Examining Macroecological Patterns in Mammals: Space Use, Diet and Energetics. Marlee Tucker Evolution and Ecology Research Centre School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Sydney, N.S.W 2052, Australia ____________________________________________________________________ Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy within the University of New South Wales September 2014 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Tucker First name: Marlee Other name/s: Anne Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences Faculty: Science Title: Examining Macroecological Patterns in Mammals: Space Use, Diet and Energetics. Investigating large-scale patterns in ecology, biogeography and evolution is important to aid our knowledge of species diversity. With the current natural and anthropogenic environmental changes, it is necessary to gather information that can be used for developing models of global ecosystems to assist with conservation. To achieve this, we need to establish basic ecological theories and re-examine older theories to ensure that our current understanding—which is often based on small datasets consisting of a couple of individuals or species—is applicable when expanded across communities, populations and species. The aim of this thesis was to examine the driving influences behind macroecological patterns in mammals, including spatial behaviour and foraging ecology. The investigation of spatial behaviour and foraging ecology will provide useful information on the area required by species, trophic interactions and community structure. More specifically, I was interested in how behavioural changes that have occurred following the colonisation of the marine environment has influenced patterns in home range size, predator-prey relationships and trophic level position. Using published and empirical data and comparative methodologies, I examine the effect of body size, diet, energetics and environment upon home range size, predator-prey relationships and trophic position across mammals. I identify that body mass has been the key factor driving of home range size, prey size, energetics and trophic position in mammals, explaining between 46 and 85% of the variance. However, whether a species lives within the marine or terrestrial environment has also influenced macroecological patterns, with marine mammals having home ranges 1.2 times larger, sitting 1.3 trophic levels higher and have evolved two distinct feeding strategies compared to their terrestrial counterparts. I demonstrate the ability to utilise published data to re-examine ecological theories and highlights that when developing integrative models, we need to incorporate the possibility of phylogenetic effects, a range of ecological variables, and species representative of the diversity within a group should be included. I identify the driving influences of macroecological patterns and show how living in different environments has impacted upon mammalian spatial behaviour, foraging, food web structure and energetics. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). ……………………………….............. ……………………………………..…… ……….…………………...... Signature Witness Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for award: THIS SHEET IS TO BE GLUED TO THE INSIDE FRONT COVER OF THE THESIS ii ORIGINALITY STATEMENT ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’ Signed …………………………………………….............. Date …………………………………………….............. COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.' Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... iii I dedicate this thesis to my mother, Jenny, who has believed in me since day one. iv Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to sincerely thank Tracey for all of your help, support and guidance throughout my PhD. I genuinely appreciate this opportunity to work with you. To Terry, a huge thank you for your invaluable assistance with statistical analyses, revisions, the crash course into phylogenetic trees/analyses and providing me a space when I had forgotten my keys! I would like to thank everyone on my panel; Alistair Poore, Adriana Verges and Gerry Cassis, for your suggestions and input throughout my PhD. Especially to Alistair for his statistical advice, providing feedback and for always making time to see me. Also to Angela Moles and Rob Brooks for your support and advice. This thesis has been primarily based upon data from other researchers. The majority of the data were collected from published studies and are open access. However, I would like to acknowledge and thank Douglas Kelt (UC Davis), Dirk van Vuren (UC Davis), Horst Bornemann (AWI), Joachim Plötz (AWI), Nick Gales (AAD), PJ Nico deBruyn (U.Pretoria), Cheryl Tosh (U.Pretoria), Colin Southwell (AAD) and Iain Staniland (BAS) for making their datasets available to me (Chapter 2). All research related to animal handling (Chapter 2) was approved by the University of New South Wales Animal Care and Ethics Committee (08/103B and 11/112A). Some of the data used Chapter 2 were obtained from the Australian Antarctic Data Centre (IDN Node AMD/AU), a part of the Australian Antarctic Division (Commonwealth of Australia). The data are described in the ARGOS satellite tracking record "1994 to 2000 - Antarctic Pack Ice Seals (APIS) Survey" (Southwell, 2007). I wish to thank the personnel from the Instituto Antártico Argentino IAA at Primavera Station in the years 2007-2011 for field work support. Logistics support was provided by a grant from the IAA to my collaborator Alejandro Carlini. The research (Chapters 2-5) was supported by an Australian Research Council (ARC) grant LP0989933 awarded to my PhD supervisor Tracey Rogers. v Thank you to everyone in the lab (both past and current) - Michaela, Jess, Tempe, Naysa, Alicia, Kobé, Belinda, Jeff, Lisa, Tiffanie, Nadine, Marie and Joy for providing valuable advice and feedback. I have enjoyed our cake and questions sessions as well as lab discussions, workshops and the occasional fieldtrips/extreme walks. To my fellow Beesians (Rhiannon, Habacuc, Rachel, Sam, Andy, Flo, Tom, Melanie, Angela and Ellie, among numerous others), who have helped along the way including coffee meetings, beverages, and of course serious work involving discussion groups and workshops. A big thank you to Jonathan, with his endless wealth of knowledge, has helped immensely with the administration side of my PhD. To