Seven Different Countries, Seven Different Festivals,
One Brand
A Global Music Festival’s Adaptiveness and Globalness
BACHELOR DEGREE PROJECT THESIS WITHIN: Business Administration NUMBER OF CREDITS: 15hp PROGRAMME OF STUDY: International Management AUTHORS: Julia Krajka, Matilda Gustafsson, Victor José Vallim da Silva JÖNKÖPING MAY 2020 Bachelor Thesis Degree Project in Business Administration Title: Seven Different Countries, Seven Different Festivals, One Brand - A Global Music Festival’s Adaptiveness and Globalness Authors: Matilda Gustafsson, Julia Krajka, Victor José Vallim da Silva Tutor: MaxMikael Wilde Björling Examiner: Anders Melander Date: 2020-05-18
Key terms: Globalization, Localization, Music Festival, Adaptations, Customer Perceptions.
Abstract
Background: Globalization and localization are constantly clashing, collapsing, and transforming one another, and many studies have investigated how various global companies deal with the balance in between these two opposite strategies. However, little does research reveal about how music festivals adapt and operate using globalization or localization in the global market. Further, studies have shown that the globalness of a brand adds value for customers, but this effect has not been investigated in the global music festival industry.
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to deep understand a global music festival’s adaptiveness and how its adaptations are perceived by its attendees from different countries. Further, this study also aims to analyze how the globalness of a music festival affects and influences its attendees.
Method: A case study focusing on the music festival Lollapalooza and its editions in Brazil and Sweden. The study follows a deductive approach using a mixed-method by collecting both quantitative and qualitative data. An online survey, interviews, and an email questionnaire are the main primary sources of data collection.
Conclusion: The results show that adaptations are important for attendees as well as for the festival itself. Many adaptations were noticed by attendees, but it is still unsure what other ‘’invisible adaptations’’ were done in order to meet the market demands. The globalness of the festival makes customers assign additional positive attributes to the festival brand, while also local adaptations such as food, beverages, and artists were appreciated by the attendees. Thus, it appears that some aspects of a music festival should be globalized, while others should be localized, or that even glocalization should be utilized in global music festivals. To conclude, festival’s managers can use the findings to better understand that global cues can be used to raise the brand value of a festival, but more importantly, that globalization and localization should be applied in different aspects of a festival.
1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to show our appreciation to the participants of this study for the time given and all the valuable information provided that were crucial to answer the proposed research questions. We are truly thankful and acknowledge them for their extended efforts, specially the participants who made themselves available for the interviews.
Secondly, we would like to thank our tutor MaxMikael Wilde Björling for the time given to support us, as well as invaluable feedback provided during the seminars even outside of class.
Thirdly, we would like to thank ‘Maria Silva’ (fictitiously represented due to anonymity) for the support and time spent during the past months in order to help us conducting this study.
Lastly, we would like to show our gratitude towards the seminar groups who also contributed to this thesis by giving us continuous feedback during the entire writing process. Finally, thanks to Anders Melander, the course examiner, who instructed and guided us with writing this thesis.
______Julia Krajka Matilda Gustafsson Victor José Vallim da Silva
2 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. BACKGROUND 6 1.1 Introduction 6 1.2. Problem Discussion 7 1.3. Purpose Statement 8 1.3.1 Research Questions 8 1.3.2 Delimitations 8 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 9 2.1 Music Festivals 9 2.1.1 Attendees Motivations and Participations 9 2.1.2 Customer participation 10 2.2 Globalization & Localization 10 2.3 Brands & Global Brands 11 2.4 Positioning Strategies 13 2.5 Market Orientation and Adaptations 13 2.6 Cultural Values 14 2.6.1 The Hofstede Dimensions 15 2.6.1.1 Brazil and Sweden 16 3. METHODOLOGY & METHODS 17 3.1 Methodology 17 3.1.1 Research Philosophy and Paradigm 17 3.1.2 Research Approach 18 3.1.3 Research Strategy 18 3.2 Method 18 3.2.1 Data Collection 18 3.2.1.1 Secondary Sources 19 3.2.1.1.1 Literature Search 19 3.2.1.2 Primary Data 19 3.2.1.2.1 Electronic Survey 19 3.2.1.2.2 Interviews 20 3.2.1.2.3 Email Questionnaire 21 3.2.2 Population and Sampling 21 3.2.3 Data Analysis 22 3.2.4 Data Quality 23 4. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS 26 4.1 Survey 26 4.1.1 Age Group and Gender 26 4.1.2 Preferences about the type of festival to attend 27 4.1.3 Perception about Lollapalooza 28 4.1.4 Awareness about Lollapalooza editions 30
3 4.1.5 Attendance behavior in Brazil 32 4.1.6 Getting to know Lollapalooza 33 4.1.7 Most important aspects when choosing a music festival 36 4.1.8 Favorite aspects about Lollapalooza 38 4.1.9 Aspects that Lollapalooza is better than other festivals 41 4.1.10 Aspects that Lollapalooza is worse than other festivals 43 4.1.11 Open-ended Question 1 44 4.1.12 Open-ended Question 2 45 4.1.13 Open-ended Question 3 46 4.2 Interviews 47 4.2.1 Question 1 47 4.2.2 Question 2 48 4.2.3 Question 3 48 4.2.4 Question 4 49 4.2.5 Question 5 50 4.2.6 Question 6 50 4.2.7 Question 7 51 4.2.8 Question 8 51 4.2.9 Question 9 51 4.2.10 Question 10 52 4.2.11 Question 11 52 4.2.12 Question 12 - Extra Question 52 4.3 Email Questionnaire 53 5. ANALYSIS 54 5.1 Global Brands 54 5.2 The Positioning Strategy Framework & Global and Local Cues 54 5.3 Perceived Globalness 56 5.4 Culture 56 5.5 Motivations and Important Aspects 57 5.6 Adaptations 58 5.7 Customer Participation 59 6. CONCLUSION 61 7. DISCUSSION 62 7.1 Practical Implications and Contributions 62 7.2 Limitations 62 7.3 Future Research 62 8. REFERENCES 64 9. APPENDICES 71 Appendix A - Survey 71 Appendix B - Interview Guide Standard Questions 81
4 Appendix C - E-mail Questionnaire 83 Appendix D - T-test ‘Most important aspects when choosing a music festival’ 84 Appendix E - T-test ‘Favorite aspects about Lollapalooza’ 85
5 1. BACKGROUND ______
In this section, an introduction of the research problem is presented, followed by a short discussion of the problem, its relevance and purpose, along with the research questions.
______1.1 Introduction
There are many studied cases of global brands within International Management research. These companies are able to adapt their offerings to meet diverse customer needs and expectations while also sustaining a strong and consistent global brand image. Since markets and cultures differ from each other, it seems that there is no right or standard choice between localization and globalization that creates the perfect mix. Instead, every case is different from each other, and many factors are involved in this type of decision, such as market size, economic environment, cultural differences, among others. Classic global companies and brands that offer tangible products, such as Starbucks and IKEA, have distinct ways of operating and are both considered to be successful. There is relevant and extended research done within these and many other global brands, as well as their strategies.
It has been found that additional positive attributes are addressed to global brands just because of their globalness (Gammoh, Koh & Okoroafo, 2011; Steenkamp, Batra & Alden, 2002). However, little has been discussed about global music festivals, their adaptations in the global market, and their effect of globalness. This is surprising since the market for festivals is not new. In fact, literature states that the first music festival, the Three Choirs Festival, dates back as far as to 1724 (Çakici & Yilmaz, 2017), and it is a market that, along with the experience economy and events market, is growing (Getz, Andersson & Carlsen, 2010).
As this market becomes more crowded, the competition increases, and thus festival managers should be increasingly interested in strengthening their brand and finding new sources of competitive advantage in order to survive. Especially since current research points out that imitation of festivals in different locations is common, but very few festivals understand the importance of ‘’[...]the core values of their festival that could provide the unique selling point and the basis for differentiation and competitive advantage.‘’ (Carlsen, Andersson, Ali-Knight, Jaeger & Taylor, 2010, p. 129). Additionally, global brands are growing across the world, but cultures are not expected to converge (Samiee, 2019). Rather, consumer behavior is tended to become more heterogeneous because of cultural differences (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2002).
One global music festival that operates in distinctive different markets, with different cultures across the globe, is Lollapalooza. The music festival started in 1991 and today it features rock, alternative rock, hip-hop, and techno music playing annually in the United States, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Germany, France, and Sweden.
6 1.2. Problem Discussion
Getz et al., (2010) argue that the social-cultural constructs, festivals, have a somewhat vague definition in the existing literature, as well as a broad meaning. This is because festivals come in various forms and may have different meanings across nations, and their definitions are often misapplied which in some cases can lead to confusion.
Although not clearly defined, festivals must be viewed differently than other events mostly because of their focus on celebration, while other planned events might focus on entertainment, politics, education, competition, and other cores. Based on the core of the celebration, festivals also bring many cultural and social dimensions such as rituals and symbolisms (Getz et al., 2010).
As recognized by Carlsen et al., (2010), many festivals duplicate their concept in different locations without any further innovative adaptation. On the other hand, more entrepreneurial festivals often create value, bring innovation, and seize more market opportunities (Getz et al, 2010). Further, the increase in the amount of individuals attending different festivals each year has led to even more of these events in the market, and thus problems with competition among them (Hoksbergen & Insch, 2016; Leenders, van Telgen, Gemser, van der Wurff, 2005; Çakici & Yilmaz, 2017). Thus, festivals need to recognize the importance of understanding their unique competing factors in order to set and sustain their position in the market (Carlsen et al., 2010).
One of the growing types of festivals is the music festivals, which Leenders (2010) describes as generally outdoor music-oriented events with live performances, food stations, extra attractions, and social activities. Live music entertainment and food and beverages have also been pointed out by Getz et al. (2010) as the main two factors that keep festivals consistent across markets.
Çakici and Yilmaz (2017) recognized four main motivational factors of attendees of a music festival: Novelty, Socialization, Escape, and Family. They also recognized that understanding these motivations is essential for a festival management in terms of planning and organizing these events. Manthiou, Kang & Schrier (2014) argued that, by getting to know an organization and having a positive opinion about their brand image, people tend to become loyal and attend an event based on their previous experience. However, Nicholson & Pearce (2001) concluded that people usually go to these events based on the offers instead of just because of brand recognition.
While partnerships and networks could be key innovative strategies for music festivals, there is not much evidence that indicates partnerships between music festivals and destination management organizations. This can be considered as a threat for future festivals since the compatibility between the global brand and the local cultural elements improves customers’ opinions about the brand’s local icons and can increase ticket sales (He & Wang, 2017).
To conclude, it is relevant and needed to acquire more research and knowledge on global music festivals adaptiveness to different markets and cultures, as well as how these adaptations are perceived and evaluated by their attendees. Getz et al. (2010) have suggested that a cross-cultural comparison can bring great learnings in how festivals work in different countries and that theories such as Hofstede’s dimensions may help to explain the possible cultural differences between music festivals. This subject has been studied in other contexts and industries, but not in the global music
7 festival industry. Further, it is also relevant to analyze the effects of the globalness of a global music festival on attendees’ perceptions and evaluations, since this matter has also been understudied.
1.3. Purpose Statement
The concept of global music festivals is growing, but there are many unanswered questions and a gap in research of global music festivals and their adaptations to different markets around the world.
The purpose of this study is to analyze how a global music festival adapts its offerings in different markets and how these adaptations are perceived and valued by its attendees. Furthermore, the research team wants to investigate the globalness of a global music festival brand and its effects on attendees’ evaluations and perceptions, such as, if its globalness has positive effects on the music festival’s brand image, as theory suggests.
The intention is to gather information from participants of the music festival 'Lollapalooza' both in Brazil and in Sweden to deeper understand their experiences at the festival.
1.3.1 Research Questions
(1) What is the adaptiveness of a global music festival and how are these adaptations perceived and valued by its attendees?
(2) How is the globalness of a global music festival being valued and influencing attendees?
1.3.2 Delimitations
The study focuses on the music festival ‘Lollapalooza’ and only on its editions in Brazil and Sweden, due to their distinctive differences in culture. Additionally, participants of this study were only native attendees from these two countries.
8 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
______
The purpose of this section is to provide the theoretical background of the topic and give an introductory understanding of the general and central concepts of this study. ______2.1 Music Festivals
A festival can be defined as a public celebration (Getz, 2005) where people share their interests with others through different activities (Saleh & Ryan, 1993), while Pavluković, Armenski, & Alcántara-Pilar (2017) also consider it as an opportunity of new social and cultural experiences. Furthermore, music is considered as ‘’the universal language of celebration and entertainment’’ (Getz, Andersson & Carlsen, 2010, p. 38). Individuals have been using music as a way of expressing their identities and values (Ballantyne, Ballantyne & Packer, 2014) but specifically, young people have been treating music as a ‘’badge of identity’’ (North & Hargreaves, 1999). By connecting these two definitions, a music festival is an outdoor event with live music performances, and extra entertainment for attendees (Leenders, 2010).
Nordvall & Heldt (2017) have found correlations between competition, adaptiveness, and failure. Based on these findings, they stated that awareness and ability to adapt to the changes in the environment are significant to be successful since young festivals that are more efficient can replace older festivals that do not fully adapt to the market or cannot compromise when it is needed. Carlsen at al., (2010) also specified that to prevent failure, awareness of competition and innovation should be considered in the organization’s strategy. Since the competition among music festivals increases, causing many festivals to fail, understanding its participants’ motivations is essential when planning the events (Çakici & Yilmaz, 2017).
2.1.1 Attendees Motivations and Participations
Nicholson and Pearce (2001) studied participants’ main motives for attending festivals by examining five different types of events, one of them being a music festival. In the music festival, ‘Excitement’, ‘The ability to see entertainment’ and ‘To be with people that share similar interest’ were found to be the most listed motivations for attendees. Additionally, ‘Socialization’ was an important motivator for all attendees of the five festivals.
Çakici and Yilmaz (2017) found that the main motivations for attending a music festival were: ‘Novelty’, ‘Socialization’, ‘Escape’, and ‘Family’. These motivations have also been recognized by previous authors in similar studies. Uysal, Gahan, and Martin (1993) and Mohr, Backman, Gahan, and Backman (1993) also found a fifth motivation in their studies, being ‘Excitement’.
Further, Hoksbergen and Insch (2016) found that the main reasons for individuals to attend a festival are firstly ‘Spend time with friends’, and secondly ‘Music performances.’ However, for the repeat festival attendees, ‘Music performances’ - the lineups - become the most relevant reason.
9 This shows that motivations for attending a festival differ depending on previous festival experiences.
2.1.2 Customer participation
Customer participation is related to customers being involved in producing and later delivering the service through which they gain new experiences, which leads to an increase in the value of experience (Ippolito, 2009). Lanier and Hampton (2008) stated that customer participation in a value creation process changes depending on which stage of the fantasy cycle of the festival that customers are. The fantasy cycle consists of five stages: creating stage, raising stage, sustaining stage, decline stage, and terminus stage. Looking at the creation stage, consumer involvement is low since in the beginning, they learn about the festival and create their fantasies about it. Here, they usually engage by collecting resources given by producers which do not require big commitment from their side. In the raising stage, since customers initiate working on improving the fantasy engagement of their participation, the experience starts to grow. This leads to the consumers’ engagement using resources that require greater investments. In the third, sustaining stage, consumers engage through resources that involve time, energy, or money that now are mainly under their control. In the decline stage, customers try to operate with producers or other customers to change some aspects of the festival for the purpose of creating new resources to sustain their involvement. In the last, terminus stage, customers are looking to get their fantasies pleased again.
Lanier and Hampton (2008) concluded that consumer participation often changes over time as a result of the development and involvement of the consumer’s fantasy. Festivals’ participants develop their fantasies and engage in their experience in new ways by different types of engagements in each stage.
2.2 Globalization & Localization
Globalization is considered a highly old phenomenon. It may be defined as cultural, economic, social, and political connections and exchanges between people in different geographical areas (MacEwan, 2001). However, from a business perspective, Danos and Measelle (1990) define globalization as businesses operating across national boundaries in several markets by either selling their goods or services and/or competing for production inputs in these markets. Additionally, the authors argued that a firm can be global to a more or lesser extent and that a firm is completely global if ‘’[...] its markets traverse all national boundaries’’ (p. 77) and thus competition or customers can come from anywhere around the globe. Already back then, the authors predicted that globalization would accelerate in most markets and thus most businesses must carefully consider this concept moving forward.
Localization is often put in contrast to globalization (Wang, 2015) and focuses on the localities, being referred to as ‘the particular’ rather than ‘the universal’ (Robertson, 2012). When it comes to marketing, localization refers to the tailoring, adaptations, and advertising towards differentiated local markets (Robertson, 2012). Taking the example of China, where the cultural mechanism is strong, products that come from foreign markets often must be ‘’localized’’ in order to be
10 successful (Wang, 2015). In recent years a new term, ‘’glocalization’’ - a mix between globalization and localization - has emerged, and refers to ‘’the tailoring and advertising of goods and services on a global or near-global basis to increasingly differentiated local and particular markets.’’ (Robertson, 2012, p. 194).
Moving forward to today, due to many factors such as Internet, open trade and increased travel, our environment is considered highly global. It has become a place where consumers and companies from all over the world can exchange products, services, ideas, brands, and experiences, and thus allowing the option for both local and global cultural consumption (Strizhakova & Coulter, 2019). Many scholars in the marketing field have, during the last 30 years, used globalization and localization as two parallels and studied them in relation to consumer consumption and culture (Strizhakova & Coulter, 2019). When it comes to brands, a richer brand landscape has emerged due to the rise of new brands coming from emerging markets, but nevertheless, due to the dynamics of globalization and localization processes (Steenkamp, 2019).
The period when many local brands died to give room for global brands seems to have come to an end, particularly for product markets regarding beverages and food. However, some markets, such as the tech market, are still led by global brands (Steenkamp, 2019). As recognized by Özsomer (2012), keeping perceived globalness is often desirable for brands, but local adaptations are often necessary if not essential. Strizhakova, Coulter & Price (2012) even argue that globalization and localization are codependent.
Strizhakova & Coulter (2019) later mention that globalization and localization ‘’[...] are constantly clashing, collapsing, integrating, disintegrating, and further transforming one another’’ (p. 611). Since 2000, many global companies such as Unilever, Heinz and Procter & Gamble decreased their brand portfolios in order to put more emphasis and resources on the strong global brands that “[...] consumers can find under the same name in multiple countries with generally standardized and centrally coordinated marketing strategies.’’ (Özsomer, 2012, p.72). However, scholars in the field also argued that, as the world becomes more globalized, some customers also seek more localized brands. Therefore, globalization is also driving localization (Hung, Li & Belk, 2007).
Steenkamp (2019) argues that the dynamics of globalization and localization have created new opportunities for branding strategies: glocalization, creolization, and hybridization. An example out of many is Starbucks, which pursues a global strategy while working strongly on appealing to local cultures. Further, Steenkamp (2019) argues that instead of a smaller brandscape due to globalization and global brands, the variety of brands is instead increasing in each individual market.
2.3 Brands & Global Brands
Brands are essential for companies’ survival and may serve as a source of competitive advantage. They have the potential power to strengthen customer loyalty, win and sustain market share, increase profits margins, and offer channel power (Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000). Furthermore, brands are often considered as local or global. The former, local brands, have been discussed as brands that are tailored and developed to meet the unique needs of local markets (Özsomer, 2012) and that are only available in a limited geographical market (Dimofte, Johansson & Ronkainen,
11 2008). Opposite to that, a global brand may be defined as a brand that uses the same brand name across markets and targets similar market segments with similar needs and wants (Douglas, Craig & Nijssen, 2001). Further, a global brand is widely available and has a universal recognition among people in the markets (Dimofte et al., 2008). However, the definition of a global brand varies in the literature.
Samiee (2019) argues that there are two main schools of defining a global brand. One school focuses on the marketing side, including the brand, the target markets, the packaging, and the availabilities in the markets. The second school focuses on consumer perception, defining a brand to be global if the consumers themselves perceive the brand as global. The latter definition is somewhat problematic since there is an actual difference between the perceived globalness of a brand from the perspective of consumers and the real globalness of a brand in terms of the reach and global availabilities (Samiee, 2019).
Özsomer and Altaras (2008) as well as Whitelock and Fastoso (2007) collected several definitions and found that these definitions defined a global brand as either about international sales, consumer perceptions or company's strategy. Steenkamp (2014) considered all these three definitions of global brand and choose to define a global brand as “[...] a brand that uses the same name and logo, has awareness, availability, and acceptance in multiple regions of the world, derives at least 5 percent of its sales from outside the home region, and is managed in an internationally coordinated manner.” (p. 7).
It has been shown that consumers assign positive attributes such as prestige, quality, and superiority to global brands (Gammoh et al., 2011; Steenkamp et al., 2002) even though these attributes are not objectively true (Özsomer & Altaras, 2008; Dimofte et al., 2008). Customers’ globalness perception of a brand has also shown to increase the preference for purchasing, even when the brand’s real globalness is low (Steenkamp et al., 2002). Due to these benefits, it has been argued that brand managers could use a global brand positioning strategy in order to strengthen brand equity (Gammoh et al., 2011).
Despite no formal or concrete definition of a global brand, these are expected to grow and increasingly dominate markets worldwide. On the other hand, Samiee (2019) concludes that cultures are not expected to converge in the future.
Looking at music festivals and their brands, Getz et al. (2010) found in a cross-cultural study between four countries that branding was considered as an important managerial strategy. In fact, as much as 69% of all festivals participating in the study stated that they had “[...] used program and marketing together to create a strong brand identity or image’’ (p. 44). Despite the declared importance of branding, only 43% of the festivals in the study declared that they had successfully developed core values associated with their brands. However, all the Swedish music festivals in the study stated that branding and brand control together with developing core values had been used as a strategy (Getz et al., 2010).
12 2.4 Positioning Strategies
According to Alden, Steenkamp, and Batra (1999), there are three main brand positioning strategies for companies operating globally: Global-, Local- and Foreign- Consumer Culture Positioning (GCCP, LCCP, and FCCP). When a company pursues a GCCP strategy, it uses global symbols and tightly associates them with the brand. An LCCP strategy focuses on associating the brand with the local culture, while the FCCP strategy focuses on associating the brand tightly to a chosen foreign culture (Alden et al., 1999).
Gammoh et al. (2011) investigated the GCCP of a fictive global brand and the LCCP of a fictive local positioned brand and discovered that consumer evaluations of brand prestige, brand attitude, purchase intention, and word-of-mouth were higher in the case of GCCP. In addition, the study showed that consumers who believed in global citizenship and were positive to globalness to a higher extent were more positive towards the GCCP strategy. However, a mix of global and local customer culture has also been presented in literature, named the glocal cultural identity. The consumer who belongs to this group has values and beliefs from both the global and local culture, meaning that the global and local culture coexists within the individual (Strizhakova et al., 2012).
In order to position the brand, global brands can also use different cues to associate the brand with globalness or with a local culture (Alden et al., 1999). The positioning strategy framework developed by Alden et al. (1999), which was based on the semiotics theory, presents three main dimensions with associating cues: the verbal dimension, the visual dimension, and the thematic dimension. The verbal dimension relates to cues regarding the language that is communicated along with the brand. The visual dimension relates to the aesthetic cues such as spokespersons and logos that are associated with the brand, while the thematic dimension relates to story-related themes that are presented with the brand.
2.5 Market Orientation and Adaptations
From the marketing concept, an organization’s purpose is to discover and satisfy the needs and wants of its target market. If done more efficient and effective than competitors, then a company can reach a competitive advantage (Slater & Narver, 1998). To meet those needs, a company should define its market orientation, which can be defined as “[...] a strategy used to reach a sustainable competitive advantage” (Lado, Maydeu-Olivares & Rivera, 1998).
Researchers propose that the choice of strategies is largely contingent on specific product and country conditions (Wang, 1996). Satisfying market needs might lead a company to implement different adaptations in each market, and this means that some of the business activities, such as marketing activities, might be modified. By doing this, a company can be hindered to globally consolidate a set of valuable, unique, and inimitable capabilities, which then creates challenges to reach a sustainable competitive advantage in the long term. However, many companies, such as Starbucks and IKEA, implement successfully local adaptations globally while also maintaining competitive advantages (Ghauri, Wang, Elg & Rosendo-Ríos, 2016). To mention another example, Coca-Cola decided to get closer to local markets when it started suffering from declining profitability in 2000. The company’s CEO stated that they “[...] kept standardizing practices, while
13 local sensitivity had become absolutely essential to success.”. The company’s big successes, according to its Marketing Chief, were in markets where the company could read the consumer psyche and adjust their marketing model every day (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2002).
Although all individuals share a common humanity, the cultural differences among them force companies to consider important aspects when operating internationally (Craig, Greene & Douglas, 2005; Yalcinkaya, Calantone & Griffith, 2007). Standardized marketing mix is more likely to be successful in countries that have similar cultural backgrounds, and less likely to be transferable across countries with strong cultural differences (Griffith, Hu, & Ryans Jr., 2000; Kustin, 2004). When analyzing consumers in different countries, a company can identify different buying behaviors that can direct it to adapt its products and business systems in order to make them successful in multiple countries (Yalcinkaya, 2008). If there is a significant difference in sales or usage of a product or brand in countries that have a similar level of purchasing power, while no other variable that could explain this variance is found, then it is appropriate for a company to examine deeper the factor of cultural values between the countries involved (De Mooij, 2017).
2.6 Cultural Values
Both the consumer values and human values in general are derived from and modified through personal, social, and cultural learning. The values that are shared by members of specific groups or societies are called cultural or collective values (Clawson and Vinson, 1978; Gutman and Vinson, 1979; Vinson, Scott & Lamont, 1977). By linking cultural values and individual values, one can explain and even predict consumer behavior and choices (Oyserman, 2015; Terlutter, Diehl & Mueller, 2006).
Studies such as by Levitt (1983) argue that consumers’ wants and needs will become homogeneous in the future, considering consumer behavior being rational. However, other scholars consider this assumption to be only supported by anecdotal evidence, and that the assumption of rationality is unrealistic since it often places consumer outside of a cultural context (Antonides, 1998; McCracken, 1989; Süerdem, 1993). Therefore, consumer behavior is instead tended to become more heterogeneous because of cultural differences (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2002). Generally, when cross-cultural researchers find consistent relationships between aggregate data on various aspects of cultural values and consumer behavior, cultural values are seen as predictive and explanatory variables. Product categories, specific product attributes, benefits, and motives also tend to be related to cultural values, which results in products or brands appealing to specific values or motives that are not equally important in all countries (De Mooij, 2017).
The impacts and influences of culture on consumer behavior makes it increasingly important to understand the values of national cultures and how they can affect consumer behavior. Ignoring this phenomenon has led many companies to centralize operations and marketing, which instead of increasing efficiency, resulted in declining profitability (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2002). A common method used in cross-cultural research is to analyze secondary data of consumer behavior using country scores in dimensional models of national culture. These models include cultural values that were measured at a national level and can be used to find explanations for consumer
14 behavior differences and explain large differences in sales in cases where no economic or demographic explanations can be found.
De Mooij (2017) mentions three main models for international market research, which are by Geert Hofstede (2001), Shalom Schwartz (1992, 1994, 2006), and project GLOBE (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman & Gupta, 2004). The three models were also mentioned earlier by Magnusson, Wilson, Zdravkovic, Zhou & Westjohn (2008) when a comparison was made to identify differences between them. The results were that the models by Schwartz and GLOBE cluster culturally similar markets poorly when compared to Hofstede’s model, and as a conclusion, the study stated that the more contemporary cultural frameworks present only limited advancements as compared with Hofstede’s original work. It is important to note, however, that the different measures of culture might only explain particular international marketing phenomena, and that the three models of cross-cultural differences are limited. Therefore, it is still not possible to fully understand and explain consumer behavior across nations using the studies and frameworks available today (De Mooij, 2017).
2.6.1 The Hofstede Dimensions
As supported by the previous section, the multi-dimensional model by Hofstede is of interest to this study. The model has been used mostly for international marketing research and by many researchers in the past, as it proves itself as highly relevant in this subject. Furthermore, previous authors in the festival management literature suggest that future research should use Hofstede’s theory and its dimensions when trying to find explanations for the possible differences in festival management across nations (Carlsen et al, 2010; Getz et al., 2010).
Below is a short summary of each of the five dimensions of the model.
Power Distance
Power Distance relates to the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions is distributed unequally among individuals. High power distance means that status and authority are very important, and according to Hofstede (2001), people in high power distance societies tend to be less innovative. High-power distance cultures also limit individual’s authority to make purchasing decisions while low-power distance cultures allow individuals to be more independent and develop their leadership qualities and decision-making skills (Dwyer, Mesak & Hsu, 2005; van den Bulte and Stremersch, 2004).
Individualism
Individualistic cultures value independence. Individuals in these societies are expected to look out for themselves and personal task accomplishment is put before group interest (Hofstede, 2001). In these societies, social interaction is not as strong as in collectivistic countries, which can lessen the importance of word-of-mouth effect in the adoption of new products. Additionally, communication between members might be lower in individualistic societies which can also result in less information exchange about new products (Yalcinkaya, 2008).
15 Masculinity
Masculinity is related to the preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success (Hofstede, 2001). One symbolism of achievement can be demonstrated by having the latest and most novel products. Therefore, to ensure high status and recognition, individuals of masculine cultures might be more motivated to create a distinction between them and others by adopting new products (Yalcinkaya, 2008).
Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty Avoidance relates to how a society deals with the unknown of the future. In high uncertainty societies, particular rules, regulations, and religions might be provided to avoid ambiguous situations (Hofstede, 2001). A high uncertainty-avoidance society might feel uncertain about adopting new products and avoid taking risks when not knowing the benefits associated with a new product (Hofstede, 2001; Yalcinkaya, 2008).
Long Term Orientation
The long-term orientation is defined as the extent to which a society exhibits a future-oriented perspective rather than a short-term perspective (Hofstede, 2001). Long-term oriented cultures value perseverance toward slow results, thrift, and adaptations of traditions to new circumstances. Therefore, individuals in these cultures are more cautious to novel ideas and might question sudden changes. In short-term oriented cultures, individuals value novelty, are expected to be more innovative and expect to see quick outcomes. This results in short-term oriented cultures to experience materialist consumption pressures which can lead individuals to adopt new products more rapidly in order to keep up with trends (Yalcinkaya, 2008).
2.6.1.1 Brazil and Sweden
Using and understanding the Hofstede’s model allows recognizing countries with high cultural differences. Considering the seven countries that Lollapalooza operates in, gaps in national scores were recognized when comparing the Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) with the European countries (France, Germany, and Sweden). Particularly, it appeared even more relevant to analyze the differences between Brazil and Sweden, as the model shows that the two countries represent the most cultural differences from one another than any of the other countries mentioned.
According to Hofstede’s Model:
- Brazil has a high-power distance while Sweden has a low power distance;
- Brazilians are collectivist while Swedes are individualist;
- Brazil is slightly masculine while Sweden is highly feminine;
- The Brazilian culture is related to high uncertainty avoidance while the Swedish culture is related to low uncertainty avoidance; - Both Brazil and Sweden scores as intermediate in their society’s long-term orientation.
16 3. METHODOLOGY & METHODS
______In this section, the research philosophy, approach, and strategy of the study are presented together with the methodology. Further, the overall method of the research including the data collection, sampling, and data analysis are given, followed by the quality of the data collected. ______3.1 Methodology
The methodology section should include the general approach of the research that is being conducted. This includes stating the underlying assumptions and nature of the research problem, and the research question that will be used to encompass the research method (Collis & Hussey, 2014).
3.1.1 Research Philosophy and Paradigm
This study used a mixed-method approach including both quantitative and qualitative methods, therefore, there has been a conflict in what paradigm to be used. Traditionally, the interpretivist or relativist paradigm uses qualitative methods while the positivist paradigm uses quantitative methods (Collis & Hussey, 2014; Walliman, 2018). Throughout history, many experts held on to the belief that the two main paradigms with their approaches should not be combined in the same study, due to their distinctive differences in philosophy and assumptions (Walliman, 2018).
According to Collis & Hussey (2014), interpretivism is mainly used in social science studies, and when researchers want to achieve an interpretative understanding of social phenomena. The interpretive philosophy assumes that social reality is built upon people's social constructs and subjective perceptions of the world, also assuming multiple realities. Furthermore, interpretivism tends to use smaller samples and allows generalizations only in similar settings (Collis & Hussey, 2014), which fits to this study. In addition, assuming subjectiveness and using qualitative methods have been essential to this study. On the other hand, gathering quantitative data was necessary to compare two samples and their experiences, preferences, and perceptions of the music festival. Thus, the study shared characteristics with both the interpretivist paradigm as well as the positivist paradigm.
However, it has been recognized that only few studies are purely interpretivist or positivist (Collis & Hussey, 2014). Instead, the two paradigms with their belonging methods can coexist in one study called mixed-methods, which allows the researcher in question to combine the philosophical bases of both paradigms which can result in even further understanding of a phenomenon (Walliman, 2018). Morgan (1979) argues that a paradigm should be used to illustrate a study’s philosophical level, social level, and technical level. To illustrate this mixed-method study, the research team thus points out that:
17 - On a philosophical level, this study assumed that the real world is a social reality built on social constructs; - On a social level, the study used a deductive approach; - On a technical level, the study used both qualitative and quantitative methods.
3.1.2 Research Approach
Since this study focuses only on the music festival ‘Lollapalooza’ in Brazil and Sweden, the study is categorized as a case study. This is because only one phenomenon was under investigation, and several methods were used to understand the case in-depth (Collis & Hussey, 2014). The case study can be described both as descriptive and explanatory as the research team focused on describing the current activities of the festival Lollapalooza as well as connecting its activities with theory, such as the fantasy cycle of customer participation (Lanier & Hampton, 2008) and the positioning strategy framework (Alden et al., 1999), to understand and explain certain perceptions and experiences from participants. Since previous theory and frameworks were constructed, developed, and used to understand this phenomenon, the research conducted may be defined as deductive (Collis & Hussey, 2014; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2019).
3.1.3 Research Strategy
This study uses both quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data, using a mixed-method approach. As stated by Walliman (2018), ‘’the whole point of doing mixed methods is to widen the sources and types of data that can be collected in order to provide a richer resource for analysis” (p.173), which aligns with the purpose of this study. The methods used were an electronic survey (quantitative), interviews and one email questionnaire (qualitative). However, rather than using the quantitative and qualitative methods parallelly, a two-step approach was utilized by first analyzing the quantitative method followed by the qualitative method. This two-step approach allowed the research team to first gather a general idea of the tendencies in both samples through the surveys and later through interviews and a questionnaire, get a deeper understanding of certain phenomena that were recognized in the electronic survey.
3.2 Method
The method of a study concerns the way data - both primary and secondary - has been collected and analyzed (Collis & Hussey, 2014).
3.2.1 Data Collection
The process of Data collection may be defined as ‘’[...] the process of gathering information in a meaningful and reliable manner”. Examples include conducting interviews or performing environmental measurements (Porta, 2014). When data collection methods are used rightfully, the research findings’ reliability, validity and accuracy are improved, thus, resulting in credible research findings, which is the ultimate goal (Harrell & Bradley, n.d.).
18 The data collection of this study was based on primary data and secondary sources. The data collection included previous peer-reviewed academic articles, the study’s own survey, interviews, and an email questionnaire.
First, the literature review provided information needed to get a good understanding of what was already known about music festivals in current literature, as well as recognize the gaps. Second, the survey presented the research team a general understanding of the two samples of the study. Third, the interviews conducted aimed at providing a deeper, more qualitative understanding of attendees’ experience and evaluations of Lollapalooza. Furthermore, the interviews allowed the research team to ask probing questions that had risen from answers in the electronic survey. Finally, the email questionnaire provided the research team with a better understanding of Lollapalooza as a brand and how it operates - information that could not be found online or through the survey nor interviews.
3.2.1.1 Secondary Sources
Secondary source is collected from existing sources such as websites, books, academic databases, and industry data among others (Collis & Hussey, 2014).
3.2.1.1.1 Literature Search
The literature search of a study is defined as the ‘’[...] systematic process with a view to identifying the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.’’ (Collis & Hussey, 2014, p.76). The literature was collected through peer-review articles from Jönköping University’s Library and Google Scholar databases. To narrow the research search process, keywords related to the research, such as music festival, international music festival, brands, global brands, localization, globalization, were used. The most recent articles were prioritized in order to find the timeliest data for this study and by the end, the most applicable articles were drawn.
All relevant articles were collected and gathered in a prepared Excel file with a table including ten columns: Article name, Author(s), Publication journal, Citation, Reference, Type of study, Theory used, Key ideas and findings, Topic, and Comments. This table helped to monitor all read articles and stay informed of their topics and theories that were later used in the literature review.
3.2.1.2 Primary Data
Primary data is defined to be the data collected from an original source, such as own conducted surveys, interviews, and experiments (Collis & Hussey, 2014). The primary data collected for this research consists of an electronic survey, interviews, and an email questionnaire.
3.2.1.2.1 Electronic Survey
Surveys are considered as a quantitative method of collecting data (Collis & Hussey, 2014). The electronic survey was created using the platform ‘Google Forms’. The questions in the survey were developed based on the literature research that had been done prior and by keeping the purpose of this study and research questions in mind. As an example, in questions 2 and 11 (see Appendix A) when asking about aspects related to the festival, all eight factors were drawn from previous
19 research that previous scholars had found to be important for festival attendees. The aspects were to be ranked from 1 being “Very Important” to 8 being “Less Important”. The survey included questions that differed to some extent between ranking-, closed-, and open-ended questions.
To investigate the survey’s clarity, it was tested in beforehand. Two individuals, external from the research team, tested the survey and returned with feedback. The survey was then revised with some small adjustments.
After the adjustments, the survey was distributed to individuals meeting the sampling criteria of this study (see section 3.2.4 Sampling). The survey was opened for answers between 28th of March and 18th of April, and in total, 76 participants answered the survey (42 from Brazil and 34 from Sweden).
3.2.1.2.2 Interviews
The technique of using interviews for a study is considered as a qualitative method and is used when investigating what individuals think and feel about certain things (Collis & Hussey, 2014).
After the data collection from the electronic survey, six interviews were made. The interview questions were semi-structured (see Appendix B) meaning that questions and themes were prepared before, but it was also possible to bring follow-up questions. According to Saunders et al. (2019), there are three types of questions that can be included in a semi-structured interview, these are probing, open and specific/closed questions. In this study, only open and probing questions were used. The use of open questions was important to understand the participants’ evaluations and perceptions. The probing questions were essential to clarify answers and the participants’ thoughts and opinions. In addition, besides the questions found in Appendix B, few individual questions were developed for each interviewee based on their answers in the previous electronic survey to collect deeper insights of their personal experiences.
The choice of language for the interviews came from the interviewees demands, being that all three Swedish interviewees were comfortable in having their interviews in English, while all three Brazilian interviewees preferred their interviews in Portuguese.
All six interviews were held online through video calls using ‘Facebook Messenger’ and ‘Skype’ platforms between 16th and 23rd of April. Details about the interviews may be found below in Table 1.
20
Table 1
3.2.1.2.3 Email Questionnaire
An email questionnaire was answered by a former worker of C3 Presents - the producer Lollapalooza worldwide - in order to get richer information about the organization. The initial form of this data collection was planned to be through an interview, but unfortunately due to their high workload and current circumstances (COVID-19), the interview was not possible. The research team recognizes that this results in poorer information about the organization. The individual preferred to maintain anonymity, and thus, will be referred by the fictious name of ‘Maria Silva’. For more details of the questionnaire, including the questions, see Appendix C.
3.2.2 Population and Sampling
A sample is a subset of a population whereas the population is the specific group of people, or sample units, that the researcher is interested in investigating (Byrne, 2016; Collis & Hussey, 2014). In this study, the population was formed of individuals that had either attended Lollapalooza Stockholm 2019, or any edition of Lollapalooza in São Paulo, Brazil. As the study focuses on comparing two markets and their different behaviors, two samples had to be drawn. One sample with only attendees of the festival in Brazil and one sample with attendees of the festival in Sweden. Thus, the study’s sampling criteria for the survey were: (1) Attending at least one edition of Lollapalooza in Sweden or Brazil and (2) be motivated to answer the survey so that rich and satisfactory data could be gathered. The objective was to get answers from approximately 80 people, being 40 from each country.
The sampling method used for the survey was convenience sampling and snowball sampling. For the interviews, purposive sampling was used. Convenience sampling is used in both qualitative and quantitative studies and is a non-probabilistic sampling method where people close to the researchers in question are more likely to be selected due to accessibility (Suen, Huang & Lee, 2014). One weakness of using convenience sampling is that prospect participants in the target population do not have equal chance of being selected and thus the findings from the sample are
21 very limited to the population (Suen et al., 2014). Snowball sampling is a non-probabilistic sample method where previous participants in the study recommend additional people from their social networks that could participate (Elliot, Fairweather, Olsen & Pampaka, 2016). This method was very effective in this study since many people went to the festivals with friends and could recommend additional participants that met the sample criteria. In attempts to increase the samples sizes in order to increase generalizability (Suen et al., 2014), the research team also searched for prospect participants on social media. For attendees of Brazilian editions, the team reached two unofficial Lollapalooza groups on Facebook, ‘Lollapalooza Brasil 2019’ and ‘LollaPalooza BR - Informações, compra e venda de ingressos’. Firstly, the approach was through a general question posted in the groups asking for volunteers to help filling the survey. When an individual replied offering help, the research team would contact them and send the survey individually through Facebook Messenger. For attendees in Sweden, the research team reached the official event page of Lollapalooza in Sweden, ‘Lollapalooza Stockholm 2019’, and searched for individuals that somehow engaged with the page, such as commenting in posts from the organization. Some of these individuals were contacted individually and asked to participate in the survey.
In regards to the interviews, the online survey had an optional question where respondents could include their contact information in order to participate in interviews, if desired. The respondents who included their contact information were first drawn for the interviews. Among these individuals, the participants that had wrote relevant information in the survey and that were expected to generate further rich information were chosen for the interviews. This sampling is referred to as purposive sampling (Suen et al., 2014).
3.2.3 Data Analysis
As recommended by Byrne (2016), a study that uses a mixed-method approach should first analyze the collected data that has been gathered by the various methods separately using analyzes that suit each method. Then, the material should be analyzed together as a whole to generate an overall interpretation aiming at answering the research questions.
The results of the electronic survey were analyzed through thematic and statistical analyses. Statistical analysis was used for questions 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 13, 16, 17, and thematic analysis was used for the open-ended questions 3, 8, 10, 14, 15, 18, 19. In order to get an overview of the gathered data of the quantitative questions, eyeballing statistics, which is ‘’[...] looking at a set of data and making estimates of statistical values without carrying out statistical calculations.’’ (Byrne, 2016, p.39) was used. This meant that the raw data was transferred to an Excel document where graphs were created on three different pages. Page 1 being a mix of the two samples combined, Page 2 with only answers from Swedish participants, and Page 3 with only answers from Brazilian participants. Originally in the survey, the ranking questions 2 and 11 were composed of the rank 1 being “Very Important” and rank 8 being “Less Important”. Although useful for the survey answers, these rankings could not fulfill the goal for the statistical analysis through graphs. Therefore, the results of the ranks were switched to 8 being “Very Important” and 1 being “Less Important” in order to generate graphs that would demonstrate the highest values for the ‘most important’ aspects.
22 By splitting the data, two samples were created, and the eyeballing statistics allowed the research team to point out differences and similarities across the samples. In order to investigate if there was any statistically significant difference between the samples, independent T-tests were performed using SPSS for the results of questions 2 and 11. As both samples were composed of more than 30 sample units, normality was assumed. However, as unbiasedness can only be assumed under random sampling, the research team recognizes that there is an implication when using this test, which may affect the results.
For open-ended answers in the electronic survey, the data was transferred to an Excel file and divided between the two samples. Here, the thematic analysis was applied by scanning the data with the purpose of finding different themes, to later categorize and summarize the data (Byrne, 2016). Even though the electronic survey is considered quantitative, the research team considered the thematic analysis more appropriate in analyzing the open-ended answers - qualitative answers - of the survey.
The major qualitative data was collected through six interviews that were recorded. The first step in analyzing this data was to transcribe the interviews. The English interviews were fully transcribed by hand and with help of the online transcription platform ‘Otter.ai’. In regards to the interviews in Portuguese, only data considered relevant by the interviewer was transcribed and translated into English. Later, the data from interviews was cleaned, drawing only information that was relevant for this study, and added in another Excel document. The thematic analysis was applied, looking for themes and keywords within the samples and across the samples.
The email questionnaire used in the study was minimal and thus an analysis was not required. Instead, the answers were lightly summarized to be presented in the Empirical Findings section.
After all analyses, the most relevant and important information was used. Therefore, answers that did not generate useful material for this study were subtracted and thus, not presented in the Empirical Findings section.
3.2.4 Data Quality
To deliver a good, trustworthy, and reliable study, the researchers of a study must consider and address the issues of data quality.
Reliability
Reliability concerns to what extent the research findings are reliable in terms of accuracy of measurements that are used in the study. Further, in order for the research findings to be reliable, other researchers should be able to replicate the process and get the same results - referred to as ‘’replication’’. Reliability are said to be stronger in positivist studies, where the accuracy of measurements is easier defined. On the other hand, interpretivist studies have less focus on measurements, instead, reliability concerns how well observations and interpretations may be understood and explained (Collis & Hussey, 2014).
23 In regards to the quantitative methods, addressing the quantitative questions from the survey, using ranking, multiple choice, and scale questions, the research team tried to state the questions as clearly as possible in order to measure each item rightfully. However, some deviations in the ranking questions were noted, which could be due to misunderstandings of ranking instructions or due to actual different preferences and opinions. That could not be determined but should be investigated if this study were to be replicated.
For the open-ended questions in the survey, the data retrieved from the interviews and the email questionnaire was categorized as qualitative data, and later analyzed by an interpretivist approach. By doing that, the research team has tried to explain the analysis process and present the findings as clear and as accurate, so that the findings would truly reflect the data.
Validity
The appropriateness of measurements, which is whether the techniques applied test the actual phenomena that the researcher investigate, is referred to the Validity of a study (Collis & Hussey, 2014). As it can be relatively hard to measure culture, adaptations, localness and globalness - or that these even can be considered as hypothetical constructs (Collis & Hussey, 2014) - the research team posed many different questions trying to capture information in regards to these constructs. Many probing questions were asked in order to investigate the reasoning behind the opinions of the participants, such as why a global music festival was preferred over a local music festival. The research team believe that the mixed-method approach, using different measurements, increased the understanding and thus the validity of this study. Saunders et. al (2019) do also state that multiple sources should increase a validity of a study.
Bias
Researchers bias may be deliberate or unconscious. Deliberate bias is when the researchers design, conduct and present the research and its finding in a biased way, often to meet a desired outcome. Unconscious bias is when the researchers are unaware of their own biases, ignoring their potential effect on the research being conducted (Byrne, 2016).
To avoid the deliberate bias, the research team firstly tried to design the research in an objective way. An extensive literature review was done, meaning that a variety of peer-reviewed articles were read and discussed. For the survey and interview questions, the research team tried to pose questions in neutral ways. In terms of presenting the data, this has also been done carefully to match the retrieved data keeping everything as transparent as possible. In regards to the unconscious bias, the research team recognized that the variety of cultural backgrounds in the team could have led to biases on the design and execution of this research, and the interpretation of the findings. However, these biases were also tried to be neutralized by discussions and attempts to bring awareness about them. In addition, the cultural biases in the research team might even have helped the understanding of the findings better since the team is composed of a Swedish member and a Brazilian member. This factor may help understanding cultural related issues or benefits that could be discussed during the study. Besides that, the research team had also an individual from Poland, which would mostly be unbiased in this matter.
24 Generalizability
Generalizability concerns to what extent findings from a sample can be transferred to the whole population (Collis & Hussey, 2014). As mentioned before, the generalizability of this study is rather limited since the sample was relatively small. Additionally, convenience sampling was used, which decreases generalizability.
Triangulation
Triangulation is a method that uses different types of methods to investigate the same phenomenon in order to confirm the information from different points of view (Walliman, 2018). This goes hand in hand with the mixed-method approach which was used in this study. Triangulation was used by combining the information found in the literature review with the results from the survey, the interviews, and the email questionnaire. This triangulation also attempts to increase validity.
Ethical Consideration
Ethics is highly important in research (Collis & Hussey, 2014). To ensure that all participants felt comfortable about participating in this study, the research team informed them beforehand about the purpose of the data collection, and how the data would be recorded, used, and saved throughout the research project. The research team chose to maintain anonymity for all participants in this study and therefore interviewees were coded to numbers such as ‘Interviewee 1’ , ‘Interviewee 2’ , since the real identity of the interviewees is not relevant for this study. This fact was also clearly mentioned to the participants and interviewees. In terms of data, the research team has been careful to keep all collected raw data - such as interview records and survey answers - saved on privately own devices and privately own cloud storages. All the data will be deleted at the end of the research project.
25 4. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ______Here, the Empirical Findings from the online survey, interviews and email questionnaire are presented. Firstly, the data collected from the survey is reviewed. Later on, the data from the interviews and questionnaire are presented. ______4.1 Survey
4.1.1 Age Group and Gender
General
From the 76 total respondents, the majority (63%) were aged between 20 and 25 years old, and 67% identify themselves as females.
Figure 1
Figure 2
26 4.1.2 Preferences about the type of festival to attend
General
Between the 76 answers, 8% of respondents prefer local music festivals, 45% prefer attending a globally known music festival, and 47% are indifferent about this preference.
Figure 3
Brazil
Between the 42 answers, 5% of respondents prefer local music festivals, 47% prefer attending a globally known music festival, and 48% are indifferent about this preference.
Figure 4
27 Sweden
Between the 34 answers, 12% of respondents prefer local music festivals, 41% prefer attending a globally known music festival, and 47% are indifferent about this preference.
Figure 5
Conclusion
There are not relevant differences between the preference between Swedes and Brazilians.
4.1.3 Perception about Lollapalooza
General
Between the 76 answers, 51% of respondents perceive Lollapalooza as 6 out of 6 as a global music festival.
Figure 6
28 Brazil
Between the 42 answers, 48% of respondents perceive Lollapalooza as 6 out of 6 as a globally known music festival.
Figure 7
Sweden
Between the 34 answers, 56% of respondents perceive Lollapalooza as 6 out of 6 as a globally known music festival.
Figure 8
29 Conclusion
The perception of Lollapalooza being a global music festival is clear for both groups. Very few people perceive Lollapalooza as a local festival, as the grand majority perceives the festival as global.
4.1.4 Awareness about Lollapalooza editions
General
The festival that most respondents are aware of is the São Paulo edition, followed by the origin of the festival, Chicago. Berlin is the edition that respondents are the least aware of.
In total, the festival editions in the Americas (São Paulo, Chicago, Buenos Aires, and Santiago) are more known than the festival editions in Europe (Stockholm, Paris, and Berlin). However, this could be because the sample was majorly from the Americas region.
Figure 9
Brazil
Excluding the Brazilian edition of the festival, the Brazilian respondents are more aware of the three other editions of the festival in America, which are, Buenos Aires, Santiago, and Chicago.
30
Figure 10
Sweden
Excluding the Swedish edition of the festival, the Swedish respondents are more aware of two editions in America, the ones in Chicago and São Paulo.
Figure 11
Conclusion
- Excluding the Brazilian edition of the festival in the general awareness, the Chicago edition is the most known by all respondents. - The other editions in Latin America - Buenos Aires and Santiago - which are the most known between Brazilian respondents, are the ones less known by the Swedish respondents. - The European editions - Stockholm, Paris, and Berlin - have lower awareness between Brazilians and more awareness between the Swedish respondents. Still, Chicago and São Paulo are the most known editions by the Swedish respondents.
31 - 89% (68) of all respondents knew at least two editions of the festival.
4.1.5 Attendance behavior in Brazil
Conclusion
The respondents’ answers indicate that the behavior of attendance in the Brazilian editions could be decreasing, as most respondents have attendant earlier editions. The 2019 edition was the edition that fewer respondents have attended, with 20 respondents in total.
Figure 12
When understanding deeper which editions the attendees have been to, distinct behaviors were noticed. In total, 21 attendees have been to only one edition (either 2019, 2018, or 2017 or earlier). On the other hand, 21 other respondents have attended at least two editions.
Further, the total attendance in the Brazil editions has been declining: 300 thousand people attended both the 2017 and 2018 editions, while only 246 thousand attended the 2019 edition (G1, 2017; G1, 2018; Oliveira, 2019), representing a decline of 18% in numbers of attendance.
Figure 13
32 4.1.6 Getting to know Lollapalooza
General
Among the 76 answers, 54 respondents got to know Lollapalooza through social media, 14 through friends/family, 6 through news, and 2 through radio/TV.
Figure 14
Figure 15
33 Brazil
Among the 42 answers, 31 respondents got to know Lollapalooza through social media, 6 through friends/family, 3 through news, and 2 through radio/TV.
Figure 16
Figure 17
34 Sweden
Among the 34 answers, 23 respondents got to know Lollapalooza through social media, 8 through friends/family, 3 through news, and none through radio/TV.
Figure 18
Figure 19
Conclusion
It appears that there are no large differences between the communication channels in both countries.
When it comes to social medias, Instagram and Facebook are the two main social medias in both samples. Additionally, Youtube and Twitter were mentioned more in Brazil than in Sweden.
35 4.1.7 Most important aspects when choosing a music festival
General
On average, Lineup is the aspect that most respondents prioritize when choosing a music festival.
Figure 20
Brazil
The most important aspects for the Brazilians reflect the same graph as in 4.9.1. Lineup is the most important factor, followed by Location and Novelty.
Figure 21
36 Sweden
The preferences in Sweden differ slightly from the Brazilian sample, but Lineup is still the most important factor, followed by Location and Brand Image.
Figure 22
Conclusion
Both markets prioritize the lineup of a festival, followed by its location. It may be noted that the score for the aspect Lineup is by far highest among all aspects, whereas the difference between the other aspects are rather small. Showing that the preference for the lineup is by far the most important when choosing a music festival.
The significant differences between preferences in Brazil and Sweden can be seen in other aspects:
- The brand image of a festival is more relevant in the Swedish market than in Brazil. - Festival attractions are the fourth most important aspect for Brazilians, while only the seventh most important for Swedes. - Novelty is the third most important aspect for Brazilians, while only the fifth most important for Swedes. - It appears that the festival being globally known is not highly ranked among these aspects for the respondents of this study, although, more respondents prefer to attend a global music festival rather than a local music festival, as found in section 4.1.3.
37 4.1.8 Favorite aspects about Lollapalooza
General
Between all 76 respondents, Lineup is Lollapalooza’s favorite aspect, followed by Novelty and Location.
Figure 23
Brazil
Very similar to the preferences of choosing a music festival, Lollapalooza’s favorite aspects between Brazilians are leaded by its Lineup and Location.
Figure 24
38 The only difference is that, in the Lollapalooza case, its Festival Attractions are ranked third between all eight aspects, followed by Novelty - when it comes to most important aspects between Brazilians, Novelty comes ahead of Festival attractions.
Figure 21 Figure 24
Sweden
Swedes had relevant variations between their favorite aspects about Lollapalooza and their most important factors when choosing a music festival.
Figure 25
Lineup still leads, followed by Brand Image. The Location is only ranked fifth place, while this aspect was ranked second most important for the Swedish respondents. The Festival Attractions, although not that relevant for Swedes (seventh out of eight aspects) is the third most favorite aspect of Lollapalooza in Sweden.
39
Figure 22 Figure 25
Conclusion
Lollapalooza appears to be strong in distinct aspects between Brazil and Sweden:
- While Location is the second most favorite aspect for Brazilians, it is only the fifth in Sweden. - Its Brand Image is more favored in Sweden than in Brazil. - The global awareness of Lollapalooza does not appear to be a very relevant aspect for neither of the markets.
Figure 24 Figure 25
40 4.1.9 Aspects that Lollapalooza is better than other festivals
General
The festival’s Lineup is not only perceived as the most favorite aspect but in the case of Lollapalooza, this aspect is also perceived as better than in other festivals in general.
Figure 26
Brazil
Lollapalooza appears to be better than other festivals in Brazil mainly for its Lineup, followed by its Location and Brand Image.
Figure 27
41 Sweden
Lollapalooza appears to be better than other festivals in Sweden mainly for its Lineup, followed by its Globally known factor, and Brand Image.
Figure 28
Conclusion
This section shows how Lollapalooza’s lineup is perceived as better than other festivals. Although the other aspects might be important for the respondents, there is a major preference for its lineup.
Interesting to notice is that the festival’s global reputation appears to be more favored in Sweden than in Brazil.
Figure 27 Figure 28
42 4.1.10 Aspects that Lollapalooza is worse than other festivals
General
The participants appear to not be very happy with the festival’s novelty, which means that the festival might not be innovating enough from year to year.
Figure 29
Brazil
Novelty leads as being the aspect that most participants perceive as worse compared to other festivals in Brazil.
Figure 30
43 Sweden
Novelty leads as being the aspect that most participants perceive as worse than other festivals in Sweden. Its attractions and size also appear to not be superior than of other festivals.
Figure 31
Conclusion
The festival’s novelty appears to be perceived as worse than other festival in both countries. Festival Attractions, Size of the Festival and Length of the Festival follow right after in both countries.
Figure 30 Figure 31
4.1.11 Open-ended Question 1
What are your expectations when you attend a music festival? What do you seek? Please, elaborate.
Brazil
21 respondents expect to see their favorite artists live when going to a music festival. 16 other respondents expect, besides seeing their favorite artists, to also be with their friends and enjoy the time together. There were also a few mentions of discovering new bands and artists, meeting new people, good food and drinks, and good toilets.
44 Sweden
17 respondents mentioned the need of having friends together to seeing their favorite artists, while 17 other respondents only mentioned the artists expectations. A few mentions of good food, toilets, and relevant sponsors, as well as a good and organized schedule.
Conclusion
- Seeing the favorite artists live appear to be the biggest expectation for the participants. - It is indicated that enjoying the music with friends is more relevant for the Swedish market - more than half of them mentioned this factor. - It was indicated that the atmosphere and experience of a music festival combines different aspects, being that one participant referred to “[...] the music in combination with the food and the friends who attends with me”.
4.1.12 Open-ended Question 2
Did you feel that Lollapalooza was adaptive to your country and your culture? Please elaborate as much as you can.
Brazil
41 respondents fully agreed that Lollapalooza adapted to the Brazilian culture, close to “[...] perfectly suited to Brazil”. One respondent even mentioned that “If I did not know its origin, I would even say that the festival originated in Brazil”. However, one respondent disagreed, and thinks that Lollapalooza is not adaptive to Brazil.
Important aspects of Lollapalooza adaptations in Brazil were mentioned:
- All its communication is done in Portuguese. However, attendees could find some information in English at the festival as well. - The festival offers Brazilian artists regularly, which was mostly appreciated by the participants. Less relevant Brazilian artists and groups also have presence in the festival. - Local food was heavily present. The festival offered an area with Brazilian food-trucks, relevant Brazilian chefs, and also food from the city of São Paulo. - Payments were made through ‘Lolla cashless’, which is a wristband used to make payments inside the festival, and it was appreciated by the respondents, being that a few even mentioned that this might be a current trend in Brazil. The individual charges the wristband with either cash or credit card, and gets credits to use in the festival, such as buying food and drinks. - The festival ended up becoming highly expensive in the latest years, making it inaccessible for many in Brazil, according to some participants. Food and beverages at the festival appear to be very expensive, and water was not available free of charge.
45 Sweden
31 respondents fully agreed that Lollapalooza adapted to the Swedish market. The festival managed to “[...] incorporate the Swedish aspects without losing the international environment”, and one respondent even mentioned that “[...] if I didn't know it was a global festival I would never realize it wasn't Swedish”. One respondent thinks that Lollapalooza was not adaptive to Sweden.
Important aspects of Lollapalooza adaptations in Sweden were mentioned:
- The festival brought local Swedish artists, which was appreciated by most of the respondents. - Information was both in Swedish and English. No respondents mentioned problems with communication. - Payments could be made by card and ‘Swish’, a heavily used form of payment in Sweden (Getswish AB, 2020). This appeared to facilitate the payments to the attendees. - Swedish sponsors were also present in the festival. - There were Swedish food trucks, but also general festival food such as pizza and hamburgers. This aspect appears to be very well done in Sweden, as some respondents mentioned how well the festival offered an amalgamation of Swedish and foreign cuisine. There were also vegetarian and vegan options.
Conclusion
It appears that there are no doubts how well adapted the festival is in Brazil. In Sweden, it also appears that the festival has started its first edition well adapted to the market. The food appears to be a very important aspect, and allowing local payment methods - mainly cashless options - made it convenient for attendees to pay.
4.1.13 Open-ended Question 3
Were you satisfied with your experience at Lollapalooza? Please elaborate, if possible.
Brazil
39 respondents were satisfied with their experiences. Although a positive experience overall, negative aspects were mentioned by a few respondents:
- High prices that can hinder some people to attend the next festival editions. Both festival tickets and in-festival purchases appear to become highly expensive in Brazil. - The location of the festival is far from any public transportation, which becomes a difficulty to attendees to arrive. - Some editions have suffered from heavy rain, and the organization did not appear prepared for that. - One respondent mentioned that the festival suffered accusations of employees working in precarious conditions at the festival assembly. After proofs were found and shared publicly, the respondent feels that the festival lost reputation.
46 Three other respondents were not satisfied, being that:
- The cost-benefit is not good. - The organization and location are bad. - There is a lack of identity of the festival, being that in early years it used to be alternative and indie, but now it is becoming a pop and rap festival.
Sweden
All 34 respondents were satisfied with their experiences, but a few negative aspects were also mentioned:
- One participant mentioned that the festival was too small in attendance, which did not give a real feeling of a big festival. - Controversially, another participant mentioned that the festival had too many people, and that it did not focus in a specific niche, since the artists were very varied.
Conclusion
96% (73) of all respondents were satisfied with their experience, while 4% (3) were not. Although the overall satisfaction was high, people still have a few negative aspects and recommendations for improvements, specially the Brazilian respondents.
4.2 Interviews
4.2.1 Question 1
‘’Do you think a global music festival (that operates in several markets) has more to offer? Is it more attractive? For you, what are the benefits and advantages of a global music festival?
Brazil
All three Brazilian interviewees agree that global music festivals appear more attractive to attend. In their points of view, global music festivals can offer better structures, due to their higher budgets, and more organization within the festival, such as organized queuing systems. Additionally, global music festivals can bring international artists, and give the opportunity for attendees to meet people from all over the world.
Sweden
Two out of three Swedish interviewees agreed that global music festivals have more to offer. One of the explanations was that these festivals have budgets that allow them to bring international lineups which is ‘’[...] the reason (why) people go to a festival’’ and spend more in marketing campaigns. On the other hand, Interviewee 3 reasoned that global music festivals are more commercial, while local music festivals feel more innovative and put more effort into work for the attendees.
47 4.2.2 Question 2
Do you think it is important for a global music festival to adapt? Why?
Brazil
All Brazilian interviewees agree that global music festivals should adapt to the country that they operate in and that these adaptations bring benefits for the attendees.
The need of adaptation to the local culture was mentioned, but also the fact that it is important to “[...] bring a few things from other places”, as well as avoid massification, since “no culture should be better than others”. Interviewee 4 mentioned that the headliners - the main artists from the lineup - are generally the same in other editions, so the small adaptations of the festivals are ways to attract people from the local country.
Sweden
All Swedish interviewees agree that it is important to adapt, but also that it depends on the country. Interviewee 2 pointed out that some countries might be more acceptable of international aspects and would not require adaptations, while other countries might require more. Additionally, bringing local artists can be a good adaptation that attracts local participants.
Interviewee 1 mentioned that festivals usually have their own culture, and those festivals that do not have their own culture might have less difficulties when adapting to different cultures.
Furthermore, Interviewee 3 mentioned that global music festivals should not adapt completely because they would lose their global identity, which is the reason that some participants attend these types of festivals.
4.2.3 Question 3
In the survey, you filled in that you perceive Lollapalooza as Global/Local - can you elaborate? How? Why? Describe?
Brazil
All Brazilian interviewees perceive Lollapalooza as a global music festival. The interviewees were aware that Lollapalooza operates in other countries. They did not know necessarily where, but they knew it was a festival with international presence, and this factor gives an excitement to attend the festival.
Interviewee 6 mentioned that the festival publicly releases its headliners of the festival in other countries in advance. By knowing these headliners, one can expect the same artists for the Brazilian edition since the festival usually maintains its headliners for all its worldwide editions around the year.
48 Sweden
All Swedish interviewees perceive Lollapalooza as a global music festival and all of them have acknowledged that Lollapalooza has had editions in other countries. Interviewee 2 mentioned that they are more structured and professional, that the festival size is a big difference from a local music festival, and that Lollapalooza is a big brand. Interviewee 1 pointed out that Lollapalooza’s social media allows people to see what the festival offers in other countries, which brings a global feeling.
4.2.4 Question 4
Back when you were at Lollapalooza, were there any global and/or local cues at the festival? (such as global/local brands, etc.)
Brazil
The most common global cue that was mentioned by all three Brazilian interviewees was the global brands that offered entertainment for participants during the festival. For instance, Red Bull has had a sky bar where participants could enjoy a bar that was held in a platform that was lifted in the air. One very important global aspect was that the festival stages were named after brands, such as ‘Budweiser Stage’, ‘Adidas Stage’, and ‘Perry’s by Doritos’. Global brands also offered stands with small challenges and activities, such as posting pictures on Instagram with specific Hashtags, in order to earn prizes.
When asked about local cues, all three participants mentioned the famous Brazilian chefs preparing Brazilian food. There were also stages named after local brands, such as ‘Palco Skol’ - named after the Brazilian beer brand, Skol - and ‘Palco Onix’ - named after Chevrolet Onix, which although is a car manufactured by an American brand, it is manufactured in Brazil and sold in Latin America.
Sweden
Swedish interviewees’ answers differ from each other. Interviewee 1 pointed out global entertainers, while interviewee 2 considered the global companies, such as beer companies, as the main global cues. Interviewee 3 mentioned the fact that the festival was held in English, which “[...] automatically connects the festival to something global”.
When it comes to local cues, all interviewees mentioned Swedish companies that had stands with testers and competitions, as well as food and drink stands. Additionally, the local artists were also noted as local cues.
49 4.2.5 Question 5
Else than music entertainment, what was offered in the festival area? Did you participate in any other activities?
Brazil
The Brazilian attendees mentioned that, if not in the stage areas, they would usually go to sponsors stands to earn prizes or participate in activities, such as learning how to paint and how to dance. The festival attractions, such as its own alternative market - where people could buy gifts and other ‘alternative’ products - as well as the Ferris wheel appeared attractive to participate. There were also entertainment areas for kids.
Sweden
Only two participants from Sweden were able to answer this question and their answers were that different companies had activities and competitions they could participate in. Interviewee 1 noticed a special dance floor with roofing and also a kids area. Interviewee 3 mentioned a station that offered glow sticks and glitter.
4.2.6 Question 6
Why did you decide to attend Lollapalooza?
Brazil
The opportunity to see a favorite band live was the main reason for attending the festival between the three interviewees. A few extra points were mentioned: Interviewee 4 described the desire to have a “different weekend”, especially since ‘‘[...] there is a hyper saturation of concerts’’. Going to a festival was also compared to ‘’going on a trip’’ where one can meet new people. It is a different activity where “you plan to meet friends, dress nice outfits, and enjoy the atmosphere”, according to Interviewee 6.
Sweden
Interviewee 1 mentioned the easy access to the festival, being that there was good transportation by subway, as one reason for attending. Furthermore, the interviewee attended Lollapalooza ‘’because it’s fun’’ and an adventure that one does not do often. Second attendee’s reason was to be able to get a ‘‘decent food’’ in between the music shows. Interviewee 3 mentioned curiosity, since they had heard about the festival before and always wanted to go and explore it, and see if this type of festival would “[...] pull it off in Sweden and see if people would show up”.
50 4.2.7 Question 7
Did you interact with Lollapalooza on social media? Such as selecting “attending” on the Facebook event? If yes, why? If not, why?
Brazil
All three Brazilian interviewees interacted with the Lollapalooza Facebook event, by selecting the option ‘Attending’ on the official event page. Two of them also mentioned participating in Facebook groups and Interviewee 4 mentioned commenting on the festival’s Facebook posts.
Sweden
All three Swedish interviewees interacted with the Lollapalooza Facebook event, by selecting the option ‘Attending’ on the event page. The reasoning for that was to let their friends know that they were planning to participate in the event, but also to follow up in the new posts and updates that the festival would share in the event page. Interviewee 3 additionally mentioned that they participated in the Facebook event page to help the festival with their attendance benchmarks.
4.2.8 Question 8
Did you engage with the festival in any way other than participating? (buying their clothes, gadgets, listening to the Lineup playlist)
Brazil
Two of three interviewees from Brazil have purchased gifts from Lollapalooza merchandise, as a way to remember the editions they have attended. Interviewee 6 also mentions the fact that some Lollapalooza concerts are available on Youtube and even on open TV channels, so anyone can watch them.
Sweden
All three Swedish interviewees listened to the Spotify playlist created by Lollapalooza. Only interviewee 2 mentioned buying merchandise in the festival, but it was not from the Lollapalooza brand.
4.2.9 Question 9
Did you participate in any competition at Lollapalooza?
Brazil
Interviewee 5 mentioned voting for bands online when Lollapalooza announces its competition between bands that compete to participate in the festival. Interviewee 4 participated in competitions in one of the sponsors stands.
51 Sweden
Two interviewees participated in competitions organized by sponsors during the festival. Interviewee 3 was also aware of an online competition organized by Lollapalooza Stockholm before the festival, but no interviewees participated on it.
4.2.10 Question 10
Have you completed any survey from Lollapalooza after attending the festival? Or did you give them any feedback?
Brazil
Only interviewee 5 has filled out an online feedback survey that was sent through e-mail.
Sweden
Only interviewee 3 has filled out an online feedback survey that was sent through e-mail.
4.2.11 Question 11
Are you planning to go to another Lollapalooza festival? If yes, why. If not, why?
Brazil
Interviewee 6 has already purchased tickets for Lollapalooza São Paulo 2020 even before the lineup was released since ‘’[...] going to this festival is more about the experience’’. Interviewee 4 was planning to buy the ticket, while interviewee 5 mentioned that ‘‘it depends on the price’’.
Sweden
All of the Swedish interviewees were planning to attend Lollapalooza 2020.
4.2.12 Question 12 - Extra Question
Brazil - Has Lollapalooza changed during the editions? What has changed?
All of the Brazilian interviewees have attended the festival more than two times. The biggest change noticed was that first editions were two days long but now it is a three days long festival. Two participants agree that the festival has been getting better over the past years from their attractions, location, decorations, and logistics. On the other hand, interviewee 4 thinks the festival's structure has been the same and lineup has become worse since they separated days between different music genres. Increasing prices on tickets and offers at the festival were also mentioned by all of them.
52 Sweden - The communication on social media between Lollapalooza and its audience was in English. How do you feel about that? Can you elaborate?
All of the interviewees agree that it was ‘smart’ since in Sweden “[...] everyone knows the English language”, especially the target group that ‘’they (Lollapalooza) aim (for)’’. It is also perceived as a need ‘‘[...] if they want to portray themselves as global’’. On the other hand, Interviewee 3 stated ‘’I don’t think that you need to adjust culture just by the language’’.
Sweden - How did drinking areas looked like and what is your opinion about it?
It was noted that in Sweden the alcohol consumption was restricted to specific areas in the music festival in order to respect national laws and regulations over alcohol. The interviewees had mixed opinions about the alcohol regulations, being that Interviewee 1 prefers to dance and have something to drink at the same time, while Interviewee 3 agreed with these regulations for safety reasons.
4.3 Email Questionnaire
Below is a short summary of the findings from the email questionnaire answered by a former employee at C3 Presents, presented here with the fictitious name of Maria Silva. The full questionnaire can be seen in Appendix C.
Silva stated that when Lollapalooza operates in a market, it generally partners up with production companies, such as Brazil’s ‘Times for Fun’. As Silva only worked with the marketing strategy of the festival, it was described that the local producer marketing team would collaborate with C3’s marketing team to develop strategies together. Silva argued that these partnerships were very favorable for developing marketing strategies, since the local team could provide great local market knowledge. As stated: ‘’Producing a festival like Lollapalooza requires knowledge not only about the culture, but also about other things such as laws involving ticket sales (for example, in Brazil it's mandatory to have the 50% discount for students).’’ Thus, these partnerships are critical for the viability of the festival and one of its success factors.
Further, the festival’s perceived globalness seems to not be the same for Silva as the other participants of this study. Instead, she argued that the perception of a global brand is one that does not have geographic constraints. So far, Lollapalooza can only be found in seven markets. However, Silva stated that Lollapalooza is still a strong brand and in terms of marketing, the tone and messages in its various markets are in many ways similar. What varies the most across markets are the offline strategies, according to her.
When picking the language of communication in the specific countries, it’s “[...] all about the nature of the market”. Silva pointed out that the reason why Lollapalooza uses both English and French in France, for example, is because many people in Europe travel from other countries to attend Lollapalooza, and thus English is a necessity. The festival’s infrastructure also differs to some extent in the markets, as some editions are more children friendly whereas others are more focused on young adults, for example.
53 5. ANALYSIS ______In this section, all gathered information will be discussed: the literature review, the results from the survey, interviews, and the email questionnaire. The analysis that follows attempts to answer the research questions. ______5.1 Global Brands
As previous literature argues that global brands are perceived with higher prestige, quality and superiority (Gammoh et al., 2011; Steenkamp et al., 2002), the interviewees were asked if they perceive that a global music festival has either more to offer, is superior, or is more attractive to attend (Interview - Question 1). Five interviewees, being three Brazilians and two Swedish, mentioned that they perceive a global music festival more attractive and that it has more to offer than a non-global music festival. However, the sixth interviewee disagreed but still stated that a global music festival appears to be more structured and professional than a local music festival. Together, those perceptions go hand in hand with the reasonings of Gammoh et al. (2011), Steenkamp et al. (2002) and Özsomer (2012), that global brands are perceived to some extent superior or addressed with additional positive attributes. Additionally, looking at the type of music festival preference, 45% of all participants preferred a global music festival, while 8% preferred a local music festival, and 47% were indifferent. This may also indicate that a global brand is more often, but not always, preferred over a local brand.
Furthermore, when it comes to branding, previous research suggests that Swedish music festivals use brand control and branding as a managerial strategy more compared to other countries analyzed (Getz et al., 2010). Swedish participants ranked Brand Image as the third most important aspect of a music festival while Brazilians ranked it as only sixth out of eight. In regards to the favorite aspects of Lollapalooza, Swedes ranked Brand Image as the second most favorite aspect of Lollapalooza while the Brazilians ranked it as their sixth favorite aspect.
This may indicate that brand image is more important for Swedes or that the brand value was better built and communicated by Lollapalooza in Sweden than it was in Brazil. Other explanation may be related to the fact that Lollapalooza has been operating in Brazil since 2012, while it got its first edition in Sweden in 2019. Because of that, the brand image could be a more important and relevant factor for the new Swedish market.
5.2 The Positioning Strategy Framework & Global and Local Cues
According to Alden et al. (1999), organizations use different cues to position themselves as either global or local. These cues are measured on three dimensions being: the verbal, the visual, and the thematic dimensions.
On a verbal dimension, it was observed in Sweden that Lollapalooza communicates through its social media in English, while in Brazil it is in Portuguese - the country’s native language. However,
54 there was some information in English at the festival in São Paulo according to some interviewees. According to Alden et al. (1999), communication in English may be a strategy for the organization to position itself as global. Thus, one reason that Lollapalooza operates mostly in English in Sweden may be to increase its perception of globalness. When Swedes were asked about the use of non-native language, they did not see any problem and in their opinion it is a good choice of Lollapalooza. Silva stated that the reason for Lollapalooza to use English in the European countries is because many people travel from different countries to attend the different editions, and thus English is a necessity. When it comes to the lower usage of English in Brazil, it might indicate that the festival is mostly focused in the local market instead of foreign travelers, considering how big the Brazilian market is.
On a visual dimension, interviewees were asked to identify any global and local cues noticed at the music festival. As global cues, Brazilians mentioned global brands that were present in the festival, while Swedes mentioned the international lineup, global brands, and signs in English as global cues. In regards to local cues, Brazilians mentioned the Brazilian food and the local brands. Swedes mentioned the Swedish sponsors, along with Swedish drinks and cuisine, and Swedish artists. Among the interviews results, global cues such as Lollapalooza’s social media communication, that shows the reach and extent of the festival around the world, can also be related to the visual dimension.
Concerning partners, Lollapalooza São Paulo 2019 had six supporters, and seven sponsors (Monteiro, 2019). Among the 13 brands involved, eight were non-Brazilians, and five were Brazilians. Lollapalooza Stockholm 2019 did also have 13 partners, among these nine were Swedish owned companies and four were foreign owned (Lollapalooza, n.d).
The thematic dimension was not noticeable by any interviewee, neither Silva could tell that there are any themes in Lollapalooza different editions. However, Lollapalooza applies the same logo with similar brand elements - such as same colors - across the markets, which could be seen as the festival identity or culture. Further, Silva argued that even though there is not a specific theme, Lollapalooza has a very strong brand in its operating markets.
Lollapalooza’s strategy might be referred to a glocalization (Robertson, 2012; Steenkamp, 2019), being that the festival uses both local and global cues, and mixes GCCP with LCCP (Alden et al., 1999). In regards to the phenomenon of globalization and localization, Steenkamp (2019) argued that some products markets demand more local brands while other markets are continued to be dominated by global brands. For a global music festival, this may indicate that some aspects such as the lineup, should favor to be globalized, while other aspects such as beverages and food favor to be localized. On the other hand, Lollapalooza’s lineup usually presents both local and global artists, and its food offerings are mixed between local and foreign, which indicates that the aspects of a music festival can be glocalized. Further, the festival’s glocalization seemed to be mostly appreciated by the participants.
55 5.3 Perceived Globalness
The globalness described by Strizhakova & Coulter (2019) can be found as Swedish interviewees searched information about Lollapalooza online, creating then their own brand image of the festival before they attended it. This demonstrates that the festival information flows across nations. As stated earlier, 92% (70) of all participants of the survey perceive Lollapalooza as a global brand, and additionally, 89% (68) knew at least two editions of the festival around the world, which indicates that the festival brings awareness of its international editions to its attendees.
As mentioned in the section 2.3, there is a difference between perceived and real globalness (Samiee, 2019). It has been showed that participants perceive Lollapalooza as a global festival due to its lineup and its operations in other markets. However, if referring to the actual definition of global brand by Samiee (2019), concerning the reach of Lollapalooza, the festival only operates in seven counties, one in North America, three in South America, and three in Europe. This means that other continents (Asia, Africa, and Oceania) are not covered. Silva also mentioned the fact that despite Lollapalooza is perceived to be global, it is not a completely global brand as a global brand “[...] has no geographical constraints”.
The fact of a festival being global brings, according to five interviewees and the literature research, the assurance that the festival provides good experience with good quality (Gammoh et al., 2011; Steenkamp et al., 2002). However, it is important to remember that section 4.1.9 showed that the aspect Globally known festival as favorite aspect of Lollapalooza was placed last (eighth out of eight aspects). Although ranked low, the aspect Globally known festival was heavily mentioned during the interviews and referred positively by the interviewees. An explanation for this could be that the benefits of the globalness of a festival might be unconscious for the participants. 5.4 Culture
Two conclusions can be drawn from cultural differences according to the literature research. First, cultural differences may affect consumer behavior and if these differences are not acknowledged by companies, standardization can lead to a decline in profitability (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2002). Secondly, as products with their attributes and motives may connect to cultural values, different products also appeal differently across markets (De Mooij, 2017).
Although Hofstede (2001) points out large differences between Brazil and Sweden, the findings of this study could not be connected to any of the dimensions or cultural differences. However, cultural differences were noticed during the data collection of this study. All Swedish interviewees felt comfortable about having their interviews in English, while all Brazilians preferred to be interviewed in Portuguese. Further, most Brazilian participants of the survey were greatly interested to help, wrote extensive paragraphs in the survey, and helped sharing the survey with their friends through snowball sampling. On the other hand, many Swedish respondents were direct and not necessarily interested in helping the study by providing rich information. Many open-ended answers from Swedish participants were only “yes”, although the survey question asked them to elaborate their answers. Relating to the findings of section 2.6.1, this could be due to Sweden’s individualistic culture, being that communication seems to be lower in such cultures,
56 resulting in less information exchange (Hofstede, 2001; Yalcinkaya, 2008). These differences reflect both in the number of respondents gathered for each country - more from Brazil than in Sweden - and also for the quality and quantity of the data gathered. Additionally, 64% of all Brazilian respondents made themselves available for an interview, while only 44% of all Swedish respondents offered availability to help. These differences could be explained by the fact that Brazil has a very collective and ‘warm’ culture, while Sweden is more individualist and ‘cold’.
5.5 Motivations and Important Aspects
It is relevant for music festivals to understand its participants motivations in order to offer a good festival that attend all needs (Çakici & Yilmaz, 2017), being that previously Nicholson and Pearce (2001) concluded that individuals usually go to these events based on the offers, instead of because of brand recognition.
Besides the differences in preferences and the conclusions drawn in sections 4.1.8, 4.1.9, 4.1.10 and 4.1.11, an observation could be drawn from the aspect Lineup.
The lineup was by far the most important aspect for most participants, as well as the favorite aspect of Lollapalooza for participants from both countries. Therefore, it is indicated that no matter what other aspects or offerings the festival has, its lineup is still the most attractive aspect. On the other hand, Interviewee 4 mentions that they purchase the festival tickets even before its lineup is announced, since the reason for attendance is the general atmosphere and experience.
This aspect can be related, but also conflicted to the conclusions of the study conducted by Hoksbergen and Insch (2016), that showed that motivations for attending a festival differ depending on the previous festival experience. The conclusion of this study was that the most important aspect for attendees at first was to spend time with friends and the second main one was music performance, but later on in upcoming editions, the lineup became the most important one. This conclusion can be related to the results from the Brazilian participants, as Lineup was ranked as the most important aspect and the most favorite aspect about Lollapalooza Brazil. Swedish respondents also selected Lineup as their most favorite aspect about Lollapalooza. However, the festival had its first edition in Sweden, which means that they did not have any previous experience with this particular festival. Therefore, the conclusion of Hoksbergen and Insch (2016) cannot be related to that result in Sweden. On the other hand, if Lollapalooza Stockholm 2019 were similar to other music festivals in Sweden, and if the Swedish participants in this study attended other festivals before, the earlier experiences of other festivals may explain why Swedes chose Lineup as most important aspect and thus this result could be related to some extent to Hoksbergen and Insch’s (2016) findings.
It is important to understand that ‘being with friends’ is an aspect out of the control of music festivals and relates to external factors instead of a specific music festival. Because of that, this aspect was not included in question 2 of the survey. If relating to the conclusions of Hoksbergen and Insch (2016), ‘spending time with friends’ was mentioned more by the Swedish participants than by the Brazilian participants, but considering the method used, it is not possible to measure which aspect between Lineup and ‘being with friends’ is more relevant for the participants, since the latter aspect was not included in the quantitative question.
57 5.5.1 Significant differences
5.5.1.1 Most important aspects
A T-test was done to compare the means of the results in question 2. The assumption of normalization was confirmed by a Levene’s test, and a Confidence Interval of 95% was considered. The results of the tests can be found in Appendix D.
Although not ranked in the same order when comparing the results from Brazil and from Sweden in section 4.1.7, only the aspect Festival Attractions appeared to be significantly different between the two samples, which might show a weakness of the method of this study.
5.5.1.2 Favorite aspects about Lollapalooza
A T-test was done to compare the means of the results in question 11. The assumption of normalization was confirmed by a Levene’s test, and a Confidence Interval of 95% was considered. The results of the tests can be found in Appendix E.
Although not ranked in the same order when comparing the results from Brazil and from Sweden in section 4.1.8, none of the differences in rankings were significant between the two samples, which might show a weakness of the method of this study.
5.6 Adaptations
Nordvall & Heldt (2017) stated that awareness and ability to adapt to the changes in the environment is significant for a festival to be successful. Further, when it comes to a global brand and its presence in the global market, Wang (2015) and Özsomer (2012) argue that local adaptations or ‘localizations’ are necessary in order for brands to survive, especially when the culture of a country is strong (Wang, 2015). All the interviewees of this study agreed that adaptations are important, indicating that these adaptations are relevant for a global music festival. This result supports the studies by Hung et al. (2007) that concluded that although the world is becoming more global, some customers still appreciate the offerings of local brands. Additionally, Silva mentioned that the knowledge provided by local partners is essential for Lollapalooza’s success, which indicates that adjustments and adaptations are very important for the brand itself too. The importance of these business adaptations was also pointed out by Ghauri et al. (2016). However, some interviewees had objections stating that the need of adaptation differs across markets and that a global music festival should not adapt completely because it can lose its ‘globalness’.
When it comes to Lollapalooza and participants’ perceptions of its adaptations, most interviewees felt that Lollapalooza had successfully adapted to the market, both in Brazil and Sweden. The festival brings many options of Brazilian cuisine offered by famous chefs from Brazil, and tap water was not available free of charge. When it comes to food in the Swedish edition, the cuisine was somehow a mix of foreign cuisine with “[...] a touch of Swedish cuisine”. Additionally, drinkable water was offered for free throughout water fountains.
58 44% of the artists in Lollapalooza São Paulo 2019 were Brazilians (G1, 2019). Opposite to that, the Brazilian band ‘Los Hermanos’ was in the lineup of Lollapalooza Chile and Argentina 2019, but not in the Brazilian edition in that year. This forced one of the interviewees to consider going to one of the other Latin American editions to see that band since it was not announced to play in its own home country that year. This happening shows that the festival did not necessarily want to offer the Brazilian artists in its home country, but instead, presented it in another edition to perhaps maintain its global identity. This could indicate that the festival has decisions when it comes to localization or globalization.
The mix of localness and globalness is noticed in the festival, and was also mentioned by Silva, being that Lollapalooza collaborations with local marketing agencies are essential for its success, since the local agencies provide rich market information on what has to be adapted. The importance of partnerships is also noticed by He and Wang (2017), who state that partnerships can be sources for innovative strategies for music festivals.
The payments in both editions were through cashless payments. The Brazilian interviewees felt safe using it and mentioned that it was convenient to use. This factor is also highly relevant in Sweden being that the country is moving towards a cashless society (Sablik, 2018).
5.7 Customer Participation
Relating to the fantasy cycle of section 2.1.2, the first stage - creation stage - interaction is highly important, thus, interviewees of this study were asked about their interaction with Lollapalooza. Mostly, all interviewees from both Brazil and Sweden selected ‘Attending’ on the festival’s Facebook event page. Based on Lanier and Hampton (2008), it confirms that in this stage customers involvement is low and it is a beginning of creating fantasies.
Related to the second stage - the rising stage - interviewees were asked about their participation in Lollapalooza competitions, both before and at the festival. None of the Swedish interviewees participated in the online competition organized before the event, and nevertheless only one person was aware of it. In Brazil, one interviewee did participate online with the festival before the edition. Additionally, two interviewees from Sweden and one from Brazil have participated in competitions organized by sponsors at the festival. It may be noted that in the rising stage, participating in other activities in the festivals other than the music entertainment was higher among Brazilians. Further, the interviewees from Brazil could, to a higher extent, describe and talk about competitions and other activities in the festival, whereas the Swedes had little to say. This may be connected to culture differences, being that Brazilians are more participative and collectivist (Hofstede, 2001), or that the Brazilian editions of the festival have more activities. It would require more investigation to fully understand this factor.
Other ways of engagement with the festival are related to the rising and sustaining stage. Swedish interviewees mentioned listening to the festival’s playlist on the music platform ‘Spotify’ to “[...] get to know the artists that I didn't know about”. Brazilian participants on the other hand, have purchased festival’s merge as part of engagement. In these two stages, consumers start working on their engagement and their experience starts to grow, as well as, according to Lanier and Hampton (2008), it can require more time, energy, or money from the participants.
59 The decline stage was analyzed regarding completion of any Lollapalooza feedback online surveys. In this stage, customers are supposed to operate and help the organizers. However, based in our interviews, only two out of all six interviewees have filled out a feedback form that was sent by email. Therefore, the engagement and relationship towards the festival falls.
After asked about planning to attend the upcoming editions of the festival, based on terminus stage, all six interviewees plan to attend the festival again. However, for one Brazilian interviewee, this decision will depend on the price of the ticket.
Creation of different attractions in both markets appears to support customer participation and their good engagement with the festival. This leads to excitement, generates a connection between participants and the festival, and shows to result in future participation.
60 6. CONCLUSION
______Here, the conclusions of the study are presented and related to the research questions. ______
(1) What is the adaptiveness of a global music festival and how are these adaptations perceived and valued by its attendees?
- Adaptations appear to be important for both attendees from Brazil and from Sweden. From the organizational perspective, adaptations are important and work as means to meet customer expectations and needs in different markets in order to create and sustain customers satisfaction. - The main adaptations of Lollapalooza noticed from the attendees in this study were: local artists, companies, food, language, and payment methods. - Global cues were mentioned more than local cues, but it is important to point out that the festival itself might present some adaptations that are natural and common to local cultures that they are not necessarily noticed by attendees. - The survey participants of this study agree that adaptations are necessary for global music festivals. On the other hand, the tension between globalization and localization is noticed as well. Even though participants agreed that local adaptations are favorably and appreciated, a global festival should not adapt completely to not lose its globalness.
(2) How is the globalness of a global music festival being valued and influencing attendees?
- Despite the limited reach of Lollapalooza mentioned by Silva, most participants in the study perceive and consider the festival as a global music festival. The observed factors that underlie the global perception of Lollapalooza among customers have been discovered to be: the awareness of its operations worldwide, its international lineup, the usage of the English language, and the global sponsors and supporters. - The results indicate that Lollapalooza might be using global cues to take advantages of the benefits that globalness gives, thus using a Global Consumer Culture Positioning (Gammoh et al., 2011). - It has been also noted that the attendees’ perception of globalness addresses positive attributes to the brand image of the festival. Some of the attributes were: better infrastructure and organization, broader lineup, professionalism, and higher expenditures. These results go hand in hand with previous research by Gammoh et al. (2011) and Steenkamp et al. (2002), indicating that globalness along with GCCP can strengthen and enhance consumer purchase likelihood and evaluations of a brand. - However, it is important to remember that section 4.1.9 showed that the aspect Globally known festival of Lollapalooza was placed last (eighth out of eight aspects). This can indicate that even though globalness might bring positive evaluations, the globalness itself seems not to be considered more important than other factors. Thus, the results suggest that globalness has an indirect positive effect but is not consciously considered as an important factor among the attendees.
61 7. DISCUSSION
______This section addresses the practical implications, contributions, and limitations of the study. Lastly, it presents suggestions for future research. ______
7.1 Practical Implications and Contributions
This study illustrates adaptations of a global music festival and that these adaptations were perceived to be important for the customers. Therefore, global music festivals could use the findings of this study to further investigate their markets and analyze the distinct consumer behavior between their operating markets. Although the results were limited, they can be used by Swedish and Brazilian music festivals to deeper understand the preferences of their markets, such as using the findings of sections 4.1.7. Additionally, music festivals can learn that globalness and global reputation seem to have a positive effect on customers evaluations and perceptions, although local adaptations should not be ignored.
In regards to literature, this paper intends to contribute to Event Management and Event Marketing literature, and to the field of International Management.
7.2 Limitations
First, a sample should be representative of its population. However, it is unclear to what extent the samples in this study reflect the real population - all attendees of the festival Lollapalooza. Additionally, the sizes of the samples are relatively small, which limits the generalizability of this study.
Secondly, being that Brazilian interviewees preferred to have interviews in Portuguese, the research team was limited to only one member participating in their interviews. This might have led to a risk of mistranslation and misinterpretation, a risk of important information being missed, as well as a reduced number of follow-up questions.
Finally, when investigating important motivational factors and aspects of a music festival, the team was limited to eight aspects, considering the challenges of adding more aspects or allowing respondents to add their own aspects.
7.3 Future Research
Throughout this study, further topics and questions related to global music festivals have appeared. Therefore, future research could consider the points below.
First, the research team recommends an extension of this study by including more countries and markets, and using other frameworks, such as the PESTEL, together with Hofstede, to help relating the findings to global music festivals. As Silva stated, producing a festival requires
62 knowledge not only about cultures, but also about other factors such as legal factors. Additionally, as culture can be hard to capture or measure, adding observations to the mixed methods could help generating more valuable findings. Bigger samples could also bring more reliability to the study.
Secondly, after analyzing the findings of this study, other aspects of a festival could be added to the survey questions in order to understand other motivational factors that the participants have to attend a music festival. On the other hand, a study could focus fully in understanding the lineup of a festival and its relevance compared to external factors.
Lastly, this study focuses on the customer perspective. However, it would also be relevant to investigate the adaptiveness and globalness of a music festival from the management side - such as analyzing how the firm itself applies adaptations and works with its positioning strategy around the world.
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70 9. APPENDICES
Appendix A – Survey
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 Appendix B - Interview Guide Standard Questions Interview Guide Attendees Interviews Brazil & Sweden The intentions of these interviews were to gather qualitative information from attendees that had attended Lollapalooza in Brazil and in Sweden, in order to investigate their experiences and evaluations of the music festival. The structure of the interviews was semi-structured, being that most questions were prepared beforehand, however, the research team also left room for follow up questions when needed. In addition, individually questions were also developed based on the participants previous answers in the survey. The six interviews were conducted between 16th and 23th of April 2020 and lasted approximately 30 minutes each. Three were held in English and three in Portuguese. The interviewees of the study were well informed in beforehand of the purpose of the data collection and privacy issues and gave their consent to participate.
The interviews were divided into two parts. Part A consisting of the Free Association. The research team decided to start with this since it is an easy exercise for the interviewees and it also made them to open up their minds for the interview. Part B where composed with open and close-ended questions asking about brand, globalness and adaptiveness.
Below follows the interview guide including Part A and B with the pre-written questions used in the interviews.
Part A - Free Association
● When I say Lollapalooza what words pop up in your head? ● When I say Global ...Local Brand….
Part B - Deeper understanding of experiences and evaluations of Lollapalooza
Music Festival Questions
● Do you think a global music festival (that operates in several markets) has more to offer? Is more attractive? Benefits and advantages of a global music festival? Yes / No - Why?
● ‘’Global brands are growing across the world, but cultures are not expected to merge’’ → Do you think it is important for a global music festival to adapt? Why?
Lollapalooza Questions
● In the survey, you filled in that you perceive Lollapalooza as Global/Local - can you elaborate? How? Why? Describe? (Think about channels, lineups, festival architecture, collaborations, marketing, communication, values, feelings..)
81 ● If you remember back when you were at Lollapalooza, during the festival were there any global cues? (like global brands, etc.) If yes, elaborate... Were there any local cues? If yes, elaborate…
● Else than music entertainment, what was offered in the festival area? Did you participate in any other activities?
● Why did you decide to attend Lollapalooza? (we asked explicitly about 8 factors in our survey, drawn from previous research).
● Did you interact with Lollapalooza on social media? Such as selecting “attending” on the Facebook event? (creation stage)
● Did you engage with the festival in any way? (buying their clothes, gadgets, listening to the Lineup playlist on Spotify) (rising and sustaining stage)
● Did you participate in any competition for Lollapalooza? (raising stage, where they participate more with them)
● Have you completed any survey from Lollapalooza after attending the festival? (decline stage) ● ● Have you contributed to helping Lollapalooza to improve the festival? -BRAZIL
● Are you planning to go to another Lollapalooza festival? If yes, why. If no, why( are they staying loyal + the terminus stage)
● SWEDEN: We noticed that the communication on social media (Instagram) between Lollapalooza and its audience was in English? How do you feel about that? Why?
● BRAZIL: (if attended more than 1ED) Has Lollapalooza changed during the editions? What has changed?
● Do you have anything else to add?
82 Appendix C - E-mail Questionnaire Questionnaire The purpose of this questionnaire is to understand the structure and the operations of the music festival Lollapalooza. The questionnaire was sent through e-mail on the 30th of April 2020. The person answering the questions is a former marketing employee of C3 Presents (the producer of Lollapalooza). The participant was informed before about privacy and the data collection process and gave their consent to participate.
About You ➔ Tell a little bit about yourself, where and when did you work with Lollapalooza and C3?
About Lollapalooza ➔ What is Lollapalooza? How does it work around the world? Who owns the Brand Lollapalooza? ➔ What other Brands/festivals does C3 own? Is Lollapalooza the biggest and the only global one? (short answer) ➔ Does Lollapalooza have any core values? If yes, how are they implemented and how are they perceived/noticeable for consumers? ➔ How does C3 take care of Lollapalooza in all countries? Does C3 hire independent agencies? Can you elaborate? How much freedom do these partners in these countries have? ➔ Do you think this strategy/business model increases Lollapalooza’s adaptations to different cultures? ➔ Since you have been working with Lollapalooza, do you consider the brand to be a global one? If yes why? If no why not? ➔ Personally, how do you think Lollapalooza is viable in seven (rather different) markets/countries? ➔ Is there a theme in the Lollapalooza festival every year? ➔ Would you say that the infrastructure of the festival similar/dissimilar across markets?
About Your Work ➔ How was the marketing strategies you worked with? Do you recon that there is a large difference in marketing strategies across markets in regards to Lollapalooza? Or do you recon any similarities? ➔ We noticed that there is a difference in communication language across markets. In Brazil, for example, all marketing is in Portuguese (the native language), but in France, it’s mixed between French and English. Do you know what determines the language to be used in different countries?
83 Appendix D - T-test ‘Most important aspects when choosing a music festival’
84 Appendix E - T-test ‘Favorite aspects about Lollapalooza’
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