V
0 1,1\ WASHINGTON VOLJ.J~E~~g~ GEOLOGY
REPUBLIC, 1908
WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENTOF REPUBLIC CENTENNIAL ISSUE Natural Resources Featuring articles about the geology of the Re_public a_rea , Jennifer M. Belcher- Commissioner of Public Lands the Republic Mining Distri,ct, and Eocene fossil deposits Kaleen Cottingham - Supervisor WASHINGTON IN CELEBRATION OF THE REPUBLIC CENTENNIAL GEOLOGY Vol. 24, No. 2 Raymond Lasmanis June 1996 Washington Division of Geology and Earth Re sources PO Box 47007. Olympia, WA 98504-7007 Washingron Geology (ISSN 1058-2 134) is pub li~hed four times each year by the Wash ington Stale Depart ment of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Earth Resources . Thi s pub lica ti on is free upon request. The Division also publishes bul le ti ns, information circu lars, repo n s of inves tigations. geo logic n Apri l 18. 1896. a group of 64 men gathered where the maps, and open-file reports. A list of th ese pub I ications wi II be O Okanogan mail trail crossed Eureka Creek to organize sent upon request. the Eurek a mining distric t. The golu ru sh l uwn u f Eureka sprang up overnight and was soon renamed 'Republic· , af ter DIVISION OF GEOLOGY AND EARTH RESOURCES the Republic Gold M ini ng & M ill i ng Company. In 1899, Ferry Raymo nd Lasma ni s. S1u re Gen/ogist County was established out of the western ponion of Stevens .I. Eric Schuster, /\ssis1w11 Swte Ceologi.11 County . Republic became the county seat. Wi lliam S. Lingley. Jr., Assisranl Srate Geolflg1.I'/ The mines o f the area have long been the eL'.O nomic focus or lht: town. T he gold has come from ores depos ited in Eocene Geologists (Olympia I Editor hot-springs system s. and production from two large operations .Joe D. Dragovich Katherine M. Reed from the las t six years alone has exceeded 8 13.000 oz of gold. Wendy J. Gerste l Computer Information The rich history of th e mining activities is documented i n the Rohcrt L. (Josh) Logan Consultant geologic literature as well as by local hi storical as~ociations. David K. Norman Carl F. T. Harris Stephe n P. Palmer (Sec, for example, W estern Historical Publ ishi ng Company, Patrick T. Pringle Cartographers 1904.) Nancy A . Eberle Katherine M. Recd M ore recently. the world-class Eocene fossil derosi ts have He nry W. ( Hank) Schasse Keith G. lkenl Timothy J . Walsh Production Editor/ attracted the interest of the scientific community. The deposits Wddon W. Rau ( vfllt11 11 eer) Designer contai n the best North American record of upland warm tem Geologist (Spokane) JarcLta M. (Jari) Rolo ff perate to subtropical habitats. The geologic forces as sociated Robert E. Derke y Data Communications with the development of the ores played a major ro le in the Geologists (Regions) , Technician diversification and l ater d istribution o f the flora . Garth Anderson ( Nnrthwe.H) .I. Re nee C hri s1ensen From the paleontologica l interest has come a unique coop Charles W. (Chuck) Guli c k Administrative Assistant erative venture, the Stonerose lnterprt:ti ve Center, w hich en Janis G. Allen (Norrheusl) courage~ lht: public to visit lhe deposit and collect and learn, Rex J. Hapala (Sourhwesr) Regulatory Programs with the p al eonto l ogi sts, ahout t his remark able fl ora and Lorraine Powe.JI ( S,wrheusr / Assistant Stephanie Zurenko / Central) Mary Ann Shawvc:r fauna. In celebration of Republic's centennial. thi s issue o f' Wash Senior Librarian Clerical Staff Conn ie J. Manson Judy He nderson i11glo 11 Geo!oxy bring~ logetht:r renowned earth sc ientists to Library Information Anne Hcinitl discuss the aspects of the geologic hi story of the area that have Specialist had such a major impac t o n th e d evel opment of geologic Rc hccca A . C hrist it: knowledge worldwide. We are indebted to W es ley W ehr, T homas Burke Memor ial Washington State Muse um, for pro MAIN OFFICE FIELD OFFICE posing this project and interes ting so m any geologists. paleo Dt:parl!nenl o r Natural Resourcc:s Department of Natu ral Resources Divisio n o r Geology Di vision of Geology botanisls, anu other special ists in contr ibuting their expertise and Earth Rc,ources and Earth Resources to this broad overview. PO Box 47007 904 W. Ri verside. Room 209 Olympia. WA 91'\504 -7007 S pokant:, WA 99201- 10 11 Reference Phone: (360) 902- 1450 Phflne: (509) 456-3255 Western Histori ca l Publishi ng Company, 1904. An i llustrated history Fax: (360) 902-1785 Fax: (509) 456-6 1 15 of Stevens. Ferry. Okanogan. and Chelan Cou nt ies, Slate of lnrerner: Washington: Western Historical Publishi ng Company, Spokane, cjmanson @u .washi nglon .cdu Publiwrimts a11ui/ab/e .fiw11 /he [email protected] 0/ymria adrfress only. p. 403-447. • ( See 11111/J on in.l'ide back cover -r. Prinred 1111 recycled p upe1: /i•r "f./ice locar/011 .J ,.., Printed in 1he U.S.A. Stonerose Interpretive Center Cover Photos: The top photo shows a horse race up Clark Ave nue, the main street of Republic; the race was part of the Fourth of Sponsors Field Seminar July festivities in 1908, a dozen years after the founding of the town whose centennial we celebrate in this issue. The lower photo W es W ehr w i l l he leading another of his weekend fit:lu is taken from slightly higher up the hill and shows Clark Avenue in semi nars Sept. 13- 15 at !he Stonerose l nterprel i ve Center 1996. in Republ ic. The cost i s $75. For more in formation or to sign up for the seminar, contact Wes at the Burke Mu The 1908 photo and all other photos of historic Republic used in seum, Uni ver sity of W as hi ngton, Seattl e, WA 98 195; the articles herein were kindly provided by the Ferry County His torical Society. 1996 photo by Lisa Barksdale. phone: (206) 543-0495 or fax: (206) 685-3039.
2 Washington Geology. vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 Regional Geology of the Republic Area
Eric S. Cheney Michael G. Rasmussen Department of Geological Sciences Echo Bay Exploration, Inc. University of Washington, Box 351310 E. 11103 Montgomery Ave. Seattle, WA 98195-1310 Spokane, WA 99202
Introduction This article describes the regional geology of Lhe Republit: fau lts, especially in the Republic area. Lhe pre-Challis rocks area and considers more than the Eot:ene straligraphit: units are predominantly those of Quesnellia, a terrane that accreted that have made Republic famous both as a gold producer and 10 North America in the mid-Jurassic (about 175 million years a paleontological treasure. However, fo r those who are primar ago). Eocene sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Challis ily interested in these topics, the main points are that (I) the unconformity-bounded sequence (55 to 36 million years old) Eocene formations are portions of regional, nol lot:al, um:on overlie the pre-Challis rocks. The metamorphic core com form i ty-bou nded sequences within the larger Chall is se plexes (MCCs) are Eocene antiformal uplifts of crystalline quence, and (2) rather than having been deposited in a local basement separated from the pre-Challis and Challis rocks by fault-bounded basin or graben, the formations are preserved in low-angle normal (detachment) faults. The MCCs underlie the upper plates of one or more low-angle normal faults as a most of the major mountain ranges in the area of Figure I. The regional synform between two antiformal metamorphic com Walpapi sequence ( 18 to 2 mil lion years old), unconformably plexes. These and other c:oncepts are discussed mo re fully in overlies all other rocks. The most voluminous lithostrati Cheney and others ( 1994) and Cheney ( 1994 ). However, the graphic unit of the Walpapi sequence is the Columbia River information in those articles is not explicitly referenced here. Basalt Group. Figure I shows the regional geology of northeastern Wash The dominant rocks in the Republic area (Fig. 2) are green ington. East of the Huckleberry Ridge, Columbia, and Waneta schist-facies Quesnellian rocks, four unconformity-hounded thrust fau lts , pre-Challis rocks are the Proterozoic to Paleozoic formations of the Challis sequence, and the amphibolite-facics stratigraphi c units native to North America. West of these metamorphic rocks and granitic plutons of th e MCCs.
area of map 117°
Walpapi
Challis
-pre-Challi s = = Detachment fau lts peripheral to metamorphic Lincoln core complexes Metamorphic Core Complex 50 km Th•ru st fau•lt s
Figure 1. Tectonic map of northeastern Washington and adjacent areas. (See text and Table 1 for explanation.)
Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June /996 3 Table 1 . Explanation for geologic and geographic features of Figu res 1 and 2
MAP UNITS Metamorphic Core Complexes NAME ABBREVIATIONS Challis sequences Eh Eocene Herron Creek quartz Towns 1eo1 Tk Klondike Mountain Formation monzo nite CO. Colville C, Cu rlew vokaniclastics and felsic flows Ei Eocene felsic plutons G , Greenwood GF, Grand Porks M. Midway OM , Omak Ts Sanpoil Volcanics rh yodacitic pTm Amphibolite facies Cretaceous OR, Orovi lle R, Republic fl ows orthogneiss and Proterozoic and S , Spokane T, T ra il Paleozoic paragneiss Tm Marron Formation alkal ic flows Mines 1•01 To 0' Brien Creek Formation FAULT TYPES KH, Knob Hill L. Lamefoot arkosic and tuffaceous rocks OL, Overlook P, Phoenix Ouesnellia High-angle fault- dashed Faults where approximate Mi Granitic to alkalic plutons BCF Bacon Creek fau lt Detach ment fault-blocks BMF PMu Quesnel li an rocks, undivided Bodie Mountain fau lt • • on upper plate CLF Columbia fau lt Jr Ju rassic Ross land Group argillite. Thrust fault-sawteeth on CF Chesaw fault mafic and fcl sic volcanic rocks • • upper plate EMF Eagle Mountai n fau lt GDF Gold Drop fault Tlb Triassic Brooklyn Formation GAF Granby Ri ver fault argi II ite, chert. conglomerate, FOLD TYPES GWF Greenwood faul t limestone HRF Huckl eberry Ridge fau lt Pa Carboniferous to Permian LCF Lind Creek fault Upri ght antiform Attwoo Ouesnellla The regional , mid-Jurass ic Che.saw thrust fau lt placed th e The best description of the Quesne llian rocks is given in Fyles ophiolitic Kn ob Hill Group over the Attwood Group. The trace ( 1990). The formati on names that Fy les and hi s Canadi an of the thrust and its splays are marked by disrnntinuous bodies predecessors defined are now used in the U.S. Quesnel li a in of serpentinite (hydrated ultramafic rock), li stwanite (carbon cludes a Carboniferous to Permian ophioliti l'. suite of ultra ated ultramafi c rock), metagabbro, and amphiholite-fac ies mafic and mafic igneous rocks, ma fi c volcani c rocks, and rocks. Portions of the thrust are extensive alo ng the interna chert (the Kno b Hill Group) and a seemingly coeval succes tional bord er (Fig. 2), bu t have not yet been mapped in many sio n of dark argillites with minor fe lsic volcanic to volcan i areas south of Curl ew . Thus, some Quesnel li an rol'.b are clastic rocks, and limestone (th e Attwood Group) . Both of shown as a single unit, PMu, in Pigure 2. these suites are unconformabl y overlain by the Triassic Brook Although Fyles ( 1990) hel ieved th at the thrusts nort h of the lyn Fo rm ati o n (chert meta-conglomerate, e lasti c limestone, internati onal border are indi vid ual fau lts. Cheney and others and argillite). A youn ger unconformable succession of oceanic ( 1994) suggested th at uprig ht fo ld s repeat splays of a single volcanic to volcani clasti c rocks and sedimentary rocks may be fault (cross section C-C', Fig. 2), the Chesaw thrust. Our map part of the Brooklyn Group (Fyles, 1990), part of th e Jura ssic pin g of a kl ippe north of Curlew (Pig. 2) implies that at least Rossland Group (Cheney and others, 1994) as shown in Figure some of th e thrusts are fo lded. 2. or both. Two impo rtant mining distri cts occur in Quesncll ia n rocks. Altho ugh few large-scale, rec umbent fold s have been Th e G reenwood district in southe rn Briti sh Colu mbia is mapped in the area of Figure 2, th e Quesnelli an rocks are sig mostly between Greenwood, th e Phoenix mine, and th e inter nificantly fo lde Figure 2. (right) Geology of the Republic area. Sources of data are A, Monger (1968); B , the mod ification of Fyles (1 990) shown in Cheney and others (1994); C, our mapping since 1993; and D, Parker and Cal kins (1960 ), Muessig (1967) , and Stoffel and others (1991 ). 4 Washington Geology, vol. 24. no. 2, June 1996 pTm a 0 .c:. ~ 191111:J 9JJJ9>1 w N I 5km >t9a10 snWSOOf) 618 :E E t. ::, 00 .x (.,) C. j§ 0 pTm ... .x C. / .c ~ w ~ 0 0 1~ I>. CD E ::, pTm al ]§ 0 ... w ]j§ <{ "' u. w .I ~s - I .x C. ' Ei E I pTm ::, . ~ UO!P ' Sources of Data ~Q. I 1911/1:J \ ' < 11odues - c-i I ai 0 2 ~ ij ~ ~ C () "'C ,o E s·i I- ~ ~~~ a. 'f' 11) ~ u. Eh Ei ., °'o 0 > 01~ ])~ ! g ;,~ I lb" I g, Ts f- ~ D "'f 118°50' Wa shington Geology. vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 5 Group; major deposits thal have been mined since 1990 arc at Similar deposits occur along State Route 20 four mi les west of the Overlook and Lamefoot mines (Rasmussen, 1993). the Okanogan/Ferry County border. Rock-avalanche deposits in southeastern California mark the upl if't of MCCs in that area Challls Sequence (Topping, 1993). The Eocene formations or the Republic area a re s maller un The metamorphic core complexes. o r the detachment faults conformity- bounded sequences within the Challis sequent.:e. that bound parts of them. may have distinctly different ages. The oldest unit of predominantly tuffaceous and feldspathic The unconformity at the top of the T o m Thumb Tuff Member sandstone and siltstone is called the O'Brien Creek f 6 Washington Geology. vol. 24, no. 2. June 1996 Figure 3 . Inter-regional sequence stratig raphy of lhe Eocene rocks. CHM , Chumsti ck For mation; COW, Cowlitz Formation; GBL, Goble Volcan ics; GRV , Grays River volcanic rocks of the Cowlitz Formation; KLD, Klondike Mountain Formation; MRM, Marama Formation; MRN , Marron Formation; NCH, Naches Formation; OBR, O'Brien Creek Formation; REN, Renton Formation; RGE , Raging Rive r Formation; ROS , Roslyn Formation; SAN, Sanpoil Volcanics; SKH , Skaha Formation; SLP, Silver Pass volcanic rocks; SPB, Springbrook For mation; SWK, Swauk Formation; TEA, Teanaway Formation; TIG , Tiger Formation; TMT, Ti ger Mountain Formation; TUK, Tukwila Formation; WTL, White Lake Formation; WEN, Wenatchee Formation (lower member). The arrows indicate that some of the sequences ex te nd beyond Washington. Sources of data are in Cheney and oth ers ( 1994), figure 10. hang i ng walls o f the detachment fau lts that bo und the MCC:s. A ltho ug h th e intruded roc k s appear scarce in these areas (sec the maps of Parker and Calkins, 1964 . and Muess i g. 1967), their consi stent str ikes and d ips im Chi wau White pl y that their structural pattern is no t disrupted and that Seattle Ros lyn kum Lake Republic the Scatter Creek is therefore discont i nuo us. basin basi n grabcn basin graben Because the Scatter C reek obscures the map pattern. #50 M a it i s o mitted from Figure 2 and the i ntruded rock s are #66 #76 & 56 #42 #22 #18 #12 shown i n i ts pl ace. T he w idespread Q uaternary deposi ts - 36 are al so omitted from F i g ure 2. These o mi ss i ons en REI\" WEN hance the pattern of the Sanpoil syn<.:l i ne in the San re,== ~ 38 poil/Curlew va l ley, shown hy Parker and Cal ki ns ( 1964) an d M uessig ( 1967). T he sy ncline is o utl ined by the G BL TUK NCI! three C hallis ~cquenccs and by consider i ng al l of the Q ues ne llian rocks to be a ro urth basal unit (Fig. 2). = = North of C urlew. the synformal structure is m arked by - ---- ~ 44 the Knob H i ll G ro up in the C urlew klippe of the No. 7 cow TMT ROS CHM SKH TIG - - fault of the C hesaw thrust. T hus. much of the structural - - 46 relief o f the RepubliL: 'graben' is synclinal. GRV TEA Because t he Sanpoi l syncl i ne has a length, no rtherly strike, and str uc tural rel ief si mil ar to those of the adja 5() cent an ti formal MCCs and i s largely hounded by the ---WTL KLD same detachm ent faults. it is the synformal counterpart M l{M - iAN - '$AN-:-- or the anti forrn al MCCs. Thus, the C hallis regional se ...... --- MR\! - quences wer e no t d epos i ted i n a l oL:a l ·gr aben' b ut, cow RGE SWK SPB OBR OBR ,/\/'./V rather, are st ruc turally preser ved in the upper plates of - - ~ - - - ~ detachment faults . References Cited M onger. J. W . H .. 1968. Early Tertiary strati fied rocks, Greenwood Brun, J.-P.: Sokoutis. Dimitrios; Yan Den Bricssche, Jean. 1994, Ana map-area. British Columbia: Geological Survey of Canada Paper logue modeling of detachment rault systems and core complexes: 67-42. 39 p .. I pl. Geology. v. 22. no. 4. p. 3 19-322. M uessig. Sieg fried. 1967. Geology or the Republic quadrangle and a Cheney. E. S .. 1994. Cenowic unconformity-hounded sequences of part of the Aeneas quadrangle. Ferry County. Washington: U.S. central and eastern Washington. /11 Lasmanis. Raymond: Cheney, Geologica l Survey Bullctin 12 16. 135 p .. I pl. E. S.. convenors. Regional geology of Washington State: W ash Parker. R. L.: Ca lkins. J. A., 1964. Geology or the Curlew quadrangle. i ngton Division of Geology and Earth Resources Bulletin 80, Ferry County. Washi ngton: U.S. Geological Survey Bullet i n p. l 15-139. I 169. 95 p .. 4 pl. Cheney. E. S.: Rasmussen. M. G.: M i ller. M . G .. 1994. M ajor faults. Rasmussen. M . G .. 1993. The geo logy and origin of the Overlook gold stra tigraphy. and identity of Quesnellia in Washington and adja deposit. Fe rry County. Washington: University of W as hington cen t Briti sh Columbia. /11 L asmanis. Raymond: Cheney. E. S.. Doctor of Philosophy thesis. 154 p .. I pl. co nvenors. Regional geology of Wash ington Sta te: W ashington Stoffel . K . L .: Jo seph, N. L .: W aggoner. S. Z.: Gulick. C. W .; Di vision of Geology and Earth Resources Bul le ti n 80. p. 49-7 1. Korosec, M . /\.: Bunning. B. B ., 199 1. Geologic map of Washing Church. B . :-.! .• 1986, Geological se tt ing and minera li,:ation in the ton-Northeast quadrant: W ashington Division of Geology and Mount Allwood-Phoeni x area of th e Greenwood mining ca mp: Earth Resources Geologic M ap GM-39. 3 shee ts. scale I :250.000. Briti sh Columbia Geological Survey Bra nch Paper 1986-2, 65 p. with 36 p. tex t. Fyles. J. T.. 1990. Geology o f th e Greenwood- Grand Forks area. Brit Toppi ng. D. J.. 1993. Paleogeographic reconstructi on or the Death ish Columhia: British Columbia Geological Survey Branch Open Valley extended region-Evidence from Miocene large rock-ava Pi le 1990-25. 19 p .. 2 pl. lanche depmits in the Amargosa Chaos ba~in. California: Geo Malle. D . K ., 1995. I nternal structure. provcnanL:e. and implications logical Soc iety of America Bulletin, v. 105, no. 9, p. 11 90-1213. o r rock-avalanche depos its in th e Eocene K londike M ountain For Tschauder. R. J .. 1989. Gold deposiis in northern rerry County . mation: W ashington State University M aster of Science thes is. Washington. In Joscph. :--1. L. ; and others. ed itors. Geologic guide 102 p. book for W ashington and adjacent areas: Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources I nformation Circular 8 Washington Geology, vol. 24, 110. 2, June 1996 7 A Historical Perspective on Ore Formation Concepts, Republic Mining District, Ferry County, Washington Raymond Lasmanis Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources PO Box 47007, Olympia, WA 98504-7007 The Early Days mills operating in the Republic District, and the town still did The mining history of the Republic District is a tribute to its not have a n adequate and c heap source of e lectricity (Patty, prospectors, miners, e ngineers, metallurgists, geologists. and 1921). financiers. By Fe bruary 21. 1896, whe n the north half of the Development and mining activity in Republic soon at Colville Indian Reservatio n was opened to c;laim staking, most tracted the attention of the state's geological survey. ln hi s an of the gold-bearing lodes were already known to local trap nual report for 190 I (Landes, 1902), State Geologist Henry pers, pack train drivers, a nd former employees of the Hudson Landes described the development work and li sted the widths Bay Company. Be tween February 20 and 29, thirty claims of veins and their gold a nd silver assays or values; he included were staked, covering all the major gold-bearing quartz veins a sectio n on general geology and a description of metallurgical in and around E ureka Gulch CM. S. Warring, Ferry County tests. One whole chapter is devoted to the Republic Reduction Historical Society, written commun., 1996). On March 5 of Company plant. that year, two prospectors, Philip Creaser and Thomas Ryan, The s ignificance of the Republ ic Distric t was demon who were grubstaked by L. H. Long, C. P. Robbins. and James strated when the Washington Geological Survey published its Clark of Spokane, located the Republic and Jim Blaine claims. first bulletin Geology and Ore Deposits of Republic Mining With financing provided by Patrick F. (Palsy) Clark, the dis Distrirt (Umpleby. 1910). This report described in detai l the trict was rapidly developed. history, development, wall rocks , vein configuration, and A gold rush ensued, and thousands of claims were staked, gold/silver ore at the various mines, but il included no discus encouraged by published accounts during 1897 in the Seattle sion of ore controls and genesis. Witho ut coming to a ny con Post-Intelligencer by L. K. Hodges, who wrote, "One of the cl usions about ore deposition, Urnpleby ( 1910) pointed out greatest showings of free-milling ore has been made in Eureka that there are some similarities between Republic ores and Camp .... '' By 1898, three mills were operating to treat low those of Tonopah and Goldfield, Nevada. grade ores. The high-grade ore was shipped by wagon to smelters in Washington and British Colu mbia. A New Way of Thinking The Republic claim had some of the more extensive vein s While the discovery and development of mines in the Republic known at the time and became the si te of the large Republic District was laking place, on the easl coast a budding young mill owned by the Republic Reduction Company (Landes a nd Swedish mining engi neer and metallurgist joined the U.S . others, 1902). ln 1899, the Republic mine and mi ll were sold Geological Survey (USGS) and began studying mineral depos to Canadian investors for the unheard-of sum of $3,500,000 its in the western U.S. under the guidance of George F. Becker. (Walter and fleury. 1985). In 1900, the USGS published Waldemar Lindgren's exhaus During 1898, the gold-ru~h town of Eureka was renamed ti ve report on the Si lver City and De Lamar, Idaho, gold/silver 'Republic' after the claim, mill , or rnmpany. (The name deposits. In I 905, Lindgren was appointed to head the USGS 'Eureka' had been pre-empted by a post office in business at section for precious and semiprecious metals (Graton, 1933 ). the time.) On February 18, 1899, Governor Rogers signed a It was Lindgren who developed an ore genesis model ap bill creating Ferry County. A reflection of the population plicable t o Republic ores a nd simi lar deposits such as growth and business activity was the Republic post office, Tonopah. Goldfield, and De Lamar. He call ed the deposits which in its opening year (1899) processed more registered "epithe rmal'' and noted that they have features in common letters th an Los Angeles, Seattle, Spokane, or Portland. with hot springs (Lindgren and Bancroft, l 914). Also of sig In the summer of 1902, two railroads reached Republic to nificance, Lindgren and Bancroft observed in 19 14 that be serve the mills and mines-the Kettle Valley Railroad and the tween the Tom Thumb mine and Knob Hill mine "the quartz Great Northern Railroad (Walte r and fleury, 1985). spreads widely through lhe lake beds and forms no well -de In those early years, the discovery and development of the fi ned lodes." veins in the Republic District did not require any geological Prom 1908 to 1912, Lindgren presented a series of lectures knowledge. The veins, resistant to weathering, stood o ut as about ore deposits at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. bold outcrops that could be sampled for gold. [f sufficient val His notes led to the classic text book Mineral Deposits. In the ues were returned by assay, a mine was started at the surface revised fourth edition (Lindgren, 1933), there was an exten and worked down-dip l'rom adits and by shafts. sive description of gold/sil ver-bearing hot spring systems a nd Metallurgy. however. was a problem because the very their relation to epithermal deposits, including those at Repub finely crystal I ine ore minerals and si I ica e ncapsulatio n of elec lic, De Lamar, and other locatio ns. Lindgren also noted the trum (a mixture of gold and s ilver) made it d iffic ult to extract significance of active hot springs at Rotorua, New Zealand, metals by the technology of the day. ln fact, all the early mills where sinter is enriched in gold, silver, a nd mercury. had railed by 1904 due to poor metal recoveries. However, the Lindgren was a visionary in modeling the process of ore district continued to ship gold/silver crude ore to smelters in deposition. It is amazing that his epithermal hot spring model, British Columbia and Washington. By 19 19, there were no as it applies to the Republic and other western deposits, was 8 Washington Geology, vol. 24, nu. 2, June 1996 paleosurface sinter and silver are transported and deposited in modern systems such as Steamboat Hot Springs, Nevada, and hot springs in New Zealand. breccia zone During the 1950s, extensive research conducted by Don ald E. White of the USGS at Steamboat Hot Springs led to a t seri es of publications on gold deposition (White, 1955) , but at the time, the significance of hi s studies was not fully appreci stockworks ated by the m ining commu nity. u~0r The Knob Hill mine conti nued to produce in to th e 1970s but did not attract much attention because the daily under 0 ground production was modest compared to modc:rn open pit ~ throttle zone operations. Day Mines, with producing mines at Republic from 1916 to 1975, had a property interest at De Lamar, ldaho, that was acquired by the author on behalf of Canadian Supe rior. After a four-year exploration and development program by Canadian Superi or, Earth Resources Company, and their consultants Al Perry, Jim Knox, and Moe Kaufman, a decision was made in October 1974 to mine the De Lamar deposits by large-tonnage open pit methods. This was the first substantial open pit gold/silver mine of the epithermal type associated with Tertiary volcanic activity. A Unified Model Suddenly, epithermal gold/sil ver deposits came into vogue Figure 1. Components of an epithermal precious metal hot spring throughout the industry. Both industry and academic research system modeled after the deposits in the Republic Mining District. No on epithermal deposits and the role of thermal springs were scale is implied. (From Tschauder, 1989) accelerated. Tertiary volcan ism and caldera development played a role in the model. In Japan, a three-dimensional view of a Miocene hot spring precious metal deposit was published forgotten for more than 40 years, probably because the bo for the lwato mine (Saito and Sato, 1978). A more sophisti nanza ores of epithermal distric ts were depleted in the western cated vertical section was proposed for the Las Torres mine in U.S. and explorationists concentrated their search efforts on Mexico (Buchanan, 1979). In 1979, Paul E imon gave a paper porphyry copper deposits and Carlin-type gold ores. on the evolving epithermal model for bulk silver deposits in At Republic, the Knob Hill mine had been producing volcanic rocks (Eimon, 1979), and then, in 198 I, he presented crude o re for sme lters since 1910-until a 400-ton-per-day an exploration concept l'or hot spring epithcrrnal deposits, in cyanide mill went into operation on May 10, 1937 (Lasmanis, c luding a genetic model by Byron Berger of the USGS. 1989). Recovery problems were overcome by grinding the ore It all came together during a three-day conference in Octo to -200 mesh, as had been suggested in 1914 (Lindgren and ber 1981 titled "Zoning in Volcanic and Sub-Volcanic Mineral Bancroft, 1914). Flotation cells were added to the mill in 1940, Deposits". The conference was organized by H.F. Bonham, D . and the mill's design capacity increased to 500 tons of ore per C. Noble, F. J. Sawkins, and R. Sillitoe of the Mackay School day. of Mines in Nevada. Berger published his fully developed In the mid-1960s. the USGS conducted a study of the dis model in 1985. The search for epithermal deposits turned into trict. The resulting publication (Muessig, 1967) thoroughly a gold rush when the McLaughlin mine in California started describes the regional geology, with an emphasis on the struc producing gold during March 1985 from a hot spring s inter tural setting of the Republic District. The veins are described deposit that was discovered by Homestake in 1978 (Lehrman, in thi s structural context, but without reference to the epither J 986). mal model. Republic ore deposits are further documented by On October 21, 1981 , Hecla Mining Company acquired the Knob Hill Mines, Inc., geologists in the standard reference operating properties at Republic from Day Mines. By 1983, work at that time, Ore Deposits of the United States, reserves in the Knob Hill mine were down to six months of 1933-1967 (Full and Grantham, 1968). In Volume Two, the production. However, mining continued after the discovery of various veins are keyed to structural adjustments related to the the Golden Promise ore bodies, initially accessed from the Republic graben. A three-dimensional description of the Knob Knob Hill mine. On June 24, 1989, Hec la celebrated the pro Hill mineralized system was presented: deep narrow veins duction of 2 million ounces of gold from a single s haft-the branching upward into a stockwork and overlain by mineral Knob Hill No. 2. Only s ix other gold mine shafts in the U.S. ized "rubble" in the lakebeds of the Tom Thumb Tuff Member have that distinction. of the Klondike M ountain Formation (Full and Grantham, It was the application of the ore models developed during 1968). (See Fig. I .) the 1970s and 1980s that led to the discovery of the Golden The first indications of a revival of the epithermal model Promise vein system in 1984 (Lasmanis, 1989). A model of an and its implications were in a report by mining geologist Har epithermal precious metal hot spring system for the Republic rison Schmitt (father of geologist/astronaut Jack Schmitt). In District was finally published in 1989 (Tschauder, 1989). It 1950, he wrote a paper titled "The fumarolic-hot spring and resembles very c losely the models of Buchanan ( 1979) and mineral deposit environment" (Schmitt, 1950). He applied Berger ( 1985) and has features that were documented by knowledge gained from detailed studies at Yellowstone to Lindgren back in 1914. Lindgren's epithermal model. He also postulated how gold Washington Geology, vol. 24, 110. 2, June 1996 9 The Republic Unit of Hecla Mining Company ceased op erations in 1995 when the Golden Promise mine ran out of ore on January 2. The mill shut down in mid-February after 37 years of continuous operation. Production, since the 2 million ounce mark was reached. for th e Republic Unit. IS given Ill Table I . The Future Although underground mining has ceased at Republic, there is pote ntial for a large tonnage open pit mine on the Golden Eagle de posit. Santa Fe Pacific Gold Corp. has leased the property from Hecla, drilled in 1995. and is evaluating the fea sihility of prod ucing from the 11. 3-millio n-ton deposit that has an average grade of 0. 1 oz gold per ton. Santa Fe has a proprietary metallurgical process for gold extraction from re fractory ores that they hope to apply to the Golden Eagle de posit (Hecla Mining Company news re lease, August 8, 1995). The formall y designated Republic Mining District extends over 440 mi" and includes a mineralized area east of Curlew Lake known as the Belcher District; that district was created on December 15, 1906. There, Kettle River Operations unit, which consists of underground and surface gold mines and a central mill, are operated by Echo Bay Minerals. Echo Bay is a re lative newcomer in the di strict. They started a gold explo ratio n program in 1986 after forming a joint ve nture with Crown Resources. Inc., and Texas Gold, Inc. The first bar of dore bullion was produced at th e mi ll in .January 1990. For production statisti cs. see Table 2. Kettle River Operations is now a major contributor ro the economy o J' Ferry County and th e city of Republi c. Echo Bay and staff of Crown Resources used a very imagi nati ve and creati ve explorati on approach that was not based on Figure 2 . Belcher District mines and aeromagnetic anomalies. Con an epithermal hot springs model. Instead, they began to search tours in gammas. (Modified from Hunting Geophysical Services, Inc., for gold deposit s associated with skarns (deposi ts fo rm ed by 1960.) contact metamorphism of carbon ale rocks) and other iron-rich deposits. Lindgren and Bancroft ( 191 4) had given some tanta- 1i zi ng descriptions of the Oversight, Copper Key, and Belcher Mines that have produced for the Echo Bay mill are th e contact-metamorphic deposits, me ntioning that they are gold Overlook, Kettle, Key East, Key West, and currently the bearing. Additional descriptions of Be lcher District mines and Lamefoot. On ly the Kettle is of the epithermal type; th e re prospects were given by Huntting ( 1956). Gold th ere is asso maining mines are in deposits that were thought to be skarns. ciated wi th magnetite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite. Once it was es Recent studies by M. G. Rasmussen and others have dem tablished that th e deposits have a magnetic signature, Echo onstrated that the Overlook deposit is not a skarn deposit or of Bay turnt:cl to state Division of Mines and Geology Report of a replacement type. Echo Bay geologists did consider a synge Investigati ons 20 (Hunting Geophysical Services, In c., 1960) neti c model, but because the footwall was limestone, the idea and noted the large magneti c anomaly under Cooke Mountain was ulti mately rejected. During 1990. E. S. Cheney and Ras near the Key prospects (Fig. 2) Walt H. Hunt of Echo Bay mussen noted th at the deposit is overturned, thus making it (oral commun., 1991) attributes the discovery of the large possible to apply a volcanogenic massive s ulfide model to th e Overlook deposit by drilling in 1987 at Cooke Mountain to deposit (Rasmussen. 1993). that Di vision publication. The application of that mode l in Permian rocks outside the Tertiary Republ ic graben speaks well for the future o r gold mining in Ferry County. As a result of Echo Bay's success, a new wave of explorati on commenced in Washington State and Table 1 . Hecla Republ ic Uni t production, Golden Promise mine. Data adjacent British Columbia. This has resulted in the discovery from annual mineral industry reports by R. E. Derkey in Washington Geology. * from clean-up of the mill Table 2. Echo Bay Kettle River Operations productio n. Data from an- Year Tons Au (oz) Ag (oz) nual mineral industry reports by R. E. Derkey in Washington Geology 1988 79 ,210 80,301 354.077 Year Tons Au (07.) Ag (o7.) Mines 1989 80,000 72,000 318,000 1990 90,000 81.400 326.000 1990 N.A. 83 .3 I0 nil Overlook, Kettle 199 1 %,562 77,736 31 I .445 199 1 644,950 90,272 nil Overlook. Kettle 1992 102,63 1 58,343 299 ,957 1992 657,099 89,848 nil Overlook. Kettle 1993 110,846 49.601 27 6.688 1993 575.460 73.43 1 nil Overlook, Key 1994 120,165 39.085 283,326 1994 523.400 66.782 10,5 00 Overlook, Key, Lamefoot 1995 nil 3.098 15 .320* 1995 547,597 100,419 22,800 Overlook. Larn efool 10 Wa shington Geology, vo l. 24, 110. 2, June 1996 and o utlining o f the Crown Jewel deposit by Battle Mountain Muessig. S iegfried, 1967. Geology of the Republic quadrangle and a Gold Company and C rown Resources C orporation on the east part of the Aeneas quad rangle, Ferry County, Washington: U.S. e rn flank o f Buc kho rn M o unta in in adjacent Okanogan Geological Survey Bull etin 1216. 135 p., l pl. Co unty. This world-class skarn gold deposit, when in produc Patty. E. N .. 192 1, The metal mines of Washi ngton: Washington Geo ti on, will further stimulate the economy of Ferry County. logical Survey Bulletin 23. 366 p. Rasmussen. M. G .. 1993, The geology and origin of the O verlook gold References Cited deposit . Ferry County. Washington: Cniversity of Washington Berger. B. R .. 1985, Geologic-geoche mi cal fe atures or hot-spring pre Doctor of Philosophy thesis, 154 p .. I pl. cious-metal deposits. 111 Tooker, E. W., editor. Geologic charac Saito, M .: Sato. E .. 1978, O n the recent explorati on at the l wato mine teristics of sediment-and volcanic-hosted disseminated gold de Ltranslatcd title]: Kozan Chishitsu, v. 28. no. 149. p. 191-202. posits- Search for an occurrence model: U.S. Geological Survey Schmitt, Harrison. 1950. The fumaroli c-hot spring and .. epithermar· Bulletin I 646. p. 47-53. mineral deposil environment: Colorado School bf Mines Quar Buchanan. L. J ., 1979, The Las To rres mines, Guanajuato, Mex terly. v. 45, no. 1B , p. 209-229. ico-Ore controls of a fossil geothermal syste m: Colorado School T schauder. R . J .. 1989, Gold deposits in northern Perry County. of Mines Doctor of Philosophy thesis, I 56p. Washing ton. In Joseph, N. L., and others, editors. Geologic guide Eimon. Paul. 1979. Bulk silver deposits in volcanics, '.'.Jorth America book for Washington and adjacent areas: Washinglon Divi ion of Cordi ll era- T he evolvi ng geologic model, publicatio ns and pre Geology a nd Earth Resources In formation Circular 96. p. 241- dictions: [Canadian Institute o f Mining and Metallurgy confer 253. ence. Vancouver. B.C., Ocrobcr 27, 1979, J 6 p. Umpleby. J. 8 .. 1910, Geology and ore deposits of Re public mi ning Eimon. Paul. 1981. Exploratio n for epithermal gold and silver depos d istrict: Washingto n Geological Survey Bull etin I, (,5 p. its-The cpithermal model: First International Symposium o n Walter. E. M .: Fle ury. S. A. 1985, Eureka gulch, the rush for gold-A Small Mine Economics and Expansio n . T axco, Mexico, M ay history o f Republi c mining camp, 1896-1908: Don's Printery 17-21, 198 1, 15p. [Colville, Wash.], 261 p. Full, R. P.; Grantham, R. M ., 1968. Ore deposits of the Republic min White, 0. E .. 1955, T hermal springs and epitherma l ore deposits. /11 ing distri ct, Fe rry County, W ashington. /11 Ridge. J. D., editor, Bateman, A. M., editor, Economic geology fiftieth anniversary Ore de posits of the United States, 1933- 1967; The Graton-Sales volume. 1905-1955: Economic Geology Pub. Co .. part 1. p. 99- volume: American Institute o f Mining, Metallurgical and Pet ro 154 . • leum E ngin eers, v. 2. p. 1481 - 1494. Graton, L. C.. 1933. Life and scie nti fic work or Waldemar Lindgren. 111 Committee on the Lindgren Volu me. editor, O re deposits of the western states: American Institute o f M ining and Metallurgical Engineer~. p. xiii-xxii. Hodges. L. K .. 1897. Mining in the Pacific J\orthwcst: Seallle Post lntelligenccr. 116 p. Hunting Geophysical Services. Inc., 1960. Geological interpretatio n of airborne magnetometer and scintillometer survey. ML Bona parte. Bodic.Mountain, Curlew. Aeneas. and Republic quadran g les, Okanogan and Ferry Counties, W ashington: Washing ton Di vision of Mines and Geology Report of Investi gatio ns 20, 34 p .. 25 pl. H untti ng, M . T .. 1956, Inventory of Washington minerals; Part II , Metallic minerals: W ashington Division of Mines and Geology Bulletin 37, Part II, 2 v. Landes, Henry; T hyng, W. S.: Lyon. D. A.; Robens, Milnor, 1902. T he metalliferous resources of Washington except iron. In Lan des, llenry. Annual report for 1901, Volume I: Washington Geo logical Survey. p. 39- 157. Lasmanis, Raymo nd, 1989, Knob Hill No. 2 shaft at the Republic Unit produces 2 millionth ounce of gold: Washing ton Geologic News letter, v. 17, no. 3, p. 9- 1 I. Lehrman. N. J., 1986, The McLaughlin mine, Napa and Yolo Coun ti es, California. 111 Tingley, J . Y.; Bonham, H. F., Jr.. Precious metal minerali zation in hot s prings systems, Nevada- California: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Report 4 I , p. 85-89. Lindgren, W aldemar, 1900, T he gold and s ilver ve ins of Silver City. De Lamar, and other mining d istricts in Idaho: U.S. Geolo gical Survey Annual Report, 20th, Part 3, p. 65-256. Lindgren, Waldemar. 1933, Mineral deposits; 4 th ed.: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 930 p. Lindgren, Wa ldemar; Bancrofl. Howland, 1914, Republic (Eureka) district. In Bancroft, Howland. The ore deposits of northeastern Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulleti n 550, p. 133-166. Tunnel of the Surprise and Jim Clark mines, Eureka Gulch, ca. 1904. Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 11 Miners pose in front of the Great Northern tracks over the Pearl mine entrance, ca. 1904. Hank Levine (left) and 'Old Man' Simons (right) bagging ore, ca. 1900. Early Republic district prospector, May 3, 1900. John Yenter, Dick Cook. and unidentified man in background. 12 Washing to n Geology, vol. 24. 1w. 2. June 1996 Patsy Clark mill at the Republic mine, 1898. The Surprise mine and Great Northern tracks, ca. 1900. Mountain Lion mill and mine, ca. 1900. Last Chance mine, ca. 1910. Republic Consolidated Gold Mining Company, ca. 1900. Knob Hill mine, ca. 1949. Wushinxron C eoloxy. vol. 24. 110. 2, June /996 13 Knob Hill mine, ca. 1904. Mid Eureka Gulch, 1904. A Kettle Valley Railroad lo comotive sits on the tracks to the right. The Great Northern tracks are on the left. Quilp mine and Great Northern bridge at the lower end of Eureka Gulch, ca. 1904. 14 Washinxton Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 Depositional History of the Uppermost Sanpoil Volcanics and Klondike Mountain Formation in the Republic Basin David A. Gaylord, James D. Suydam, Scott M. Price, Jeffrey Matthews, and Kevin A. Lindsey Department of Geology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-281 2 ossilife rous, leaf- and insect-bearing sedimentary strata of Upper member volcani c-dominated deposit ~ correspon d to F the middle Eocene Klond ike Mountain f ormatio n in th e Muessig's info rm al upper member. These strata are c:.: hara<.: Oka nogan Highland s of northern Washington and southern terized by vari ously altered fl ow rocks that ra nge in <.:o mpos i Bri tish Columbia (f,i g. I) accumulated in a series of north ti on from basa lti c andesites ro rhyoli tes (Wagoner, 1992); th ey northeast-trendi ng, en echelon grabens and half-grabens that un conformably overlie th e sedime nt ary rock of the lower formed during regional extension, plutonism, volcani sm , and member. metamorphic core c:.:o mplex emplacement (Muessig. 1962, The Klondike Mountain Formation in th e Rt'.pub lic basin 1967: Park er and Calkins, 1964; Staatz, 1964; Pearson, 1967: consists of at least 900 m of mixed epiclastic (reworked vol Fox and oth ers, 1976; Pearson and Obradovid1, 1977; Cheney, canogenic sedimentary detri tus) and volcanic flow rocks 1980; Orr and Cheney, 1987; Fox and Ri nehart , 1988; Hansen (Gaylord and others, I 988; Gaylord. 1989: Price, 199 I ) (Fi g. 2). Curlew basin deposi ts are generally simi lar strati and Gooclge, 1988; Hol der and Holder, 1989: Parrish and oth graphicall y and Ii th ological Iy to th e Re public basin dcpos ers, 1988 ; Holder and others, 1990: Pri ce, 199 1; Suydam, its- wi th one exception: they in<.:lude sedimentary d asts de 1993). Examination and analysis of Klondike Mou ntain For ri ved from crystalline plutonic and metasedim entary sources. ma ti on strata in the Republic and Curlew basin s of the Repub By contrast, Republic basin deposit s are composed almost ex lic grabcn suggest much of this unit accumu lated in relati vely clu sive ly of reworked andesite deri ved fr om th e un derl ying 2 limi ted (<200 km ) sedimentary basins occupyin g topographic Sanpoil Yok anics. and volcan o- tecto nic lowlands (Gaylord and others, 1990, Overall , Kl ondike Mo untain Forma li on strata in t!J L: Re 1994; Price, 1991; Suydam and Gay lord, 199 1; Suydam, 1993; pu blic basin consist of a generall y coarsening-upward succes Suydam and Gaylord, 1993). Klondike Mou ntain strata in sion of mudstone-, sandstone-, and conglomerate-dominated these basins preserve the most fossil-rich sedimentary depos deposits unconformably overlain by lithoidal to glassy lava its in the Okanogan Highl ands (see. for example. articles by fl ow rocks. The ba al part of the Klondike Mountai n i-:-orma Schorn and Wehr, Wehr and Barksdale. and Wi lson in th is vol ti on consists of a 0- 50-m-thick sequence of brec:.:cia. conglom ume) This paper focuses o n the depositional history of the erate. and minor lava fl ows that unconformably overlie J aci te Klondi ke Mountain Formation in the Republic basin. and andesite fl ows of the Sanpo il Volcanics. Muessig ( 1967) Klondike Mountain strata were fi rst formally described believed the basal contact of the Kl ondike Mountai n Forma by Muessig ( 1962, 1967). Muessig named the unit for Kl on t io n was an angul ar unconformity. However, detai led exam i di ke Mountain , a prominent hill immediately north of Repub nations of strata across the Republic basin reveal essentiall y lic, and subdivided the un it into one fo rmal and two info rmal concord ant bedding attitudes between these two units (Gay- members (stratigraph ic subdivisions of formations) (Fig. 2). The lower, fin e grained sedimentary rocks of the Kl on di ke M ountain Formatio n were grouped into and fo rmally named the Tom Thumb Tuff Member (essentiall y the ''lake beds" of Umpleby ( 19 l 0) and Lind gren and Bancroft ( 19 I 4 ). The rest of th e formatio n was subdivided into the info rmall y named middle and upper members (M uessig, 1962, 1967). Subsequent workers (Gaylord and KETTLE others, 1990, 1994; Price, 1991; Suy COMPLEX dam, 1993) have adopted an informal OKANOGAN two-tiered system for th e Klo ndi ke COMPLEX Mountain Formation, di viding th e unit into a lower (sedimentary-dominated) member and an upper (volcanic-domi nated) member (Fi g. 2). These subunits of th e K londike Mountain Formati on 0 10 15 20 km are adopted here. The lower member ' ' deposits include the fin e-grained lake D . deposits of the Tom Thumb Tuff Mem / u Ter!iary low-angle /u Terti ary !ugh-angle J Mesozoic thrust faults ber as well as coarse-grained alluvial 11 ormal fa ults normal fa ull, (teeth on upper plate ) sandstone and con-g lomerate of Mues Figure 1 . Index map showing approximate limits of the Republic and Curlew basins. (Geology s ig' s ( 1962, J 967) middle me mber. after Pri ce, 1991, and Suydam, 1993.) Wa:,hin.g ton Geology, vol. 24, n.o. 2, June J 996 1 5 lord and others, I 9 88; Price and G ay lord, 1989). Above the basal brcccia Klondike Mountain Formation and conglomerate, the Klondike Moun Gaylord and others, Muessig, 1962, 1967 tain Fo rmation grades upward fro m: this paper ( I) 100-150 m of thi c k mudsto ne- 1 6 Wa shington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June J 996 (5) Lower to middle Klondike Mountain Formation-/ . As preserved in the Klo ndike M o untain Formation dur ing the drainage bas ins o f streams feeding the lake e nlarged this episode of sed imentation largely consist of wi th time, the lake continued to grow, probably reaching macerated debris. Depositi o n at this ti me sig naled an a min imum size of 25 km2 based on lateral extent of increase in sediment input a nd a possible decrease in preserved lake deposits. Filli ng of the lake proceed ed re lative basin s ubsidence or increased h ighland up li ft, or via stream syste ms w hose deposits, as no ted earl ier, both. generall y have not been preserved as part of the (7) Middle to upper Klondike Mountain Fo rmation. Klond ike M ountain Formation stratigraphic s uccession. Sed imenta tio n in the lake at this ti me was dominated by Lake sediments cons is t largely of s ubang ul ar to rounded andesite a nd dacite grain s, w hich s uggests that the lake gravel-ric h deposition. Gravel-ric h sediments was fed by streams that e roded o nl y the Sa npoil acrnm ulated in the lake via subaqueous debris fl ow and Volt: anics. In contrast, sediments in the C urle w basin density c urre nt de positiona l processes as fan-delta were carried to the lake by streams that transported a progradati on continued. Sedime nt inp ut increased as the wider variety o f rock types, includ ing weathered Sanpoil d rainage basin of the streams fi ll ing the lake continued Volcanics a nd o lde r metamorphic a nd plutonic roc k to e nlarge; however, basin subsidence a nd (or) highland partic les. uplift either slowed or ceased al this time. Price (1991) Streams feeding the Re publ ic basin provided mud to concluded. on the basis of the geometry and thickness of gravel-size material to the lake. T he thick seque nce of Gilbert-type delta fo reset beds, that the lake waters may mudsto ne, sand stone, and cong lomerate in the Republic have been a l least 300 m deep at th is time. Ul timately, basin accum ulated by suspe nsion settling, low- a nd the lake basi n was fi lled, thus creating the coarsening-up high-density turbidi ty c urrents, and debris flows stratigraphic sequence seen in the composite (Gaylord and others, 1990; Price, 199 1; Suydam, 1993). stratigraphic sectio n (Fig. 2). G ray to brown mudsto ne de posits likely represent (8) Upper Klondike Mountain Formatio 11 - J. Regio na l seasonal s uspensio n settling and de position by the distal upwarping, possibly associated with the the rmal portions of low-dens ity turbidity c urre nts. La minated expansio n that probably accompa nied extrusio n of the organic-rich mudstone represents s us pe nsio n depositio n in a the rmall y stratified lake whe re at least the deepest overl y ing lava fl ows (W agoner, 1992), promoted a lluvial part of the water column was unaffected by seasonal incision of the uppermost coarse-grained, gravel-rich overturn. Normally graded to massive a nd horizontally deposits of the Klo ndike M ountai n Formation. Streams stratified sandstone deposits are consistent with that drained this surface produced local topographic suspen ion a nd traction sedimentation from sand-rich, relief o f 25 lo 75 m . high- and low-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982). (9) Upper Klondike Mountain Formation-2. G las~y to Occasionally, coarse, gravel-rich sediments were l ithoidal basaltic andesi tes and rhyolites (Wagoner. delivered into the la kes via debris fl ows to produce beds 1992) were extruded across the irregularly dissected of matrix- a nd c last-supported cong lomerate. erosional surface o f the upper Klo nd ike Mou ntain lt was d uring th is time that some of the richest Formation. Volcanism in the Republic grahen at this concentrations o f now-fossi li zed leaves, insects, and fi sh time was characteri zed by dome-like eruptive centers were buried and preserved within the lake. Muc h of the s ituated a long extensional fau lts. Mi nor sedi mentary wood a nd leaf materia l transported to the lake was de posits deri ved largely from erosion of the lava fl ows macerated by the abras ive acti o n of more resistant occurred d ur ing interfl ow episodes. T his intcrstrati ficd sediment particles e ither in feeder streams or by wave seque nce of volcan ic and mi nor sedimentary rocks caps action a lo ng the beach. Jt is stri ki ng that there has been the Klo nd ike M o untain formation strata in both the such widespread preservation of intact leaves and fossil s Republic and C urlew basins. in suc h a d ynamic de positio nal setting. Apparentl y, leaves and po llen often were transpo rted to the lake by streams and w ind and later settled into deeper parts of References Cited the lake where burial was swift and reworking by wa ves Cheney, E. S .. 1980, Kettle dome and related structures of north was minima l. The commo n coincidence of fossil s w ith eastern Washington. /11 Crittenden, M. D., Jr.; Coney. P. J.: Davis, th inly to thickly la minated , normally grad ed coup lets of G. H .. editors. Cordilleran metamorphic core complexes: Geo fi ne sand to mud indicates that in many cases the fi s h, logical Society of America Memoir 153, p. 463-483. insects, a nd leaves were able to rema in intact in spite of Fox, K . F .. Jr.; Ri nehart, C. D. , 1988, Okanogan gneiss dome-/\ the freque nt turbidity currents that fl owed across the lake metamorphic core complex in north-central Washington: Wash botto m . C u rio us ly, these fossi Ii ferous strata sho w o nly ington Geologic News letter, v. 16, nu. I , p. 3- 12. local evid e nce of b ioturbati on, s uggesti ng that e ither Fox, K. F. , Jr.; Rinehart, C. D.; Engels. J.C.; Stern, T . W., 1976. Age oxygen levels were too low to s upport b urrowing of empl acement of the Okanogan gneiss dome, north-central organisms or that depositio n rates ofte n were Washington: Geological Society of America Bulleti n, v. 87, no. 9, exceptio na lly high. p. 12 17-1224. (6) Lower to middle Klondike Mountain Formation-2. As Gaylord. D. R., I 989, Eocene sedimentation in the Republic graben. the drai nage basin feedi ng the lake continued to e nl arge, north-central Washington [abstract] : Geological Society of Amer ica Abstracts with Programs. v. 21. no. 5. p. 82. coarser grained, sand-rich de tritus was shed farther o ut into the la ke. Sand thickness maps (isolith maps) suggest Gaylord, D. R.: Church, 8 . N.; Suydam, J. D .. 1994, Uppermost Eo cene stratified deposits, south-central British Columbia and that sand-ri c h fa n-deltas (spati ally connected to a llu vial north-central Was hi ngton [ab~ tract] : Geological Society of Amer fans on la nd) pro g raded across the lake (Gay lord and ica Abstracts with Programs, v. 26. no. 7. p. A-247. others, 1990; Price. 199 1; S uydam , 1993). Fossi ls Washington Geology, vol. 24, 110 . 2, June 1996 17 Gaylord. D.R.: Lindsey. K. A.: Thiessen. R. L., 1988. Eocene sed i Price, S. M ., 1991, Geology of the Klondike Mountain Formation and mentati on and volcanism-Upper Sanpoil Volc.:<1nic3 to lower upper Sanpoil Volcanics in the Republic Mining District. f'erry Klondike Mountain Formation trnnsition. Republ ic grahen. County. Washington: Washington State University Master of Sci W<1shington [abstract]: Geological Society of America Abst racts ence thesis, 98 p. with Programs. v. 20. no. 6. p. 415. Price, S. M.: Gaylord. !J . IL 1989. Upper Sanpoi l Volcanics and Gaylord. D. R.: Price. S. \'1.: Suydam. J. D.: Thiessen. R. L.. 1990. lower Klondike Mountain formation. Republic M ining District. Middle Eocene 3Cd imentation, hydrothermal activity. tectonism. Washington [<1bstrac.:t] : l mplic.:ations for timi ng of mincraliL.ation : and volcanism, K londike Mountain f'ormation. central Republic Geologicnl Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 21. grahen. Washington [abstract]: Geological Associ<1tion of Canada no. 5. p. 23. and Mineralogical Association of Canada. Annual Meeting. Van Staatz, M. 11 .. 1964. Geology of the Bald K nob quadrangle. Ferry and couver. 13 .C.. Program with Abstracts, v. 15. p. A44. Okanogan Counties. Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulle Hansen. V. I .. ; Goodge. J. W ., I 988, Metamorphism. structural petrol tin 11 61-F, 79 p. ogy. and regional evolution of the Okanogan Complex. north Suydam. J. D .. 1993, Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Klondike eastern Washington. In Ernst, W . G .. editor, Metamorphism and Mountain Formation, with implica tions for the F.ocene paleo crustal evo lution or the western United States: Prentice-Hall geography and tectonic development of the Okanogan Highlands. (Englewood C liffs, New Jersey) Rubey Volume V II, p. 233-270. northeast Washington: Washington Stale Universi ty Doctor of Holder. G. A . M .. 1990. Gcuchcmieal character and correlation of Philosophy thesis. 190 p. comemporancuus volcanic. plutonic and hypabyssal igneous ac Suydam, .J . D .; Gay lord, D.R .. 1991. Middle Eocene paleogeography tivity a~sociated w ith Eocene regional extension. northeast Wash of the Okanogan Highlands, Washington- Evidence from the ington: W ashi ngton State University Doc.:tor or Philosophy thesis. sedimentary and volcanic record: Geological Society of America I 56 p .. 3 plates. Abstracts with Prugrnm3. v . 23. no. 5. p. 68. Holder, G. A. M.: Holder. R. W .: Carlson. D. II.. 1990. Middle Eo Suydam, J. D. ; Gay lord. D. R., 1993. Sedimentary and stra tigraphic cene dike swarms and their relation to contemporaneous pluton evidence of Eocene extension in the Okanogan Highlands. Wash ism. volcanism. core-complex myloniti,ation. and graben subsi ington [abstract]: Geo logical Society of Amer·ica, Abstracts with denc.:c.:, Okm1ogan Highlan ds, Washington: Geology. v. 18. no. 11. Programs. v. 25. no. 5. p. 153 . p. 1082- 1085. T schauder, R. J. , 1989. Gold deposits i n northern Ferry County. Holder, R. W.; llolder. G. A. M .. 1989. The Colville hatholith- Ter W a ·hinglon. In Joseph. N. L.. ,1 nd others, editors, Geologic guide tiary plutonism in northeast Washington associated with graben book for Washington and adjacent areas: Washington Division of <1 nd core-complex (gneiss-dome) formation: Geological Society Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 86. p. 24 1- of America Bulletin. v. I 00. no. I 2. p. 1971- I 980. 253. Lindgren. Waldemar; Bancroft. Howland. 1914. Republic mining dis Umpleby . .I . B .. I 9 I 0, Geology and ore deposits of the Republic min tric.:t 111 Bancroft. Howland, The ore deposi ts of northeastern ing district. Washington: Washi ngton Geological Sur vey Bulletin Wa. hington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 550. p. 133- 166. I. 67 p. Lowe. D. R .. 1982. Scdi ment gravity flows: 11. Depositional models W;igoner, L . C.. 1992. Geochemistry of the Eocene K londike Moun with special reference to the deposits of high-density turbidity tain Formation lavas of the Republic graben. northeast Washing currents: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. v. 52, no. I. p. 279- ton: W as hing to n State Cniversity Master o f Science thesis. 297. I 92 p .. I plate. • Malle. D. K., 1995. I nternal structure, provenance, and implications of rock-avalanche deposits in the Eocene Klondike Moun tain For mation. north-central Washington: W ashi ngton Stale Uni versity ERRATUM Master of Science thesis. I 02 p. Muessig, S. F .. 1962. Tertiary volcanic and related roc.:ks of the Re On page 3 1 in our previous issue. there are two geologic public area. rerry County, Washington: U.S . Geological Survey units mislabeled. The Tl unit in the center of the right side Profess ional Paper 450-D. p. D56-D58. of the map should be Kqm (Mount Spokane granite), and Mues~ ig. S. F .. 1967. Geology of the Republic quadrang le and a part the small unit in that area labeled Kqm i s TKa (alaskite, of the Aeneas quadrangle, Ferry County. WashingLOn: L: .S. Geo peg mari te, apl ite). logical Survc.:y Bulletin 1216. 135 p. Orr, K . E .. and Cheney. E. S .. 1987. Kettle and Okanogan domes, northeastern Washington and sout hern British Colu mbia. In Sc.:h u3ter. J. E., editor. Selected papers on the geology of Wash New Home Page for the ington : Washington Division of Geo logy and Earth Resources Office of Mines and Minerals Bu lletin 77 . p. 55-7 1. Parker. R. L.: Calkins, J. A., 1964. Geology of the Cu rlew quadrangle, T he Office of Mines and Minerals home page can be ac Ferry County. W as hington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin cessed via: 116 18 Washington Ceoloxy, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 Republic Leaf Deposits and Eocene Ecology Robyn J . Burnham Museum of Paleontology University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079 The leaf floras of the Republic graben are a spectac ul ar lot. The presence of hot mineral s prings in the area may have Each slab one s plits has the potential to display a complete aided plant preservati on in some cases. In modern volcanic e n reddish-brown leaf that is highlighted by dark brown veins and vironments, mineral deposits have been noted coating leaves isolated on the creamy white matrix. (See Fig. 1. ) The beauty with a fi ne precipitate. This precipitate may prevent bac terial of the fossi ls in deposits like these deserves robe studied in degradation and impart durability to the otherwise fragile leaf, detail. Simil ar lakebed prcscrvational conditions are rare, but thus helping to preserve. rather than degrade, the leaves. 4. well known: Florissant a nd Green River in Colorado, Wind We know that the landscape was relatively stable during River in Wyoming, and C larkia in Idaho. the ti me o f deposition of the leaves at Republic for a couple of ln the excitement of finding a species new to science or of ~·ea_son s. _First, the predominant grain s iLc in the plant deposits uncovering a complete s pecimen of one of the known s pecies, 1s fine: silt to clay particles entomb the leaves. Rivers carrying it might be tempting to set aside until later the idea that the larger g rain sizes would have left some larger grains on the flora and the deposit are a snapshot o r an ancient ecosystem. fossils, but this is rare in the deposits from which we have Once we put the Re public flora in an evolutionary, biogeo coll ected the best leaf specimens at Republic. Second, the high graphic, o r ecological context, we can see the importa nce of a species richness of the plants and animal traces in the deposits whole s uite of details, from rock texture to floral diversity. at Republic indicates that the ecosystem was re latively stable, The conditions under which the d e pos it formed (the ta at least in the s hort terms of hundreds of years. A limited range phonomy) give us informatio n about the local Eocene ecosys of plants and animals can withstand constant perturbation. A tem. It is this informati on that allows us to travel in o ur minds modern parallel might be the weeds along the roads ide. They through the ancient forest. are a limited subset of the total fl ora-those that can stand The floras at Republic were deposited in quietly accumu crushing and partial uprooting throughout their lives. So the lating muds rich in fine volcanic debris. Pe riodic e ruptions o f volcanic activity, which in modern volcanoes has enormous volcanoes c hoked the air and the rivers with volcanic dust. but energy for moving sediment, represents a pause in deposition these we re not times of depositio n of the plants we know best or the highly produc ti ve plant layer at Republic. In some from Republic. Instead, these piles of volcanic dust and debris cases the periods of quiet plant deposi tion e nded abruptly were incorporated slowly into the soil profile and into the sedi when a large plug of coarse sediment c..:ovcrcd the plant-rich ments of rivers leading away from the volcanic s lopes. Debris deposit. dams were formed occasionall y, pondi ng ri vers into s hort Taken together, then, the leaves and their e nclosin <> cdi lived lakes. These lakes filled rapidly with fine sediments, but me nts give us a picture of the Eocene landscape that we ~an not they sti 11 probably preserved very little plant materia l that has !>eC as clearly from fossils or rock i n isolation. • the quality of the plants desc ribed above. Slowly the landscape recovered from the inundation of volcanic sediment. The unstable slopes were leveled and the gullies were filled during the erosion-fill process. Depressions became permane nt lakes. Some of the depressions owed their presence to local fau lts. Movement along these faults ma in tained the geologic structure in the area and slowly deepened the lakes, a llowing them to continue accumulating sediments . The landscape took on a more stable appearance and started to support forests bet ween the river courses and along the lake edges. Sediment influx to the lakes continued, but only the fin est sediment reached the lake, the coarser material dropping out in the rivers as they made their way to lake basins. Fine sedime nts are essential if the fine details of leaf veins and margins or sculpturing of fruits and seeds arc to be pre served. Clearl y, large quantities of fine sediment reached the lake because the ratio of sediment to organic matter is low. Leaves were both carried to the lake in the rivers and probably fell directly into the lake from surrounding trees. The leaves would have floated some distance, but once waterlogged, they settled to the lake bottom and were quickly covered by the ar riving volcanic-rich mud. Leaves arriving in the rivers may have been torn during transport, but a waterlogged leaf is more Figure 1, A typical, beautifully preserved leaf of an extinct relative plastic than a dried leaf from the forest floor, so the river of the sumac (Rhus malloryi Wolfe and Wehr); SRBB-43-1 , x1 .65. transported leaves may be represented by both torn a nd fairly The fine grain size of the sediment enhanced the preservation of fresh- looking leaves. the details. (Photo by Lisa Barksdale.) Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 19 The Presence of Fagaceae (Oak Family) in Sediments of the Klondike Mountain Formation (Middle Eocene), Republic, Washington Maria Gandolfo L. H. Bailey Hortorium Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853-4301 ear Republic, Washi ngton, outcrops of the Klondike family to extinct forms that appear to have no modern analogs . NM ountain Formation o iler an exceptional opportunity for Perhaps the most interesting of the novel forms is FaRopsis studying megafossils because of their ahundance and excellent undulara ( Knowlton) Wolfe and W ehr (Plate I, figs. I and 2), preservation. The Republic J"l ora, for which the age has been known from specimens of both isolated leaves and fruits. The radio metrically calculated as early middle Eocene, suggests a leaves are characterized by the combination o f elliptical s hape. mixed coniferous fores t with principal components such as straig ht unbranched secondary veins, and s imple prominent Pill/ts (pine). Picea (spruce), Trnxa (hemlock), Abies (fir), and teeth separated by shallow sinuses. The type of serration along Thuja (cedar). As part of the understory, although not as well the leaf margin allows Fagopsis to be identified as belonging represented. arc dicotyledonous shrubs and trees suc h as Hy in the Fagaceae because this character is of wide occurrence in extant genera of th e fami ly. Some dispersed circular aggrega dran~ea, N.ih,•s (wi ld currant), Pru11u :, (cherry), Cory/apsis tions of fruit-wedges, also collec ted in the Klondike Mountain (win~er hazel). Phoebe (laurel), Populus (poplar), and Salix Forma ti on, l"il the description of Fagopsis fruits. Each wedge (wil low). In spite of the fact that most elements of this type of has a c.:o ne-like shape and is toothed at the distal end. Fossil forest are amenoph ilous (wind-pol Ii nated ), some of its cle leaves that resemble mode rn Castanea, Fa,;us, and perhaps ments. such as the understory trees and shrubs, are entomophi Quercus have also been reported from the lakebed strata. lous (pollinated by in sects). This type of forest indicates a mi The genus Ca:,taneophy /lum ( Plate I , figs. 3 and 4). crothermal climate in which the mean annual te mpe rature is erected for isolated Castanea-like fossil leaves. is almost iden sli g htly less than J3°C (about 55°F). tical in leaf features to the extant genus Custwrea. The ~hape, At least 50 families of flowering plants have been identi margin, high-order venal ion. and arcolation relate the fossi I fied as c lements of the Republic riora. Among the most inter genus Castaneophy/111111 to modern Castanea, and for this rea esting of these, the family Fagaceae (beeches and oaks) is rep son o mc researc.:hers believe that Casta11 eophyllu111 should be resented by remains that are assignable to both extinct and considered a member of the subfamily Castanoideae. modern genera. The modern Fagaceae is a large family o f both The leaves of Fag us ( Plate l, figs. 5 and 6) are charac trees and shrubs that has a northe rn hemisphere distribution. terized by a serrate margin, si mple teeth regularly spaced, There a re nine exta nt genera. Of thes t'. . Quercus (oaks) and rounded si nuses. a nd distinctive se<.:o ndary venation . These Fa x u:, (beeches) are pl;c.:ed in the s ubfamily Fagoideae, Cas features al low Lht:m lo be easily distinguished from those of ranea (chestnuts) in the s ubfamily Castanoideae. (Some other ram i I ies as well as other genera of Fag acaeae a nd to be a utho rs place Quercus in a th ird subfamily, Q uercoidcac.) considered as belonging to the subfamily Fagoideae. Qucrcus and Fag us are pol linated by wind, whereas all me m Various fragmented specimens show leaf characters simi bers of the Castanoideae are insect-pollinated. lar to those of the genus Quercus (Plate I, fig. 7), but any as Our knowledge 01· the history of the Fagaceae has been s ignment to Quercus al this time is do ubtful. The presence of greatly enric hed by descriptions of fossil wood, leaves, stami Quercus in Lhe Republic fl ora still needs to be confirmcJ. nate catkins , pollen grains, pistil late infruc tescences. and Although Fagaceae is poorl y represented in the Republic fruits. The first microfossil record ide ntifiable as be longi ng to flora. because of its position early in the development of mod the Fagaceae consists of pollen grains resembling those of the ern genera of the family, further collec ting and work on the mode rn Castano id eac th at were found in Late Cretaceous fossil at this site have potential to shed li g ht on major events rocks o f the San Joaquin Valley in California. The first indis in the evolution of the fami ly. putable megafossil evidence for both subfamilies cons ists of wood, leaves. and fruits from the middle Eocene. By the late Acknowledgments Eocene. the family was already widespread in North America; fossil s (mostly leaves) assigned to Fagaceae are known from The figured specimens were generously donated by Bonnie several formations in different states and provinces. Blackstock, Marion Dammann, Keith Nannery. Mark Reeves. The fagaceous fossils found at Republic vary from speci and Michael Spitz. • mens that appear almost identical to modern members of the 20 Washington Geology, vol. 24, 11 0. 2, June 1996 Plate 1 . Fossil leaves and fruit of the oak family from th e Okanogan Highlands of Washington and British Columbia. UWBM, University of Washington, Burke Museum. 1. Fagopsis undulala, leaf, UWBM 57491 a, loc. B3389, One Mile Creek [OMC], near Princeton, BC. 2. Fagopsis undulata, fruit, UWBM 74317, loc. B5097, Midway, BC. 3. Castaneophyllum sp., leaf, UWBM 76557, loc. B3389, OMC. 4. Castaneophyllum sp., leaf, UWBM 56705, loc. B3389, OMC. 5. Fagus sp. leaf, UWBM 71065, loc. AD307, Republic, WA. 6. Fagus sp. leaf, UWBM 5631 4, loc. B3389, OMC. 7. ?Quercus sp., UWBM 3 1245, loc. A0307, Republic. The bar beside each figure represents 1 cm. Washi11 x to11 Ceolo!{y, vol. 24 , 11 0. 2, June IYY6 21 The Conifer Flora from the Eocene Uplands at Republic, Washington Howard E. Schorn Wesley C. Wehr Museum of Paleontology Thomas Burke Memorial Washington State Museum University of California University of Washington Berkeley, CA 94720-4780 Seattle, WA 98195. s you collect foss il p lants in Rcpubli<.: , and th e bright s un The distinctly greater generic di vers ity among the foss il A of a warm /\ug us t a fternoon begi ns to hear down on you, conifers at Re publi c is c learl y expressed w hen it is compared you probably readi a point where you look around for some with the lower divers ity from other essential ly contempora nt'. s hade. The largest trees in the immediate area arc the ponder ous fl oras that gre w at lo we r and at hi gher ele vations (Fig. 2) osa pines and Douglas fi rs. Lean bac k agains t a ponderosa, in the Eocene Pacific Northwest. dost: your eyt:s and conjure up the forest scene that existed During the E ocene, just as in present forests. the m ost d i here some 49- 50 million years ago. What kind of a tree would verse assemblages of coniferous genera grew under warm tem you be leaning against in the Eocene forest? What conife rs perate conditions ( tha t is, in warm mic ro therm a l to cool were he re the n'1 Just how do the Repub lic l'ossi l he lp us un mesothermal c limate ), w ht:re the tt:mpe rature was ne ither too derstand the geologic history of the coni fers? warm nor too cold. and where s uffic ient precipitation was dis tributed througho ut the growi ng season. When the three fl oras If you could travel back to the Re public area during the from Figure 2 are p lotted according to t heir inferred lcm pera middle Eocene about 50 millio n years ago . you easil y would ture requireme nts (fig . I ) it is easy lo vis ualize the re lation recognize the conifers g rowing in the forest. lt w<1s a n associa s hi p between tempe rature conditio ns, e levati o n, forest type, ti on of s pecies th at no longer li ves together in <1 11y o ne s mall and con ifer divers ity. a rea o n the face o f Earth. B ut even tho ug h tht: associatio n of The R epublic and contemporaneous Princeton. British Co spt:cies was diffe rent from any known to day. you still would lumbia, localities offe r us a s ubstantia l view o r w hat th e fo rest recognize the dis tinc t forms that made up t he forest. especiall y cover was like in this regio n during the early middle Eocene. if you were reasonably familiar w ith the modern forest of eas t Just how impo rta nt is t his information as it re lates to increas ern Asia (Wang, 196 1). Nearly one-half of the con ifer genera ing o ur understanding of the his tory of the conifers? O ne way found at .Republic li ve today o nl y in China and (or) Japan. to appreciate the c ruc ial importance of the Republic fl ora is to The fos~ il s that an: tht: remains of the various parts o f the simply ask, " What would o ur pi c ture be like wi tho ut the Rt: a nc ient plants look very s imilar to their modern counterparts. public coll ecti ons?" W e would have quite a diffcre nt under The re are impre~s ions o f branches with atlac he d leaves, sta nding, for sure. F ir~t o r all, tht: Republic fl ora provides us w inged seeds, cone scales and cones (see photos, p . 36), ind i with the earliest unequivocal record o f three conifer genera: fir vidual leaves or needles. and groups ol' rascickd rn.:cdles . We (Abies), he ml oc k (Tsuga), and s pruce ( Picea) ( W e h r a nd d o not know with ct:rtainty whether the Eocene p lants were large forest-dwelling trees. but we assume fro m their mode rn re latives, modern associatio ns, and from o ther areas w here Table 1. Conifer taxa in the Re public flora (from Wehr and Schorn, petrified ' forests· of la rge s tumps are found. th at the Re public 1992) forest had canopy levels o r strata o f large trees ju ·t as in mod Ginkgoaccac e rn warm temperatt: fores ts (that is. warm microthermal cli Ginkgo (maiden hair tree) I species mate of rig. I ). Taxaceae /\s you ·rest' in your Eocene la ndscape you might well be Amenlotaxm-ty pe (Chi nese yew) I species leaning hac k against a pine tree. The re were at least three ty pes Taxus-type (yew) I species of pine in the forest. In fact. the Republic f'l ora probably has Torreya (California nutmeg) I species the richest concentration of conife r genera o f any known T er Cephalotaxaceae tiary fl ora. Even adjus ting for the possible errors that can he Cephalo1a.rns-1ype (plum-yew) I ~pccics m ade in identifying some of the leaves that look very s imilar. Cuprcssaccae I species there were probably 16 genera, and at least 18 s pec ies, o f coni Chamaecyparis (Pon Orford cedar) I species fers living in the Republi c forest (Table I ). Thuja (arbor-vitae) I species Taxodiaceae The Jargc number or coniferous Laxa found at Republic as Cryp1om eria-ty pe branches (Japanese cedar) species meg a-impressions a mo ng the very large number of fossi ls re 0/yp1os1robus-type branches (Chinese waler pi ne) species trieved at these loca lities is not s imply a n expressio n of the Sequoia (coast redwuucl) species great amount of coll ecting that has been done. Other fossil flo Me1asequoia (dawn redwood) I specics ras, as thoroug hly collec ted a nd from s imil ar depositio nal e n Pinaccac viron me nts, do no t yield s uch a d iversi ty of mega -impres Ahie.,· (fir) I species s io ns. The entire Republic fl o ra is ri ch in fossil s pecimens and Pseudolarix (golden larch) I species is very diverse in numbers of d iffere nt species (Gooch. 1992: Trnga (hemlock) I species Schorn and W e hr, 1986; Weh r a nd Schorn. 1992: W ehr a nd Picea (spruce) I species H o pkins. 1994; Wo lfe and W ehr. 1991 ). T hi~ d iversity rt: fl ects Pinus (pine) Pi11us (Slmhus) (soft pi ne) 2 (3") species the mode rate, or more equable, lt:mperate cl imate that existed Pin us ( Pi1111s) (hard pine) I (2'!) species al Republic some 50 million years ago. 22 Wu shin.gtcm Geology, vol. 24. 11 0 . 2, June 1996 -5 (23) 5 (41 ) l -+--4-- u 10 ...J--1-:,.i,,,:::::.:_-+--+--+-~-+--J..~-+--J...~::+---:!:-~~---!:-:c:l:----..l,t':.'..{-;---t--'-~~'.lt":l..-~~~ci--r.:"""t""".+."""t""".+.~.+.-i-:.t.:~:..i ( 50) i,,<:--!--,---1=-~f--=1-,--::=f-:-=::4-:-±c-:-+-,,.C.-+-+.~ 13 -+,-,,..+.,-..+,...,.1,,-.,4..,.4""'""'1:-,:-,""""~:+..,""""~-..+-~~~"--lf--t-f=+""'! (55) ~~~~~~"**~ -l 15 ~~~~.:;.i:,;~~~~~~~-1--1--+..-=:i=::::,,...+-=-~-+--~,,;::::=1:----:-+--:l-,.,,+,--+""""4"~~~---l ·< (59) ~~~~~~~~ +-+-+--l---!-1-J-+-t-+--l'"~:-¥----,--.--r-,----'r7/""'--t-----,o.±--+-t----J-; - ~~ .... i..:i~ l-+-+--+--1--+---+--1-1--l-+-+--+--+----+---+-~~l- l--1---l--1--j--!---l--+'___,,~'-----l--t---t---t- --t ~ :C - +-,,.1---~--t---t---t-r-+--,, r,1,,"1 r.__...__.__,.___, E-< 20 •llll'l'""-t--1--+-+--+-+-+--+-t-t--l-t-+-+--,/ (J.3 .....-----~ ·8) (68) 25 (7 9) 30 ...JE::....L...... L...... i.---ll--l..-J.._-...J...... j...... J...... L._----1--11--"---'----'--+-....J...... J...----L--J-'---'---'---'--+-....J...... J...--l..---L---!-'---'---'---'---+-...L.----L-.....J (86) 0 (0) 5 (9) 10 (18) 15 (27) 20 (36) 25 (45) 30 (54) 35 (63) 40 (72) Mean Annual Range or Temperature, °C (°F) Tropical rain forest D . Mi xed mesophytic forest Paratropical rain forest Mixed broad-leaved deciduous forest • ~+ D Notophyllous broad-leaved evergreen forest D Mixed coniferous forest ~ Microphyllous broad-leaved evergreen forest [:=] Mixed northern hardwood forest Mixed broad-leaved evergreen and deciduous forest Simple broad-leaved deciduous forest ~ w+ Mixed broad-leaved evergreen and coniferous forest D Taiga Figure 1. The Puget Lowland, Republic, and Thunder Mountain paleofloras (dark circles) (see Fig. 2) plotted by their inferred temperature requirements. The oval enclosure approximately defines the 'temperature envelope' that contains the majority of the living Nortt1ern Hemisphere conifer genera. Present-day temperature plots for the locations of the three fossil flora sites are indicated by squares. This nomograph is redrawn from Wolfe (1979, 1995), with the Mean Annual Temperature scale reversed . This format may make it somewhat easier to visualize the various forest types as they occur in nature. This graph describes tropical conditions in the lower left corner. The vertical and horizontal axes represent progressively cooler and (or) higher habitats. Climates as warm as, or warmer than, the 'palm line' do not experience periods of extended freezing. WMMT, warm month mean temperature; CMMT, cold month mean temperature. (1) from Wolfe (1993); (2) from Axelrod (1990) and Leonard and Marvin (1982); (3) from Wolfe (1994); (4) from Wing and Greenwood (1993). Schorn, 1992). Second. the generic divers ity of th e Republic lands or areas of higher elevation (Fig. 2). This is comparable conifers is s hown to be richer than in contemporaneous forests to distribution patterns observed in modern forests. For this that are known on physical evide nce to be from eithe r low- reason, this type of information helps lend validity to methods Washing/on Geology. vol. 24, 110. 2, June 1996 23 +-WEST ------·NORTHEAST------SOUTHEAST·- • Thunder Mountain, ID (8 genera) 3000 Republic (9842) ( 16 genera) 2000 (6561 ) Thm,dcc Mo""'" '''""'"'' J Republic elevation 1000 Puget Lowland (3281 ) (2 genera) X ~ Puget Lowland ck vati un, near/al sea level 0 0 100 (62) 200 (124) 300 (1 86) 400 (248) 500 (310) 600 (372) 700 (434) 800 (496) Distance in Kilometers (Miles) Between the Three Sites fiamilics present at the three sites: [J Ginkgoaceae [2] Taxales (more than one family included) ~ Cupressaceae [2j Taxodiaceae o Pinaceae Figure 2. Comparison of generic diversity among th e conifers from three Eocene floras that lived at different estimated elevations. Table 1 lists the genera and higher taxonomic groups used here. X indicates relative location of the sites. being develo ped for evaluating fossil flo ras (Wolfe, 1993, Leonard, B. F.; Marvin, R. F., 1982, Temporal evolution of the Thun 1995). and this in turn enhances o ur confide nce and s uggests der Mountain Caldera and related features. central Idaho. /11 B0n tha t fossil floras can be used with greater and greater assur nich5e n. Bill ; Breckenridge. R. M .. editors, Cenozoic geology 01· a nce to rnterprc t the habitat, evolutio n. a nd o lhe r as pects of Idaho: Idaho B ureau of Mines and Geology Bul leti n. 26. p. 23-41 . a nc ient fores ts. Third, the greatest generic divers ity o f exta nt Schorn. H. E.: We hr, W . C., 1986, Abies·111illeri, sp. nov .. from the conifers in the N orthern Hemis phere is fairl y well concen middle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation. Republic. Ferry trated by the te mperature values within the oval drawn o n Fig County. Washington: Thomas Burke Memorial Washington Stale ure l. Of the some 3 1-33 con ifer genera presently dis tributed Museum Contributions in Anthropology and Natural Hi story I. in lhe N orthern H emisphere, all but perhaps two genera are 7 p. restric ted to, or have some s pecies that live in. areas with te m Wang, C.-W., 196 1, T he foresls of C hina; With a survey of gra5s land perature ranges tha t fall w ithin the oval ' te mperature e n ve and desert vegetation: Maria Moors Cahot Foundation fo r Botani lope'. cal Research Publicati on 5 [Harvard Un iversity, Cambridge, In the pas t, as a t present, this temperature d o main has Mass.]. 3 13 p. acte d as the ·c rad le' o f conifer divers ity. A s c limatic fluc tua Wehr. W . C.: Hopkin s, D. Q., 1994, The Eocene orchards and gardens tions (W o lfe. 1994) expanded a nd (or) contracted the various or Repu bli c, Washington: W ashington G eology. v . 22, no. 3. habita ts throug hout the Cenozoic, species dispe rse d into or p. 27-34. were e limina te d from p e ripheral te mperature d o m a ins o f gen Wehr. W. C.; Schorn, H. E., 1992, Current research o n Eocene coni e rally cooler and (or) m o re extreme c limates. However, fers al Republic, Washington: Washington Geology, v. 20, no. 2, throughout these fluc tuations the m ost favorable c limate s for p. 20-23. conifer diversity remained in the warm mic rothermal to cool Wing, S. L.; Greenwood, D. R .. 1993, Fossils and fossil c limate-T he mesothe rma l realm-a re lations hip a lread y expressed in the case for equable continental inte riors in the Eocene: Philosophi cal earl y middle Eocene by the Republic flora. Transactions of the R oyal Society of Lo ndon , Part B, v. 341, p. 243-252. Acknowledgments Wolfe, J. A., 1979. Temperature parameters of humid to mesic forests of eastern Asia and rela ti on to forests of other regions of the It is a pleasure to thank Dia ne M. Erwin, Nancy L. G ooch, and Northern Hemisphere and Australasia: U.S. Geological Survey J effrey A. Myers for the ir cons tructive reviews. Their s ugges Professional Paper 1106, 37 p. tio ns, combined w ith editorial advice from Katherine M . Reed, he lp m ake this a be tte r paper. W olfe, J. A .. 1993, A method of obtaining climatic parameters from leaf assemblages: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2040, p. 1-7 1. References Cited Wolfe, J. A., 1994. Terti ary c limatic changes al middle latitudes of wes tern ,'forth Ameri ca: Palaeogeography, Pa laeoclimalo logy. Axelrod. D. l., 1990. Environmem of the middle Eocene (45 M a) Palaeoecology, v. 108. no. 3-4, p. 195-205. Thunder Mountain fl ora, centra l Idaho: Nalional Geographic Re Wolfe, J. A. , 1995, Paleoclimati c esti mates from Terti ary leaf assem search, v. 6, no. 3, p. 355-361. blages: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. v. 23, Gooch. N. L.. 1992. T wo new species o r Pseudolarix Gordon (Pi p. 11 9-142. naceae) from the middle Eocene of the Pacific Nonhwcsl: Palco Wolfe, J. A.; Wehr, W. C .. 1991, Significance of the Eocene fossil Bios, v. 14, no. I , p. 13-19. plants at Republic: Washington Geology, v. 19, no. 3, p. 18-24. • 24 Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 Paleobotanical Significance of E:ocene Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds from Republic, Washington Wesley C. Wehr Steven R. Manchester Thomas Burke Memori al Washington State Museum Museum of Natural History University of Washington University of Florida Seattle, WA 98195 Gainesville, FL 32611 -2035 ossils from the vicinity of Republic, Washington, provide ditionally been rloristic and ecological and based primarily on F an important window to the Eocene flora and fauna of the foss il leaves. No matter how competently identified they are. Pacific Northwest. Although the Republic flora is perhaps best fossil leaves, however, can provide at best only part of the pic known for the diversity of well-preserveJ leaf impress ions ture. T hey can, in fact, present a distorted picture of angio (Brown, 1937; Wolfe and Wehr, 1987; Wehr and H opkins, sperm evolution. Many fossil leaves, in their general similarity 1994 ), plant reproductive structures are a lso present. Because to extant leaves, can give the impression that they represent the classification or many living plants is based la rgely on extant genera. However, some of the fossil flowers, fruits, and their fertile parts, the study o f fossil flowers and fruits is par seeds found in close association, and more rarel y in d irect at tic ularly useful in comparative studies with modern relatives. tachment with them. represent extinct genera for wh ich there are no known living counterparts. The reconstruction of the Persistent careful collecting of the Republic strata has resulted 'whole plant' has become a l'unJamental approach in contem in a steadily increasing database of flowers, fruits, and seeds. porary angiosperm paleobotany. These fossil s provide an important s upple ment to the data Wehr ( 1995) provided an overview o f the diversity of available from leaves. Some of the reproductive structures rep flowers , fruits, and seeds from Republic and other sites of resent genera as yet unknown from leaves, whe reas others pro similar age in the Pacific Northwest, showing the potential for vide a more complete understanding of the genera known also many avenues of syste matic research. Approximately 6 spe from leaves. cies of flowers, 30 species of fruits, and 4 species of seeds are Because fossil leaves are the most commonly found plant now known from Republi c. C urrently, about 18 extant genera element at many Tertiary localities in Washington, Oregon, and at least 14 extinct genera can be recogni7.ed. In additi o n, a nd British Columbia, Pacific Northwest paleobotanical work at least 20 types remain unide ntified, types which could in has re lied heavily on the fossil leaf record. The historical ap cluJe both 111ouern anJ extinc t genera. The curre nt list of Re proach commonly used in west coast fossi l plant study has Ira- public fossil fl owers, fruits . and seeds (with their common Table 1. Flowers, fruits, and seeds found at Republic through 1995. Plates i and 2 illustrate specimens found or identified since mid-1994 1':ymphaeaceac (water lily family) Ulmaceae (elm family) Aceraceae (maple family) N11plzar sp. (water I ily) seeds. stigmatic disc U/11111.1 sp. fruits Acer , pp. (r11apleJ fruits [Plate, 1, fi gs. I and 2) Cerirelospe.r11111111 sp. (extinct genus) fruit lcacinaccac (moonvine family) Menisperrnaccae ( rnoonseed farni ly) [Plate 2, fig. 2] l'alaeopl;ytocrene sp. (extinct genus) fruit Cu/ycocwpum sp. fruit l Plate I. fig. 3 J Fagaceae (oak family) Vitaccae (grape family) Trochodendroid Group Fu1;011sis undulala (Knowlton) Wolfe & Wehr Vitis sp. (grape) seeds (extinct genus) fruits Trodwdemlron sp. fruits Rubiaccae (gardenia/coffee/quinine famil y) J,~ffrea sp (extinct genus ) fruits, seeds, Betulaceae (birch/alder fami ly) cf. Emme11opterys sp. fruits stamens [Plate I. figs. 4 and 6] A/,:us /Jllrvijo!iu (Berry) W olfe & Wehr (alder) !Plate 2. fig. 6] Ce rc1diphy/lw11 sp. (katsura) clus tered pods fruits [Plate 1. fig. 5] Cory/us n . sp. ( hazelnut) fruit in hus k (involucre) Hignoniaceae (catalpa fami ly) Nordenskioldia sp. (extinc t genus) fruits aff Co ry /u s sp. fruit genus unknown seed s Sabiaceae (sabia family) aff. Cwpinus sp. (hornbeam) fruit Musaccac (banana famil y) Sabia sp. fruits l Plate I , fig. 7 J Palaeocar/Jin11s sp. (extinct genus) frui ts 1-;nure sp. (bana na) fruits w ith s~eds Melio.rnw sp. (fruit) [Plate I. fig. 8] Juglandaccac (walnut family) [Plate 2. fi g . 7] Hamarnelidaceae (witch- hazel family) Cr11r-ip1na s p (exr,nct genus) fruit Unknown affinity l.ll/LLidamhar s p. [sweet g um) seeds Ca 1ya/Ju1;/a11 s sp. (hickory or walnut) fruit Pleronepely.v wehri Manchester [extinct genus) [Plate 2, fi g. 31 rruits Eucornrniaceae (cucornmia fa111ily ) Ca/yciles ard111nensis Crane (extinct genus) fruits Eu commia sp. fruit Lcguminosae/Fabaceac? (pea/loc ust famil y) unknown genus fruits [Plat:e 2. fig. 4 ] Undetermined I fruits [Plate 2. fig. 81 Platanaceae [sycamore fami ly) Undetermined II fruits [Plate 2, fig. 91 Macgir1icarpa s p. (extinct genus) fruits Myrtaceae (myrtle family) Pa/eo111 yrrina~u sp. (cxtinL:t genus) fruit Tiliaccac (linden family) [Plate 2. fig. 5) Crargw sp. fruit Sapindaceac (soapberry family) Sterculiaceae (cocoa tree fami ly) B0ltle11ia u111ericww (Brown) Wolfe & Wehr Florissa,11ia <1uilc/1e11e11sis Manchester (cxtinct genus) fruits (extinct genus) flowers. stamens Deviacer ("Acer" arctirnm) (extinct genu, ) fruits [Plate 2. fi g l] Koelre11Jeria s p. fruits Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2. June /996 25 4 1 2 3 Plate 1. Flowers, fruits. and seeds that have been recognized at Republic since mid-1994. See Wehr (1995) for more illustrations of these kinds of fossils from Republic. UWBM, Univ. of Washington, Burke Museum; SR, Stonerose Interpretive Center. 1. Nupharsp. seed mass. UWBM 36804. loc. B4131 , x1 2. Nuphar sp. stigmatic disc, SR 95-30-04, loc. B4131, x2 . 3. Calycocarpum sp. fruit, UWBM 95537, lac. B2737, x2.5. 4. Joffrea sp. stamens, SR 95-15-11 A, lac. B4131, x2. 5. Cercidiphyllum sp. clustered pods, SR 93-9-7, lac. B4131 , x1 .5. 6. Joffrea sp. stamens, SR 92-14-14, lac. 84131, x1. 7. Sabiasp. fruit, SR 95-30-08, loc. 84131, x4. 8. Me/iosmasp. fruit, SR 95-30-12, loc. 84131, x3. names) is given in Table I. Thirteen of the families on this list ers, fruits , and seeds are still heing fou nd regularly. These are known also by fossi l leaves found at Republic. Ten of the finds are helping us to have a clearer understanding of the pa families arc known only from their flowers. fruits, or seeds. leogeograph ical distributions of many plants, both modt'.rn and To understand the biogeography of the plants, it is helpful extinct. These fossil finds continue lo yield new information to compare the flowers , fruits, and seeds found at Republic about the evolution of the flowering plants during the Early with those recorded from other Eocene and Oligocene locali Tertiary, a critical ti me in the appearance and di versification ties. The middle Eocene Clarno Formation of north-central of many angiosperm families and genera. Oregon has abundant fossi l fruit and s eed remains (Sc otr, 1954, Manc hes ter. 1994 ); some of these tax a are s hared with Acknowledgments the Republic and British Columbia middle Eocene Jloras: Cm Without the donations of the foll owin g co ll ec tors, this artic le cipcera, Jug/ans?. Florissantia (although a d ifferent species), would not have been possible: Lisa Barksdale, Bob Geer, Don Calycites, Macginicarpa, Deviacer, Pteronepelys. Meliosma. a ld Hopkins, Kirk Johnson, H enry Kowalyk, Donald Krom, Palaeophyrocre11e, Vitis , Palaeocarpinus, Craigia, Poran.a, Allie Kunkel, Chris Luckey, Madilane Perry, Robert Solt. Joffrea, Sabia, Calycocarpum, Ensere , and F.mmenopterys. Alex Strong, Peggy Toepel, and Michael Vermillion. Shared with the Eocene Green River Formation floras of Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah arc Palaeophyrocre11 e, Mac References Cited gin.icarpa, Florissanria, and vitaceous seeds. Shared with the middle Eocene Messel flora. from near Darmstadt, Germany. Brown, R. W .. 1937, Further addi ti ons to some ru~ sil rloras of the are Cruciptera, Cedrelospermum, and vitaceous seeds . western United States: Washington Academy Sciences Journal , v. 27, no. 12. p. 506-51 7. Tht'. Oligoce ne Bridge C reek flora of central Oregon (Meyer and Manchester, in press) contains, in common with Manchester. S. R., 1994. Fruits and sccus of the midule Eocene nut Republic , several genera: Ulmus, Acer. Cercidiphyllwn, Ce beds flora. Clarno Formation. Oregon: Palaco nt ographica Ameri drelospermum, Craigia. Nuphar, Florissantia, and Palaeo cana. no. 58, 205 p. phytocrene. Meyer. H. W.; Manchester. S. R., in press, The Oligocene Bridge During the conct'.rted col lec ling that has been dont'. at R t'. Creek flora of the John Day Formation, Oregon: University of publ ic. especially since 1977, new and rare varieties of flow- California Publicati ons in Geological Sciences. 26 Washington Geology, val. 24, 110. 2, June 1996 1 2 3 5 .. ,. 6 8 Plate 2. Flowers, fruits, and seeds that have been recognized at Republic since mid-1994. See Wehr (1995) for more illustrations of these kinds of foss ils from Republic. UWBM, Univ. of Washington, Burke Museum; SFl, Stonerose Interpretive Center. 1. Florissantia quilchenensis Manches ter stamens, SR 95-30-07, loc. B4131. x2.5. 2. Cedre/ospermum sp. fruit, UWBM 77570, loc. B4131, x5. 3. Carya!Juglans sp. fruit, SR 95-30-03, loc. B4131, x1. 4. Leguminosae? fruits, SR 92-13-2A, Joe . B4131, x1. S. Paleomyrtinaea sp. (extinct genus) fruit, UW8M 77721 A, loc. 82737, x2. 6. cf. Emmenopterys sp. fruits. UW8M 77563, loc. 84131 , x3. 7. Ens,ete sp. fruits with seeds, UW8M 57225, loc. A0307, x3. 8. Undetermined I fruits, UW8M 78162, loc. A0307. x1 . 9. Undetermined II fruits. UW8M 57473, loc. B4876 (Golden Promise mine), x1 . Scott. R. A .. 1954, Fossi l frui ts and see ds from the Eocene C larno W ehr. W C.; Hopkins. D. Q., 1994. The Eocene orchards and gardens Formation of Oregon: Palaeontographica. Abt. B. v. 96. Lief 3-6. of Repu blic. W as hington: W as hington Geology, v. 22. no. 3. p. 66-97. pl. 15-1 6. p. 27-34. Wehr, W . C., 1995. Early T ertiary flowers. fruits, and see ds of Wash W olfe, J. A.: Wehr. W ., 1987. Middle Eot:ene dicotyledonous plants i ngton Stat e and adj acent areas: W as hington Geology . v. 23, from Republic. northeas tern Washington: U.S. Geological Su rvey no. 3. p. 3- 16. Bulletin 1597. 25 p. • Washington Geology. vol. 24. nu. 2, June 1996 27 Pollen and Spores Characteristic of Eocene Sediments at Republic, Washington Estella B. Leopold, Cindy A. Updegrave, and Katie Maier Department of Botany University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195 wc pr~cessed five sample_s of organic-rich silty s_ hale from British Columbia, has y ielded a small but significant li st of the foss il pl ant beds of th e:: KlonJ1kc Mountain Forma moderately well preserved pollen. The leaf fl o ra at One Mile tio n o n the north side of Republic, Washington. to investigate C reek is considered to he coeval w ith the Re public fl ora and is the c haracteri s ti c pollen and spores from this important floral tloristicall y s imilar to that at Re public. s ite. Some of the~e samples also contained fossil leaf remains. The co-occurring rcproducti vc structures, fo l iagc. and pol In a repeated effort to minimize damage to the fossi l pollen. le n of Abies, Pinus, and Tsuga from the Eocene sediments at we used vario us a lte rnati ve combinatio ns of Schultze Solu Republic and One Mile Creek comprises some of the earli est ti on, 5 percent potassium hydroxide, hydrofluo ric acid, acety known well-documented record s of these genera. Po ll en of latio n. sodiL:m hypochl orite bleach, and heavy li4uid fl o tatio n. Hetula compleme nts the well-preserved leaves a nd bracts re ported by We hr (see references c ited in other a rtic les, this is However, all our samples yielded o nl y poorly preserved par s ue) l'rom the fossi l beds at Republic. ti cul ate organic matter in which tiss ues and polle n were badly Our interpretation of the poor preservation of microspores corroded a nd retained few morphological reatures. from Republic is that corrosion and abrasion of poll en a nd Our samples cons iste ntly conta in ed abu ndant c ha rcoal and spores, perhaps in transport by surface runoff into the Eocene some poorl y preserved pollen g rains of the Pinaceae, includ lake, occurred before depositio n, no t after. This conc lu sio n is ing Picea, Pinu s. Abies, and Tsuga. Because o r the abundance based o n the consiste ntly poor preser vati on o r all the con of angiosperm leaf re ma ins, we antic ipated po llen of di cotyle tai ned organic matter. Additionally, the lake may have been donous plants, but we were able to identify only one dicot ge s ha llow enough so that wave action of oxygen-rich water nus. Betula. a nd there appeared to be many isodiametric pol could have degraded the pollen, and considerable movement len/spore gra in s that were probably a ngiosperm poll e n. A lso of the sediment may have abraded it. Because Pinaccac polle n com mo n were fungal spore remains. and we found a rew hy typically is more sturdy than most angiosperm pollen types. phae and n1t)nolete fern spores. o ur results may be a case of d ifferential preservation bv whic h We were surprised at the c harac ter of our results, partly the more fragil e ang iosperm po ll e n is highly degraded. because we had gotten some moderately well preserved pollen from the Eocene Princeto n locality i n Britis h Colu mbia. (See Reference Cited Pigg and Stockey, this issue.) We know of ano ther site, the Tepee Trai l Formation, Wyoming (considered to have bee n an Leupold, E. B.: Ma<.:G initic. H. D. , 1972. Dcvclupmcnl and affinities upland s ite a nd w hi c h is of late Eocene age), where in spite of of Tertiary floras in the Rocky Mountains. In Graham. A Ian, edi fossil monkeys and a small d icot and coni fer leaf flora, the tor. Flori stics and paleo floristics of Asia and eastern North Amer polle n obtain ed were rare and c hiefly Pi11u~, with o nl y an oc ica: Elsevier Publishing Co .. p. 147-200. • casional grain of A /n us pollen. Si mi larly, the Bea verheaJ fl ora of Montana is chiefly composed of Pinaceae polle n whil e con taining a diverse broadleaved woody fl ora that does not appear to be rc prc cnted in the po llen record (Leopo ld a nd MacGini Natural Resources ti e, 1972). Q uality o f pollen preservation at Republic is con Teachers Workshop siderably worse that at the Tepee Trail or Beaverhead floral s ites in the northern R ocky M o untains. The North west Natural Resources Institute (NNRT) will A pre li minary pollen study o f fossil -bearing lacustrine ho ld its fourth a nnua l teachers workshop from July 29 sedime nts from the One Mile C reek fl ora locality at Princeton, through August 2 o n the campus of Eastern W ashinoton Uni versity (EWU) in Cheney. The five-day cours; for K- 12 teachers will cover topics in the science behind the ma n agement of o ur region ' s natural resources: water/ Northwest Paleontological power , timbe r, agric ulture, and m ining. The workshop Association Activities w ill include lo urs and grade-appropriate 'hands-o n ' leaching a ids, as well as lesson-plan ideas for 'makino August 10: Bill Smith will lead a field trip to the Coal 0 Creek area near Lo ngview to collect fro m the Cowlitz bread in a bag' a nd · how to make your own pa per'. The $75 registration fee inc ludes lunch and an evenino Formati on. barbec ue for teachers a nd their fami lies. Two EWU un~ September 7: W es W e hr w ill speak a bout the fossil derg raduate credits o r one Unive rsity of Idaho oraduate pl ants of the Republic area at I :00 pm in the Burke Room credit will be available alo ng with ESD 10 I c lock hours. al the Burke Museum, University of W ashing ton . Credit fees are the responsibility of the partic ipant. For mo re information about these and other trips and lec For more information, contact S hane Phillips at the tures or the associati o n, contact B ill Smith (president) at NNR1, PO Box 2 147, Spokane, WA 9920 1, (506) 459- (360) 697-1 859. 4121. 28 Washing10 11 Geology, vo l. 24, no. 2, June I 996 A Checklist of Fossil Insects from Republic, Washington Wesley C. Wehr Lisa L. Barksdale Thomas Burke Memorial Washington State Museum Stonerose Interpretive Center University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98 195 Republic, WA 99 166 n 1992. Standley E. Lewis published an illustrated article f or the i nsect identifications, we th ank Standley L ewis (St. I and ch ec klist of insects found in the Republic lakebed de Cl oud Univ.), David Grimaldi (American Museum of N atural posits. Additional finds and identifications allow us lo update History), Conrad C. Labandeira and John D. Oswald (National that list here (Tahle I ). Museum of Natural History), Rod Crawford and Dennis Paul Conrad C . L abandeira of the National Museum of Natural son (U ni v . o f W as hing t o n . Burke Museum), and Shei l a History in Washington, DC, i s currentl y study ing Republ ic Douglas ( Univ. of Alberta). foss il plant/insect interactions as rec orded by many distinctive types of insec t damage displayed on the fossil leaves and other Reference cited plant remains. These trace foss i l s have added several inse<.:t Lewis. S. E .. 1992. Insects of the Klondike Mountain Formation, Re families to the Republic fauna, especially among the L epidop public. Washington: Washington Geology. v. 20, no. 3. p. 15-19. • tera (butterflies, moth s). Table 1. Middle Eocene fossil insects of Republic, Washington Ephcmeroptcra ( mayflies) Uemiptera (bugs) Cc: rarnbycidac (long-ho rne c.J bee Ii i;~) Hcplageniidae (stream mayfli es) Core idae? (leaf-foole d bugs) C urculionidac (snout beet les) Odonata (dragonflies and da mselflies) l'cn1 ato midac (stink bugs ) Chrysome li dae (leaf beetles) Lc~t1dae Corixidae (water boatme n ) Trichoptcra (caddisfl ies) :v1 cgapodagrio n idae Anlhocori An extinct species of march fly (Plecia) , about x3 .5 (Photo by Lisa Tiger moth from Republic, the earliest record of the fami ly Arctiidae. Barksdale) Body length ca. 2 cm. UWBM 66000A, loc. 82737. (Photo by Paul Schwartz.) Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2. Jun e 1996 29 The Eocene Fishes of Republic, Washington Mark V. H. Wilson Department of Biological Sciences and Laboratory for Vertebrate Paleontology University of Alberta Edmonton, AL T6G 2E9 Canada ocene foss il f ishes were discovered in the Rt:public area by public youth who found several specimens. A differenl spe E .l . B. Umpleby during the course of geological surveys cies, Euhiodon rosei, is much more abundant in British Co earl y in the century (Umpleby, 1910). Umpleby's specime ns lumbia, but both s pecies occur together at Horsefly. BC. Males were sent to the U .S. Natio nal Must:um and identified by East of both Hiodon and Euhiuclun, when they become (or became) man ( 191 7) as be lo nging to the genu s l\myzon (Family Ca reproductively mature, develop thic kened ana l fin rays that tustomidac) in a s pecies named by E. D . Cope ( 1893) on fos can he recogni zed in foss il s. The Eocene hi o d o ntids a rc s ils fr om the Similkameen River a rea of British Columbia. s ma ller tha n ei ther living s pecies, growing to about 15 cm Another geologist, R. C. Pearson of the U.S. Geological Sur long. The c losest relatives of hiodontids occur in Cretaceous vey, discovered fossils near Toroda Cn:ek in the 1960s. Fossil roc ks o f China, but none o f the Chinese species is known to have sexually dimorphic a na l fins (Wilson a nd Williams, fi sh expert D. Dunkle (as quoted in Pearson, 1967) thought 1992). they were re lated to s pecies known from the Green River Fo r T he s uc kers, Family Catostomidae, are today a prominent mation of W yoming. Work by geologists about the same time part of the North American fauna; in the Eocene they had no also cleared up confusion surrounding the age of the fossil s, competition from minnows and are very common fossils in assigning the m to the middle Eocene using radiometric dati ng Eoce ne lakebeds. Republic' fossil s uc ker, known from whole methods. A third early discovery was made by Republic youth skeleto ns as well as separate bones and scales, is now identi R. Woodruff, who coll ected fossil fish near the Tom Thumb fied with the s pecies Amyzon aggregat11 111 Wilson ( 1977). mine as a hobby; some o f his finds were later given to me for wh ich is a lso common in Eocene deposits of British Columbia the University o f A lbe rta. a nd new collet:tions we re made and is known to reac h more than 20 cm in length. when l vis ited Republic in 1977 and 1978. All o f these dic;cov Perhaps the most sig nificant of Republic·s Eocene fi sh is eries formed the basis for our earl y knowledge of Republic Eosa/1110 driftwooden sis Wilson ( 1977) (Fig. I ). first named fossi I fishes. on s pecimens from British C o lumbia. The o ldest fossi l mem At least five species of fi sh lived in the Eocene la kes of the ber o f the fa mil y Salmonidae (salmo n and its relatives), Republic area. Though all of them would appear mode rn if we Eosalmu has features intermediare between those of subfamily could see them a li ve. a ll fi ve species are extint:t-four re pre Salmoninae (salmon, trout, charr) and those of s ubfamily Thy sent exti nct genera, and one belongs 10 an extinct fami ly. mallinae (grayling), indicating that salmon evolved fro m an The least well known is a species of Amia (Family Ami cestors with grayling-like features (Wilson and Williams, idae, an ancient group whose only li ving species is the bowfin) 1992). Thoug h small as well as larger indiv iduals of most Re us ua ll y represented o nl y by its scales. Fish can lose scales a nd pu blic ~pL:e ics are commo nly fou nd, a lmost al l Eosa/mo speci- tht:n grow replacements, so the presence of isolated sca les does no t necessarily imply that the fish had died. Even replacement scales can sometimes be fo und as fossils. Judging by the s ize of the Amia scales, these fish could have reached 30 c m or more in length. In the Princeto n area of Britis h Co lumbia, a more complete s pecimen has been found and the species Amia hesperia Wil son ( 1982) na me d . finding ple ntiful amiid scales usually means that the e n c losing sedime nts were depos ited in s hall ow, ofte n weedy water. be cause amiids us ually prefer s uch habitats. The family Hiodontidae is a n othe r o ld group ; this one has two li ving s pecies, m ooneye and goldeye, both in the genus Hiodon, that s pecialize in eating insects. The Figure 1 . A specimen of Eosalmo driftwoodensis, the Eocene salmonid known from Republic fo ssil Republic hiodontid is in an extinct beds and similar deposits in British Columbia. This specimen is in the Miguasha Natural History Mu genus a nd is call ed Euhiudon wood seum, Quebec. Note centimeter ruler for scale. (Photo courtesy of the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Pa ruffi Wilson ( 1978), aft er the Re- laeontology.) 30 Washington Geology, vol. 24. 11 0. 2 . June IY96 me ns are full-grown; perhaps the young s pe nt most of their Evanoff. Emmett. 1994, Late Paleogene geology and paleoenviron time in nearby streams . Eosalmo has very modern tail , body. ments of ce ntral Colorado. with emphasis on th e geology and pa and scales but more primitive s kull and jaws, sugges ting that leo nL ology of rlorissant Fossil Beds National Monument: Geo advanced features of modern salmon ids' body and tail evolved logical Society or America Rucky Mountai n Section Field Trip long ago, while changes in the ir heads happened more re Guidebook, 99 p. centl y . The presence of both large and smal l s pecimens o f Grande. Lance. I 984. Paleontology of the Green River Formation. Eosalmo found together at some localities in Britis h Columbia with a review of the fish ra una: Wyoming Geo logica l Survey Bu I also seems to confirm the idea that primitive salrnonids spent ler in 63 (2d ed.), 333 p. their whole lives in fresh water (like many mode rn trout), Pe arson . R. C.. I 967. Geologic map of the Bodie Mountain quadran while the habit of running to the sea and returnin~ to spawn. gle. Ferry and Okanoga n Counties. Washington: l l.S. Geological best develope References Cited Constenius, K. N.: Dawson. M . R.: Pierce, I-1 . G.: Waller, R. C.; Wilson, M. V. H., 1989, Reconnaissance paleontologic study of th e K ishenehn Formation. northwestern M ontana and southeas t ern British Columbia: :vlonlana Gen logical Society, Geological Resources of Montana, v. I. p. 189-203. Cope, E. D .. 1893, Fo ssil fi shes from Brit ish Columbia: Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Proceedings 45, p. 401 -402. Eastman. C. R. , 1917, Fossil fishes in the collection of the United States N a tional Museum: United States N ational Museum Proceedings 52, p. 235-304. Amyzon, a common fossil fish (sucker), ca. x2.0. Found by Nathan Shiflett. Washington Geology. vol. 24, no. 2. June 1996 31 The Significance of the Princeton Chert Permineralized Flora to the Middle Eocene Upland Biota of the Okanogan Highlands Kathleen B. Pigg Ruth A. Stockey Department of Botany Department of Biological Sciences Arizona State University University of Alberta Box 871601 , Tempe, AZ 85287 -1601 Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9 Introduction a nd ste rns found in the chert provides other impo rtant data for The Okanogan H ighlands contain a middle Eocene fossi l biota classificat ion a nd ecological inte rpretati on. of astonishing d iversity. Alo ng wi th those at Messel in Ger In this article, we explore how pla nt and fungal foss il re mains from the Princeto n chert relate to those fro m the Re pu b ma ny a nd in the Green Rive r Formatio n o f western No rth lic localities and how together they provide a de ta il ed vie w o f A merica, th i fossi l bi ota is am o ng the most in forma ti ve the high sources we have o n Eocene life. The Republic localiti es con diversity and complex interactio ns of the m iddle Eo tain o ne of the most diverse Eocene leaf compression fl oras in cene pla nt a nd fu ngal bi ota of the region. the world, as well as an intrig ui ng array o f insects and fish. Because these fossi ls faithfully preser ve suc h delicate leaf The Princeton Chert structures lls hi gher o rde r venation a nd tooth morphology, T he chert locality is exposed on the east bank o f the Simil they docume nt the complex E ocene di vers ification that oc kameen River near the a bandoned mining town of A llenby and c urred in such fa milies as the R osaceae. Leaf fossils at Repub approx imate ly 8.4 km south o f Princeto n, BC. Forty-nine lic also show c haracteristi c patterns o f insect or fungal da mage separate c hert layers are interbedded with coal ho rizons, and th at de monstrate evide nce for interactio ns that occurred o n the individual layers contain differing pla nt assem b lages. The pla nt urfaces. c he rt is regarded as middle Eocene (50 million years old ) on A second important Eocene pl ant assemblage of a differe nt the basis of paly no logy, foss il ma mmals and fi sh, and potas type in the O ka nogan Hig hlands is fo und in the Pri nceton c he rt s ium-argon d ating (Cevallos-Fe rri z and others, 1991 ). of southern British Columbia. In contrast to the compressed Fossils in the c hert are preserved together as a mixture of fl ora of Republic and the essentially coeval leaf floras of B rit pla nt fragme nts th at comprise a sort of fossil izeJ ' compost' . ish Col umbia a t Princeton, Quilchena. McAbee, and Drift The fossi ls were formed by sili cification, a process in which wood Cn:ek at Smithers. plant and fu ngal remains from the ground water containing a hig h concentration of si I ica (prob chert are three-d imensionally preserved. This preservation al ably of vokani t: origin) perrnla ted into mats of pla nt material lows us to compare the internal cellular structure of frui ts, in vari ous freshwater lacustrine and nu vial sites. T he plant tis seeds, fl owers, ste ms, a nd leaves o f vascular plants a nd the sues then became supersaturated or ' permineralizec.l ' wi th the mo rpho logy of fungi with both other fossi l and modern forms. minerali zed waters, a nd the si I ica c rystallized , trapping the While stud ies o f the chert contri bute significantly to the record pl a nt cell s in the newly formed roc k matrix. This means of of the dicotyled ons ( fo r e xample, the rose a nd grape families), preservati on thus allows fo r precise study o f cellular anatomy they al so provide some of the onl y records o f Eocene fu ng i and of the pl ant organs. monocots (pla nts such as palms and lili es) for the Okanogan The c hert blocks are slabbed with a rock saw, a nd then in Highlands . dividual plant organs are ide ntified a nd studied by techniques M any o f the Princeton chert pl a nts are c urrently kno wn that a ll ow for nume rous c losely spaced seri al sectio ns th at can from o nl y one organ, suc h as seeds, but others are represe nted be reassembled for th ree-dime ns io nal reconstructio n of the or by a collectio n o f pl a nt ' parts' . Fo r example, the taxodiaceous gan be ing studied. This process allows studies o f plant struc conifer Metasequo ia mil/eri (related to modern dawn redwood ture much like the ·C AT' scan (to mography) used in medicine and bald cypress) is recogni zed from seed and po llen cones. today. Because the pla nts are preserved as fragments, re ste ms, roots, leaves, po llen, and seeds (I3 asinger, 197 6a, 198 1, searc hers then attempt to reassemble 'whole pl a nts' by fi nd ing 1984; Basinger and Ro thwell , 1977; Rothwell and Basinger, interconnecti ons and structural similarities amo ng the separate 1979). Inte rconnected s te ms, leaves, roots, a nd buds are all o rgans. known for the semi aquati c c.li cot Eorhiza (Robison and Pe rson, The c hert was first collected in the 1960s by R . r. Bone 1973; Stockey and Pi gg, 1994). Several monocoU:i, includ ing ham, who made a pa lynologieal (po ll e n and spo re) study of palms, rushes and sedges, a nd members of the lily family (for se veral Eocene basins in British C olumbia. In his study of the example, Uhlia, Ethe/a, and Soleredera [Erwin and Stockey c he rts a nd in terbe dded co als (Bo ne ham ' s ·•1 o c al i ty I") he 1991 , 1992, 1994]) are also known from interconnected s te m, found a hi gh percentage of palynomorph remains of fungal ori root, and peti o lar re mains. gin (Bone ha rn , 1968). Bo neha rn gave samples of the chert to The anato mical structure of cones and fl owers provides de C hester A. A rno ld, of the University o f Michigan Museum of ta il ed information about the evolutio nary relatio ns hips of Eo Paleonto logy, who recogni zed de nns taedtio id ferns (forms re cene plants. M any of the fl owers and cones contain their origi lated to the modern hay-scented a nd bracke n f'e rns) in the ma nal po ll e n grains, whic h furt her aid in identif ication. Leaf a nd trix. stem anatomy is importa nt fo r classificati o n, especiall y in O ther early descriptions o f plants from the Princeton chert mo nocots (Tomli nson, 19 61 ; M etcalfe, 197 1) . E ve n w he n include those of conifer re mains by Miller (1973) and of the these plants' reproductive structures are unk nown, they can be semi aquati c dicot Eorh.iza (Robison and Person, 1973). D ur identified by their leaf and ste m structures. W ood from twigs ing the 1970s additio nal studies o f the chert produced descri p ti o ns of ste ms, leaves, roots, po lle n, and seed cones of Merase- 32 Washington Geology, vu/. 24, no. 2. June 1996 quoia milleri (see, for example., Basinger, 1976a) and the were part of the Eocene ecosystem and that these i ntcractions flower Paleorosa (Basinger, 1976b). may have been as complex as some today. Since the early 1980s, Ruth A. Stockey, University of Al More recently. LePage and others ( l 995) have documented berta, and her students and assoc iates have desc ribed numer the first fossi l evidence of a more beneficial plant/fungus rela ous species from this hi gh diversity flora. To date, 36 plants tionship shown by the ectomycorrhizal fungal genus Nhizopo have been recognized from the chert: these include 5 ferns. 6 go11 (Boletaceae) in Pi11u s roots. The colonization of fossil conifers, 19 dicots. and 6 monocots, as well as 7 types of fungi pine roots by these fungi resembles mycorrhiLal associations (Cevallos-Ferriz, and others, 1991; Sun and Stuckey, 1991; of modern pine roots, suggesting that this type of mutuali sm E rwin and Stockey, 1992. 1994; LePage, and others. 1994, and its consequent plant adaptations go back least 50 million 1995; Stockey. 1984, 1994; Wehr and Hopkins, 1994; Ceval years. los-Fcrriz. 1995; Hill-Rackette and others, 1995; Phipps and others, 1995; Stockcy and Wehr. in press ; Table l ). At least Monocot Remains nine additional dicot wood types. nine additional monocots. While the Republic flora contains only a few remains of the and numerous fungi are among the types yet to be described monocot genera Smilax (Smilacaceae, green briers) and Typha (Stockey. unpublished data). (Typhaceae, cattails) (Wehr and Hopkins. l 994 ). the Princeton chert has at least five families of monocots, inc luding vegeta Fossll Fung I tive remain s of Alismataceae. Liliaceae, Juncaceae/Cyper The presence of fossil fungi as important components of the aceae, and Arecaceae. fruits and seeds of Araceae, and prob Princeton chert was recognized in the earliest study by Bone able floral remains of some group of Alismatidae (Erwin and ham ( 1968). He found that more than 80 percent of the pa lyno Stockey . 1989. 1991. 1992, 1994; Cevallos-Ferriz and morphs present were assignable lo the fungal s pore genus Stockey. 1988b; Cevallos-Ferriz and others. 1991; Stockcy, Brachyspo rium and to the a lgal, fungal. or bryophyte palyno 1994; see Table I). These J'ossil~ add greatly to our under morph lnaperrisporires. More recently. fungi have been found standing of Eocene monocol evolution by providing anatomi in several hos t plants, including palm leaves. stems of call y preserved examples of families that are otherwise poorly Eorhiza, seeds. fruits, and flowe rs of Lythraceae. seeds of known for that time. Nymphaeaceae. flower~ or Alismatidac, a nd a dicot flower of The family Alismataccae. which inc ludes many aquati c uncertain affinity. These fungi represent a diverse assemblage and mars h plants such as Sagittaria (arrowhead), is repre that inc ludes forms similar to those of the major groups of sented in the chert by petioles of the genus f-l eleophyro11 helo modern highe r fungi. including the ascomycetes (sac fungi). hiaenides (Erwin and Stockey, 1989). Liliaceae, the lily fam the basidiomycctcs (club fungi). and members of the form di il y, is also present, as evidenced by stems and attached leaves vision Fungi Imperfecti. Possible ascomycclcs arc represented and roots of Suleredera rhizumurpha (Erwin and Stockey, by three forms s imilar Lo the order DothiJea)e!-,, which are 1991 ). The fam i I ies J uncaceae a nd Cyperaceae, which include found on leaves of the fossil palm Uhlia (Erwin and Stockey, the rus hes and sedges, res pectively, are difficult to distinguis h 1994). These fungi are the so-call ed " tar-spot" pathogens that from one another on the basis of vegetative remai ns. Ethe la cause damage to leaves in tropical monocots such as palms and sarga111ia11a, a plant known from stems, attached leaves. and screw-pines (Pandanaccac) today (Farr and others, 1989. p. roots. probably represents one of these two families (Erwin 834; Cannon. 1991 ; LcPagc and others, 1994 ). a nd Stockcy. 1992). A second group of fungi found in the chert, the Hyphomy The Arecaceae, or palm family, has an extensive fossil re cetes (molds in f'ungi Imperfecti), resembles the modern gen cord . Palms are represented in the Princeton chert by Uhlia e ra Altemaria and Cercospora. These molds cause blights, allenhye11sis (Erwin and Stockey 1991, 1994). Stems. attached fruit and seed rot. a nd leaf spots in a wide variety of modern petioles and roots, mid-ribs. and laminae h ave been founJ. plants. In the chert, fungi of thi s type infect several types of These were coryphoid (or fan) palms and indicate a subtropi seeds. cal c limate for the middle Eocene at this site. Basidiomycetes are represented by the first known fossil Al though most of the monocot remains in the c hert are s mut fungus. found 111 the anthers of an unnamed flower (Cur vegetative, fruits and seed s with e mbryos are known for rah and Stockey, 1991 ). Smuts are fungal agents that today Knatusperma allenbyensis (Araccae) (Cevallos-Ferriz and commonly infect crop plants such as corn and wheal. Presum Stuckey 1988b). These curved embryos show shoot and root ably they had a s imilar mode of infecting flowers and fruits in apices, as well as one large cotyledon. Among the Princeton the Eocene. ,Fossil fungi thus provide information not only fossi ls are the oldest known seeds of the subfamily Lasioideae. a bout their taxonom ic diversity but, perhaps more impor tribe Lasieae. of the large and diverse fami ly Araccac, which tantly, about their important ecological role in the Eocene bi inc ludes s kunk cabbage, arum lily, and jack-in-the-pulpit. ota. Flowers that contain the smut fungus discussed above have In one study, the se4uence of fungal infection of the tissues been compared with the aquatic monocot fam il ies in the order of the aquatic flower and fruits of Princeronia allenbyensis, a Najadales. These flowers share a suite of features with several dicot of uncertain affinities (Stockey, 1987: Stockey and Pigg, fam i I ies In c I ud i ng the Aponogetonaceae, Scheuchzcriaceae. 1991), has heen documented (Hill-Rac kette and others. 1995). Potamogetonaceae, and J uncagi naceae. ln this pathogenic process, septate hyphae (fungal filaments with internal cross walls) invade the external s urfaces of the Comparison of Princeton Chert flowers and fruits, penetrate between carpels to the center of and Republlc Floras the fruit, then invade the fruit' s seeds through the ir attachment Part of the value of the Princeton chert is that it independently to the fruit axis. Characteri stics of this fungus show that it is confirms the presence in the Eocene Okanogan Highlands of similar in form and function to the modern coelomycetous fun fami lies known from the Republic leaf flora. Several impor gus Phuma. This study indicates that pathogenic relationships tant fam ilies that were undergoi ng significant Eocene diversi- Washinl{lon Geulu,:y, vu/. 24, no. 2, June 1996 33 Table 1. Plants from the Princeton chert, British Columbia Taxon Some modern relatives Parts known References Osmundaceae cf. O.w111r1d<1 Cinnamon fern. royal fern. Rach is G. W. Rothwell. 1996, written commun. interrupted fe rn Polypodiaceac De11 11.1 111er/1iop.1,s <1ere11 c:hy11w/<1 Hay-scented and Rhizomes. fronds, Llasinger & Rm hwell, 1977; 1-1 . A Stockey, hrackcn fe rns sporangia, spores unpub. data, 1996 Dryopteridaceae D ipllmum 11. , p. Glade fe rn Rhizomes, fronds, Rothwell a n 34 Wa shi11g ton Geology, vol. 24 , 110. 2, June /996 ficati on have strong records in both the leaf a nd c hert lloras, Basinger. J. F .. 198 1. The vegetative body of Me tasequoia 111illeri for example, the Rosaceae a nd Sapindaceae. While the Repub fro m the mi ddle Eocene o f southern Brilish Columbia: Canadian lic flora doc uments the diversification of mo re tha n 50 leaf Journal of Botany, v. 59. no. 12, p. 2379-2410. types representing all four s ubfamil ies of R osaceae (Wehr and Basinger, J. F., 1984. Seed cones of Merasequoia 111illeri from the Hopkins, 1994: Wehr. 1995), the Princeto n c he rt provides fio middle Eocene of southern British Columbia: Canadinn Journal of ral, fruit. and wood evidence of severa l me mbers o f this fam Botany, v. 62, no. 2, p. 28 1-289. il y. Basinger. J. F.: Rothwell. G. W .. 1977, Anatomically preserved plants Paleorosa si111 ilkam eenensis is the old est fl ower of the from the midd le Eocene (Allcnhy Formation) o f British Culum R osaceae ( B as inger , 1976b ; Cevall os- ferri z and o thers , hia: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 55. no. 14. p. 1984- 1990. 1993). T hi s petrified flowe r conta ins the o ldest known Boneham. R. F., 1968. Palynology of three Tertiary coal basi ns in rosaceous po llen, whic h is extre mely rare. The flowe r has fea south-central British Colu mbia: Uni versity uf Mic higan. Ann Ar tures that place it in the presumably most primiti ve subfamily bor, Ph.D. dissertation (unpuhlished) 11 4 p. of the Rosaceae, the Spiroideae, but it also has som e features Cannon, P. F. , 1991. A revision of Phyllachora and some similar gen of the s ubfami ly M a lo ideae, w hich inc ludes the apples. pears, era on the host fa mily Lcguminosae: Internati onal Mycological and quince . A third s ubfamily of R osaceae. the Prunoideae, Institute I Kew, England I 302 p. includes the s tone-frui Ls s uc h as c herry. a pricot , and peac h. Cevall os-Ferriz. S. R. S .. 1995. Fruits of Ribes from the Princeton T h is subfamily is re presented in th e chert by b oth fossil ized cherl. Brilish Columbia , Canada: American Journal u f Botany Prunus wood and fossil e ndocarps o r ' stones· s imilar to those (Supple ment- Ahstracts). v. 82. no. 6. p. 84. of modern fru its of this genus (Cevallos-F erriz a nd Stockey, Cevallos-Ferriz, S. R. S.: Stockey, R. A., J 988a, Permineralized fruits 1990b, 1991). and seeds from the Princeton chert (middle Eocene) uf British Co The Sapindaceac (or soapberry fam il y). k nown in the Re lumhia-Lythraceae: Canadian Journal o f Botany, v. 66, no. 2. public leaf record , is represented in the Princeton chert by the p. 303-3 12. flowe r Weh rwolfea striara (Erwin and Stockey, 1990). Flow Cevallus-FerriL. S. R. S.: Stuckey, R. A., 1988b. Pcrminera li zed fruits e rs at two d e ve lopmental stages with pollen present have been and seeds from the Princeton chert (mi ddle Eocene) of British Co dcsc ri bed a nd are most si milar to those of the tribe D odoneeae, lumbia- Araceae: American Journal o f Hotany, v. 75. no. 8. believed to be a p rimiti ve group in the family Sapinclaceae. A p. I 099- 1 I 13. third impo rtant family at Republic, the Grossul a riaceae, which Cevallos-Ferriz, S. R. S.; Stockcy, R. A., 1989, Permineralizccl fruit s inc ludes the goosebe rries and wild currants, may a lso be rep and seeds from the Princeton chen (middle Eocene) of Hrit ish Co resented in the chert by fruits a nd seeds of Ribes (Cevallos lumbia-Nymphacaceae: BoLani cal Gazette. v. 150. no. 2. p. 207- Ferriz, 1995). These remains are being s tudied at the present 217. time. Cevallos-Ferriz. S. R. S.: Stockey. R. A., 1990a. Vegetative remains Other dicot fami lies with perhaps less exte nsive b ut still of the Magnoliaceae from the Princeton cherL (middle Eocene) of s ig nificant record s a re th e Magno liaceae, Lauraceae, Nym British Columbia: Canadia n Journal o f Botany. v. 68. no . 6. phaeaceae, Lyt hraceae, Myrtaceae. and Y itaceae (Cevallos p. 1327- 1339. Ferriz and S tockey, 1988 a , 1989, 1990a, 1990c; Sun a nd Cevallos- r erri z. S. R. S.: Stockey. R. A., 1990b, Vegetative remains S tuckey. 199 1; Pigg and others, 1993; W e hr a nd H opkins. of the Rosaceae from the Princeton chert (middle Eocene) of Brit 1994 ). For example. Lcntati vc dctcrmi natio ns of the gene ra De ish Columbia: IA WA [lntc rnalional Assuciatiun of Woud Anato co doll and Prullus from the leaf record were strengthened b y mists] Bulletin , n.s., v. 11 , no . 3. p. 261 -280. 1h e presence of a n a tomic ally preserved seed s and fruits of Cevallos-Ferri z. S. R. S.; Stockey, R. A., 1990e. Pe rrninerali zed fruits these taxa fro m the chert (Stockey and Wehr, in press). and seeds rrom thc Princelon chert (middle Eocene) or British Co Pla nt fossi ls from Republic, Princeto n, a nd othe r localities lumbia-Vilaccae: Canadian Journal of Bolany, v. 68. nu. 2. o f the Okanogan Highlands, as we ll as insect, fi sh, a nd other p. 288-295. a nimal re m a ins and fungi , give a b e tte r vie w of a past biota Cevallos-Ferri z. S. R. S. ; Stockey, R. A .. I 99 1. Fruits and seeds from than is possi ble from one source a lone. As m o re is learned the Princclon c hert ( middle Eocene) o f Brili~h Colum from each source, a n increasing ly detai led understanding w i 11 bia-Rosaceae (Prunoideae): Botanical Gazette, v. I 52, no. 3. e merge for the middle Eocene world o f northwestern North p. 369-379. Ame rica. Cevallos-FcrriL, S. R. S.: Erwin, D. M .: Stuckey, R. A., 1993. Further observations on Paleorosa si111ilkameene11si.\ (Rosace;ic) from the Acknowledgments middle Eocene Princeton cherl of British Columbia. Canada: Re W e thank Grace L. H ill-Rackette. Univers ity of Alberta, Ed view of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 78, no. 3/4, p. 277-291. monton, Wes ley C. W e hr, Unive rsi ty o f Was h ington, Seatlle, Cevallos-Ferriz, S. R. S.; Stockey, R. A.; Pi gg. K. B .. 199 1, T he a nd Sandra J. B orgardt, Arizona S tate University, Tempe, for Princeton c hert- Ev idence for in situ aquatic plants: Re view of reading a draft of the manuscript. Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 70, no. 1/2, p. 173-185 . Currah, R. S.; Stockey, R. A., 1991. A fossil smut fungus rrom the References anthers o f" an Eocene angiosperm: Nature v. 350, no. 6320, p. 698- 699. Basinger. J. F., 1976a, Permineralized pl ants from the Eocene, Al lcnby Formati on of southern British Columbia: Uni versit y of Al Erwin, D. M.; Stuckey, R. A., 1989, Permi neralized monocotyledons herta, Edmonton, thesis (unpublished). from the middle Eocene Princeton (Allcnby Formation) of British Columbia- Alismataceae: Canadian Journal of Botany. v. 67. Basinger. J. F .. 1976b. Paleorosa s imilkameenensis. gen. et sp. nov., no. 9, p. 2636-2645. perminerali zed flowers (Rosaceae) from the Eocene of Bri ti sh Columbia: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 54, n. 20. p. 2293- Erwi n. D. :vi .; Stockey, R. A., 1990, Sapindaceous flowers from the middle Eocene Princeton chert (Allenby Formation) of British 2305. Columbia. Canada: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 68. no. 9, p. 2025-2034. Washing toll Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 35 Erwin. D. M .. Stockey. R. A .. 1991. Soleredcra r/ri~om orpha gen. el Rothwel l, G. W.: Basinger. J. F .. 1979. Metasequoia milleri 11. sp., sp. nov .. a permineralized monocotyledon from the middle Eo anatomically preserved pollen cones from the middle Eocene (Al cene Princeton chert of British Columbia: Botanical Gazette, lenby Formation) of British Columbia:-Canadian Journal of Bot v 15, no. 2. p. 231 -247. any, v. 57. no. 8. p.958-970. Erwin, D. M.: Stockey. R. A., 1992. Vegetative body o f a perminer Rothwel l. G. W .; Stockey. R. A.: Nishida, I I., 1994. Fi lica\ean s of the alized monocotyledon from lhc middle Eocene Princt:1011 chert of middle Eocene Princeton chert: I. A dryopleric.l species [abstract): Briti sh Columbia: Courier For schungsi nstitut Scnckcnbcrg. American Journal of Botany Supplement. Abstracts. v. 81, no. 6. V. 147, p. 309-327. p. 101-102. Erwin. D. M.: Stockey, R. A .. I 994. PcrmincraliL.cd monocotyledons Stockcy. R . A., 1984. Middle Eocene Pi1111s remains from British Co from the M iddlc Eocene Princeton chert (A\ Jen by Format ion) of lumbia Botanica l Gazette, v. 145. no. 2, p. 262-274. British Columbia, Canada-Arecaceae: Palaeontographica 2348. Stockey. R. A., 1987, A permineralized flower from the middle Eo p. 19-40. cene of British Columbia: American Journal of Botany, v. 74. Farr, D. F. : Bills, G. F.: Chamuris. G . P.: Ros sman. A. Y. 1989. Fungi 110. 12. p. 1878-1887. on plants and plan t products in the United States: American Phy Stockey. R. A., 1994. Permineralized flowers and fruits ofan aquatic topatholog ica\ Society Monographs. no. 5. 1252 p. angiosperm from the Princeton chert of British Columbia, Can lli\1-Rackelle, G. L.: Currah, R . S: Stockcy. R. A .. 1995, A fungal ada: American Journal of Botany (S upplemen t-Abstracts) , v. 81, blight on the fruit.~ of an Eocene aquatic di cot : American Journal no. 6. p. 103. of Botany Supplement. Abstracts, v. 82, no. 6, p. 86. Stockcy. R. A .; Pigg. K . B, 199 1, Flowers and fruits o f Pri11 ce1011ia LePa ge. B. A .: Currah. R. S.: Stockcy. R. A .. 1994, The fossi l fungi al/e11hye11sis (Magnoliop~ida: family indet. ) from the middle Eo of the Princeton chert: International Journal of Plant Sciences, ce ne Princeton chert of British Columhia: Review of Palaeobo V. [55, 110. b , 828-836. tany and Palynology. v. 70, no. I /2, p. 163- 172. LePagc. B. A.; Currah. R. S.: Stockey, R. A.: Rothwell. G. W., 1995, Stockey, R. A., Pigg, K. B .. 1994, Vegetative growth of Eorhi:a ar- Earliest evidence for ectomycorrhiza l symbiosis: American Jour 11 0/dii Robi son and Person from the middle Eocene Princeton nal or Botany Supplement, Abstracts, v. 82 , no. 6, p. 87. chert locality of Briti sh Columbia: International Journal of Plant Metcalfe, C. R, 197 1, Cyperaceae. In Metcalfe, C.R .. editor, Anat Sciences. v. 155, no. 5. p. 606-616. omy of the monocotyledons V: Oxford (Clarendo n Press) 597 p. Stockey, R. A.; W ehr. W . C .. in press . Flowering plants arou nd Eo Miller, C. N .. Jr., 1973. Silicificd cones an d vegetat ive remains of cene lakes of the interior. In Ludvigsen. R., editor, Life in stone Pi1111s from the Eocene of British Columbia: Contributions to the Fos,i Is of British Columbia: University of British Columbia Press University of J'vli chigan :'vlu seum of Paleontology. v. 24. p. 101 - and Royal British Columbia Museum. 118. Sun. Z.: Stockcy. R. A., 199 I . L auraccous inflorescences from the Phipps. C. J.: O,born. J. M : S1ockcy. R. A. 1995. Pi11u:. pollen cones middle Eocene Pri nceton chert (Allenby Formation) of British from the middle Eocene Princeton chert (A lien by formation) of Columbia. C<111ada : A meri can Jou rnal ol' Botany (Supplement), British Columbia. Canada: International Journal or Plant Science. V. 78. 11 . 6, p. 125. v. 156. p. 117- 124. Tomlinson, P. 8. , 1961. Palmae. In Metcalfe. C.R .. editor, Anatomy Pi gg, K. B.; Stockey, R . A.: Maxwell. S. L. . 1993. Paleomyrtinaea, a of the monocotyledons: ll: Oxford (Clarendon Press), 453 p. new genus of permineralizcd myrtaceous fruits and seeds from the W ehr, W. C., 1995. Early T ertiary flowers. fruits and seeds or Wash Eocene of British Columbia and Paleocene of North Dakota: Ca ington State and adjacent areas: Washington G eology. v. 23. nadian Journal of Botany, v. 71. no. I , p. 1-9. 110. 3. p. 3-16. Robi son. C. R.: Person, C. P .. 1973. A silicified semiaquatic dicoty Wehr, W. C.; Hopkins, D. Q .. 1994. The Eocene orchards and gardens ledon f rom the Eocene Allenby Formation of British Columbia: o f Republic, W ashington: Washington Geology. v. 22 . no. 3. Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 51, no. 7, p. 1373- 1377. p. 27-34. • Fossil con e o f Metasequoia; SR95-13-15, x1 .75. (Photo by Lisa A cone of the pine family; SR95-19-35, x2.3. Note the sandy matrix in Barksdale. ) which this fossil is preserved. (Photo by Li sa Barksdale.) 36 Wa shington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 Volcanic Arcs and Vegetation Jeffrey A. Myers Department of Geological Sciences University of California Santa Barbara, CA 93106 Introduction dynamic features that form and c hange quickly in geo logical Many o f us who were students o f paleobotany during the mid time, ultimately erode. and are no t preserved in the record, a l l 980s v ividly recall the appearance in 1987 o f W o lfe a nd though they have a profound impac t on the s urround ing e nv i Wehr·s pa rtial mo nograph of the middle Eocene Republic ronme nt while they exist. These impacts-o n to pography, on flora. At Re public, temperate plants ( inc luding pine, spruct:, local c limate , and on site eco logy both in the mo untains them fir, goosebe rry , blac khe rry, ha wtho rn . maple , linJen, and selves and in the basins surrounding them-arc primary con many o the rs) co-occ urred with cx. tint:l me mbe rs o f pla nt fami - trols o n regio nal vegetation. 1ie s now limiteJ to the tropics (suc h as Ba rghoomia in the One majo r result of the mo untai n-basin relationship is that Burseaceae or torch wood family). confirming that Eocene for vegetation presumed to have been growing at high e levati o n ests were compositi o na lly unlike any kno wn tod ay. rarely makes it into the fossil record. Any unde rstanding of The Republic fl ora is a lso inte resting because, des pite the wha t ancient hig h-ele vation ve getati o n reall y looked like almost 50 mil lio n years since it g rew, many living temperate sho uld be cons ide red s pec ulati ve at best. However. paleo genera were present. Pre viously it had been tho ught that the fl oras fro m certai n types of ba:. ins associated with vo lcanic te mpera te (or microthermal) families, whic h re present nu mo untain cha in s of convergent contine ntal marg in s. inc luding merical and taxonomic dominants in mode rn mid-latitude for the Re public fl orn, may fit into the rare category of true ' up ests, diversified primarily in re po nse to c limate coo ling dur la nd ' floras. So me pa leofl o ras of compa ra ble age possibly in g o r after the O ligocene (33-24 millio n years ago). That g rew at higher ele vations than Re publ ic, but it is at Republic di verse forms in some o f these families grew at Republic dur that we see the most dramatic e xpression of middle Eocene ing tht: warmest in terval of the Tertiary came as a surprise. temperate forest ri chness. Wolfe ( 1972, 19 77) had lo ng s ug gested that ··upla nd s" o f the Paci fi e Northwest were refuges for m icrolhe rmal groups The Interior Arc and Its Vegetation excluded fro m the "lowla nds" during the Eocene Warm Period Volcani c arcs a re mo untain c hains of composite stratovolca (roug hly 57.5-4 8 millio n years ago). noes (Cascade-ty pe vo lc anoes), wh ich are p roduced by the Re public provides the bes t evide nce to date that this was melting of subducted oceanic crust at conve rgent (subJuction) indeed the case and that some of these g roups unde rwent dra c.:ontine ntal ma rg in s. All upla nd midd le Eocene pa leofloras matic di vers ifi cati o n in the moist up land forests . Whe re, fro m weste rn No rth America, including Re public, occur in ba w he n, why. a nd parti c ul arl y how the~e lineages diversified so sins associated with what is often call ed the Eocene interi or read ily and appare ntly so rapidly re main some o f the most in Arc. This arc exte nded fro m central British Co lumbia, south triguing questions in paleobotany. throug h eastern Washington (lhe Repub li c grabc n), Idaho (the An unde rstanding of the inte raction amo ng geological/geo Challis Group). and weste rn M ontana and W yoming (the Ab mo rpho logic al processes, c lima te , a nd evoluti o nary c o n saroka Group), a nd ended in northern Utah- essentiall y the straints a nd advantages of the plant lineages g rowing at the region s li ghtl y west o rthe mode rn Northe rn Rocky M ountains time may he lp ans we r these questions . Ho wever, scie ntists Provin ce. lt was the dominant topographic feature in north have a much better unJc rstanding o f the bi ology of plants and weste rn North America betwee n about 50 million and about 40 o f the pattern of c limate cha nge durin g the Tertiary than they millio n years ago, whe n arc magmati sm s hifteJ westward to Jo o f the geolo gical a nd geo morphi c processes that s hape form the Western Cascade arc . Earth's landscape. A real need exists for de ta il ed microstrati Beca use o f the ir inte rmediate mag matic c o mposition and g raphic/sedimento log ical a nd taphonomic analysis of pa their c ha rac teristic modes of e ruption, stratoconcs Lend to be leoflo ras in order to understand the m in the context o f land large features that can form qu ickl y (i n tens to hundreds o f scape-level physical processes a nd reg io na l sett ings. Ma ny years) and erode rapidly. B asi ns associa ted with arcs typically paleo- bota ni cal publications vastl y oversi mplify the physical host outstanding fossil plant assemblages because they expe landscape even at the la rgest and mos t fundame ntal sca le. rience rapid rates of subside nce while simultaneo us ly receiv For example, e ve n the term ' upland', as used in the pa ing massive fint: sediment input from volcanic sources directly leobotanical lite rature. i~ somewhat vague because it ig no res associated with them. Furthermore, arc bas ins form within and the processes by whic h topographic features form and c hange directly adjacent to the arc edifices, thus producing the un through time. When, as paleobota ni sts, we think of upla nds, us ual circumstances o f depo sitio na l basin s associated wiLh we very likely env is ion mountains, and it is likely that we mountains. The result is a setting optimal for the preservation think of these mounta ins as essenti ally static geomorphic fea of de li c ate pl a nt material and one that potentially inc ludes tures ove r s ig nificant periods of geologic time. vegetati o n fro m true upland habitats. Pa leofl oras are, o f course, not preserved on mounta ins , but What did the Eocene Inte rior Arc look like? Some of the in much lower elevatio n depositi o nal bas in s, which are com middle E ocene arc volcanic centers, like the Ahsaro ka v0l monly associated with mountains. The paleobotanical record canic provin ce, inc luded ve ry large and poss ibly lo ng-lived is a direct conseque nce of geolog ical processes that control the compos ite stratocones with moderate-e le vation inte rvening sedimento logy and stratig raphy o f basin fi ll . M o untains a re basin s. Other centers, like the C larno volca nic fi e ld in central Washington C eolo;.:y, vol. 24, 11 0. 2, J u11 e ! 996 3 7 Oregon, consisted of smaller, short- Ii ved cones on a low-I yi ng must have been high enough to have supported microthermal landscape (White and Robinson, 1992). The Republic flora vegetation on the ir upper s lopes. Recall, thoug h, that the ac was depos ited within a g raben associated with active vo lca tual arc edifices erode and do no t e nter the record. What does noes, which were possi bly similar to those of the Clarno field. enter the stratigraphic record is the vegetation growing in the In general , most arc settings consist of volcanic edifices basi ns adjacent to the volcanoes. If the basins lay al relatively w ith summits on the order of 500 to 1,000 meters above the hig h e levations, they may have suppo rted uniform micruther surrounding la ndscape. In this respect, the volcanoes resemble mal forests. However, it is unlikely that many arc basins lay higher elevation 'islands' in a lower elevation 'sea'. lf the re hig h e nough during the E ocene Warm Peri od . gional landscape has heen tectonically uplifted, the interven The di verse forests of Re public inc lude a mi x of plants ing 'sea' may li e several tho usand me ters above actual sea fro m hi storicall y microthermal and megatherma l lineages, level, although most arc at only a few hundred meters in ele suggesting that the Republic graben lay somewhere in the cco vation. T he Republic graben probably lay between 800 and tone bt'.t ween te mperate a nd tropical vegetation. Presumably, 1,500 me ters during the middle Eocene, which is relative ly true microthermal forest occupied higher elevation sites while high for an arc basin . tropical vegetation may have occurred at lower e levations and Only recenlly have scientists begun to understand the sedi (or) closer to the ocean. mentary record of arc-associated bas ins (for example, Smith, Most interesting is that at Republic, for the first Lime in the 199 1) . It is in the sedimentary record of the arc basins that Tertiary paleo botani cal record, one sees the interg radation of paleobotanists must look for evidence about the environment mic ro thermal a nd mcg athe rmal vegetation to produce ex in whic h arc vegetation g rew and how the environment a nd the tremely diverse forests composed of pla nts with disparate and vegetation that inhabited it changed through time. The arc ba complex vegetatio nal histories . The germane questions are: sin sedimentary sequence is shaped by two primary variables: How did this massive intergradation occur? and Why did some ( I ) the s ize, volume, construction, and pers istence through families diversify so readily at this time? time of the volcanic sediment source, w hic h determines the There is some evidence that microthermal floral elements magnitude, periodic ity, and style of volcanic sedimentatio n in can e nter warmer forests as succcssio nal colonizers. For ex am the basins; and (2) the subsidence history or the basin and the ple, Wang ( 1961) found that s ucccssional colo ni zers of di s distance between the basin and the volcanogenic sediment turbed tropical forest in mainland China produce a woody source, whic h determines whic h portion of the available sedi vegetation with a decidedly more ' temperate ' composition ment is actually preserved. Of course, plant debris incorpo than minimall y disturbed forest of the same region. rated into the sediment delivery system represents a part of the The colonizing woody vegetation of the Mount St. Helens 'sediment' deposited in the basins. The interpretation of where debris avalanche deposit includes as dominants a lde r, wi ll ow, and when the basin fill originated with respect to the volcanic blackberry, blueberry. elderberry, maple, and o the r forms rep sediment source largely determines what informati on can po resented in abunda nce in the Re public fl ora. (Keep in mind te ntially be ohtained from the plant debris e nclosed wi thin it. that even ' minimally d isturbed' vegetati on o f coastal Wash Such work is the province of volt:aniclastic sedimentologists ington is temperate today.) These plant, are notable for ei ther and stratig raphers, along w ith plant paleotaphonomists. their abi Ii ty to resprout from vegctati ve fragments or their par While not always the case, the paleobotanical record o f tic ul arly effecti ve dispersal mechanisms (Viers, 1987). Far many arc basins is ofte n s kewed toward vegetation growing ther from the vent, similar colonizing woody vegetation oc during eruptive epochs (i ntervals of heightened volcanic acti v c urs withi n la har-devastated river c ha nnels, whereas the ity whic h may last as long as a few thousand years) and to surrounding forest is essentially unaffected. Tt may be that specific hori zons deposited just prior to, during, or immedi some microthermal elements from higher, cooler stratocones ately a fter indi vidual e ruptions. This is simply because the of the Interior Arc e ntered the lower arc basins by colon izing processes by whic h sedime nt is transported and deposited are volcanically disturbed habitat and that some of these inter more favo rable for plant preservation during eruptive periods graded with the later stage 'climax' vegetation. than her.ween them and because the sedimentary pile of many My work on the 33.9-million-year-old Cedarvill e fl oras of arc basins is dominated b y massive amounts of minimally re northeastern California (Myers, 1993), provides tantalizing worked debris stripped from the volt:ano flan ks within a few evidence that this may be the case. At Cedarville vegetational decades to, al most, a hundred or so years after eruptions. and flori sti c differences between multiple, wel l-correlated, In a rc basins relatively far from the volcanic sediment coe val paleoassemblages are significant. The distribution of source (such as the Green River Basin , Utah, o r the Republic vegetational associations is not climaticall y induced (the ther graben) this material is of fi ne grain sizes and deposited over mal and moisture paramete rs o f all sites are essentiall y identi many years. In contrast, basins very close to the volcanoes are cal) but is microsite controlled. Geological evidence suggests dominated by coarser, more rapidly deposited debris (for ex that Cedarvill e microsites colonized by broadleaved, primarily ample, the Eocene Copper Basin in Nevada [Axelrod, 1966] deciduous vegetation (dominated by microthermal elements) and the Germer flora o f Idaho [Edelman, I 975]). were regularly de vastated by volcaniclastic debris. Si tes far While habitats near vents experie nce frequent and pro ther from the volcanic source supported prcdom i nantly ever found devas tation from eruptions, more distant habitats are green broadleaved vegetation with strong tropical fl oris tic ties minimally disturbed except in the very largest eruptions. The and appear not to have been highly disturbed. net effect is to produce a fossil record that is punctuated in Sedimentolog ical a nd microstratig raphic study at time and hi ghly variable over di stances on the order of a few Cedarville reveals cyclical vegetati onal changes within short kilometers. This heterogeneity reflects both variabili ty 111 the stratigraphic sequences. Hori zons with a hi gh pe rcentage of li ving vegetational matrix and variability in the processes by juvenile volcanic detritus contain the fossils of ferns. Fern fos which plant debris enters the sedimentary record . sils are replaced upsection by a low-diversity vegetation domi Unless the elevational the rmal gradient has changed radi nated by 'weedy' trees a nd vi nes. Moving upward in the sec cally si nce the Eocene, ma ny stratocones of the Interior Arc ti on lamina by lamina, o ne sees the low-divers ity 'weedy' 38 Wa shington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 trees gradually replaced by a diverse temperate forest not dis If combined with careful whole-organism taxonomic and pa si milar to that at Republic. Between four and six cycles of leoecological analysis, such information could begin to yield vegerational change have been recognized in a I-meter-thick a picture of how and why vegetation and lineages changed sequence of rock. through time in arc settings. The predictable cyclicity of vegetational change, and par Given the occurrence of multiple, widely spaced. and well ticularly the association of 'fern episodes· with juvenile pyro dated floras at Republic and their unique vegerational and flor clastic debris, tempts the suggestion that the vegetational cy istic associations, Republic would be an ideal laboratory for cles mark repeated events or volcanic devastation and this type of integrative study. recovery, although other explanations are equally plausible. Hence. while there is some evidence that 'temperate' forest Acknowledgments might enter warmer lowland sites through colonization of vol The ideas proposed here arc an outgrowth of Myer's work with canically disturbed habitat. it is difficult to determine the ac Richard V. Fisher, emeritus professor, U.C. Santa Barbara, tual cause of the vegetational rel ations from the fossi I record. whose unique insight into the processes by which explosive A similar repeated lithological cycli city occurs in the Re volcanism shapes the Earth's landscapes and sedimentary re public sequence, although as yet no one has attempted a I am cord has immense value to paleobotanists. in a- by-1 a m in a correlation of lithological changes with changes in associated pl ant fossils. References Cited Axelrod, D . I.. 1966, The Eocene Copper Bas in flora of northeastern Mechanisms of Floral and Vegetatlonal Change In the Interior Arc Nevada: University of California Puhlication~ i 11 Geological Sci ences, v. 59, p. 1-84. From the brief di scussion above. it is c lear that the formation Edelman . D. E., 1975, The Eocene Germer Basin flora of south-cen of plant preservational sites in or adjacent lo volcanic centers tral Idaho: Uni versity of Idaho Mas ters thesis, 143 p. of the Eocene Interior Arc allowed for the fossilization of Kruckeberg. A. R. , 1987 , Plant li fe on Mount Sc. llelens before 1980. vegetation th at hitherto had not entered the Tertiary western /11 Bilderback. D. E.. editor. Mount St. Helens 1980-Botanical North American paleobotanical record. While this vegetation consequences of the explosi vc eruptions: University of Ca li forn ia may not have bee n actually growin g at high elevation, it would Press, p. 3-23. have reflected the landscape dynamics influenced by the arc Myers. J. A. , 1993. The latest Eocene Lower Cedarvi lie flora, north and would have experienced vegetational exchange with the eastern California-A possibl e mixed mcsophytic fo rest prede higher elevation volcanic centers. That volum inous arc vol cessor I ahstractJ : XV In ternational Botanical Co ngress Abstract canism in isolated upland cente rs would very like ly have with Programs , p. 26. forced high rates of vegetational change has been suggested Myers, J. A.: Fisher, R. Y .. 1994. Explosive volcanism as a regu lato r previously (Kruckeberg, 1987; Wolfe, 1987; Myers, 1993; of middle Terti ary flora l and vegetational change- Western Myers and Fisher, 1994). North America [abstract!: Geological Society of America Ab The formation of a series o f volcanic centers in western stracts with Programs. v . 26, no. 7, p. 521 . North Ameri ca during the Eocene Warm Period would have Smith, G. A.. 1991 , Facies sequences and geometrics in continental provided biogeograph ic and evolutionary opportunities for volcan iclastic sediments. /11 Fisher. R. Y.; Smith. G. A.. editors, microthermal .lineages restricted from the tropical lowlands. Sedimentation in volcanic settings: Society for Sedimentary Ge Microthermal groups, like the Rosaceae, almost certainly ology Special Publication 45. p. I 09-121 . wou Id have been restricted to cooler habitats of widely spaced Wang. C. -W., 1961 , The fores ts of China: Harvard Univers ity, Maria and isola!ed volcanic centers. Migration between these centers Moors Cabot Foundation for Botanical Research Publication 5, would have been by chance (by wind or animal vectors or by 313 p. other means) and perhaps infreq uent. The potential for specia White, J. D. L.; Robinson, P. T .. 1992, Intra-arc sedi mentati on in a tion in isolation would have been high. This leads to the sug low-lying marginal arc, Eocene Clarno Formation, central Ore gestion that diverse forests composed of floristic elements gon: Sedimentary Geology, v. 80, no. 2, p. 89- 11 4. with different hi stories (like that at Republic during the middle Eocene) could evolve and accru e diversity through the contin Wolfe. J. A. , 1972, An interpretation of Alaskan Tertiary floras. /11 ued intermixing of" relicts and neoendemics in a geologically Graham. Alan, editor. Floristics and paleofloristics of Asia and eastern North America: Elsevier, p. 201 -231 . complex and dynamic landscape like that of a volcanic arc. While volcanic arcs are not the on ly environment in which this Wolfe, J. A. , 1977. Paleogene floras from the Gulf of Alaska region: might happen, the extremely dynamic and unstable geological U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 997, 108 p. system of volcanic arcs could be a particularly effective pump Wol fe, J. A., 1987, An overview of the origins of the modern vegeta driving floristic diversification and vegetational mixing. tion and flora of the no rthern Rocky Mountains: Missouri Botani One way for paleobotanists to test this idea would be to cal Garden Annals, v. 74, p. 785-803. place arc vegetation into the contex t of what geologists can Wolfe, J. A.: Wehr, W . C., 1987, Midd le Eocene dicotyledonous interpret about the processes by which volcanism shapes the plants from Repu bli c, northeastern WashingLOn: U.S. Geological physical and vegetational landscape, by which vegetation is Survey Bulletin 1597, 25 p. taphonomically sampled and sorted (with particular emphasis Viers. S. D.. 1987 , Response of vegetation within the blast zones. In on where and when this occurred with respect to the volcanoes Bilderback, D. E, editor, Mount St. Helens 1980-Botanical co n and the timing of eruptions), and by which the basinal sedi sequences of the explosive eruptions: University of California ment pile is formed. Such work is time consuming and must be Press. p. 228 -245. • conducted on a lamina-by-lamina scale at several coeval sites. Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 39 The Republic Highlands Scott L. Wing and William A. DiMichele Department of Paleobiology National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC 20560 Thefossil flora from Republic, Wa~hington, is an extraordi- Floras of aboul the same age as that at Republic are also nary window on the vegetallon of nearly 50 million years found in western Washington. These Pacific coast Eocene flo ago. It records a time when there were no polar ice caps, when ras were highly diverse, composed mostl y of evergreen broad alligators swam in the Arctic Ocean, when broau-leaved ever leaved trees, and had leaf shapes and sizes similar to those green forests grew as far as 60° north, and forests of bald-cy seen in living wet tropical forests. press relatives and deciduous broad-leaved trees grew nearly Republic plants help to uocumenl the existt:nce of hiu-h to the poles. Because of the g lobally warm climate, this was lands that separated the warm, wet floras of the Pacific co:st the time of maximal interchange among floras of North Amer from the warm, but seasonally dry floras of the continental in ica, Europe, and Asia-even frost-sensitive plant lineages terior. The effects of the 'Republic highlands' are still seen in the were able to expand their ranges across the North Atlantic and distribution of plants today. The Eocene drying of th e:: inlt'.rior Beri ngian la11d bridges. of the continent confined moisture-loving plants to more However, even as warm climates at middle and high lati coastal areas. This was the initial break in the distributions of tudes permitted the spread of broad-leaved evergreen forests planls that had previously grown all across the northern mid and frost-sensitive plants, volcanic activity and uplift in the latitudes. Later in the Tertiary, cold climates further restricted northern Rocky Mountains were creating montane regions the northern ends of many plant ranges, finally producing the with cooler dimates. T he Republic fossils document this mon well-known 'disjunct' genera that now occur in east Asia and tane vegetation of the Eocene better than any other assemblage eastern North America but nowhere in between. 111 the world. The Eocene highlands so well represented by Republic We know the vegetation at Republic was diverse-more may also have been the cradle of evolution for many of the than 200 s pecies have been recorded from the 12 sites there more cold -tolerant plan! lineages that came to dominate tem that have been collected. The fl ora contains a mixture ofpine perate forests during the later Tertiary. The plant fossils from family conifers, deciduous broad-leaved trees like alder. sas Republic uniquely document a critical interval in the develop safras, el ms, and sycamore relatives, and a few broau-leaved ment of modern plant distributions and the evolution of impor evergreen trees like photinia and members of the tea family. tant living species.• How did the vegetati on at Republic differ from what grew at the same time to the east and west? As volcanic highlands devel oped in eastern Washington, Ore gon, Idaho, and western Montana and Wyoming, they began to cast a rain shadow across the interior of North America. The eastern edge of the Eocene volcanic highlands appears to have been in the Yellow stone area, w he re floras of about the same age as Republic contain many conifers, including relatives of the coast redwood. Fifty-mil lion-year- o ld floras from farther east in Wyoming, however, share re lat ively few plant species with Republic a nd are dominated by broad- leaved e vergree n members of tropical and subtropical plant fam ilies. These Wyoming floras also have an abundance of species in the legume fam il y, which tends to be diverse in regions with sea sonall y dry climates. lsoetites (quillwort), extinct genus, corm ca. 1.5 cm wide, UWBM 37862, loc. B4131 . 40 Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 The Role of the Republic Flora in Documenting the Floristic Evolution of the Northern Hemisphere Kirk R. Johnson Department of Earth Sciences Denver Museum of Natural History 2001 Colorado Boulevard Denver, CO 80205 The middle Eocene flora recovered from several localities in gration o r temperate and even subtropical plant genera be and around the town of Republic, Washington, provides tween continents and the resulting s imilarity of fl o ras. Moun some of the best evidence for the early evolution of many tain building, continental drift, and climatic cooling resulting northern hemisphere plant I ineages. First described by Brown in ice ages in the late Cenozoic not only severed these migra in 1935, the Republic flora was for decades considered to be tions , but al so extirpated this vegetation from most of the of minor importance. places where it had previo us ly grown. (See Wing a nd Di In 1977, Wes Wehr a nd Kirk Johnson discovered a new Michele, this issue.) site, known as the 'corner lot', at the intersection of 10th Street Its floral list makes Republic one of the more importa nt and C lark Avenue. Extensive excavation of this site over the localities for interpreting the evolution a nd bi ogeography of next several years proved that the flora was far richer than had the flora of North America. The Re public flora contains doz previous ly been thought. Initial description of the fl ora by ens or plant genera that today are known only in eastern Asia Wolfe and Wehr (1987) and further tabulation by Wehr and and many more that are known only in eastern Asia and eastern Hopkins (1994) have shown that Republic is the ri chest known North America. Eocene floral locality in western North America. Representing vegetation growing at a moderate elevation Examples of Eocene plant genera from Republic that survive during the early middle Eocene, just after the global thermal today only in east Asia or only in east Asia and eastern North maximum of the Cenozoic (Wing and others, 1991), the Re America public flora contains a mixture of taxa known from highe r a nd lower elevation sites from a time when local floristic diversity Republic Eastern Eastern was at an all-time high for North America. The flora also con taxon North America Asia tains: relict tax a from the Cretaceous, such as Metasequoia, Ginkgo (maiden hair tree) X Cercidiphyllum, and Ginkgo; other groups that diversified dur Pseudolarix (Chi nesc go lden larch) X ing the the Paleocene suc h as the Betulaceae (birches), Ul Cercidiphy/lum (katsura) X maceae (elms). Fagaceae (oaks, beeches), and Platanaceae Metasequoia (dawn redwood) X (sycamores); and a whole suite of taxa that make their first Photinia X appearance in the Eocene. Liquidambar (sweet gum) X X The assemblage as a w hole sheds li g ht on the long-known Sassafras X X Lindera (spi cebush) X X floristic simila rity between the forests of eastern North Amer Cardonia (Carolina bay) X X ica and eastern Asia. A s early as 1750, Linnaeus had recog Koelreuleria (goldenrain tree) X nized generic similarities between the living floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia (Graham, 1972). The similari Due to the combined forces o f its initial deposition and ties became significantly greater w ith inc reased botanical ex preservation and the ongoing collection and study, the Repub- ploration, and in 1846 Asa Gray wrote, "It is interesting to 1ic fl ora provides one of the better data points for under note ho w many of our characteristic genera are reproduced in standing the vegetational history of the northern hemisphere. Japan, not to speak of striking analogous forms." A tabulation The lesson of Republic is that relentless excavation will un of these similarities by Li in 1952 showed that many genera in cover material tha t is si mply not obtained by the traditional 59 families occurred in these widely separated regions. professional approach of a few seasons' work at a site. The Paleobotanical exploration of the American West, begin growth of o ur understanding of this flora is directly related to ning largely with the United States Geological Surveys of the the diligence and persistence of Wes We hr, who has worked Territories, commenced in the 1860s. These scientists discov steadily on the project since 1977. En I isti ng dozens of col ered a fossi l record that indicated that the extinct floras of the leagues and friends as rock splitters, W ehr eventually captured West also contained genera similar to those that were common the interest of the residents of Republic, and the site was rec to the li ving disjunct floras of eastern North America a nd east ognized as significant local landmark. The Stonerose Interpre ern A sia. tive Center now e ncourages continuing research and education De tailed descriptions and discussions of these a nd addi relating to this flora. (See Perry and Barksd ale, this issue.) tional floras over the last 130 years has led to the under standing that the middle Eocene world was characteri7.ed by References Cited equable climates and by land co nnections between A laska and Siberia to the west and Canada, Greenland, and Scandinavia to Brown, R. W., 1935, Miocene leaves, fruits, and seeds from Idaho. the east. These conditions a ll owed relative ly unrestricted mi- Oregon. anti Washington: Journal of Paleontology, v. 9, no. 7, p. 572-587 Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 41 Graham. Alan. 1972, Outline of lhe orig in and historical recognition or floristic affinities between Asia a nd eastern North America. /11 Graham, /\ Ian. editor. F lo rbitics and paleofl oristics o f Asia and eastern o n h America : Elsevier Puhli shi ng Co .. p. 1- 16. Gray. Asa, 1846. Analogy betwee n flora of J a pan a nc.J that of lhc United Stales: Ameri can Jo urnal of Science Ans 11. v. 2. p. 135- 1:l6 . L i, H. -L. , 1952, F loristil: relationsh ips he- 1wecn eastern A~ia and eastern North Ameri ca: American Philosophical Society Transactions. new series . v. 42. pt. 2. p. 37 1-429. Wehr. W. C. : Hopkins. D. Q.. 1994. The Eo cene orchards and gardens o f Republic . Washington: Was hington Geology. v. 22. no. 3. p. 27-34 . Wing. S. L.: Bown. T. M.: Obradovich. J. D .. 199 1. Earl y Eocene bio tic a nd c limatic change in western imerio r :'forth A merica: Geology. v. 19. no. 12, p. 11 89- 1192. Wolfe, J. A.: We hr. W., 1987. Middle Eocene Partially disarticulated cone of Pseudolarix wehrii Gooch (golden larch); SRBB-73-01, x1. 1. d icoly le donou s plants fro m Republic. (Photo by Lisa Barksdale.) northeastern Washi ngton: U.S. Geological Survey Bui let in 1597. 25 p. • Fossil leaf of Cercidiphyllum (katsura), a genus now native to eastern Fossil leaf of Ginkgo adiantoides (Unger) Heer, whose modern relative As ia and a tree commonly planted in cities; SR91 ·0-14, x1 .8 . (Photo by is native to eastern Asia; SRB7-36-2A. x1 .3. Gingko trees have been Lisa Barksdale.) planted in many communities throughout the United States. (Photo by Sandra Sweetman.) 42 Washington Geology. vol. 24, no. 2. June / 9Y6 A Brief History of the Stonerose Interpretive Center Madilane Perry and Lisa Barksdale Stonerose Interpretive Center PO Box 987 Republic, WA 99166 ashington Geology readers o ften see ' SR' or 'Stonerose W Interpretive Center Collectio n· below illustrations of Re public ' s Eocene fossi ls. Many readers and others have come to the center. but for those who haven't. this short his tory may serve as an introduction. The Stonerose lnterpreti vc Cente r is an educational faci Ii ty that performs several func ti ons: It promotes popular and sci entific interest in local fossils. geology, and related subjects. 1t collects, preserves. exhibits, a nd interprets fossi ls and other o bjects that illustrate these subjects and e ncourages research and informatio n exchange. Its program provides a unique op portunity for the public to collect mu cum-quality fossil s and pa rtic ipate in their study. This would be an unusual situation anywhere. Its existenc..:e in a small, ec..:on orni cally depressed, mining town is even more remarkable. lt is a res ul t of an equally re markable cooperation among local organizations, several levcb of governme nt, edu cati o nal institutions. and private c iti zens. Stonerose·s history began with a conversation between Re public City Counc ilman Bert Chadick and paleobotanist Wes Wehr of the Thomas Burke Me mo ri al Washing to n State Mu seum. Collecting at Republic' s fossil beds began in 1896, but the ir significance was barely appreciated before Wehr began work there in 1977. T he ·fossi l locality he was in vestigating is across the street from Republic's city hall . In the mid- l 9 80s. Chadic k c rossed the street to ask a bout the work. Wehr's explanatio n included the fact that Republic ' s roadcuts. s licing through layers of ancie nt lake beds, had ex posed a ri c h Eocene pla nt fossil de posit. These well -preserved leaf and flower impressions comprise the world's best 'snap shot' of plant deve lopment in warm temperate uplands 50 mil lion years ago. The two men began considering what s uch a world-class Figu re 1. Amateur fossil collectors at the Stonerose site. resource mig ht mean to Republic. They envisioned an inter pretive center where the public. including students of all ages, could get hands-o n experience with foss il s and interact with the people who study them. It would encourage to uri sm a nd demonstrate to local students that science is a prot:ess that c..:a n take pl ace literally anywhere. W e hr and Chadick began to work toward ma king a museum a reality. The city soon a ft e r bought a ho use near the fossil o utcrop and found funds for a modest salary for a curator, some basic equipment, and for modifications of the ho use. TRICO, a local econo mi c development district, made arrangements for an as s istant curator's positi on through the Was hing to n Service Corps. T o wn res ide nts digging for fi ll rock soon uncove red a m o re access ible fossil o utcrop a t the n orth e nd of town (Fig. I). Early in 1987. Madila ne Perry. a local reside nt and a nthropo logy g raduate fresh from a sin g le s hort museology course , heard about the project from C hadic k. the n the town' s mayor. Alarmed at it s scope, she c..:a utio ned that it wa~ prob ably impossibl e, g iven the area's limited resources. Somehow rh e conversation ended up with Perry being enlisted as curator Madilane Perry (left), the first curator of the center, and Lisa Phillips, o f something call ed ' Stonerose ·. na med for the numerous the fi rst assistant curator. (Photo by Sandra Sweetman.) Washing ton Geology. vnl. 24, no. 2 . .lune / 996 43 members of the rose family that are found in the stones there. T he Stonerose Interpretive Center was to be part of the City Parks Department. Getting from the dream to today's center has fol lowed un orthodox, improvised, and fortuitous paths, certainly not the more traditio nal process of establishing a facility for such im portant materials. T he physical work needed to make Stone rose a reality began in the spring of 1987. This involved c lean ing and re pairing a rundown, tum-of-the-century house (Fig. 2) and several donated glass cases a nd o rganizing the city's small fossil collectio n for an exhibit. Perry made a quick trip to the Burke Museum, where Wehr provided an intensive cram course in paleobotany and local geology and a great deal of moral support. In A ugust, the facil ity offici all y opened to the public. Since then, under the direction of the prese nt c urator Lisa Barksdale, the fossil collection has grown, attendance has in creased steadil y and dramaticall y, and visitor fossi l collecting has settled into a pattern. Fossils found by visitors are exam ined by Stonerose staff members and, if possible, identified. f-oss il s that may represent previously unknown plants or ani mals are retained by Stonerose to be examined by Wehr or oth er specialists. Stonerose contacts the collectors with infor mation about the fossils that have been kept; the will ing ness of visitors to cooperate in the ongoin g research is an asset to the center's work. In 1988, a Washington State Department of Community Development (DCD) grant enabled Stonerose to form its own nonprofit support group, the 'Friends of Stonerose Fossil s' . Figure z. The first home of the Stonerose Interpretive Center. (Photo The Friends now operate the center and have purchased eight by Sandra Sweetman.) city lots, including about I 00 feet of exposed foss il beds. Another DCD grant in 1991 funded an extremely popular university-ac credited workshop for teachers about the educational use of fossi ls. Since its earl y days, Stoncrosc has moved to a more accessible loL:a tio n. The city and Ferry County Historical Society j oined forces to purchase a building next to the city park for the center. It houses most of the area's tourism-related o rganizations and is maintained w ith L:ity funds earmarked for touris m. Similar county funding goes toward the curator's salary. The Washington Service Corps and, later, A mericorps have partici pated by providing part of the assistant cura tor's salary. The rest of the center's needs are met by donations, memberships, gift shop sales, and the proceeds of an annual 'Bingo Bash' . Sto nerose has rei ssued U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1597, which discusses the Figure 3 . Stonerose Interpretive Center in 1996, with its new expansion. sig nificance of Republic's plant fossils, and has several other reports about the fossi l fl ora available for visitors. Stonerose attracted more than 9,000 visitors in the summer The center recently received a $50,000 g rant from the state of 1995, more than Ferry County's entire population. The cen legislature to enlarge its physical fac il ities. The 600-square ter is open from May throug h October, Tuesday through Sat foot addition is nearly complete (Fig. 3). The fi nishing touches urday, 10:00 am to 5:00 pm. From mid-June to mid-Septem are being applied by a crew from the local Job Corps center. ber, Stonerose is also open on Sunday. Visitors who want to This is a continuation of an effective partnership that can serve search for fossi ls must check in with the center. where they as a model of interagency cooperation for similar projects wil l receive instructions, can rent simple tools, a nd see exam e lsewhere . ples of the local fossils. • 44 Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, Ju 11 e 1996 Selected Additions to the Library of the Division of Geology and Earth Resources February 1996 through April 1996 THESES and Washi ngton: U. S. Geological Survey Water-Resources In ves Finkheiner, Thomas. 1994. Tectoni cs and sedi mentary basins in the tigati ons Report 95-42 19, 67 p. Paci fic Northwest: Stanfo rd Uni versity Master of Science thesis. Wcissenhorn, A. E.; Hosterman, J. W., 1951, Report on the properly I V. of the Mount Rainier Mining Company. Mount Rainier, Washing Morril l, D. C.. 1994, Spawning gravel quality, sa lmonid survival, and ton: U.S. Geological Survey [Spokane, Was h.], 17 p., 4 plates. wa tershed characteri stics of five Olympic Peni nsu la waler~hcds: OTHER REPORTS ON WASHINGTON GEOLOGY Un iversit y of \V as hington Master of Science thesis. 120 p. Beieler. V. E., 198 1. Soil survey of Douglas County, Washington: Tang, S. M., J 994, The influence of fo rest clearcutting patterns on the potential for debris fl ows and win d damage: Uni ve rsity of Wash U.S . Soi I Conservation Service, 180 p .. 28 maps. ington Doctor of Ph il osophy thesis, 15 1 p. 13 enda, L. E. , 1993, Geomorphic analysis of the south fo rk of Green Creek: [Privately published by the author], I v. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Deep Creek Working Group (McHenry, M. L.; Shaw, S. C.: Toal. Published reports Charles; Gorsline. Jerry), 1995, Assessment of physical and bio logical conditions within the Deep Creek watershed, north Olym Roberts, L. M .; Jones. J. L. , 1996. Agricultural pesticides fo und in pic Peninsula , Washington. and recommendations for watershed oround water of the Quincy and Pa~co Basi ns: U.S. Geological restoration : Washington Department of Nat ura l Resources, I v. Survey Fact Sheet 240-95, 2 p. In cludes: L' .S. Geologica l Survey, 1996. Are agricultura l pesticides in surface Mc He nry, M. L., 1995, Spawning gravel quality report, Deep waters of the cent ral Columbia plateau?: U.S. Geological Survey Creek, Washington. 12 p. Fact Sheet 24 1-9.'i. 4 p McHenry. M. L. : Jcwilt, Nora; Toal , Charles. 1995, Fi shery habi Val li er, T. L.; Brooks. H. C.. edi tors. 1995. Geology of the Blue tat condi tions and trends in salmo n populati ons in Deep Mountains region of Oregon. Id aho. ;md Washin gton-Petrology Creek. Washington. 9 p. and tectoni c evo lution o f pre-Tertiary rocks of the Blue Mountai n reg ion: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1438, 540 p. McHenry, M. L. ; Shaw. S. C., 1995, Channel assessment report. Deep Creek, a tributary of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. IO p. In cludes: Shaw. S. C .. I 995. Summary report- Mass-wasting analysis, Mohl, G. B.; Thiessen. R. L.. 1995. Gravity studies of an is land Deep Creek w;;tcrshecJ, north Olympic Peninsu la. Washing arc/cominent suture zone in west-central Idaho and southeast ton. 16 p. ern Washington . p. 497-51.'i . Young, W.R.. 1995. Deep Creek watershed analysis- Hyd rology Vallier. T. L .. 1995, Petrology of pre-Tertiary igneous rocks in the module. 11 p. Blue Mou ntai ns region of Oregon, Id aho. and Washi ngton Imp li cations fo r the geologic evoluti on of a complex island Don nelly. J\. T.: Donnelly. M. F.: Wetz, A. C., 1995, Economic anal y sis of gas producti on and storage potentia l, state acreage, Yakima arc. p. 125-209. Firing Range. Kitti tas County. Washington: Barakat & Chamber Open-File and Water-Resources Investigations Reports lin [Oak land, Cal if. , under contra ct to) Washington Depart menl of Natural Resources and Washington Office of Attorney General. Ames. K. C.; Matson, N. P.; Suzuki, D. M.: Sak, P. B . 1996, l nvcn I v. lorv. charactcrizaton, and water quali ty of springs. seeps, and Elcrs. K. E .. 1995, Managing risk in a global environment: No rthwest str~ams near Mi dnite mine. Stevens County, Washington: U.S. Mini ng Association I OJ st Annual Conve ntion, 199.'i, Paper 27. Geological Survey Open-Fi le Report 96- 1 15, 53 p. 25 p. Bcrri s. S. N. , 1995. Conceptualization and simulation of runoff gen ENVISION Engin eering Services, 1996. Final su pplement EI S for eration fro m rain fa ll fo r three basins in Thurston County, Wash Rand les Sand and Gravel southern expansion, unc lassified use ington: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources In vesti gati ons permit 17-94, Frederickson area of Pierce County: Pierce County Report 94-4038. 149 p. Department of Planning and Land Services. I v. Hammond. P. E., 1996, Chemical analyses of tuffs and some lava Hanfo rd Advisory Board, 1996, T racking the Hanford cleanup, FY flows in Paleogene formations in western Washi ngton and north J 995, a progress report: Hanford Advisory Board, 27 p. western Oregon: U.S. Geological Su rvey Open-File Report 96- Hatten, J. R., 199 1, The effects of debris torrents on spawning gravel 77, 40 p. quality in trihutary basins and side-channels of the Hoh Ri ver. Morgan. D. S.; Jones. J. L., 1996. Numerical model analysis of the Washi ngton: Hoh Indian Tribe, 19 p. effects of ground-water withdrawals on di scharge lo ~lreams and Hatten. J. R .. 1996, Re lationships between basi n morphology and springs in smal l basins typical of the Puget Sound lowland , Was h large woody debris in unlogged stream channels of Washington's ington : U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-470, 73 p. Ol ympie Peninsula: Hoh Indian Tribe, 44 p. Swanson, D. A .. 1996. Geologic map of the Hamilton Buttes quadran Huckell/Weinman Associates. Inc., 199 1. Proposed Lakeland Hi lls gle. southern Cascade Range. Washington: C.S. Geologica l Sur South mi ning and reclamation plan and planned community de vey Open- Fil e Report 96-16, 29 p., 2 plates. velopment: Draft environmental im pact statement: Pierce County va n lleeswijk, Marij ke; Ki mball , J. S.; Marks. Dann y. 1996, Simula Department of Planning and Land Services, 189 p. tion or water available for runoff in clearcut fo rest openings dur ing rain-on-snow events in the western Cascade Range of Oregon Washington Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 45 Huckell/Weinman Associates, Inc .. 1992, Proposed Lakeland Hills Alidibirov, Mikhail; Dingwell , D. B., 1996, Magma fragmentation by South mining and reclamati on plan and planned community de rapid decompression: Nature, v. 380. no. 6570, p. 146- 148. velopment; Final environmental impact statement: Pierce County Beard, L. D., 1992, Design and construction of deer groundwater Department of" Plmrning and Land Services, 2 v. monitoring wel ls. In Nielsen. D. M.: Sara. M. N., editors, Cu rrent Ki ng County Department of Natural Resources Surface Water Man practi ces in ground water and vadose zone investigations: Ameri agement Di vision, 1996. Channel migration in the th ree forks area can Society fo r Testing and Materials Special Technical Publica of the Snoqualmie Ri vcr: Ki ng County Depart menl of Natural Re tion 11 18, p. 256-269. sources. 4 1 p., (i plates. Davis. E. E.: Chapman. D. S.: Forster. C. B., 1996, Observations con Lingley, W. S .. Jr .. 1995. Petroleum polcnl ial and probability of re cerning the vigor of hydrothermal circulation in young oceanic newed mim:ral-rights lc;ising in theColumhia Basin , Wa,hington: crust: Journal of Geophysical Research. v. 101. no. R2, p. 2927- Washington Department or Natural Resources. 43 p. 2942. Lutley. John. 1995. Gold mining public outreach program: Northwest Dickenson. S. E.; Obermeier. S. F.: Roberts, T. H.; Martin, J. R., II. Mining Association I 01 st Annual Conventio n. 1995, Paper 28, 1994, Constraints on earthquake shaking in the lower Columbia 17 r> River region of Washington and Oregon, during late- Hol ocene Marr, James, Jr. , 199 1'.', The life tim c.:s of th e Holden and Lovit t lime. In Proceedings. Fifth U.S. National Conference on Earth mines: !Privately published by the author!. 32 p. quake Engineering: Earthquake Engineering Research Institu te. McHenry, M. L.. 1991. The effects oi' debris torrents on macruinver V . 3, Jl · 3 J 3-322. tebrate populatio11s i11 tri butaries and side-channels of the Hoh Fetherston, K. L. ; Naiman, R. J.; Bilby, R. E, 1995, Large woody River. Washington: Northwest Indian Fi sheries Commission. debris. physical process, and riparia n forest development in mon 26 p. tane river networks of the Pac i fie Northwest: Geomorphology. v. McHenry. M. L.: Li chatowich, .Jim : Ko wa lsk i-Hagaman, Rac hael, 13. 110. 1-4, p. 133- 144. 1996. Status of Paci fi e salmon and their ha bi tats on the Olympic Fra ncisco, M . D .: Clark. R. C.. Jr., 1994 , The Elliott Bay/Duwami~h Peninsula. Wa~hington: Lower Elwha Kial lam Tribe. 240 p. restoration project-A status report: Coastal Mmiagemcnl. v. 22. McHenry, M . L.: Morrill. D. C.. Currence, Edward. 1994. Spawning no. 3. p. 309-3 17. gravel quality. water,hed characteristi cs and earl y life history sur Geoli me~ . 1995, Geology al the leading edge: Geotimes. v. 40. no. I, vival or coho sal mon and steelhead in five north Olympic Penin p. 5. sula watersheds: Washington Department of Ecology. I v. Goedert, J. L.; Kaler. K . L. , 1996, A new species of Abyssochrysos Milbor-Pita. Inc .. 1996. Subsurface explorati on and geotechni cal en (Gastropoda: Loxonematoidea) from a middle Eocene cold-seep gineering study, riparian portion or rhe Heritage Park project. carbonate in the Humptulips Formation. western Washingron: Olympia. Washington: The Portico Group. J v. The Veliger, v. 39, no. I. p. 65-70. Paci ric Quarries. 1979. Draft environmental impact statement-Ex Groves. L. T.: Squires. R. L .. 1995. First report of th e genus tension or lease agreement and add it ion 10 quarry lease area. Pa Proadllsla Sacco. 1894 (Gastropoda: Cypraeidae) from the west ci ric Quarries-Little Mountain: City or Mount Vernon City En ern hemisphere. with a description of a new species from the Eo gineer, 33 p. cene of Washington: The Nautilus. v. I 09. no . 4. p. I I J- 11 6. Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Federal/State Working Group, 1996, Tsu Johnson. S. Y .: Potter, C. J. ; Armentrout, .I . M. ; Miller, J. J.; Finn, C. nami hazard mitigation implementation plan-A report to th e A.: Weaver, C. S .. 1996. The southern Whidhey Is land fault-An Senate Appropriations Committee: Tsunami Hazard \!litigation active structure in the Puget Lowland. Washington: Geological Federal/State Working Group, I v. Society of America Bulletin. v. 108. no. 3, p. 334-354, I plate . C.S. Bonneville Power Administration: U.S. Army Corps of Engi Lasmanis, Raymond, 1994, Washington: State Geologists Journal, neers: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1995. Columbia River system v. 46, Addendum, [ Ip.]. operation review-Final environmental impact statement: U.S. Long, A . .I .; Shennan, Ian, 1994, Sea-level changes in W ashington and Bonnevi ll e Power Admi nistrati on: U.S. Army Corps of Engi Oregon and the "earthquake deformation eye le": Journal of neers; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 3 v. Coastal Research, v. 10, no. 4. p. 825-838. U.S. Bureau or Reclamation, 1995, Hi gh Plains slates groundwater Man n, D. H.; Hamilton, T. D .. 1995, Late Pleistocene and Holocene demonstration program: Interim report: U.S. Bureau of Reclama paleoenvironments of the north Paci fie coast: Quaternary Science ti on, I 05 p. Reviews, v. 14, p. 449-471 . U.S. Department of the Navy, 1996. Final environmental i mpaet state Meyers, R. A.; Smith. D. G.; Joi, H. M.; Peterson, C. D ., 1996, Evi ment on the disposal of decommissioned, defueled cruiser, OHIO dence for eight great earthquake-suhsidence events detected with class, and LOS ANGELES class naval reactor plants: Li. S. De ground-penetrating radar, Willapa barrier, Washington: Geology. partment of the Navy . I v. v. 24, no. 2, p. 99- 102. University or Washington Geophysics Program, 1996. Quarterly net Pilkington, Mark; Roest, W. R., 1996, An assessment o f long-wave work report 95-D on seismicity of Washington and Oregon, Octo length magnetic anomalies over Canada: Canadian Journal of ber I through December 3 1. 1995: Un iversity of Washington Geo Earth Sciences, v. 33, no. I, p. 12- 23. physics Program, 30 p. Reid, M. E.; Craven, Gilbert, 1996, Geologic sources of asbestos in Washington Department of Natural Resources, 1993. Loomis State Seattle's Toll Reservoir: Northwest Science, v. 70. no. I, p. 48· Forest planning process-Min era I resources workshop, Aug. 27. 54. 1993: Washi ngton Department of Natural Resources, I v. Schmidt, K . M.; Montgomery, D. R., 1995, Limits to relief: Science, V. 270,110.5236, p. 617-630. PAPERS ON WASHINGTON GEOLOGY Simon, Andrew; Thorne, C. R. , 1996, Channel adjustment of an un Ague. J. J: Brando n, M . T., 1996, Regional lilt of the Mount Stuart stable coarse-grained stream-Opposing trends of boundary and batho lith. Washington, determined usi ng aluminum-in-horn critical shear stress, and the applicability of ex tremal hypotheses: blende barometry-lmplications for northward translation of Earth Surface Processes and Landforms , v. 21 , p. 155-180. Baja British Columbia: Geological Society of America Bulletin. V. 108,110. 4. p. 471-488. 4 6 Washin}{lvn Gevlu}{y, vvl. 24. n.v. 2. lune 1996 Snelgrove. S. H.: Forster. C. B .. 1996. Im HOW TO FIND OUR MAIN OFFICE pact of sea floor sed imen t permeabi lity and thii.:knc~~ on off-ax is hydrother () mal circulat ion-Juan de Fuca Ridge '-"" · eas tern flank: Journal of Geophysical §. Research. v. 101 . no. B2. p. 29 15- Union Ave. 2925. Stanley, W. D : Johnson. S. Y.: Qarnar. A. I. : W eaver. C. S.: Williams, J. M .. N EXIT 1996. Tectonics and seismieity of the Natural 1056 sou thern Washington Cascade Range: A "' - Resources Seismologica l Societ y of America Building Bulletin. v. 8(1. no. IA, p. 1-18. ]4th 00 Swanson . F. Lienkaemper . G . W .. ------r---i--..::::~ J .: Ave . C 1982. nleract ions among fluvial proc State I Capitol esses . forest vegetation. and aquatic i r---.., [}{] I ecosystems. Sou th Fork lloh River. ;g t------j Olympic l\ationa l Park. In Starkey. E. a. Maple Park Ave 0"' E.: Franklin J. F : MatLhcws, .I . W , co ordi na tors. Ecological research in na Division of Geology and Earth Resources tional parks or the Paci fic Northwest: Natural Resources Bldg., Room 148 Oregon State Lniversity Fores t Re ·1111 Washington St. S.E. search Laboratory. p. 30-34. Olympia, WA 98501 TunniclilTe. Yerena: r:owler. C. M. R .. (See p. 2 for our mailing address.) Visitor parking (VP) is available on 1996. Influence of sea- floor spread ing Level P1 at $.50/hour. Use the on the global hydrothermal vent Washington St. entrance. faun a: Nature. v 379. no. (1565. p. 53 1- 533 . WhiLney. D. L .. 1996, Ga rnets a~ open sys tems d uring regional metamor phism: G eo logy. v. 24. no. 2. p. 147- I SO . Beaudoin. B. C.; Godfrey. N. J. : Klemperer, S. L. : Lendl, Chri sto f: Trehu . A. M .: Henstock . T. J .; Levander, A l an; Ho ll , .J. F: .; OTHER REPORTS OF INTEREST M eltzer. A. S.: and others. 1996, Transition from slab t o Arehihald. Bruce. 1995. Some Eocene insects from the interior of slab less-Results from the 1993 Mendoci no triple j unction seis British Columbia: Vancouver Paleontological Society, I v. mic ex periment: Geology, v . 24, no. 3, p. 195-199. Blome. C. D.: Whalen, P. /\.: Reed. K. M .. conveners, 1995, Si liceous microfossils: Paleontological Society Short Courses in Paleontol Correspondence Courses Offered ogy 8. 185 p. By Wright State University Blome. C. D.: Reed, K . M., 1993. Acid process ing nf pre-T erti ary radiolarian cherts and its impact on fauna! content and biozonal The Center for Ground W at er Managem e nt at Wrig ht correlatio n: Geology, v . 2 1. no. 2. p. 177- 180. State University offers a number of courses geared t o Nelson. A. R.: Jennings./\. I::.; Kashima, Kaoru. 199(,, An canhquakc worki ng professionals interested 111 specialized training in history deri ved from scratigraph 1c and microfossil evidence of environmental sc ience. Students use the Interactive Re relat i ve sea-kvcl change at Coos Bay . southern coastal Oregon: mote Instr uctional System (IRIS®) and are assigned a Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. I 08, no. 2, p. 141- 154 . • personal tutor with w hom they commun icate by fax, e mail, and phone. A 20- week c.:ourse in ground-water h ydrology starts July WANT TO GET OFF OUR MAILING LIST? 15 . The following 12-week courses beg in Aug . 26: The Division pays for printing and postage for Washington I Site Remediation Geology from an always-tight budget. Help us use our re sources well by letting us know if you no longer wish to Contaminant Hydrology receive this 'journal'. We will take your name off the list I Monito r W ell Design and Construction immediately. I Aquifer Test Analysi s/Well H y draulics I Ground - Water Flow M od e ling Usin g MOD FLOW Science Summer Camps for For m ore information, contact: Children, Families, and Adults Wright State University Center for Ground Water M anagem ent The Oregon Muse um of Science and Industry in Portland 3640 Colonel G lenn Hwy; 056 Library o ffers a wide variet y of summer camps for children, fami Dayto n, OH 45435 lies , and adults in Washingt on and Oregon locatio ns. Ac phone: (5 13) 873-3648;fax: (5 13) 873-3649 ti v ities inc lude backpac king, natural hist or y ( marine and e-mail: IRIS@d es ire.wright.edu; home page: upland areas), astronomy, paleont ol ogy, and geology. For http://bio logy.wright.edu/cgwm/cgwm_hom e. html m ore informati on, call OMSI at (503) 79 7-4545 Washin f.;ton Geology, vol. 24, no. 2, June 1996 47 Division Releases USGS Report Being Revised Bibliography and Index of the Geology and Mineral Resources of Washington, 1986-1990, Bulletin 81, compiled by Connie Manson. Water Resources Investigations Report 92-4109, This 478-page book contains citations (indexed) for nearly 4, l 00 "Hydrology and Quality of Ground Water in Northern items issued from 1986 through 1990 and about 650 items issued be Thurston County, Washington", is undergoing revision. fore 1986 that were missed in previous compilations. The price is The Washington District staff reports that errors were dis $14.72 + 1.28 tax= $16.00. A preliminary bibliography for 1991 covered in applying a numerical model to simulate the through 1995 is in preparation. ground-water flow system. Some of the geohydrologic unit assignments to wells are being reanalyzed a nd cor Slope Stability Analysis of the Bluffs along the Washington State rected. The revised report will be distributed upon com Capitol Campus, Olympia, Washington, Open File Report 96-3, by pletion. For more rnformation about specific applications Wendy J. Gerstel. is a review of historic and current stability. The of the information in the report, contact Brian Drost or report consists of a 6-page text and seven appendices that present bor Gary Turney at the Washington District, (206) 593-6510. ing logs, cross sections, soil test and inclinometer data. and analytical data, as well as information about the effects of the February 1996 rain storm. The report includes several maps and reproductions of color photographs. This study was done under Department of General Administration contract #FY93-007(4) The price is $1 1.12 + .88 tax Burke Museum Field Trips :$12.00. The Burke Museum announces the following trips to be Association of American State Geologists Earth Science Educa led by Liz Nesbitt and Tony Irving of the University of tion Source Book, compiled by Robert H. Fakundiny and Neil H. Suneson, will soon be re leased as our Open File Report 96-4. This Washington: 134-page report briefly describes publications and other materials of North Cascades Loop Trip- fossils, minerals, and geo fered by each state geological survey and indicates suitability for vari logic history, Aug. 23-25. ous readers and users. The price is $3.68 + .32 tax= $4.00. San Juan Islands, including Sucia Island-geology and fossils,Oct.11- 13. We have reprinted Information Circular 85, Washington State Earthquake Hazards. T he report is available free. but please add For information about costs and to sign up, contact Liz $1.00 to each order for postage and handling. Nesbitt at (206) 543- 1856. Only Washi11gto11 State residents must pay tax; 01tt-of-state orders 11se the price before tax. Please add $1.00 to each order for postage and ha11dli11g. CD-ROM Available from Mount Rainier National Park '"Where the Rivers Begin" is a program that incorporates Earthquake Information Sources interactive animations, games, slides, and videos that Earthquake Basics Brief No. 2 (I 995, 20 p.) lists organi teach users about natural and human history of the park. zations that distribute earthquake information and in as well as the social and political concerns affecting its cludes each organization's mission statement, strengths, management. The program includes trip activities, work products and services, and Internet resources. Complete sheets, other resources. It requires a 486/66 PC or bener. contact information is also provided. Free (single copies or Mac System 7 or greater. Also required, for either CPU only). Available from the Earthquake Engineering Re type, are 8mb of RAM, a 256-color monitor, and a CD search Institute, 499 14th St., s uite 320, Oakland, ROM drive. The educator's special price is $10. Contact CA 94612-1934; phone: (510) 45 l-0905;fax: (510) 451- the Education Office at the park, Tahoma Woods, Star 5411; e-mail: [email protected] Route, Ashford, WA 98304. WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENTOF BULK RATE U.S. POSTAGE PAID Natural Resources Washington Stale Jennifer M. Belcher - Commissioner of Public Lands Department of Printing l(aleen Cottingham. Supervisor Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Earth Resources PO Box 47007 Olympia, WA 98504-7007 ADDRESS CORRECTION REQUESTED