substitute parently useless material can be good 'cram for finals. And by linking the for any major element in the teaching mental training," Masters said."If computer terminal with TV moni- process. Reading,lectures,disco's- the elite can'teven getItsfacts tors, he has been able to provide vis- sions, papers, and exams continue to straight, we're really in trouble." ual illustrations for his lectures. be the core. However, he believes The Dartmouth professor makes Instead of blocking communica- that the computer, which has a flaw- no bold claims for his methods. Re- tion between instructor and students, less memory, can help students im- search is limited, he says, although the computer can actually improve prove theirs. And Masters likes to his own results indicate that students give-and-take. Students can use the recall that Plato, in setting criteria for retain more of what theOre read computer to write memos, queries, selection of the philosopher king, when exposed to computer instruc- or complaints. Masters then answers said that "the man who has a mem- tion :"Whereas students generally them by computer, usually within 24 ory and is hard to deceive must be knswer about 40 to 50 percent of the hours. The two-way computer talk chosen." - true/false questions correctly, items has led to more extended face-to-face For more information: Roger D. reinforced on the computer are an- exchanges and lengthier discussions Masters, Department of Govern- swered correctly, ;80 percent of the of subjects raised by students in their ment, Dartmouth College, Hanover, time." Though these reSults are tenta- memos. NH 03755, (603) 646-2153.

. , had this moral foundation,-The finds that with such ground rules stu- opian law and students woad sign political art," he concludes, "depends ents do learneven in large classes. up for it," says Dennis Bathory, a on courage. It requires courage to ad- d because of McWilliams's popu- former student of McWilliams who is mit you're wrong, to abandon a posi- lal ty, his classes tend to be large, now a member of Livingston's tion. Courage is something we can't usually 75 or so in lower-division cal science department. "Students -.teach." Roosevelt and Lewis had classes, 50 for upper-division, and just come to hear him," agrees Wil- courage, McWilliams concludes. And never fewer than .25 at the graduate liam Livingston, a graduate student he ends his -lecture on that note. level. For the latter two groups, his at the 'college who has taken three Of course, Livingston College uses classes run two to four times as large courses from McWilliams, He terms many of the tools and techniques em- as average. the professor's lecturing outstanding. loyed elsewhere to motivate stu- In his lectures, McWilliams aims In teaching, as in statecraft, it ap- de is and to enrich the curriculum. not to transmit a lot of basic infor- pearsthattacticalskillscan be But ood old-fashioned lecturing re- mation but to provide a "central con- learned but true quality depends on mains a central element in its teach- text" for later discussil5n. 'The 'one something deeper, more profound, ing process. McWilliams and his col- great sin," he says, "it not to be in- that probably can't be learned. And leagues believe in time-tested teach- teresting. A lecturer is a performer; just as FDR and John L. Lewis never ing methods. They enforce relatively he uses hyperbole. In leading a dis- needed plaeic men to help them tight discipline, especially at the start cussion group a teacher must be a gauge their audiences and develop of the semester when the tone is set. choreographer. But in giving a lec- Oratorical skills, neither does Carey They give hour-long examstwo ture he's on stage." McWilliams tries McWilliams. Indeed, in his classroom each term in introductory courses, to change pace every 90 seconds or lecturing, McWilliams demonstrates usually one in all other courses. so. Tell a joke, spin a story, relate an the very rhetoricalqualitiesthat For final exams, a dozen or more anecdote. Or ask a question. Even made Roosevelt and Lewis so effec- sample questions are given out in ad- withbright students, "attention tive in debate. This kind of lecturing vance from which three or four are to spans are short." has an important place in political be drawn for the test itself. "There For beginning lecturers, he recom- science teachingmore so than in, are no surprises this way," said Mc- mends close reading of U.S. Army say, sociology or biology. And Mc- Williams, "but if the students prepare field manuals. The Army's been in Williams is a master of it. -Mt answers forallof the questions, the teaching business for a long time For more information: Wilson Carey they've done the equivalent of a re- and knows what it's doing, he says. McWilliams, Department of Political search paper." Papers, class partici- McWilliams works hard at his lectur- Science, Livingston College, Rutgers pation: and exam scores are all con- ing but also seems to have a natural University,New Brunswick,Nj sidered in giving grades. McWilliams flair for 4t. "Carey could teach Ethi- 08903, (201) 932-4090.

7ti61 70Political Science

4 Internships in the 'Nation; Capital: The Total Program Concept

Internships, work-study programs,the judiciary, public interest groups, and above the $700 fee. Since there is and other forms of relevant off-cam-and community programs. Threeno membership fee,the program pus experience have become de ri-full-time coordinators are chargedcosts the colleges nothing. gueur for political science undergrad-with developing new intErnship op- Although 9 percent of the center's uates throughout the country. Nearlyportunities, matching students withspring semester students were minor- four fifths of the eduCational institu-jobs relevant to their experience and ity group members, Burke is trying to tions responding to a recent Ameri-interests, and supervising and evalu-increase minority and low-income can Political Science Association sur-ating the internships. 6 student participation by developing a vey indicated they offer some kind of The internship is/not an isolatedwqrk-study program scheduled to off-campusworkexperiencefor field experience at the center;itis begin in the fall of 1976. Thiskvill en- course credit. And what better placeoneOcomponent of a total-programable students eligible for financial as- for a student of government to study concept. In addition to the work op-sistance to participate in the program the subject than Washington, D.0 3portunity, the center's program in-and receive 80 percent of their salary Precisely because a student intern-cludes seminars, courses, site visits,,from the federal government. ship program in the nation's capital isand enough free time for students to The program has proven attractive such an obvious idea, it is one which explore Washington independently. to public and privateinstitutions has occurred to many colleges andUnder the'program, students work 35alike.Participating schools range universities. Asa result, the city andhours and attend one,class per week. from small colleges like Morris Har- government have been flooded ofThe classes .are smallbetween 12vey in Virginia and Allegheny Col- late with such programsall barter-and 15 students. and are taught bylege in Pennsylvania to large state ing for the same limited, low-costprofessionals with PhDs and practi- universities such as the University of housing in the District of Columbia; cal experience in their fields. Pennsylrnia and Florida State. all vying for quality internships; all This past spring, the center offered Students are enthusiastic about competing for high-quality academic15 courses: Intergovernmental Rela-both their jobs and the program. instruction for their students. tions, Bureaucratic Behavior, RaceThose who had found their intern- The Washington Center for Learn-and Politics, Criminal Justice, Con-ships unsatisfactory were given the ing Alternatives is a new programsumer Interest Croups, Media and opportunity to switch to another; in Washington aimed at eliminatingthe Government, among others.. In most were pleased with their original atleast some ofthis unnecessaryaddition to the formal courses, week- placement. Though the program is competition and duplication of ef-,ly lectures and seminars are arranged open to all undergraduates with some fort. Established last year by Wil-on a broad array of subjectssuch asbackground in the social sciences; liam Burke, formerly the head of thegun-control legislation, the politics ofBurke recommends it, in particular, internship program at. the Universityworld hunger, and women and dis-for juniors and seniors. "At that of Massachusetts at AmherSt, thecrimination on Capitol Hill. stage," said Burke, "the program is center is a non-profit, independent The center does not.give credit or particularly useful in helping stu- educational institution which enablesaward degrees;thisresponsibility dents focus in on career choices." small colleges with limited resourcesrests with the home institution. Stu- Joyce O'Donnell, a political sci- to offer their students a quality in-dents and schools receive a writtenence major at San Diego State Uni- ternship experience in Washington. evaluation of each individual's work, versity (which has a pilot program The center's rapid growth rate isand letter grades are providedif with the center) gives high marks to indicative not only of the enormousrequested. A survey of institutionsher internship experience. "The uni- demand for such a, service, but alsoparticipating during the fall of 1975 versity will decide whether or to of the extent to which news of theshowed that the majority granted be-continue the program at the end of successofBurke'sprogram Astween 12 and 16' Credits per term. this year," said O'Donnell, who has spread, 'mostly by word-of-mouth, One of the program's strongestspent the semester working at the through the educational community.selling points is its ability to provide Consumer Federation of America. During the fall semester Of 1975, thelow-cost housing. The center-owned "University officials say they will center provided internshipsor 53building consists of 132 efficiencies rely heavily on our evaluation of the students from 25 educational nstitu-and 40 one-bedroom apartments, all programs; everyone froSan Diego tions; spring 1976 saw 104 s udentsfully furnished and each equipped is enthusiastic about it. Next year, I from 35 colleges and universit es par-with a kitchenette and bath. predictwe'll have three times as ticipating in the program. ;Blessed One semester at the center costs many students coming to the center," neither with foundation funds' nor$700, which includes housing. The said O'Donn'ell. " major institutional backing, the cen-participating school may forward theFormoreinformation:William ter began breaking even in May 106.fee directly to the center, add a $100Burke, Director, Washington Center The center provides three-month to $250 fee to the cost of the programfor Learning Alternatives, 1503 Con- internships in more thin 150 congres-for its own administration and hand-'necticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, sional offices, the executive branch, ling costs, or charge full tuition over D.C. 20036, (202) 232-7062.

7t) fl 71* ,SUBJECT INDEX s.

,The learning experiencese'sented in the fit two Reports on Teaching arskincluded here in two indexes-a subject index and a faculty index. e subject incleis designed for those inter steal' in a particular approachto teaching. It is divided into four mainadings; (1) teaching strategies, including va 'ous techniques used in thelearning experi- ertce from lecturing and tm teaching to tlie u e of multimedia and c mputers; (2) focus, indicating the general direction of the studies, ether for career pr;tation, Underprepared tudents, etc.; (3) evaluation, notingvari- ous approaches to gradinand (4) course agement, listing those le ruing experiences that are interdisciplinary or a modification bf tltraditional appr ach. Subheadini list 1phabetically, a d each entry includes thename of the professor, the number of the Teaching whi he course is des ribed, and the page number. The number preceding thecolon in each Report tier; the num er following the colon refers to the page number. Thus2:47 indicates e 47. Report # (March 1976) includes undergraduate teaching in chemistry, history, rf (July 1976) incl des biology, Englshr a d political science. Fora complete listing, in- tnstution, and the ti e of the article, the Wader should consult the faculty indexthat begins

Nw TEACHING STRprEqIES Dodge 2:26, Gilleland.:18, JordanSimulatiori and Games 2:12, Myers 2:20, Post ethwait 2:8,Ladd 1:54, Mecke 2:48, Noel 2:56. Case Studies Stouffer 2:58. Asher 2:36, Kerber 1:41, Kt-aus2:46, Teaching Assistants-Graduates McConnell 1:$ Oshinsky Multi-Media Bluestein 1:64, Ladd 1:54, Shakhashiri / Barnard 1:10, Bluestein 1:64, Curtis1:22, West 1:14, Wright 1:30. Computer-Related Procedures 1:26, Gilleland 1:18, Hine 1 :37, Jenkins Beck 2:62, Burns 1:42, Main 1:46, 1:63, Jordan 2:12, Kotnik 1:22, Mer-Team Teaching Master 2:68, Myers 2:20, Noel 2:56,tens. 1:62, Myers 2:20, PostlethwaitBarnard 1:10,Breiseth 1:33,Curtis Pride52, Smith 1:6,- Yingling 1:21. 2, Pride 2:52, Steele 2:44, Yingling1 26, Gilbert 2:34, Howes 2:48, Jenkins 1:21. 1 63,. Oshinsky 1:64. Field Study Barnard 1:10, Breiseth 1:33, :Candland PeerTeaching FOCUS 1:63, Clark 2:42, Curtis 1:26, Jernstedt Bruffee 2 :3,Croft 2 :46, Jernstedt 1:58, 1:58,Mulligan2:19,Myers2:20, Ladd 1:54, Maas 1:50, Yingling 1:21.Career Ori tion Ostront 2:64, Winkler 2:24. Asher 2:36, Avila 2:16, Burke 2:70, Practica Howes 2:48, Winkler .2:24. Independent' Study Candland 1:63, 'Howes 2:48 McCon- Barnard 1:10,Breiseth1:33,Curtis nell 1:62. Interpersonal ProcesS 1:26, Gilleland 1:18, Sipe 1:23, West Bruffee 2:30, Candland 1:63, Clark 1:14. 4 Research 2:42, Gilbert 2:34, Howes 2:48, Ladd Barnard 1:10, Beck 2:62,Bluestein 1:54, Maas 1:50, McConnell 1:6Z, Internships 1:64, Breiseth 1:33, Curtis 1:26, Gille-Mecke 2:48, Noel 2:56. Breiseth 1:33, Burke2:70/ land 1:18, Kerber 1:41, Kraus Main 1:46, Noel 2:56, Ostrom 2:64;Personal Growth Lecturing Pride. 2:52, Sipe 1:23, Winkler 2:24, Avila 2:16, Bluestein 1:64,Breiseth Avila 2:16, Burns 1:42, Jenkins 1 r6 1:33, Candland 1:63, Clark 2.:42, Kot- Jernstedt 1:58, Maas 1:50, McWilliam Role Playing nik 1:22, Ladd 1:54, Mecke 2:48. 2:68, Shakhashiri 1:22, Volpe 2:24, Gilbert 2:34, Ladd 1;54, McConnell West 1:14, Wright 1:30. '1:62, Noel 2:56. Skill Development Ackley 2:38, Asher 2:36, Barnard 1:10, Models or Mustrations Self-Paced Instruction Beck 2:62, Bland 1:21, Breiseth 1:33,- Asher 2:36, deFord 2:49, Dodge 2:26, Barnard 1:10, Beishir 2:15, GillelandBruffee 2:30, Croft 2:46, Dodge 2:26, Kotnik 1:22, Main 1:46, Noel 2:56. 1 18, lernstedt1:58,Myers2:20,Gilleland 1:1$, Jordan 2:12, Main 1:46, P stlethWait 2:8,ShakhashiriT:22,MyerS 2:20, Ostrom 2:64, Postlethwait Modular Instruction Sith 1:6, Stouffer. 2:58. 2:8, Pride 2:52, Sipe 1:23, Smith 1:6, Barnard 1:1G, Beck 2:62, Beishir 2:15, Wegt 1:14. :\74 72

Underprepared Students Burns 1:42, Howes 2:48, Jordan2:42, Cu is 1:26, Mulligan 2:19, Steele Ackley 2:38, Avila 2:16, Kotnik 1:22,2:12, Ladd -1.)54, Main 1:46, Myers2:44. Stouffer 2:58. 2:20,Postlethwait2:8,Shakhashiri 1:23, Stouffer 2 :58,. Yingling 1:21. Modification of Major Sequences Ackley 2:38. Barnard 1:10, Breiseth EVALUATION Sunimative ,Evaluation 1:33,Gilbert 2:34,Gilleland1:18, Barnard 1:10,Beishir 2:15, / BruffeeJordan 2:12, Sipe 1;2. Competencies- 2:30, Hawes 2148, Ladd 1:54, Myers. Ackley Breiseth 1:33. 2:20, Stouffer 2:58, Modificatign of TraditionalCourses Avila 2:16, Bland 1:21, Bruffee 2:30, ContraGrading a Burns 1:42, Clark 2:42, Croft 2:46, Bluestein 1:64, Kotnik 1 :22, McConnell Hine 1;37, Jernstedt 1:58, Kerber 1:41, 1:62, West 1:14. COURSE MANAGEMENT ,Kotnik 1:22, Kraus 2:46, Jenkins 1:63, Main 1:46, Oshinsky 1:64, Ostrom Formative Evaluation Interdisciplinary Courses 2:64, Volpe 2:24, West 1:14, Wright Barnard 1:10, Breiketh 1:33, BruffeeBarnard 1:10, Candland 1:63, Clark 1:30.

4 4'

FACULTY INDEX

The faculty index is arranged alphabetically by the .lastname of the professor responsible for the learning experience. Each listing includes the professor's name, field of study, institution, the title of the articlein which the course is described, Report number, and the page number (thus 2:47 indicates Reporton Teaching #2, page 47). The subject index, designed for faculty interested ina particular teaching methodology, begins on page 71.

'ACKLEY, Randall W., English, NavajoBLAND, Jeffrey S., Chemistry, Univer-CAND AND, Douglas K., Psychology, Community College, Navajo Nation, sity of Puget ,Sound, Tacoma, WA, Buck ell University, Lewisburgh, PA, Tsaile, AZ, "Literacy Through Socio- "Chemistry for Those. Who'd Rather "Inter enerational ExchangeLearn- linguistics," 2:38. Not," 1:21. ing to Relate," 1:63. ANDERSON,Stephen,Psychology,BLUESTEIN, Venus, Psychology, UM- CLARK, Walter H., Jr., English, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.,..." versity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, Univer ity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, TN, 'Science Fiction: A Painless Path "Coming to Terms With the Only MI, "In the Footsteps of Thoreau,"- to Basic Piinciples," 1:64. Certainty," 1:64. 2:42. ASHER, Velda Poage, English, El PasoBREISETH, Christopher N., History, Community COWAN,- Elizabeth Wooten, English, College,Colorado Sangamon State University, Spring- Modern.', LanguageAssociationof Springs, CO, "When the Subject Mat- field, IL, "What a Historian Should America,' New York, NY, "Between ters the Student Learns," 2:36. Know.," 1:33. Was and Will Be: English," 2:28. AVILA. Vernon, Biology, San DiegoBRUFFEE, Kenneth A., English, Brook- CRAIG, Gordon A., History,' Stanford State University. San Diego, CA, lyn College, CUNY, Brooklyn, NY, University, Stanford, CA, "Son of "Sympathy vs. Standards: Teaching "Cooperative Learning in a Writing Super Civ," 1:30. the Underprepared," 2 : 16. ' Community," 2:30. CROFT, Mary K., English, University BURKE,William,PoliticalScience, of Wisconsin,Stevens Point, WI, Washington Center for Learning Al- "The Writing Lab: Servingtudents BA NARD, Robert, Chemistry, The ternatives, Washington, DC, 'intern- and the Community," 2:46... Evergreen State College, Olympia, Ships in the Nation's Capital: The CURTIS. James C.; History: University WA, "Building Foundations," 1:10. Total Program Concept," 2:70. of Delaware, Newark, DE, "Making BECK, Paul Allen,PoliticalScience,BURNS, Robert E., History', University Media Work," 1:26. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, of Notre Dame, Notre Darrie,IN, PA, "Developing ResearchSkills," "Freeing the Teacher to Teach : Com- puter Tutorials in History,' 1:42. deFORD, Sara, English, Gooher Col- BEISHIR, Lois, Biology, Antelope Val- lege, Raltimore, MD, "Teaching the ley College, Lancaster, CA, "Modular Form and Content of Poetry," 2:49. MicrObiolerm," 2:15. DODGE, Richard A., Biology, Ameri-

70 can Institute of Biological Sciences, ern Illinois University, Charleston, IL, Basic Principles," 1:64. Arlington, VA, 'The Anachronisms "Everyman as Psychologist," 1:54. OSTROM, Elinor, Political Science, In- of Biology Education," 2:6; "Build- diana University, Bloomington, IN, ing Blocks for Biotechnology," 2:26. "Applying Political Theory," 2:64. MAAS, James B., Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, "With a Lit- (ALBERT, Miriam. English, University tle Help From Their Friends," 1:50. POSTLETHWAIT, Samuel N Biology, of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 'Total MAIN, Dana B., Psychology, West Vir- Purdue University,Lafayette,IN, merslon in Literature," 2:34. ginia College of Graduate Studies, 'The Audio-Tutorial Approachto GILLELAND, Martha, Chemistry, Ca Institute, WV, "Understanding the Learning," 2:8. fornia State College, Bakersfield, CA, Total Process," 1:46. PRIDE, Richard A., Political Science, "Preparingthe Creative Chemist,"MARTY, Myron, History,Florissant Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 1:18. Valley Community College, St. Louis, 'The Science in Political Science," MO, "The Risk of Exposure: History 2:52. HAIGHT, G. P. Chemistry, University Teaching atthe Community Col- ofIllinois, Urbana, IL,"Balancing leges," 1:43. Chemistry's Priorities," 1:4. MASTERS, Roger D., Political Science, SHAKHASHIRI, Bassam Z., Chemis- HINE, Robert V., History, University Dartmouth College, Hanover, 'NH, try, University of Wisconsin, Madi- of .California. Riverside, CA, "The -Teaching the Facts," 2:68. son, WI, "Custom-Tailored TIPS for uman Dimension of History," 1:37. McCONNELL, James V., Psychology, Students," 1:22. N \HOL ISTER. C. Warren, History, Uni- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,SIPE, Herbert J., Chemistry, Hampden- versity of California, Santa Barbara, MI, "Students as Behavior Thera- Sydney College, Hamden-Sydney, CA. ng History Out ofthe pists," 1:62. VA, 'The Real World in Miniature," Doldrums:. :24. McWILLIAMS, Wilson Carey, Political 1:23. HOWES, Alan B., English, The Univer- Science, RutgersUniversity,NewSMITH, Stanley, Gf Chemist , Uni- sity' of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, Brunswick, NJ, 'The Power of a Good versity of einois, Urbana, 'The "Orienting theProspective 'English Lecture," 2:68. Potential of PLATO," 1:6. Teacher," 2:48. MECKE, Chlrlatte P., English, OrangeSPITZ, Lewis W., History, St nford CoastCollege,Costa Mesa, A, University, Stanford, CA, `"Son of "How to Survt in College," 2: 8. .Super Civ," 1;30. JENKINS, James, Psychology, Univer- MEETHe L. Richard76-hange Magazi e,STEELE, Mildred R.,English, Drake sity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 'The Dangers of Teaching Too W ," University, Des Moines, IA, "A New "Teaching on Film: ,Better Than TV 1 : 2; 'The Stateless Art of Teaching Approach to Communication," 2:44. and the Lecturers Are Always at Their Evaluation," 2:3. STOUFFER, Willard B., Political Sci- Best," 1:63. MERTENS, Gerald C., Psychology, St. ence, Southwest Texas State Univer- JERNSTEDT. G. Christian; Psychology, Cloud State College, St. cloud, MN, sity, San Marcos,TX, ."Equalizirig the Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, "Telelectures: Direct Exchange With Opportunity to Learn," 2:60. "Teaching Learning While Learningto the Finest in the Field," 1:62. Teach." 1.58. MULLIGAN, James, Biology, St. Louis JORDAN, J. Patrick, Biology, Colorado University, St. Louis, MO, "Exploring VOLPE, Peter, Biology, Tulane Univer- State University, Fort Collins, CO, the Psychology of Animal Behavior," sity, New Orleans, LA, "Man, Na- "Creating a Core Curriculum Through 2:19. ture, and Society: The Study of Bio- Cooperation," 2:12. MYERS, Gerald A.,Biology,SoOth ethics," 2:24. Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, "Course Management by Com- KERBER, Linda K., History, University puter,"' 2:20. WEINBERGETt, George M.,Political of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, "A FamilyMYERS, James T.,Political Science, Science, Southwest Texas State Uni- t. History Approach to the American University of South Carolina, Colum- versity, San Marcos, TX, "Equalizing Revolution," 1.41. bia, SC, "Conversatihns in American the Opportunity to Learn," 2:40. KOEPPEN, Sheilah R.,Political Sci- Government," 2:67. WEST, Robert, Chemistry, University ence,AmericanPoliticalScience of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, "Chem- Association, Washington, DC, "Po- istry for, Mankind," 1:14. liticalScience andPolitical' Life,"NAZZARO,J.Russell,Psychology,WINKLER, Paul, Biology, Lummi In- 2:50. . American Psychological Association, dian School of Aquaculture, Ltimmi KOTNIK, Lou's, J., Chemistry, Cuya- Washington, pc, "Identity Crisis in Island, WA, "A Ctiltusally Relevant hoga Commity College, Cleveland,, Psychology," 1:44. Curriculum," 2:24. OH, "Buildi g the Skill and Confi-NOEL, Robert C.,PoliticalScience, WRIGHT, Gordon, History, Stanford dence to Learn Chemistry," 1:22. University of California, Santa Bar- University, Stanford, CA, "Son of KRAUS, W. Keith, English, Shippens- bara, CA, "Games Political Scientists Super Civ," 1:30. burg StateCollege,Shippensburg, Play," 2:56. PA, "A Whodunit Approach to the Freshman Research Paper," 2:46. YINGLING7 RichardT.,Chemistry, OSHINSKY, James, Psychology. Uni- Purdue University, West Lafayette, versity of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, IN, "A Resource Room of One's LADD, Clayton E., Psychology, East- "Science Fiction: A Painless Path to Own," 1:21. 76 1 Evaluation of Teaching Reports #1 and #2 In an effort to improve these Reports, the editors would like to hear directly from the readers.Your response to these questions will help to determine the future scope of the project.

1.Do° you like: Yes The Reports in general

Overviews of each disciplineas introductionstothe problems and issues of the disciplineas applied 'to teaching .

Choices of improved teaching

Working throughdisciplinary associations to select examples of improved teaching.

Index Format- (magazine styli written by educational journalists) Layout (illustrations, type, lead- ins, titles)

'2.Did you read articles outside v your discipline? Yes 3. \ If you had heard or read about a teaching example before, are the articles onthe sari*subjectfreshlypre- sented? .Yes No_ 4.a. Did you find some new ideaSis for teaching in either leport7 Yes_ No _ b. If yes, did you think of them in terms of: Your own teaching Faculty at your college , General improvement of instruction c. If yes; specifically which ideas you have tried??

$.a. Has your teaching behavior changed in any way as a result of reading either Report? Yes_ No_ b. If yes, cite, changes.

7 7 6.a. Has your attitude ,about teachi changed as a re-, sulto readingeither - Report? Yes No b. If yes, cite changes.

7.aHave the Reports helped to improve teachir at your institution. Yes No b. If yes, cite ways.

8.To your knowledge, have the- Reports stimulated any serious discussion about teaching or learning? Yes No_ Additional Comments:

(please fold and tape closed, do not staple)

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