Wilderness and Backcountry Site Restoration Guide

Home , Olympic National Forest, Olympic National Park

Wilderness and Backcountry AcknowledgmentsSite Restoration Guide

Lisa Therrell USDA Forest Service Okanagan-Wenatchee National Forest David Cole Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute Victor Claassen University of California, Davis Chris Ryan USDA Forest Service, Northern Region The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed this information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal and State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyone Mary Ann Davies except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this document is for the information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the USDA Forest Service Department of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. Missoula Technology and Development Center The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, USDA Forest Service political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities Technology and Development Program who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). Missoula, MT To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. September 2006 i Acknowledgments Acknowledgments

ii Acknowledgments

lanning a well-crafted restoration project in wilder- For allowing the use of text or illustrations from their ness is like putting together a complicated jigsaw own publications or writings: puzzle—after all the pieces from several puzzles have Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National beenPP jumbled together and several of the pieces have been Forest lost in the couch or sucked up in the vacuum cleaner. Writing Jill S. Cremer, formerly USDA Forest Service, Angeles this guide has been an exercise in furnishing all the puzzle National Forest pieces for a successful restoration project—or at least enough Ellen Eubanks and Dexter Meadows, USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Technology and Development Center of them that any holes left in the puzzle won’t create a big Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and problem. Wenatchee National Forests With a deep sense of gratitude, the authors wish to thank Marin County Resource Conservation District others who assisted in the preparation or review of this guide. Laura Potash, USDA Forest Service, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie For answering questions and providing invaluable National Forest support and encouragement: University of Washington Press Matthew Albright, U.S. Department of the Interior National For help with the project and review of the draft Park Service, Olympic National Park publication: Tom Carlson, Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Center Forest Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and Jayne Belnap, Ph.D., U.S. Geological Survey Wenatchee National Forests Terry Carlson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Bitterroot Joyce Lapp, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park National Forest Service, Glacier National Park Efrén Cázares, Ph.D., Oregon State University Liza Prunuske, Prunuske Chatham, Inc. Joy Juelson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and Regina Rochefort, Ph.D., U.S. Department of the Interior Wenatchee National Forests National Park Service, North Cascades National Park Lisa Lewis, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest Ruth Scott, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Karl Lillquist, Ph.D., Central Washington University Service, Olympic National Park Robin Shoal, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest Brian Vachowski, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technol- For compiling much of appendix B: ogy and Development Center Amy Carlson, Bear Run Antics, Leavenworth, WA Victor Vankus, USDA Forest Service, National Tree Seed For contributing case studies: Laboratory Fredric Ybright, USDA Forest Service, Dixie National Forest Sarah Walker, USDA Forest Service, Clearwater National Jennifer Ebert, USDA Forest Service, Eldorado National Forest Forest (retired) Liese Dean, USDA Forest Service, Sawtooth National Forest Technical support staff from the various USDA Natural Re- Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and sources Conservation Service Plant Materials Centers Wenatchee National Forests

A special thanks to the many researchers and restoration practitioners who have taken the time to share what they have learned so that we all might beneﬁt.

iii Contents Acknowledgments

iv Contents

Acknowledgments______ii

Contents______iv

Introduction______xii Purpose_of_This_Guide______1 Special_Wilderness_Considerations______2 Goals_of_This_Guide______3 Target_Audiences______3 Nomenclature______3

Chapter_1:_The_Context_for_Wilderness_Restoration______4 1.1_Wilderness_Restoration_in_the_Past,_Present,_and_Future______5 1.1.1 The Past ______6 1.1.2 The Present ______7 1.1.2a Practical Methods of Restoration ______7 1.1.2b How Restoration Fits With Wilderness Management ______8 1.1.3 The Future ______9 1.1.3a Skills Development ______9 1.1.3b Holistic Planning ______10 1.2_Impacts_of_Recreation_and_Similar_Small-Scale_Disturbances______10 1.2.1 What Are the Impacts of Recreational Use? ______11 1.2.1a Trampling ______11 1.2.1b Trampling Damage to Ecosystem Components ______12 1.2.1c Campfire-Related Impacts ______13 1.2.1d Damage to Standing Trees ______13 1.2.1e Trail Impacts ______13 1.2.2 Which Impacts Should Be Considered Problems? ______14 1.2.3 Alternative Management Techniques ______16 1.2.4 Incorporating Restoration Into Management ______17 1.3_Overview_of_Plant_and_Soil_Ecology______18 1.3.1 Environmental Components ______19 1.3.1a Soil ______19 1.3.1b Plants ______22 1.3.1c The Life Stages of a Plant ______22 1.3.1d Plant Characteristics That Influence Restoration ______23 1.3.1e Genetic Considerations ______24 1.3.1f Microclimate ______25

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1.3.1g Animals ______26 1.3.2 Ecosystem Processes ______26 1.3.2a Hydrologic Processes ______26 1.3.2b Succession ______27 1.3.2c Biotic Interactions ______28 1.3.2d Plant-Plant Interactions ______28 1.3.2e Plant-Soil Interactions ______28 1.4_Concluding_Thoughts______29

Chapter_2:_Planning_for_Restoration_of_Small_Sites_in_Wilderness______30 2.1_Gathering_the_Information_To_Formulate_a_Plan______34 2.1.1 Using Your Land Management Plan and NEPA ______35 2.1.2 Using the Minimum Requirements Decision Process ______35 2.1.3 Planning Scale and Priorities ______36 2.1.4 Forming an Interdisciplinary Team ______37 2.1.5 Developing a Site Assessment ______37 2.1.6 Assessing Historical Human Influences ______37 2.1.7 Assessing Current Human Influences ______38 2.1.8 Problem Statements ______41 2.1.9 Scoping the Proposed Action ______41 2.1.10 Selecting Management Actions To Meet Standards ______42 2.1.11 The Minimum Tool ______42 2.1.12 Types of Management Actions ______43 2.1.12a Reducing Recreational Use ______44 2.1.12b Changing Visitor Behavior With Information and Education ______44 2.1.12c Intensive Site Management ______45 2.1.12d Regulations and Enforcement ______45 2.1.12e Regulations To Reduce Use Directly ______46 2.1.12f Regulations To Reduce High-Impact Behaviors ______47 2.1.13 Passive Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation ______49 2.1.14 Active Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation ______51 2.1.15 Adjusting Management Actions: A Tale of Two Lake Basins ______51 2.2_Putting_It_All_Together—Developing_a_Restoration_Plan______54 2.2.1 Considering the Time Required for Plant Propagation ______57 2.2.2 Research Opportunities ______58 2.2.3 Identifying Research Needs ______60 2.3_Concluding_Thoughts______61 vi Contents

Chapter_3:_The_Art_and_Science_of_Restoration______62 3.1_Developing_Site_Prescriptions_Based_on_a_Reference_Site______63 3.1.1 Determining Reference Sites ______64 3.1.1a Choosing a Reference Site ______65 3.1.1b Identifying Undisturbed Reference Sites ______65 3.1.1c Identifying Disturbed-But-Revegetated Reference Sites ______67 3.1.2 Comparing the Reference Site and the Restoration Site ______69 3.1.3 Evaluating the Surface Condition of Impacted Sites ______78 3.1.3a Visual Clues for Evaluating Erosion ______79 3.1.3b Evaluating Physical Soil Crusts ______83 3.1.3c Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts ______84 3.1.4 Soil-Water Relations ______85 3.1.4a Soil Texture and Pore Size ______85 3.1.4b Available Water-Holding Capacity ______86 3.1.4c Determining Water-Holding Capacity ______87 3.1.5 Determining Soil Texture ______87 3.1.6 Evaluating Soil Compaction ______88 3.1.6a Measuring Bulk Density ______89 3.1.6b Interpreting Bulk Density ______90 3.1.6c Evaluating Water Infiltration ______90 3.2_Making_Site_Amendments_Based_on_Site_Evaluations______92 3.2.1 Soil Organic Matter and Mulch ______92 3.2.2 Soil Nutrients, pH, and Salts ______92 3.2.3 Rebuilding Damaged Soils ______94 3.2.3a Scarification ______94 3.2.3b Rebuilding Missing Layers of Soil ______95 3.2.3c Amending Altered or Depleted Soils ______97 3.2.3d Evaluating Soil Nutrients and Chemical Conditions ______99 3.2.4 Application of Fertilizers or Soil Amendments ______107 3.2.5 Restoring Soil Biota ______109 3.2.5a Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi ______110 3.2.5b Inoculating Plants With Mycorrhizal Fungi ______113 3.2.5c Soil Bacteria______114 3.2.5d Restoring Soil Crusts ______115 3.2.6 Solarization of Weedy Soils ______116 3.3_Concluding_Thoughts_on_Soil______117 3.4_Site_Stabilization,_Preparation,_and_Delineation______117 3.4.1 Reestablishing Site Contours______119

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3.4.2 Stabilizing Gullies ______120 3.4.3 Stabilizing Headcuts ______121 3.4.4 Stabilizing Downcutting ______121 3.4.5 Stabilizing Lateral Erosion Into Gully Banks______122 3.4.6 Surface Erosion Control ______122 3.4.7 Subsurface Erosion Control ______124 3.4.8 Nonliving Siltbars and Checkdams ______125 3.4.8a Materials Used To Construct Siltbars and Checkdams ______125 3.4.8b Installation of Checkdams ______125 3.4.8c Crimping ______131 3.4.9 Bioengineering Applications ______131 3.4.9a Selecting and Installing Bioengineered Structures ______133 3.5_Using_Soil_Binders______148 3.6_Using_Icebergs______149 3.7_Site_Delineation______151 3.7.1 Barriers ______151 3.7.2 String Fences ______152 3.8_Blending_Restoration_Projects_Into_Wilderness______153 3.9_Common_Wilderness_Campsite_and_Trail_Problems______154 3.10_Plant_Selection,_Collection,_and_Propagation_Techniques______156 3.10.1 Genetic Considerations for Restoration Projects ______157 3.10.1a Determining a Local Collection Area ______158 3.10.1b Preventing Unintentional Selection ______159 3.10.1c Additional Information on Genetic Considerations ______161 3.10.1d Nonnative Plants, Agronomic Varieties, or Native Cultivars ______161 3.10.2 Plant Selection for Restoration Projects ______163 3.10.2a Using the Reference Sites To Develop Plant Prescriptions ______165 3.10.2b Additional Limiting Factors and Design Considerations ______167 3.10.3 Determining Propagation Methods for Your Site and Species ______169 3.10.3a Seed-Increase Programs ______170 3.10.3b Propagation Methods and Stock Types ______171 3.10.3c Noxious Weeds and Other Nonnative Invaders ______173 3.10.4 Concluding Thoughts on Plant Selection ______174 3.10.5 Comparison of Propagation Methods ______174 3.10.6 Plant Collection Principles ______178 3.10.7 Preventing Further Damage to the Project Area ______178 3.10.8 Working With Seed ______179 3.10.8a Seed Collection ______179 viii Contents

3.10.8b Initial Processing of Seed ______180 3.10.8c Hand-Processing Seed ______181 3.10.8d Seed Storage ______182 3.10.8e Seed Testing ______182 3.10.8f Breaking Dormancy ______183 3.10.8g Onsite Seeding Techniques ______184 3.10.8h Seeding Rates ______187 3.10.9 Working With Cuttings ______187 3.10.9a Collecting and Handling Cuttings ______188 3.10.9b Semihardwood Stem Cuttings ______188 3.10.9c Hardwood Cuttings ______188 3.10.9d Softwood and Herbaceous Cuttings ______189 3.10.9e Root Cuttings ______189 3.10.9f Leaf Cuttings ______190 3.10.9g Leaf-Bud Cuttings ______190 3.10.10 Divisions ______190 3.10.11 Layering ______190 3.10.11a Simple Layering ______191 3.10.11b Mound Layering ______191 3.10.11c Tip Layering ______192 3.10.12 Transplanting Wildlings ______192 3.11_Transplanting,_Protecting,_and_Establishing_Native_Plantings______194 3.11.1 Timing of Transplanting ______194 3.11.2 Transporting Nursery-Grown Plants to the Project Location ______195 3.11.2a Jelly Rolls for Protecting Bareroot Stock ______195 3.11.2b Moving Plants in Containers ______196 3.11.2c Moving Container-Grown Plants Without the Container ______196 3.11.2d Protecting Fragile Foliage ______197 3.11.2e Moving Plants With Helicopters or Other Vehicles ______197 3.11.2f Handling Plants After They Arrive at the Project Location ______197 3.11.3 Transplanting Techniques ______197 3.11.4 Salvaged Materials ______200 3.12_Plant_Protection_and_Establishment______201 3.12.1 Mulching ______201 3.12.1a Advantages and Disadvantages of Mulching ______201 3.12.1b Selecting a Mulch ______202 3.12.1c Comparison of Different Types of Mulch ______203 3.12.2 Irrigation ______207 3.12.2a Water Delivery Systems ______208 ix Contents

3.12.2b Obtaining Water ______209 3.12.2c Superabsorbent Polymers ______209 3.12.3 Preventing Animals From Damaging Plants ______210 3.12.3a Protective Coverings ______210 3.12.3b Reduced Fertilization and Irrigation ______210 3.12.3c Animal Repellants ______210 3.12.4 Signs ______210 3.12.5 Regulations ______212 3.13_Documentation,_Monitoring,_and_Adaptive_Management______212 3.13.1 Adaptive Management ______212 3.13.2 Determining Levels of Monitoring ______213 3.13.3 Establishing Monitoring Procedures for a Project ______215 3.13.4 Incorporating Monitoring Into a Project ______216 3.14_Project_Maintenance______220 3.14.1 Site Management ______220 3.14.1a Irrigation ______220 3.14.1b Mulching ______220 3.14.1c Soil Amendments ______220 3.14.1d Stabilizing Erosion ______221 3.14.1e Wildlife Damage ______221 3.14.1f Frost Heave ______221 3.14.1g Interplanting or Replanting ______221 3.14.1h Exotic Species ______221 3.14.2 People Management ______222 3.14.2a Signs ______222 3.14.2b Barriers ______222 3.14.2c Replacing Structures That Fail ______222 3.14.2d Maintaining Social Trails ______222 3.14.2e New Impacts Caused by Displaced Use ______222 3.14.3 Scheduling Maintenance ______223 3.14.4 Concluding Thoughts on Maintenance ______223

Chapter_4:_Restoration_Program_Development_and_Support______224 4.1_Funding,_Workforce,_and_Partnerships______225 4.1.1 Funding ______225 4.1.1a Forest Service Sources of Funding ______225 4.1.1b Other Funding Sources ______226 4.1.2 Budgeting ______226 4.1.3 Workforce ______228 Contents

4.1.4 Partnerships ______229 4.1.5 National Sources for Recruiting Wilderness Volunteers ______230 4.1.6 Using Professional Services ______232 4.1.7 Learning From Others ______232 4.2_Options_for_Growing_Plants______332 4.2.1 Forest Service Nurseries ______232 4.2.2 Plant Material Centers ______233 4.2.3 Other Agency Nurseries ______233 4.2.4 Contract Growers ______233 4.2.5 School Horticulture Programs ______233 4.2.6 Working With Contractors ______234 4.2.7 General Principles for Successful Contracting ______234

Chapter_5:_Tools_of_the_Trade_and_Other_Resources______236 5.1_Software______237 5.2_Government_Web_Sites______237 5.3_Organizational_Web_Sites______238 5.4_Restoration_Tools_and_Products______239 5.4.1 Pick Hoes or Miniature Plowshares ______239 5.4.2 U-Bar Diggers ______239 5.4.3 Balanced Watering Cans ______240 5.4.4 Systemic Repellants ______240 5.4.5 Restoration Signs ______240 5.4.6 Erosion-Control Blankets ______240

References______246

Appendixes______256 Appendix_A–Treatments_To_Manage_Factors_Limiting_Restoration______257 Appendix_B–Propagation_and_Establishment_Requirements_for_Selected_Plant_Species_____263 Appendix_C–Detailed_Propagation_Methods_for_Beargrass,_Heather,_Huckleberry,_and_ Partridgefoot______327 Appendix_D–Case_Studies______337 Appendix_E–Forms______359

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xii Introduction

or the past two decades, resource managers have Purpose of This Guide attempted to address the impacts caused by human This guide was developed to provide managers with actions in backcountry and wilderness areas. In some information that could help them decide whether to attempt Fwildernesses, wilderness study areas, and national parks, F restoration and, if so, how to go about it appropriately in these impacts are quite extensive: large areas denuded of wilderness. This guide will help managers share information vegetation, compacted soils, braided trails, and tree roots ex- and exchange ideas. posed after horses have been tied to trees. For many reasons, This guide is: including water quality, soil stability, and esthetics, managers • Focused exclusively on restoration of small- would like to prevent further impacts and help the existing scale impacts caused by human actions, such as impacts heal. recreation use or removal of administrative or Wilderness management plans have addressed impacts special provisional structures (structures by establishing desired conditions, indicators, and standards. exempted under “Special Provisions” in section Indicators such as vegetation loss, tree roots exposed, and 4(d) of the Wilderness Act). Use of the word the number of social trails are monitored to keep track of “site” in this publication refers to any number of changes to the resource. Standards set limits on the amount small-scale disturbances—not necessarily a of change that will be accepted before management action. In campsite. some wilderness areas, standards were not being met when • Based on the assumption that projects are in the management plan was signed. In such situations, actions wilderness or backcountry settings (ﬁgure 1). must be taken to prevent further resource degradation and to bring the resource back into compliance with standards. A number of actions are possible, one of which is physical restoration of the site. Although restoration is not necessarily the best choice in many situations, restoration can be very effective if it is done properly. Managers across the Nation have had varying degrees of success with restoration. Some areas, such as the North Cascades National Park in Washington, have had successful restoration programs for years. The North Cascades program includes a greenhouse operation where plants are grown from seed or from cuttings that are collected on the site, carried into the backcountry, and planted. Other areas with fewer resources and less precipitation have not been as successful. There is no textbook answer that guarantees success in backcountry site restoration. Much restoration knowledge is learned by trial and error. Many, many different techniques have been tried in one area or another, although information about these techniques may not have been passed along. This guide has been developed to facilitate information exchange. Figure 1—Dinosaur National Monument, UT. It is a compilation of the best information available from researchers and practitioners. 1 Introduction

• Based primarily on examples from the Western regarded as a form of manipulation or “tram- United States—from the Rocky Mountains meling.” Many large-scale applications need to westward (figure 2). Many of the techniques be designed to meet regulations and engineer- and procedures apply to any environment. ing specifications that this guide does not address. • A guide on fire suppression rehabilitation or burned area emergency rehabilitation (BAER). • A guide to motorized tools or mechanized transportation, although these methods may be mentioned.

Special Wilderness Considerations The Wilderness Act of 1964 set aside lands in the United States “to secure for the American people of present and future generations the beneﬁts of an enduring resource of wilderness” to be “administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such a manner as will leave them [the lands] unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness….” Congress further deﬁned wilderness “as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” Wilder- ness “is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s Figure 2—Henry M. Jackson Wilderness, WA. work substantially unnoticeable….” The Wilderness Act also includes special provisions This guide is not: allowing certain uses primarily because they existed before • A guide to large-scale ecological restoration. lands were designated as wilderness. These uses include Human-caused disturbances, such as mining grazing and mining. and grazing, have occurred in wilderness at a The Wilderness Act’s mandate can pose interesting landscape scale. Large-scale ecosystem challenges for a wilderness manager who needs to manage restoration is a complex topic. Philosophical for recreation, mining, grazing, and other activities, while questions could be raised about such large-scale keeping “man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” In some restoration in wilderness, where it might be cases, impacts that occurred before lands became wilderness

2 Introduction threaten the integrity of the wilderness. Impacts may include • To provide the latest information on site- vegetation and soil loss, unnecessary structures, and invasive specific restoration techniques, including site plant populations. Where these impacts exist, managers feel preparation, soil amendments, planting, an obligation to do something. Frequently, restoration is the mulching, and so forth. solution that comes to mind. • To explore the various methods of plant Agency policies require that wilderness be managed to propagation both on and off the site. allow natural ecological processes to operate freely. Manage- • To inform managers of the documentation and ment actions should be the minimum necessary to preserve monitoring required before undertaking a and protect wilderness. The Wilderness Act specifies that project and for ongoing progress reports. wilderness be untrammeled by man. It’s appropriate to ask questions such as: • Is active revegetation of a disturbed site too manipulative? • Is this action the minimum necessary? Target Audiences • Do our actions interrupt the natural ecological The target audiences for this guide include anyone who processes? plans or implements site restoration in backcountry or wilder- Before a wilderness manager begins planning for a res- ness areas or who would like to do so, including wilderness toration project in wilderness, it is critical for the manager to rangers, wilderness managers, resource specialists, recre- think about the answers to these questions. Restoration does ation planners, or trail crew members. Anyone who reviews not consist simply of scarifying a site, sticking plants in the restoration plans or advises anyone who implements the plans ground, and going away for the summer. would benefit from reading this guide. Restoration is a manipulative action that deserves a great deal of thought and planning, both to minimize the impacts to wilderness and to increase the likelihood of success. In many situations, the solution is simply to eliminate use at the site and allow the natural process of healing to occur. It is Nomenclature important to question your actions continually to be confident Not only common names, but also the scientific names that they are the minimum necessary. of many plant species have been changing in recent years. An attempt has been made to determine current usage, to determine which of the species discussed in this book has a new name, and to determine whether any name used is authoritative. Goals of This Guide One of the easiest sources for help in sorting out com- • To provide guidance on developing a plan that mon and scientific names is the U.S. Department of Agricul- thoroughly addresses the question of whether ture (USDA) PLANTS database on the Internet at http:// site restoration is the best management action plants.usda.gov, although this database may not be up to date and, if so, how to develop a site-specific for all species. restoration plan.

3 Chapter 1 Introduction