Chinook, Chum, and Whitefish Ecology in the Yukon River Basin

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Assessment: Chinook, Chum, and Whitefish Ecology in the Yukon River Basin

Jennie Morawetz

Ryke Longest, Advisor Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council, Client

April 2013

Master’s Project submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the Master of Environmental Management degree

in the Nicholas School of the Environment of

Duke University

Abstract The Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council represents the indigenous people of the Yukon River. Currently, the Watershed Council is developing a Yukon River Watershed Management Plan. The heart of the plan will be a set of measurable water quality standards designed to protect the quality and flow of the Yukon River for the benefit of the river’s people and its fish species, on which the people rely for food and for maintenance of their traditional way of life. This summer, delegates from the Tribes and First Nations will decide whether to approve the proposed plan and recommend to the individual governments a proposed model ordinance incorporating by reference the water quality standards in the plan. If they adopt the plan, the Tribes and First Nations will then need to work together to compare existing conditions against the water quality standards, among other things. For a comparison of existing conditions and the water quality standards to be meaningful, it must be done in light of information on how people and how fish use the river. The Watershed Council has focused most of its energies so far on water quality as it relates to human and community health. Given this historical focus, the Watershed Council has relatively little technical information regarding fish ecology in the Yukon basin. This Master’s Project is designed to be the first step in building that institutional knowledge. It begins with a brief overview of the Yukon basin, of the importance of clean water, and of existing water quality. It then provides a broad summary of existing ecological information on three of the Yukon’s key subsistence fish species—chinook salmon, chum salmon, and whitefish—based on a thorough literature review. It concludes by recommending that the Watershed Council prioritize four subbasins for more localized planning efforts: the Tanana River subbasin; the Koyukuk River or Lower Yukon subbasin; the Porcupine River or Chandalar River subbasin; and the Stewart River subbasin. By being at the vanguard of the watershed planning process, the indigenous people of the Yukon basin have an opportunity to be leaders in environmental protection and tribal self- determination. As a result of their efforts, a relatively pristine landscape, highly productive fisheries, and rich human traditions could be preserved for many generations to come.

Preface The goal of this master’s project is to assist the Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council with the development and implementation of a watershed management plan for the Yukon River basin. The Watershed Council is a nonprofit, grassroots organization “consisting of 70 First Nations and Tribes[] dedicated to the protection and preservation of the Yukon River watershed.”1 The organization operates pursuant to an Inter-Tribal Accord signed by First Nations and Tribes along the length of the river. To promote its existing preservation efforts and to make decisions about how best to protect the watershed going forward, the Watershed Council holds biennial summit meetings. The last summit meeting took place in August 2011 in Ruby, Alaska. Based on decisions made by Council leadership at that summit, the Watershed Council committed to developing an inter- tribal watershed management plan emphasizing water quality standards. These standards should be designed specifically to meet the objectives of the Tribes and First Nations of the Yukon River. The First Nations and Tribes are sovereign entities with rights of self-government, and the river is central to their traditional way of life. Developing water quality standards specifically tailored to their objectives, together with a management strategy, will empower the Tribes and First Nations to assert a greater role in the governance of the Yukon River watershed. This, in turn, will allow the First Nations and Tribes to ensure the Yukon River is preserved for future generations. I have tried as much as possible to tailor this project to the needs of the Watershed Council, and I would like to thank the Council staff and consultants for giving me this project and for involving me in the watershed planning process. In particular, I would like to thank John Shurts, Faon O’Connor, and Ryan Toohey. I would also like to thank my advisor, Ryke Longest, for his helpful feedback on drafts and for keeping me on track with deadlines; Christian Zimmerman, research fishery biologist at the USGS Alaska Science Center, for his pointers on getting started with the research for this project; Dani Evenson, fishery scientist at the Alaska Department of Fish & Game, for her guidance in the early stages of this project; Al von Finster, fishery biologist formerly at Fisheries and Oceans Canada, for providing me with information on

1 “About Us,” Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council, 2008, http://www.yritwc.org/About- Us/About-Us.aspx. ii salmonid populations in the Canadian portion of the Yukon basin; and Greg Halbach for his unending support of everything I do.

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Table of Contents 1. Introduction to the Assessment ...... 1 2. Overview of the Yukon River Basin ...... 6 2-1. The landscape ...... 6 2-2. The people ...... 10 3. Clean Water: The Foundation of Healthy Fisheries and Healthy Communities ...... 12 3-1. Key subsistence fish species of the Yukon basin ...... 12 3-2. Clean water, good fish habitat ...... 14 3-3. Building resiliency ...... 14 4. Existing Fish Habitat Conditions ...... 17 5. Overview of Anadromous Waters ...... 19 6. Chinook Salmon ...... 21 7. Chum Salmon ...... 31 7-1. Summer chum ...... 32 7-2. Fall chum ...... 34 7-3. Summer and fall chum outmigration ...... 37 8. Whitefish Species ...... 39 8-1. Overview of the six common whitefish species of the Yukon basin ...... 39 8-2. Spawning locations and population estimates ...... 44 8-2-1. Sheefish ...... 44 8-2-2. Broad whitefish ...... 45 8-2-3. Humpback whitefish ...... 45 8-2-4. Least cisco ...... 46 8-2-5. Bering cisco ...... 47 8-2-6. Round whitefish ...... 47 9. Recommendations ...... 48 10. Conclusion ...... 53 11. Bibliography ...... 54 Appendix: Anadromous Waters ...... 59

Tables and Figures Tables 1-1. Water Quality Standards Included in the Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council Draft Watershed Management Plan ...... 1 2-1-1. Major Subbasins of the Yukon River Basin ...... 7 6-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Chinook Run Strength, Yukon River, 1995, 1997–2011 ...... 23 6-2. Summary of Results of 2003 Radio Telemetry Study Showing Likely Spawning Locations for 884 Chinook Tagged Near Russian Mission, Alaska ...... 25 7-1-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Summer Chum Run Strength, Yukon River, 1995, 1997–2011 ...... 33 7-2-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Fall Chum Run Strength, Yukon River, 1995, 1997–2011 .....36 7-2-2. Estimated Contribution of Key Spawning Areas to Total Fall Chum Run, 1974–2008 .....37 8-1-1. Overview of Key Life History Traits of the Six Common Whitefish Species of the Yukon Basin ...... 43 9-1. Subbasins Recommended for Initial Watershed Planning ...... 50 A-1. Named Streams in the Alaska Portion of the Yukon Basin Containing Chinook, Chum, and/or Whitefish, According to Alaska’s Anadromous Waters Catalog ...... 60 Figures 2-1-1. Location of the Yukon River Basin ...... 6 2-1-2. Major Subbasins of the Yukon River Basin ...... 8 2-1-3. Some Major Tributaries of the Yukon River ...... 8 2-1-4. Yukon River Delta ...... 9 2-2-1. Towns and Roads of the Yukon River Basin ...... 10 3-1-1. Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) ...... 12 3-1-2. Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) ...... 13 3-1-3. Yukon River Basin Whitefish Species ...... 14 6-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Chinook Run Timing, Yukon River, 2008–2012 ...... 22 7-1-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Summer Chum Run Timing, Yukon River, 2008–2012 ...... 33 7-2-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Fall Chum Run Timing, Yukon River, 2008–2012 ...... 35 8-1-1. Pearl Tubercles on a Minnow ...... 41 9-1. Location of Subbasins Recommended for Initial Watershed Planning ...... 51 A-1. Extent of Adult Chinook Salmon Utilization in the Yukon River Basin, Canada ...... 74 Note: The maps in figures 2-1-1, 2-1-2, 2-1-3, 2-2-1, and 9-1 were created in Quantum GIS using USGS data downloaded from http://agdc.usgs.gov/data/usgs/water/yukon.html and the North American Atlas – Hydrography data downloadable at http://www.nationalatlas.gov/atlasftp.html?openChapters=chpwater#chpwater.

1. Introduction to the Assessment The Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council is in the process of developing a Watershed Management Plan for the Yukon River. A draft of this basin-wide plan will be presented to the Watershed Council leadership at the 2013 Summit in Mayo, Yukon Territory, along with a model ordinance that the Tribes and First Nations may choose to adopt should they wish to implement the plan. The centerpiece of the draft Watershed Management Plan is a proposed set of measurable water quality standards that embody the Tribes’ and First Nations’ vision for the Yukon River: a river substantially unaltered from natural conditions that sustains the health and prosperity of the people of the Yukon basin. Included are standards designed to protect directly the health of the people who drink from and otherwise use the river, as well standards designed to protect the health of the river’s aquatic life, particularly the fish species on which the people of the Yukon basin rely for food. An overview of the water quality standards is presented in Table 1-1 below. The text of some of the standards has been shortened from what is included in the draft Watershed Management Plan. Table 1-1. Water Quality Standards Included in the Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council Draft Watershed Management Plan.1 Water Quality Parameter Standard General The Yukon River will be substantially unaltered from natural conditions in terms of quantity, quality, and rate of flow, including seasonal and daily rates of flow and flow patterns, within normal environmental variation as that changes over time. Flow In the mainstem and tributaries, the Yukon River will be substantially unaltered from natural hydrographic conditions. Temperature The baseline standard is naturally occurring temperatures. Specific numerical standards may be developed locally. Local standards must not allow temperatures to exceed a 7-day average of the daily maximum temperatures greater than 13°C in spawning and incubation areas and 15°C in rearing areas for key fish species.

1 To develop these standards, the Watershed Council drew from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations and guidelines, as well as from existing water quality standards used by the States of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska and by a number of the indigenous nations in the Columbia River Basin, including the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, the Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation of Oregon, the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, and the Spokane Tribe of Indians. Additionally, the Watershed Council drew from the water quality guidelines promulgated by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. The standards are intended to be rigorous, but also consistent with the legal and regulatory regimes of the Yukon River basin’s other sovereign governments (United States, State of Alaska, Canada, and Yukon Territory). 1

Dissolved Oxygen In active spawning areas, the 7-day mean minimum target level for total dissolved oxygen from spawning through fry emergence is 11.0 mg/L or more. However, if the minimum intergravel dissolved oxygen concentration, measured as a spatial median, is determined to be 8.0 mg/L or greater, then the dissolved oxygen standard may be as low as 9.0 mg/L. In any event, the spatial median intergravel dissolved oxygen concentration must not fall below 8.0 mg/L. Where natural conditions preclude attainment of the 11.0 mg/L or 9.0 mg/L standard, dissolved oxygen may not be less than 95% of saturation.

In other areas of the river, the total dissolved oxygen concentration may not be less than 8.0 mg/L. Where natural conditions preclude attainment of this standard, dissolved oxygen may not be less than 90% of saturation.

On a case-by-case basis, upon demonstration that aquatic life will not be adversely affected, the dissolved oxygen standard in a particular stream reach may be revised to require that the dissolved oxygen concentration not fall below 8.0 mg/L as a 30-day mean minimum, 6.5 mg/L as a 7-day average minimum, and 6.0 mg/L as an absolute minimum. Fecal Coliform Bacteria In a 30-day period, the geometric mean may not exceed 20 colony-forming units/100 mL, and not more than 10% of the samples may exceed 40 colony- forming units/100 mL. Total Dissolved Solids Total dissolved solids may not exceed 250 mg/L. pH Human-induced variation of pH within the range of 6.5 to 8.5 must be less than 0.5 pH units. Natural pH outside this range must be maintained without change. Natural pH above 7.0 must be maintained above 7.0. Radioactivity Human activity may not cause radioactive materials to be present in surface waters in excess of natural quantities. Turbidity There may be no increase above naturally occurring turbidity so as to threaten or impair designated uses or aquatic biota. Residues Residues are not allowed in surface waters in concentrations or amounts that impair designated uses, cause nuisance or objectionable conditions, result in undesirable or nuisance species, or produce objectionable odor or taste. All waters must be free from visible oils, scum, foam, grease, and other floating and suspended substances resulting from other than natural causes. Residues from petroleum hydrocarbons, oil, and grease may not cause a visible sheen upon the surface of the water. Sediment There may be no measurable increase in the concentration of settleable solids above natural conditions. The formation of appreciable bottom or sludge deposits or the formation of any organic or inorganic deposits deleterious to fish or other aquatic life or injurious to public health, recreation, or industry is not allowed. Toxic Substances Toxic substances may not be introduced above natural background levels in waters of the Yukon River basin in amounts, concentrations, or combinations that may be harmful, may chemically change to harmful forms in the environment, or may accumulate in sediments or bioaccumulate in aquatic life or wildlife to levels that adversely affect public health, safety, and welfare; aquatic life; wildlife; or designated beneficial uses.

[Note: Table A in the Watershed Management Plan provides specific human health and aquatic life standards for over 150 toxic substances that may occur in the Yukon River.]

The standards designed to protect the health of the river’s fish species would indirectly protect the health and prosperity of the people, not only by helping to preserve an important food source, but also by ensuring the fish are safe to eat. Because fish are at or near the top of the aquatic food chain, they can bioaccumulate toxic substances, which can make them unsafe for human consumption, particularly in large quantities. Minimizing the levels of toxic substances in the Yukon watershed would help ensure food safety. 2 Additionally, all the water quality standards could, indirectly, promote plant and wildlife health throughout the basin, since achieving the standards would require minimizing the effect of ecologically disruptive activities, such as logging and mining. Like healthy fish, healthy plants and wildlife contribute to the health and prosperity of the people, whose traditional way of life depends upon the ecological integrity of the Yukon basin. Should the Council leadership decide to adopt the Watershed Management Plan, the next step will, of course, be implementation. As noted above, the plan will be accompanied by a model ordinance incorporating by reference the water quality standards, which the Tribes and First Nations may choose to adopt. In addition to the standards, the model ordinance provides that the Tribes and First Nations may, individually or collectively, enter into cooperative agreements with government agencies, tribal organizations, NGOs, and other relevant entities in order to secure recognition of the water quality standards. Thus, one key aspect of implementation would be the ongoing process of securing basin-wide acceptance of the water quality standards by all relevant government entities. As the water quality standards gain acceptance, the Tribes and First Nations would want to move forward to ensure the water quality standards are enforced, either by the Tribes and First Nations or by an appropriate government agency. Therefore, a second key aspect of implementation would be laying the groundwork for enforcement—namely, assessing existing conditions against the water quality standards; identifying threats to water quality; taking action to address threats and to improve/protect water quality; and conducting ongoing monitoring and evaluation. Historically, the Watershed Council has been focused on water quality as it relates to human and community health. Specifically, the Watershed Council has worked to relate water

2 Of course, minimizing the levels of toxic substances in the Yukon River drainage cannot by itself ensure the fish are safe to eat, since salmon and many whitefish spend time feeding and growing in the ocean. 3

quality conditions to possible contamination sources in and around the Yukon River’s communities. For several years, the Watershed Council staff, with the help of Yukon basin community members, has been collecting water quality data throughout the Yukon basin, and the Watershed Council has a sizeable water quality database.3 The Watershed Council’s database together with U.S. Geological Survey water quality data make the Watershed Council well positioned to numerically compare existing water quality against the water quality standards. However, to truly be meaningful, such comparisons must be done in light of information on how people and how fish use the river, as this information is crucial to understanding the relative severity of threats to water quality, as well as to allocating resources devoted to responding to threats and to conducting ongoing monitoring. The Watershed Council has a good understanding of where and how the people of the Yukon basin use the river. By contrast, the Watershed Council as an institution has little technical information regarding fish ecology in the Yukon basin, including such information as where fish are and when, and what type of habitat conditions they need given their life stage. This is so even though particular individuals and communities in the basin may have such information from experience for discrete portions of the basin. This Assessment is intended as a first step in gathering, organizing, and building that institutional knowledge. The Assessment provides a broad summary of existing information on the ecology of three key subsistence fish species in the Yukon basin—chinook salmon, chum salmon, and whitefish.4 Overall, the data available to draw from was limited, in part because much of the data collection in the Yukon basin has been motivated by fisheries management considerations rather than a goal of gaining a better understanding of Yukon freshwater ecology.5 Additionally, the available data is unevenly distributed among the focal species, with the most information being available for chinook, followed by chum, with whitefish trailing a very distant third. This information distribution reflects the species relative commercial importance. Additionally, low

3 The database is publicly accessible via the following link: http://www.yritwc.dsys.ca. 4 The term whitefish as used in this Assessment actually refers to six different species. See Figure 3-1-3 and Section 8. 5 Only recently have researchers begun to focus on the role of freshwater ecology, as opposed to fishing pressure, in controlling Yukon basin fish populations. Christian E. Zimmerman & Charles C. Krueger, “Ecology of Pacific Salmon: Introduction,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 13. 4

returns of Yukon River salmon in the late 1990s generated a flurry of chinook and chum studies, but there has not (yet) been a great impetus for whitefish data collection. Readers are encouraged to keep these caveats in mind as they read the Assessment. Given the basin-wide scope of this Assessment, it necessarily sacrifices some detail for the sake of both breadth and brevity. Consequently, it will need to be followed up by more localized planning efforts that describe in greater detail how fish use local streams and what the water quality and other habitat characteristics are, and then use this more detailed information in the development of appropriate local management frameworks. To that end, the Assessment concludes by recommending, based on the information presented in the Assessment, how the Watershed Council might go about defining and prioritizing planning efforts at smaller scales. However, it is important to keep in mind that, consistent with the basin-wide scope of the Watershed Management Plan and this Assessment, the goal of local planning efforts is not only to improve and protect water quality at local scales, but also to help ensure the health and resiliency of the watershed as a whole.

2. Overview of the Yukon River Basin 2-1. The landscape Flowing through northwest Canada and central Alaska, the Yukon River is over 2,300 miles (3,700 km) long (Figure 2-1-1).6 The Yukon basin is the fourth largest drainage basin in North America by area, draining over 330,000 square miles (855,000 square kilometers).7 Figure 2-1-1. Location of the Yukon River Basin.

The Yukon River originates near Atlin Lake in northwestern British Columbia.8 From there it flows northwest through the Canada-Alaska border. As it flows past Fort Yukon, Alaska, the

6 Danielle F. Evenson et al., “Yukon River Chinook Salmon: Stock Status, Harvest, and Management,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 678. 7 Timothy P. Brabets et al., “Environmental and Hydrologic Overview of the Yukon River Basin, Alaska and Canada” (Anchorage, AK: U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4204, 2000), 1, 7. The Yukon River is the fifth largest drainage basin in North American in terms of average discharge. Ibid., 7. 8 Ibid., 7. 6

river briefly crosses the Arctic Circle before bending toward the south and flowing predominately southwest until emptying into the Bering Sea.9 Unsurprisingly given its size, the Yukon River basin is quite diverse, encompassing 20 different ecoregions, or areas with similar natural features.10 Among these ecoregions, topographies range from high, rugged mountains to soggy lowlands.11 Precipitation ranges from less than 10 inches per year to 130 inches per year.12 Roughly half the land is needleleaf forest, but the basin also includes a wide variety of other land cover types, including shrubs, lichens, and grasses.13 Roughly 30% of the basin is wetlands.14 In addition, the basin includes a variety of rock types, soil types, and levels of permafrost.15 The Yukon River basin contains 13 major subbasins, which are listed in Table 2-1-1 and illustrated in Figure 2-1-2. Table 2-1-1. Major Subbasins of the Yukon River Basin.16 Percent of Total Yukon Percent Total Yukon Subbasin River Basin Area River Flow Yukon Headwaters 4.0 5.1 Teslin River 4.1 5.2 Pelly River 5.8 6.2 Stewart River 6.2 7.2 White River 5.6 9.2 Upper Yukon 8.8 4.3 Porcupine River 14.0 9.7 Chandalar River 4.3 3.2 East Central Yukon 8.5 6.5 Tanana River 13.7 19.6 Koyukuk River 10.9 12.0 West Central Yukon 6.5 6.9 Lower Yukon 7.6 4.9

9 Ibid., 7, 8 fig. 5A, 9 fig. 5B. 10 Ibid., 36. 11 Ibid., 16, 17 fig. 8, 18–19. 12 Ibid., 20, 21 fig. 9. 13 Ibid., 25 & table 3, 26 fig. 11, 27. 14 Ibid., 103. 15 Ibid., 22, 23 fig. 10, 24, 28, 29 fig. 12, 30–32, 33 fig. 13. 16 Modified from ibid., 48 table 5, 56 table 7. Percent total flow is percentage of total Yukon River flow at Pilot Station, Alaska. Ibid., 56. 7

Figure 2-1-2. Major Subbasins of the Yukon River Basin.

The location of some of the Yukon River’s major tributaries within these subbasins is shown below in Figure 2-1-3. Figure 2-1-3. Some Major Tributaries of the Yukon River.

The Tanana and White Rivers are both glacial, and together they account for nearly 30% of the Yukon River’s total flow and much of its suspended sediment.17 Each year, about 20 million tons

17 Ibid., 56 table 7, 66. 8

of suspended sediment is deposited on floodplains and braided stretches of the Yukon.18 The flow of both water and sediment is greatest during the summer months, when the river is fed by lake, snowmelt, and glacier runoff.19 Near the mouth, the average total discharge is nearly 600,000 cubic feet of water per second in May, when runoff is at its peak, and it declines gradually over the course of the summer and fall.20 Between December and April, when much of the basin is frozen, the average total discharge is less than 100,000 cubic feet of water per second.21 A large, fan-shaped delta is located at the mouth of the Yukon River (Figure 2-1-4). Figure 2-1-4. Yukon River Delta.22

In the delta, three large distributaries—Kwikluak Pass (South Mouth), Kawanak Pass (Middle Mouth), and Apoon Pass (North Mouth)—and numerous smaller distributaries convey the river’s flow into the sea.23 The estuarine habitats of the Yukon River basin are the areas within and near

18 Ibid., 103. 19 Ibid., 50, 72. 20 Ibid., 57 fig. 21. 21 Ibid. 22 Copyright 2005 by Dr. William A. Bowen, California Geographical Survey (http://geogdata.csun.edu). Yukon Delta – Alakanuk. Reprinted with permission. 23 Douglas J. Martin et al., “Distribution, Seasonal Abundance, and Feeding Dependencies of Juvenile Salmon and Non-Salmonid Fishes in the Yukon River Delta,” 1986, in Outer 9

the mouths of these distributaries where river current meets with the ocean tide. A “delta platform” extends from the coastline to as far as 30km offshore; this area has a gently sloping bottom and shallow water.24 Beyond that, the depth of the water increases.25 2-2. The people Approximately 126,000 people reside in the Yukon River basin.26 Approximately 23,000 of these people live in Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, and approximately 84,000 live in the greater Fairbanks, Alaska area.27 The remaining residents are scattered in roughly 80 small, rural villages located throughout the Yukon River basin.28 The major towns and roads of the Yukon basin are shown below in Figure 2-2-1. Figure 2-2-1. Towns and Roads of the Yukon River Basin.

Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program: Final Reports of Principal Investigators 55 (AK: U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1988), 399. Kwikluak Pass is the largest distributary, passing nearly two-thirds of the total flow. Kawanak Pass is the second largest, and Apoon Pass the third. Randy J. Brown et al., “Whitefish Biology, Distribution, and Fisheries in the Yukon and Kuskokwim River Drainages in Alaska: A Synthesis of Available Information” (Fairbanks, AK: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Alaska Fisheries Data Series 2012-4, 2012), 66. 24 Martin et al., 1986, 399. 25 Ibid. 26 Brabets et al., 12. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid.; Evenson et al., 676. 10

The rural villages average fewer than 300 residents, mostly indigenous people leading subsistence lifestyles.29 Total, approximately 20,000 indigenous people “subsist and depend upon the entire [Yukon River] watershed for their traditional and cultural survival.”30 Among other things, they use the river for drinking, bathing, ceremonies, transportation, and—most relevant to this Assessment—sustenance.

29 Brabets et al., 12; Evenson et al., 676. 30 Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council, “Yukon River Unified Watershed Assessment” (Anchorage, AK, 2000), 1. 11

3. Clean Water: The Foundation of Healthy Fisheries and Healthy Communities 3-1. Key subsistence fish species of the Yukon basin The Yukon River drainage is home to a number of fish species essential to the physical, economic, and cultural health of the indigenous people. Looking at the basin as a whole, the most important fish species for subsistence purposes are chinook salmon, chum salmon, and the whitefish species, all members of the Salmonidae family. Figure 3-1-1. Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha).31

Ocean Life Stage

Spawning Life Stage

31 Copyright Joseph R. Tomelleri. Reprinted with permission. 12

Figure 3-1-2. Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus keta).32

Ocean Life Stage

Spawning Life Stage

32 Copyright Joseph R. Tomelleri. Reprinted with permission. 13

Figure 3-1-3. Yukon River Basin Whitefish Species.33

3-2. Clean water, good fish habitat Of all the uses to which indigenous people put the Yukon River, fishing is probably the most inextricably linked to water quality. To sustain fish populations, suitable fish habitat must be maintained throughout the Yukon basin, and a crucial element of suitable fish habitat is clean water. The water quality standards in the Watershed Management Plan (Table 1-1) define what constitutes clean water—in essence, water free from toxic substances and other unhealthy constituents, with proper flow, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and sediment levels. Maintaining water quality, the foundation for healthy fish populations, is critical to maintaining healthy people and healthy communities throughout the Yukon basin. 3-3. Building resiliency Chinook, chum, and whitefish in the Yukon basin are organized into semi-discrete local populations, defined largely by spawning location. Population structure for all the species is

33 Randy J. Brown, U.S Fish & Wildlife Service. Six Common Whitefish Species in the Yukon and Kuskokwim River Drainages in Alaska. Reprinted with permission. 14

dynamic34: local populations are constantly shifting, and basin-wide abundances fluctuate naturally over time. To ensure the basin-wide population of each species can adapt to a changing environment, it is critical to protect diversity both within and among local populations.35 Protecting diversity requires protecting diverse spawning, rearing, and feeding habitats throughout the basin,36 which, of course, means ensuring clean water throughout the basin. Even very localized habitat degradation can impact species diversity, though this is more likely to be the case for species whose local populations are more differentiated,37 such as chinook.38 Species such as chum that have less differentiated local populations over a broad geographic area might not be quite as sensitive.39 In other words, because local populations of chinook are genetically more different from one another than are local populations of chum, the loss of one local population of chinook results in the loss of more unique genetic material than does the loss of one local population of chum.

34 Thomas P. Quinn, “Pacific Salmon Population Structure and Dynamics: A Perspective from Bristol Bay on Life History Variation Across Spatial and Temporal Scales,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 867. 35 Fred M. Utter et al., “Population Genetics and the Management of Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Salmon Populations,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 98–99; Robin S. Waples, “Conserving the Evolutionary Legacy of Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Salmon,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 136. 36 Daniel E. Schindler & Lauren A. Rogers, “Responses of Pacific Salmon Populations to Climate Variation in Freshwater Ecosystems,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 1139. 37 Jeffrey B. Olsen et al., “Variation in the Population Structure of Yukon River Chum and Coho Salmon: Evaluating the Potential Impact of Localized Habitat Degradation,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 133 (2004): 481–82. 38 Utter et al., 117. 39 Olsen et al., 481–82. 15

In the coming decades, chinook, chum, and whitefish in the Yukon basin are likely to be affected by large-scale stressors. The climate of the Yukon River basin is changing,40 and different populations will likely respond differently to climate change.41 Additionally, fishing will continue to exert pressure on Yukon basin fish populations going forward. Quantity, quality, and diversity of habitat will allow for greater species resiliency. Consequently, as the basin-wide scope of the Watershed Management Plan suggests, all potential habitats should be protected, since the areas used for feeding, spawning, and rearing may shift over time,42 especially with changing climate conditions and fishing practices.

40 Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council, “Unified Watershed Assessment,” 11. 41 Schindler & Rogers, 1138. 42 Quinn, 867. 16

4. Existing Fish Habitat Conditions Water quality in the Yukon basin naturally varies both spatially and temporally.43 Many sources note that habitat conditions in the Yukon River basin are relatively pristine,44 and this is largely true, especially when the Yukon River is compared to the more developed streams of British Columbia and the western United States. Nevertheless, some sources, especially sources based on the traditional knowledge of indigenous people, suggest that water quality is at least threatened in certain places within the Yukon River drainage. In 2002, the Watershed Council prepared a Unified Watershed Assessment, a document designed to be a first step in helping the Council “to gain an understanding of the changes in the Yukon River’s condition and to begin documenting these changes in a traditional and culturally sensitive matter.”45 The Unified Watershed Assessment points out that “the Yukon River Watershed is threatened by impacts and pollution from multiple sources of contamination,” particularly military bases, mining operations, sewage disposal, and tourism.46 Additionally, in forested areas of the drainage, logging may be a threat to water quality. In some places, water quality may already be impaired and impacting fish populations. In 2000–2001, Lisa Fox interviewed indigenous people living in Eagle and Circle, Alaska, and found that many felt fish populations were being adversely affected by activities that impair water quality, such as mining and boating.47 In 2001, Catherine Moncrieff and Jill Klein interviewed knowledgeable elders and fishers in four villages in the lower basin—Alakanuk, Saint Mary’s, Holy Cross, and Nulato.48 They found that throughout the study area, people were

43 Brabets et al., 94, 97. 44 For example, see Brabets et al., 14; Fred J. Bue et al., “Yukon River Fall Chum Salmon Fisheries: Management, Harvest, and Stock Abundance,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 722; Evenson et al., 676; R.R. Holder & D. Senecal-Albrecht, “Yukon River Comprehensive Salmon Plan for Alaska” (Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of Fish & Game, 1998), 42. 45 Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council, “Unified Watershed Assessment,” 2. 46 Ibid., 10–11. 47 Lisa M. Fox, “Collection of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) Regarding Subsistence Fisheries in the Eagle and Circle Areas of Interior Alaska” (Anchorage, AK: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Office of Subsistence Management, Fisheries Resource Monitoring Program, Final Report No. FIS00-102, 2002), 18. 48 Catherine F. Moncrieff & Jill Klein, “Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Salmon Along the Yukon River” (Anchorage, AK: Yukon River Drainage Fisheries Association, 2003), 1. 17

concerned about pollution in the river, particularly in spawning areas.49 Some felt increased pollution was a cause of reduced salmon runs.50 In sum, those closest to the river have indicated that water quality may be threatening, possibly even adversely affecting, fish populations. However, even if this were not the case, it is important not to be complacent, as it is far easier to prevent declines of fish populations than to reverse them, particularly if the declines are due to habitat degradation.51 To this end, the Watershed Management Plan is designed to protect, and where necessary to improve, water quality throughout the Yukon basin.

49 Ibid., 25. 50 Ibid., 25, 33–34. 51 David Policansky, “Sustaining Salmon: East, West, and North,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 1103. 1 8

5. Overview of Anadromous Waters Within the Yukon drainage, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) has jurisdiction over the watershed in Alaska. ADF&G is required by statute to identify “the various rivers, lakes, and streams or parts of them that are important for the spawning, rearing, or migration of anadromous fish.”52 The waters identified to date are presented in the Anadromous Waters Catalog,53 which is available on the ADF&G website.54 Anyone may nominate streams to the Anadromous Waters Catalog.55 Many Yukon drainage waters are listed in the Anadromous Waters Catalog. However, ADF&G believes that statewide, less than half of the waters used by anadromous fish species have been identified and included in the Catalog,56 which suggests there could be quite a few Yukon basin anadromous waters yet to be identified. Nonetheless, the Anadromous Waters Catalog is the most comprehensive database of where fish occur in the Yukon basin, and in what life stage, and as such it provides a useful overview of chinook, chum, and whitefish ecology in the Alaska portion of the drainage. Table A-1 in the Appendix lists, alphabetically, the 400-plus named streams in the Yukon River basin, Alaska, that contain chinook, chum, and whitefish according to the Anadromous Waters Catalog. In order to keep the table a manageable size, unnamed tributaries were not included, nor was more precise information about the reaches within the named streams where the fish occur. Readers interested in this additional level of detail should consult the Anadromous Waters Catalog.

52 Alaska Stat. § 16.05.871(a) (2012). Persons or agencies wishing to conduct potentially disruptive activities in identified anadromous waters must get approval from ADF&G, which will grant a Fish Habitat Permit only if fish will be adequately protected. Alaska Stat. § 16.05.871(b)–(d); J.J. Johnson & Paul Blanche, “Catalog of Waters Important for Spawning, Rearing, or Migration of Anadromous Fishes – Interior Region, Effective June 1, 2012” (Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Division of Sport Fish and Habitat, Special Publication No. 12-05, 2012), 4–6. 53 Alaska Admin. Code tit. 5, § 95.011 (2012). 54 The website contains downloadable paper copies of the Atlas, as well as downloadable maps and an interactive mapping tool. GIS data is available for download as well. See http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/SARR/AWC/index.cfm?ADFG=main.home. 55 The nomination form is available at “Nomination Form,” Alaska Department of Fish & Game, 2012, http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/SARR/AWC/index.cfm?ADFG=noms.home. 56 See discussion at “Overview of Anadromous Waters Catalog,” Alaska Department of Fish & Game, 2012, http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/SARR/AWC. 19

Looking at Table A-1, it appears that the information for chinook and chum is substantially more complete than the information for whitefish. Only sheefish is sometimes distinguished from the general “whitefish” category,57 and there is very little information regarding where any sheefish or whitefish are spawning and rearing, as opposed to simply present. Additionally, since fisheries research in the Yukon basin historically has focused much more on salmon than on whitefish, the list of streams in the catalog where whitefish presence has been confirmed is undoubtedly quite incomplete. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, in partnership with the Government of Yukon, had a database comparable to the Anadromous Waters Catalog known as the Yukon Fisheries Information Summary System (FISS); unfortunately, it was not maintained and updated.58 However, because of the commercial and subsistence importance of chinook, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada has a spreadsheet containing the documented upstream extent of chinook spawning in the Yukon River basin, Canada, based on scientific literature. In the Appendix, the information contained in the spreadsheet is illustrated in Figure A-1.59

57 The Anadromous Waters Catalog has species codes for the other anadromous whitefish species that occur in the Yukon basin (broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, Bering cisco, and least cisco), but these species are not listed in the catalog as occurring in any of the named anadromous waters of the Yukon basin, a major deficiency. 58 Al von Finster, retired Resource Restoration Biologist, Oceans, Habitat, and Enhancement Branch, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, e-mail message to author, January 14, 2013. A cumbersome mapping tool based on the FISS is available at http://cmnmaps.ca/FISS_Yukon. 59 Interested readers may be able to obtain a copy of the spreadsheet by contacting Sean Collins, Resource Restoration Biologist, Salmonid Enhancement Program, Ecosystem Management Branch, Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 20

6. Chinook Salmon Subsistence salmon fisheries have been a part of the food and culture of the Yukon basin’s indigenous people for centuries.60 The vast majority of chinook harvested by indigenous people each year is used for human consumption, though scraps or small fish may be fed to dogs,61 which provide the traditional means of winter transportation in the Yukon basin and which remain an important part of native communities.62 Additionally, starting in the early 20th century and intensifying in the 1970s, many indigenous people fished commercially for salmon, including chinook, often using their earnings to purchase supplies for subsistence hunting and fishing. In recent years, however, declining salmon runs and an increase in farmed fish on the global market have threatened this practice.63 Each summer beginning in mid to late May, shortly after breakup of the winter ice, and continuing through mid-July, tens of thousands of mature chinook enter the Yukon River from the Bering Sea and migrate upstream to spawn.64 Most of these fish are 5 or 6 years old.65 The majority of the fish enter the river between mid-June and mid-July.66 The Alaska Department of Fish & Game (ADF&G) operates a sonar project at Pilot Station, Alaska—123 miles upstream of the Yukon River mouth—to estimate the daily upstream passage of different salmon species.67 Each year, the Pilot Station sonar estimates provide a rough idea of the annual run size as well as

60 Robert J. Wolfe & Joseph Spaeder, “People and Salmon of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Drainages and Norton Sound in Alaska: Fishery Harvests, Culture Change, and Local Knowledge Systems,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 350, 353. 61 Ibid., 366. 62 Holder & Senecal-Albrecht, 76–77. If contaminants from the water become present in fish, they could affect dogs that consume the fish similarly to the people who consume the fish. Kriya L. Dunlap et al., “Hair Analysis in Sled Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) Illustrates a Linkage of Mercury Exposure Along the Yukon River with Human Subsistence Food Systems,” Science of the Total Environment 385 (2007): 81. 63 Holder & Senecal-Albrecht, 18; Wolfe & Spaeder, 350. 64 Evenson et al., 675–76. 65 Ibid., 676. 66 Ibid., 675–76. 67 Ibid., 679; United States and Canada Yukon River Joint Technical Committee, “Yukon River Salmon 2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook” (Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Regional Information Report 3A12-01, 2012), 36. Photos of the sonar site are available at http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=sonar.site_media&site=12#!prettyPhoto. 21

timing.68 Between mid-June and mid-July, there is considerable inter-annual variability in run timing, as shown in Figure 6-1. Additionally, the run strength can vary widely from year to year, as shown in Table 6-1. The reasons for the large inter-annual variability in run strength are only beginning to be understood.69 Figure 6-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Chinook Run Timing, Yukon River, 2008–2012.70 18000" 2008" 16000" 2009" 14000" 2010" 12000"

10000" 2011"

8000" 2012"

6000" Passing)Pilot)Station) 4000" Estimated)Number)of)Chinook) 2000"

0" 6/15" 6/20" 6/25" 6/30" 7/5" 7/10" 7/15" Date)

68 Evenson et al., 679. 69 Charles C. Krueger et al., “Ecology and Management of Western Alaska Pacific Salmon: Introduction to the Proceedings,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 4. 70 Data downloaded from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/FishCounts/index.cfm?adfg=main.home. 22

Table 6-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Chinook Run Strength, Yukon River, 1995, 1997– 2011.71 Year Estimated Number of Chinook Passing Pilot Station 2012 106,731 2011 107,027 2010 113,410 2009 122,990 2008 130,643 2007 125,553 2006 169,403 2005 159,441 2004 156,606 2003 268,537 2002 123,213 2001 99,403 2000 44,428 1999 144,723 1998 87,852 1997 195,647 1995 169,945

Like all Pacific salmon, chinook tend to return to their river of origin to spawn.72 This tendency to “home” has resulted in the development of separate populations of chinook within the Yukon River basin, organized geographically by spawning area.73 These populations are genetically distinct.74 Generally speaking, the different spawning populations become more distinct as the geographical distance between their spawning grounds increases.75 At a basin- wide scale, the populations of chinook are organized into two major groups: populations

71 Estimates for 1995–2011 were taken from Appendix A2 in Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 97, and data for 2012 was estimated based on the Pilot Station data downloaded from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/FishCounts/index.cfm?adfg=main.home. The Pilot Station sonar project did not operate at full capacity in 1996, so there is not a passage estimate for that year. Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 97. Because of changes in methodology, data collected prior to 1995 is not directly comparable to the years shown in Table 6-1. Ibid., 36. 72 C. Groot & L. Margolis, preface to Pacific Salmon Life Histories, ed. C. Groot & L. Margolis (Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, 1991), ix. 73 Ibid.; Evenson et al., 676. 74 Evenson et al., 676; Krueger et al., 6. 75 Krueger et al., 6. 23

spawning the Alaska portion of the drainage and populations spawning in the Canadian portion of the drainage.76 Fish from Canadian populations appear to comprise roughly half the annual run of Yukon River chinook.77 Chinook entering the Yukon early in the run tend to be headed to spawning sites further upriver—such as the Canadian portion of the Yukon, the Porcupine River subbasin, and the Tanana River subbasin—than fish entering the river later in the run.78 Canada-bound chinook generally reach the border sometime in July and spawn in July through early September.79 Spawning grounds are located in portions of the mainstem and in tributaries throughout the basin, including locations as far as 1900 miles upstream.80 In the Canadian portion of the Yukon basin alone, chinook have been observed spawning at over 100 different locations.81 However, some streams support larger spawning populations than others. In a 2003 radio telemetry study conducted by Ted Spencer of ADF&G and John Eiler of the National Marine Fisheries Service, 884 fish tagged near Russian Mission, Alaska were tracked to locations at or near their spawning grounds. 82 This study provides a reasonably good indication of key spawning locations for chinook, though it does not account for spawning tributaries that drain into the Yukon River below Russian Mission, such as the Andreafsky River. A summary of the results of the study is provided in Table 6-2.

76 Evenson et al., 676; Utter et al., 107. This fact is, of course, very convenient for fisheries management. 77 Michael J. Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History, Habitat, and the Production of Chinook Salmon from the Upper Yukon Basin,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 25; Evenson et al., 683. 78 J.H. Eiler et al., “Distribution and Movement Patterns of Chinook Salmon Returning to the Yukon River Basin in 2000–2002” (Seattle, WA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-148, 2004), 23–24; Utter et al., 117. 79 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 25; Al von Finster, “Notes on Fish and Fish Habitat of the Waters of the Yukon Territory” (Yukon Territory: Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Region Evergreen Paper, 2003), 6–7, 12. 80 Evenson et al., 676. 81 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 25. 82 United States and Canada Yukon River Joint Technical Committee, “Yukon River Salmon 2003 Season Review and 2004 Outlook” (Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Regional Information Report 3A04-09, 2004), § 6.1.5; Ted R. Spencer & John H. Eiler, “Estimation of Abundance and Distribution of Chinook Salmon in the Yukon River Using Radio Telemetry and Mark Recapture Techniques” (Anchorage, AK: Artic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Sustainable Salmon Initiative Final Report, Project No. 45224, 2004). 24

Table 6-2. Summary of Results of 2003 Radio Telemetry Study Showing Likely Spawning Locations for 884 Chinook Tagged Near Russian Mission, Alaska.83 Location Tracked To Percentage of 884 Tagged Fish Upper Yukon River (Canada) 46.8% - Key tributaries (>3.0% of total fish tagged): - 36.0% to Upper Yukon tributaries Stewart, Pelly, Big Salmon, and Teslin Rivers. - 8.4% to mainstem areas - 2.4% unknown - Other tributaries: Chandindu, Klondike, White, Nordenskiold, Little Salmon Rivers; Big Creek, Tatchun Creek; headwater areas upriver of Yukon-Teslin River confluence. Upper Yukon River (U.S.) 8.6% - Key tributary (>3.0% of total fish tagged): - 5.1% to tributaries Chandalar River. - 3.5% to mainstem areas

- Other tributaries: Beaver Creek; Charley, Kandik, and Nation Rivers. Porcupine River (U.S. and Canada) 5.9% (most to tributaries) - Canadian Tributaries: Miner, Whitestone, - 3.4% to Canadian locations Fishing Branch, and Old Crow Rivers. - 2.5% to U.S. locations

- U.S. Tributaries: Sheenjek and Black Rivers. Tanana River 21.4% - Key tributaries (>3.0% of total fish tagged): - 18% to tributaries in middle and Chena, Salcha, and Goodpaster Rivers. upper reaches

- Other tributaries: Kantishna, Tolovana, and Nenana Rivers. Middle Yukon Basin Tributaries 1.5% - Tributaries: Melozitna, Nowitna, and Tozitna Rivers.

Lower Yukon Basin Tributaries 6.1% - Key tributary (>3.0% of total fish tagged): Anvik River

- Other tributaries: Nulato, Innoko, and Bonasila Rivers. Koyukuk River 3.3% - Tributaries: Gisasa River, Hogatza, Henshaw, - 1.4% to upper reaches of drainage South Fork, and Middle Fork Rivers

Uncertain84 6.4%

83 Created based on information presented in Spencer & Eiler, “Estimation of Abundance and Distribution of Chinook.” 25

A similar radio telemetry study was also done in 2002, with 481 chinook tracked.85 The results of this study are consistent with the results of the 2003 study.86 In addition to the locations presented in Table 6-2, the 2002 study tracked one fish to Coal Creek in the Canadian portion of the basin and one fish to the Kateel River in the Koyukuk River drainage.87 The radio telemetry studies indicate that in Canada, the largest spawning populations are in tributaries draining the eastern side of the basin. More than half of the total Canadian spawning population is from the Stewart, Pelly, Little, and Big Salmon River populations.88 On the U.S. side, the Tanana River drainage accounts for a bit under half of the total spawning population, with smaller numbers of fish spawning in other areas throughout the U.S. side of the basin. The majority of Tanana drainage fish are from the Chena, Salcha, and Goodpaster River populations.89 In choosing a spawning site, sub-gravel flow is important.90 Sub-gravel flow is caused when downwelling stream water or upwelling groundwater, or both, is forced into the gravel.91 Sub-gravel flow provides oxygen to the eggs, and since chinook eggs are relatively large, they may be more sensitive to reduced oxygen than the eggs of other salmon species.92 The water quality standard for dissolved oxygen in the Watershed Management Plan (Table 1-1) reflects the importance of dissolved oxygen to egg development. According to M.C. Healy, “[p]rovided the condition of good subgravel flow is met, chinook apparently will spawn in water that is

84 The 6.4% of fish tagged may have been tracked somewhere; however, it was unclear from reading the study. 85 Eiler et al., iii. 86 Ibid., 19–21. 87 Ibid., 20–21. 88 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History, 25–26. 89 Spencer & Eiler, “Estimation of Abundance and Distribution of Chinook.” 90 M.C. Healy, “Life History of Chinook Salmon,” in Pacific Salmon Life Histories, ed. C. Groot & L. Margolis (Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, 1991), 323. 91 Erland A. MacIssac, “Salmonids and the Hydrologic and Geomorphic Features of Their Spawning Streams in British Columbia,” in Compendium of Forest Hydrology and Geomorphology in British Columbia, ed. Robin G. Pike, Todd E. Redding, R.D. Moore, Rita D. Winkler, & Kevin D. Blandon (Victoria, BC: BC Ministry of Forests and Range Forest Science Program & Forrex Forum for Research and Extension in Natural Resources, British Columbia Land Management Handbook 66, 2010), 464. 92 Healy, 323. 26

shallow or deep, slow or fast, and where the gravel is coarse or fine.”93 However, since areas with good sub-gravel flow vary locally, suitable spawning habitat within a tributary might be more limited than it appears.94 Perhaps because of their preference for areas with high sub-gravel flow, chinook tend to spawn in aggregations.95 Chinook also tend to be very fecund, with Yukon headwater fish producing approximately 6000 eggs each and lower river fish producing up to 9000 eggs each.96 Based on data from other rivers, approximately 30–40% of the eggs will become fry.97 The aggregation and high fecundity of spawning chinook, combined with the relatively high percentage of eggs that become fry, means that a lot of fry may be produced in a small stretch of river. For example, Michael Bradford, Alan von Finster, and Patrick Milligan estimated that each spring, there could be roughly 46,000 fry per kilometer in the Big Salmon River, Yukon Territory.98 To ensure sufficient fry survival rates, suitable rearing habitat is essential.99 In the spring, chinook salmon fry emerge from spawning gravels, initially preferring nearby shallow, low velocity habitat.100 Then, as documented in the upper Yukon basin, in late spring to early summer some fry disperse downstream to new rearing habitats (“non-natal streams”).101 The number of dispersing fry and the geographical extent of dispersal varies among populations, depending, at least in part, on spawner abundance and the habitat conditions at and downstream of the spawning site.102 For example, in a 2006–2007 study, David Daum and Blair Flannery sampled eight non-natal tributaries between Tanana, Alaska and the U.S.-Canada border and found that the vast majority of juveniles captured were from the Carmacks region of Canada, a productive spawning location that includes the Tatchun River, the Yukon mainstem

93 Ibid. Relative to other salmon, chinook’s large size allows them to spawn in deeper, faster water than that used by other species. Ibid. 94 Ibid., 324. 95 Ibid., 323; Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 20. 96 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History, 26. 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid., 20. 100 Ibid., 32; Michael J. Bradford et al., “Downstream Migrations of Juvenile Salmon and Other Fishes in the Upper Yukon River,” Arctic 61 (2008): 260. 101 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 27. 102 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 32–35. 27

above the Tatchun River, the Nordenskiold River, the Little Salmon River, and the Big Salmon River.103 Some of the juveniles had migrated over 1300 km downstream from Carmacks.104 As juvenile chinook migrate downstream, they may feed in tributaries or at the margins of the mainstem Yukon.105 Some juveniles may spend the entire summer in the parts of the mainstem where sediment levels are not too high.106 Other dispersing juveniles will aggregate near the mouths of non-natal streams and then move into them.107 Generally speaking, dispersing fry will colonize any unobstructed stream with suitable habitat conditions.108 They are most likely to be found in low-gradient areas near the mouths of the non-natal streams, but some have been observed over 40 kilometers upstream of the mouth.109 Many non-natal streams are not used by chinook for spawning. For example, the Daum and Flannery study cited above found juvenile chinook rearing in eight Yukon River tributaries, none of which are used for spawning by adult chinook: Mission Creek, Shade Creek, Seventymile River, Trout Creek, Sam Creek, Coal Creek, Thanksgiving Creek, and Minook Creek.110 Because such non-natal streams are often relatively small, they may be particularly vulnerable to human impact.111 Regardless of the chosen rearing location, juvenile chinook can grow in a wide variety of temperatures.112 As reflected in the temperature standard in the Watershed Management Plan (Table 1-1), juvenile salmon have a higher thermal tolerance than large, spawning salmon.113

103 David W. Daum & Blair G. Flannery, “Canadian-Origin Chinook Salmon Rearing in Nonnatal U.S. Tributary Streams of the Yukon River, Alaska,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 140 (2011): 209, 211 table 2, 216–18. 104 Ibid., 217–18. 105 Ibid., 218. 106 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 32. 107 Ibid., 28; Daum & Flannery, 208; von Finster, “Notes on Fish and Fish Habitat,” 6, 12. 108 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 28. 109 Ibid., 28–29. 110 Daum & Flannery, 209 & table 1, 213. 111 Michael J. Bradford et al., “Ecology of Juvenile Chinook Salmon in a Small Non-natal Stream of the Yukon River Drainage and the Role of Ice Conditions on Their Distribution and Survival,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 79 (2001): 2044. 112 David A. Beauchamp, “Bioenergetic Ontogeny: Linking Climate and Mass-Specific Feeding to Life-Cycle Growth and Survival of Salmon,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 58; Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 29, 30 fig. 7. 113 Beauchamp, 58, 60, 68. 28

Consequently, water temperatures may be higher in non-natal rearing streams used by juveniles than in streams used by adults for migration and spawning. Within non-natal streams, juvenile chinook density is correlated with the abundance of pools,114 the preferred rearing habitat.115 Fish densities within deep pools can be high. For example, in a 1998–1999 study of Croucher Creek, a tributary of the Yukon River 7 kilometers downstream of Whitehorse, Michael Bradford, Jeff Grout, and Sue Moodie found pool densities as high as 10 fish/m2.116 A couple years later, Bradford and Brent Mossop studied 13 small tributaries in Canada and found that large woody debris (LWD) was important to pool formation, forming 28% of the 212 pools surveyed.117 Juvenile chinook abundance and LWD abundance were positively correlated.118 Additionally, Mossop and Bradford noted that trees in the Yukon are slow growing. The median-sized pool-forming piece of LWD is 70–200 years old when it comes down.119 Consequently, if an area is logged it may take many years for pool-forming LWD, and thus perhaps good juvenile chinook habitat, to become available again.120 However, Mossop and Bradford found that boulders and bank projections were important pool-formers, too, accounting for 37% and 16%, respectively, of the pools surveyed.121 As the summer continues, it is possible that some juvenile chinook redistribute from their initial non-natal rearing stream, particularly after heavy rainfalls.122 Additionally, when fall arrives, some juveniles may migrate downstream to more suitable over-wintering habitats.123 It is suspected that the Yukon mainstem is the primary overwintering area for juveniles, though some small non-natal streams may provide suitable over-wintering habitat, 124 particularly if

114 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 32. 115 Bradford et al., “Ecology of Juvenile Chinook,” 2051–53. 116 Ibid., 2051. 117 Brent Mossop & Michael J. Bradford, “Importance of Large Woody Debris for Juvenile Chinook Salmon Habitat in Small Boreal Forest Streams in the Upper Yukon River Basin, Canada,” Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34 (2004): 1959. The tributaries surveyed were Croucher, Stony, Hoocheekoo, McCabe, Merrice, Williams, Baker, Caribou, Deadwood, Ensley, Garner, Mechem, and Quebec Creeks. Ibid., 1957 table 1. 118 Ibid., 1961 & fig. 5. 119 Ibid., 1963–64. 120 Ibid., 1963. 121 Ibid., 1959. 122 Daum & Flannery, 218. 123 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 30, 32. 124 Ibid., 32. 29

groundwater flow is present to provide nutrients and inhibit severe icing conditions.125 In the upper Yukon basin, for example, overwintering in smaller tributaries is most common in the southern, or upstream, portion of the basin, which is underlain by glacial deposits that serve as aquifers and provide suitable groundwater flows.126 Come springtime, after a year of rearing in freshwater, most of the juvenile chinook, now called smolts, begin their migration to the ocean,127 though a few spend a second year rearing in freshwater before beginning their outmigration. 128 Juvenile chinook may begin their outmigration as early as April or as late as August, but the peak of the outmigration through the Yukon delta appears to be in late June.129 In general, there is little data available on the estuarine residence of Yukon juvenile chinook.130 However, in a sampling study conducted in 1985 and 1986, Douglas Martin, Eric Volk, and Steven Schroder found no significant size difference between juvenile chinook captured in June at sites in the lower river, on the delta platform, and further offshore.131 They concluded that juvenile chinook likely do not spend any significant amount of time in estuarine habitats, instead moving directly into marine waters.132

125 Bradford et al., “Ecology of Juvenile Chinook,” 2052–53. 126 Bradford et al., “Freshwater Life History,” 32. 127 Ibid., 30. 128 Evenson et al., 690. 129 Douglas J. Martin et al., “Distribution and Seasonal Abundance of Juvenile Salmon and Other Fishes in the Yukon Delta,” 1987, in Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program: Final Reports of Principal Investigators 63 (AK: U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1989), 219, 220 table 4-1. 130 Nicola Hillgruber & Christian E. Zimmerman, “Estuarine Ecology of Juvenile Salmon in Western Alaska: A Review, in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 184, 186. 131 Martin et al., 1987, 225. 132 Ibid. 30

7. Chum Salmon Chum is the most abundant salmon in Yukon basin,133 and, like chinook, it is an important subsistence species. In the Yukon, there are two, genetically distinct runs of chum: lower-river summer chum and upper-river fall chum.134 Most summer chum harvested in subsistence fisheries is eaten by humans, though some that is harvested further upstream is fed to dogs. The majority of fall chum harvested is used to feed dogs.135 Additionally, as noted in the previous section, indigenous people often support their subsistence activities with proceeds from commercial fishing for salmon, including chum, though declining salmon runs and an increase in farmed fish may be threatening this practice to some degree.136 As with chinook, each run of chum is organized into populations by spawning area.137 These populations are genetically different, though not quite to the same extent as chinook populations.138 In other words, local populations of chum interbreed to a greater extent than local populations of chinook. Consequently, basin-wide chum genetic diversity should not be quite as sensitive to localized habitat degradation (i.e., degradation of one key spawning area) as chinook genetic diversity. At the basin-wide scale, the local populations of summer chum are organized into two distinct geographic groups: lower river and middle river.139 Local fall chum populations are organized into four distinct geographic groups: Tanana River, U.S.-Canada border, White River, and Teslin River.140 The two upper river groups of fall run populations (White River and

133 Bue et al., 704. 134 Ibid.; Lisa W. Seeb & Penelope A. Crane, “High Genetic Heterogeneity in Chum Salmon in Western Alaska, the Contact Zone Between Northern and Southern Lineages,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 128 (1999): 64. 135 Bue et al., 706; Wolfe & Spaeder, 366. 136 Holder & Senecal-Albrecht, 18; Wolfe & Spaeder, 350. 137 Bue et al., 704. 138 Utter et al., 117. 139 Blair G. Flannery et al., “Mixed-Stock Analysis of Yukon River Chum Salmon: Application and Validation in a Complex Fishery,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management 30 (2010): 1325. 140 Ibid. The border area group encompasses the Chandalar River, Porcupine River, and a portion of the Yukon River mainstem. Ibid., 1326 fig. 1. 31

Teslin River) are very distinct,141 whereas the two other groups are more similar to each other and to other chum populations in western Alaska.142 7-1. Summer chum At the age of 4 or 5,143 summer chum enter the Yukon River in June and July, and nearly all head for spawning grounds in tributaries of the middle and lower Yukon River, generally in and downstream of the Tanana River.144 Summer chum tend to be smaller than fall chum,145 as well as more abundant.146 As noted in the previous section, the Pilot Station sonar project provides an estimate of the daily upstream passage of different salmon species, including summer chum. The inter-annual variability in run timing and run strength is shown in Figure 7-1- 1 and Table 7-1-1 below. The reasons for the large inter-annual variability in run strength are only beginning to be understood.147

141 Blair G. Flannery et al., “Variation of Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms in Yukon River Chum Salmon: Population Structure and Application to Mixed-Stock Analysis,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136 (2007): 912, 919; Utter et al., 102, 105. 142 Utter et al., 105. 143 Lawrence S. Buklis & Louis H. Barton, “Yukon River Fall Chum Salmon Biology and Stock Status” (Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of Fish & Game, Division of Commercial Fisheries, Informational Leaflet No. 239, 1984), 3. 144 Bue et al., 705. 145 Jamal H. Moss et al., “Conservation of Western Alaskan Salmon Stocks by Identifying Critical Linkages Between Marine and Freshwater Life Stages and Long-term Monitoring,” in Pacific Salmon: Ecology and Management of Western Alaska’s Populations, ed. Charles C. Krueger and Christian E. Zimmerman (Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society Symposium 70, 2009), 1121. 146 Buklis & Barton, 1. 147 Krueger et al., 4. 32

Figure 7-1-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Summer Chum Run Timing, Yukon River, 2008– 2012.148 250000" 2008" 2009" 200000" 2010" 2011"

150000" 2012"

100000" Passing)Pilot)Station) 50000" Estimated)Number)of)Summer)Chum) 0" 6/5" 6/10" 6/15" 6/20" 6/25" 6/30" 7/5" 7/10" 7/15" 7/20" Date)

Table 7-1-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Summer Chum Run Strength, Yukon River, 1995, 1997–2011.149 Year Estimated Number of Summer Chum Passing Pilot Station 2012 2,130,871 2011 1,778,870 2010 1,327,581 2009 1,285,437 2008 1,665,667 2007 1,726,885 2006 3,767,044 2005 2,439,616

148 Data downloaded from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/FishCounts/index.cfm?adfg=main.home. 149 Estimates for 1995–2011 were taken from Appendix A2 in Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 97, and data for 2012 was estimated based on the Pilot Station data downloaded from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/FishCounts/index.cfm?adfg=main.home. The Pilot Station sonar project did not operate at full capacity in 1996, so there is not a passage estimate for that year. Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 97. Because of changes in methodology, data collected prior to 1995 is not directly comparable to the years shown in Table 7-1-1. Ibid., 36. 33

2004 1,357,826 2003 1,168,518 2002 1,088,463 2001 441,450 2000 456,271 1999 973,708 1998 826,385 1997 1,415,641 1995 3,556,445

Within the lower half of the Yukon, summer chum spawn in a fairly continuous area,150 generally preferring run-off streams.151 The Anvik River is the largest producer of summer chum in the Yukon drainage.152 Historically, as many as half the summer chum that passed through Pilot Station returned to the Anvik River to spawn, though that proportion may have decreased somewhat in recent years.153 Another major spawning area is the Andreafsky River.154 There are also spawning populations in the Koyukuk River drainage and the Tanana River drainage, including the Chena and Salcha Rivers, as well as in the Nulato, Melozitna, and Tozitna Rivers.155 Very few summer chum have been observed spawning in rivers near the U.S.-Canada border, including Mickey Creek (a tributary of the Fortymile River) and the Klondike River.156 7-2. Fall chum At the age of 4 or 5,157 fall chum enter the Yukon River in mid-July through early September and migrate to spawning grounds in the upper Yukon basin, generally in and upstream of the Tanana River.158 Fish destined for spawning sites further upstream tend to come

150 Flannery et al., “Mixed-Stock Analysis of Yukon River Chum,” 1324. 151 Moss et al., 1121. 152 Holder & Senecal-Albrecht, 29. 153 Ted R. Spencer & John H. Eiler, “Distribution of Summer Chum Salmon in the Yukon River Drainage Using Radio Telemetry” (Anchorage, AK: Artic-Yukon-Kuskokwim Sustainable Salmon Initiative Final Report, Project No. 45229, 2005). 154 Ibid. 155 Holder & Senecal-Albrecht, 26, 28 fig. 4, 29, 30 table 4; Spencer & Eiler, “Distribution of Summer Chum Salmon.” 156 Al von Finster, “Utilization of Habitats by Chinook, Chum, and Coho Salmon in the Yukon River Basin in Canada” (Yukon Territory: 2009), 4. 157 Bue et al., 723; Buklis & Barton, 3. 158 Bue et al., 705. Less than 5% of fall-run fish spawn in downstream areas, such as the Koyukuk River. Ibid., 706. 34

earlier in the run than Tanana River fish.159 Fall chum tend to be larger and more robust than summer chum.160 Fall chum are typically less numerous than summer chum,161 but the run size is highly variable, ranging from less than 300,000 to nearly 2 million (see Table 7-2-1).162 Runs in even-numbered years tend to be smaller than runs in odd-numbered years.163 As noted previously, the reasons for the large inter-annual variability in run strength are only beginning to be understood.164 As with chinook and summer chum, the Pilot Station sonar project provides an estimate of the daily upstream passage of fall chum; however, it does not begin counting fall chum until July 19 of each summer. The inter-annual variability in run timing based on Pilot Station data is shown in Figure 7-2-1. Figure 7-2-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Fall Chum Run Timing, Yukon River, 2008– 2012.165 100000" 2008" 90000" 2009" 80000" 2010" 70000" 2011" 2012" 60000"

50000"

40000"

30000" Passing)Pilot)Station) 20000"

Esimated)Number)of)Fall)Chum) 10000"

0" 7/20" 7/25" 7/30" 8/4" 8/9" 8/14" 8/19" 8/24" 8/29" 9/3" 9/8" Date)

159 Flannery et al., “Mixed-Stock Analysis of Yukon River Chum,” 1335; Holder & Senecal- Albrecht, 32. 160 Bue et al., 705; Moss et al., 1121. 161 Buklis & Barton, 1. 162 Bue et al., 720. 163 Bue et al., 722. 164 Krueger et al., 4. 165 Data downloaded from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/FishCounts/index.cfm?adfg=main.home. 35

Table 7-2-1. Inter-Annual Variability in Fall Chum Run Strength, Yukon River, 1995, 1997–2011.166 Year Estimated Number of Fall Chum Passing Pilot Station 2012 680,501 2011 698,762 2010 350,981 2009 240,449 2008 615,127 2007 684,011 2006 790,563 2005 1,813,589 2004 594,060 2003 889,778 2002 326,858 2001 376,182 2000 247,935 1999 379,493 1998 372,927 1997 506,621 1995 1,053,245

Fall chum tend to spawn in spring-fed tributaries or at specific sites within a spawning stream where there are upwellings.167 Canadian-origin fish comprise approximately one-third of the total run.168 The Tanana River, Porcupine River (particularly its tributaries, the Sheenjek and Fishing Branch Rivers), the Chandalar River, and the Yukon mainstem in Canada are the primary spawning locations.169 Because these locations are all monitored and because harvests are relatively small, escapement estimates to these streams can be used to approximate the

166 Estimates for 1995–2011 were taken from Appendix A2 in Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 97, and data for 2012 was estimated based on the Pilot Station data downloaded from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/sf/FishCounts/index.cfm?adfg=main.home. The Pilot Station sonar project did not operate at full capacity in 1996, so there is not a passage estimate for that year. Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 97. Because of changes in methodology, data collected prior to 1995 is not directly comparable to the years shown in Table 7-2-1. Ibid., 36. 167 Bue et al., 705; Flannery et al., “Mixed-Stock Analysis of Yukon River Chum,” 1324. 168 Flannery et al., “Mixed-Stock Analysis of Yukon River Chum,” 1333; Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 61. 169 Bue et al., 705–706. 36

contribution of each spawning location to the total run.170 The estimated contribution of each spawning location, based on escapement estimates from 1974–2008, is shown in Table 7-2-2 below. These proportions have remained relatively constant over the last few decades.171 Table 7-2-2. Estimated Contribution of Key Spawning Areas to Total Fall Chum Run, 1974–2008.172 Spawning Location Contribution to Total Run Upper Tanana River 24% Toklat/Kantishna Rivers (tributaries of the Tanana) 8% Chandalar River 26% Sheenjek River (tributary of the Porcupine, in U.S.) 16% Fishing Branch River (tributary of the Porcupine, in Canada) 8% Canadian Yukon173 17%

The percentages in this table do not exactly agree with the earlier statement that spawning locations in Canada account for approximately one-third of the total run. This is likely due to the fact that these numbers are based on escapement counts to known major spawning locations, rather than on tagging studies. For the same reason, the list of spawning locations in the table is incomplete. Within the Tanana River subbasin, fall chum also spawn in the Delta River.174 Additionally, the White River, the Kluane River, and the Teslin River are used by spawning fall chum in Canada.175 7-3. Summer and fall chum outmigration Both summer chum and fall chum fry emerge in early spring,176 suggesting summer chum eggs require a longer incubation time than fall chum eggs.177 Almost immediately after emerging, the fry migrate downstream to the Bering Sea,178 the timing generally coinciding with peak water flow.179 Peak outmigration through the Yukon delta appears to occur in mid to late June.180 As

170 Ibid., 725–726. 171 Ibid., 726. 172 Created based on information presented in ibid., 726, 740–42 table 3. 173 Within the Canadian portion of the Yukon River, the area near Minto and Fort Selkirk is an important spawning location. von Finster, “Utilization of Habitats,” 2. 174 Holder & Senecal-Albrecht, 34 fig. 5. 175 Ibid.; Joint Technical Committee, “2011 Season Summary and 2012 Season Outlook,” 39. 176 Bue et al., 706. 177 Flannery et al., “Variation of Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms,” 912. 178 Bue et al., 706; E.O. Salo, “Life History of Chum Salmon,” in Pacific Salmon Life Histories, ed. C. Groot & L. Margolis (Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, 1991), 233, 252. 179 Buklis & Barton, 12. 37

with chinook, there is little data available on the estuarine residence of juvenile Yukon chum.181 Elsewhere, juvenile chum spend time rearing in estuarine habitats, moving progressively further offshore as they grow.182 However, based on the sampling study they conducted in 1985 and 1986, Douglas Martin, Eric Volk, and Steven Schroder concluded that, perhaps due to different hydrographic conditions, juvenile chum outmigrating from the Yukon River move directly into marine waters.183

180 Martin et al., 1987, 226. 181 Hillgruber & Zimmerman, 184, 186. 182 Martin et al., 1987, 229. 183 Ibid., 230–231. 38

8. Whitefish Species As a species of relatively recent research interest,184 whitefish populations in the Yukon basin are not nearly as well understood as salmon populations. Until recently, very few spawning areas had been identified in the Yukon drainage.185 In 2012, Randy J. Brown and others published a comprehensive synthesis of available information on whitefish biology, distribution, and fisheries in the Yukon River basin. The synthesis incorporates most, if not all, existing studies on whitefish in the Yukon basin, and it is the basis for almost all of the information presented in this section. Like chinook and chum, whitefish species are a very important source of food for the indigenous people of the Yukon basin, as well as for their dogs.186 For subsistence purposes, whitefish are generally harvested in large numbers when they congregate to feed, spawn, or overwinter.187 Subsistence fishing for whitefish can complement fishing for salmon, since in many places whitefish are available at times when salmon are not.188 In particular, whitefish are often a valuable source of fresh meat during the winter months. 189 Currently, nearly all subsistence whitefish fisheries in the Yukon basin are unregulated. In fact, the only Yukon whitefish fishery of any kind that is regulated based on population information is the humpback whitefish spear fishery in the Chatanika River,190 a tributary in the Tanana River subbasin. 8-1. Overview of the six common whitefish species of the Yukon basin There are six common species of whitefish in the Yukon drainage: sheefish (inconnu), broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, Bering cisco, least cisco, and round whitefish.191 Of these, sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, and Bering cisco appear to be the most heavily exploited.192 Additionally, two hybrid forms are known to occur in the Yukon basin, and pygmy whitefish are known to occur in four lakes in the Yukon Territory.193 An overview of the key life

184 Brown et al., 3–4. 185 Ibid., 18. 186 Ibid., 1. 187 Ibid., 3. 188 Ibid. 189 Ibid., 36. 190 Ibid., 3, 224. 191 Ibid., 10. 192 Ibid., 217. 193 Ibid., 10. 39

history traits of the six common species is discussed in the following paragraphs and outlined in Table 8-1. The six common whitefish species make use of nearly all the different habitats in the Yukon basin, “from low-gradient, tundra-stained, meandering waterways that flow slowly over mud or other soft substrates, [to] high-gradient clear-water streams that flow swiftly over cobble and gravel substrates, to a selection of highly turbid rivers that seasonally cascade from Wrangell Mountains and Alaska Range glaciers.”194 Additionally, unlike chinook and chum, whitefish make extensive use of lake habitats.195 Of the six common species, all six have river populations within the Yukon basin.196 Five—sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, Bering cisco, and least cisco—are known to be anadromous at least some of the time in the Yukon basin, with populations migrating to estuarine habitats in winter.197 Round whitefish, by contrast, tend to spend their lives in or close to their natal tributaries.198 Sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, and least cisco also have non-anadromous populations, particularly in the upper Yukon River basin (see Section 8-2). Particularly in the glaciated portion of the upper basin,199 it is possible that some of the resident populations of whitefish occur above obstructions to upstream migration and are therefore isolated from downstream populations.200 Three species—humpback whitefish, least cisco, and round whitefish—have populations that exist entirely within lake systems. These lake populations may have different spawning timing and habitat preferences than river populations of the same species.201 For example, generally speaking, lake populations tend to spawn later than river populations.202

194 Ibid., 5–6. 195 Ibid., 6–7. 196 Ibid., 13. 197 Ibid., 201. 198 Ibid., 162. 199 The glaciated portion of the Yukon basin includes the Yukon River upstream of the Pelly River, the upper White River, and most of the Pelly and Stewart River subbasins. von Finster, “Notes on Fish,” 5. 200 Ibid., 5–6. 201 Brown et al., 13, 152. 202 Ibid., 16–17. 40

Like salmon, whitefish spawn in the fall.203 However, unlike salmon, whitefish can survive for many years after they reach maturity and may spawn multiple times.204 In some years, mature individuals may skip spawning; however, individuals of all six Yukon species have been documented spawning in successive years.205 Spawning frequency for whitefish in the Yukon drainage is not well understood, and it may vary among the different species and among populations within those species.206 Because whitefish can spawn more than once and sometimes skip spawning, whitefish population assessments are extremely challenging.207 With a couple exceptions, there is almost no population data for the whitefish species of Figure 8-1-1. Pearl Tubercles on a Minnow.208 the Yukon basin. Additionally, because mature and immature individuals from a population may coexist in the same area,209 compounded by the fact that some mature individuals skip spawning in some years, efforts to determine the number of spawners in a whitefish population are also complicated.210 For three species—broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, and round whitefish—small, rough bumps known as pearl tubercles (Figure 8-1) appear on the heads and sides of fish during spawning season and are a sign of maturity and spawning readiness.211

203 Ibid. 204 Ibid., 20, 29. 205 Ibid., 31. 206 Ibid. 207 Ibid., 46. 208 Andy J. Danylchuk, William M. Tonn, & Cynthia A. Paszkowski, “Fathead Minnow,” Fishes of Wisconsin (October 2011), http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/wdnr_fishes/account.jsp?species_param=1290. Reprinted with permission. 209 Brown et al., 20. 210 Ibid. 211 Ibid., 24. 41

After the fall spawning season, many adult whitefish prefer to winter in lower river and coastal habitats.212 In December 1984, Douglas Martin, Charles Simenstad, Marty Stevenson, and Richard Grotefendt conducted a small sampling survey in several locations in the Yukon River delta. They captured 27 sheefish, 8 Bering cisco, 5 least cisco, 6 humpback whitefish, and 2 broad whitefish.213 The sheefish, Bering cisco, and least cisco were caught at both freshwater sites and brackish water sampling sites, whereas the humpback whitefish and broad whitefish were caught only at freshwater sites.214 Come spring, the lower Yukon mainstem, roughly the area from the mouth to Stevens Village,215 is used extensively as a migration corridor.216 In 2006, the cumulative passage of adult sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, least cisco, and Bering cisco at Pilot Station was estimated at 875,000 fish, which appears to be a fairly typical number.217 Moving upstream, sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, and least cisco have been documented feeding in the lower reaches of tributaries.218 It is also possible that some of these migratory species spawn in the Andreafsky River, Anvik River, and lower Yukon mainstem.219 Sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, and least cisco are known to occur and spawn in some of the major tributary drainages of the Yukon—including the Tanana drainage,220 the Nowitna drainage,221 the Koyukuk drainage,222 the Innoko drainage,223 and the Porcupine drainage224—as well as in the upper Yukon mainstem.225 Bering cisco may be present at the mouths of some of the

212 Ibid., 68. 213 Martin et al., 1986, 445, table 4-4. 214 Martin et al., 1986, 446. 215 Brown et al., 66. 216 Ibid., 77, 80. 217 Ibid., 77. 218 Ibid., 68, 150. 219 Ibid., 77. 220 Ibid., 131. 221 Ibid., 113. 222 Ibid., 100. 223 Ibid., 91. 224 Ibid., 152. 225 Ibid. 42

tributaries, but they do not travel up into the tributary drainages.226 Round whitefish are resident throughout the Yukon basin in the swifter, rockier upper reaches of tributaries.227 Also in spring, recently emerged juvenile sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, least cisco, and Bering cisco migrate downstream to the delta to rear. Most juvenile sheefish appear to move through the delta area in early July, followed by the other four species in the latter part of July,228 though some individuals may move through in June and August.229 The juvenile whitefish move in and out of lakes on their way through the delta distributaries, and then they concentrate in shallow coastal habitats to rear.230 For each species, a few individuals may venture out into the shallow waters over the delta platform, but only least cisco and Bering cisco appear commonly to travel into the more saline, offshore habitats past the platform’s edge.231 Table 8-1-1. Overview of Key Life History Traits of the Six Common Whitefish Species of the Yukon Basin.232 Species Inconnu Broad Humpback Least Bering Round Whitefish Whitefish cisco cisco whitefish Anadromous Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes—Fully No Populations Anadromous Exist? Lake-Only No No Yes No Yes Yes Populations Exist? Approx. Mid-Late Late October River form: River form: Early-Mid River form: Spawning October – Early Late Late October Late September – November September – September – October Timing Early October Early October Lake form: Lake form: November – Early Lake form: December November – Mid- December September to Early October (dwarf populations on earlier end of range)

226 Ibid., 150. 227 Ibid., 68, 91, 101, 113, 131, 150. 228 Martin et al., 1986, 603. 229 Martin et al., 1987, 213. 230 Martin et al., 1986, 602–603. 231 Ibid., 602–604; Martin et al., 1987, 213. 232 Created based on information contained in Brown et al., 13–15 table 2, 15–33, 152, 201. 43

Spawning Flowing Flowing River form: River form: Flowing River form: habitat water, water, Flowing Flowing water, Flowing water, gravel/sand gravel/sand water, gravel water, gravel/sand gravel/sand substrate substrate substrate gravel/sand substrate substrate substrate Lake form: Lake form: Flowing Lake form: Flowing or lake water or lake No data water, water; rocks, rocks/gravel/mud/ gravel, sand, silt substrate or mud/silt substrate Pearl No Yes Yes No No Yes tubercles indicate spawning readiness? Documented 6–7 years 5–6 years 6 years 3 years 4 years 4–8 years for minimum populations outside Yukon ages at basin maturity in Yukon basin Greatest 28 years 16 years 30 years 14 years (in 13 years 22 years documented Kuskokwim longevity in drainage) Yukon basin Documented Some Some Some annual, Some Some annual Some annual, spawning annual, annual, some some skip annual, (no data some skip some skip skip some skip exist on skip frequency spawning)

8-2. Spawning locations and population estimates 8-2-1. Sheefish Radio telemetry data suggests that nearly all sheefish in the Yukon drainage are from populations that spawn in the following locations233: • The Alatna River in the Koyukuk River drainage • The Sulukna River (a tributary of the Nowitna River) • The Chatanika River (a tributary of the Tanana River) • The Tanana River, in the braided section between the Chena and Salcha Rivers • The upper Innoko River, near the mouth of Folger Creek • The Yukon mainstem in the upper Yukon Flats • The upper Porcupine River drainage, including the Black River • The upper Yukon River drainage, including, possibly, the Fortymile River

233 Ibid., 152, 217–18. 44

The upper Porcupine River drainage and upper Yukon River drainage populations are suggested by sampling data, but the exact spawning locations have not been confirmed.234 The population that spawns in the Yukon Flats is anadromous, but the upper Porcupine and upper Yukon populations likely remain in freshwater throughout their lives.235 There are a few population estimates for sheefish. In 2008 and 2009, the number of spawning sheefish in the Sulukna River was estimated at 2100 and 3500, respectively.236 The number of spawners in the Chatanika River was estimated at 100 in 1968 and 1972.237 It is likely that some of the other populations are larger than these, but it is unclear by how much.238 8-2-2. Broad Whitefish Anadromous populations of broad whitefish spawn in the Alatna River in the Koyukuk River drainage, in the mainstem Yukon in the middle reaches of the Yukon Flats region, and in the braided section of the Tanana River between the Chena and Salcha Rivers.239 Broad whitefish are also present in the Nowitna River drainage, but it is unclear whether they spawn there.240 Data suggest there are also non-anadromous populations of broad whitefish that spawn in the Chandalar River, upper Porcupine River drainage (including the Black River), and the upper Yukon River drainage in Canada.241 Additionally, broad whitefish are present in lakes in the upper Yukon basin, but lake spawning has not been documented.242 There have been no attempts to estimate the broad whitefish population anywhere in the Yukon basin. Additionally, many subsistence users do not distinguish broad whitefish from humpback whitefish.243 8-2-3. Humpback Whitefish Each spring, humpback whitefish colonize off-channel lakes and streams to feed, and they begin their spawning migrations in summer.244 Humpback whitefish spawn in rivers and

234 Ibid., 152, 217. 235 Ibid., 152. 236 Ibid., 44. 237 Ibid. 238 Ibid., 218. 239 Ibid., 220. 240 Ibid., 114. 241 Ibid., 155, 220. 242 Ibid., 220–21. 243 Ibid., 221. 244 Ibid., 223–24. 45

lakes throughout the Yukon basin, some migrating distances of over 1000 miles.245 Identified river spawning locations include246: • 3 locations in the upper Koyukuk River drainage • 1 location in the upper Yukon Flats region • 6+ locations in the upper Tanana River drainage • 1 location in the Sulukna River (a tributary of the Nowitna River) • 1 location in the upper Innoko River

Additionally, there are likely spawning populations in the Porcupine River and upper Yukon River in Canada, as well as in other locations yet to be identified.247 Many of these populations are anadromous, while others, particularly in the upper Tanana and upper Yukon basins, are not.248 The only reliable population estimates for humpback whitefish are from the Chatanika River, in the Tanana River drainage.249 In 2008, the number of spawning humpback whitefish in the Chatanika River was estimated at 22,000.250 Estimates for the last 25 years have ranged from 12,000 to 40,000.251 8-2-4. Least Cisco Least cisco are widely distributed in the lakes and rivers of the Yukon basin, and there are both anadromous and non-anadromous populations.252 As with the other whitefish species, upper basin populations are less likely to be anadromous. 253 Spawning locations include locations in the Tanana River drainage,254 the Koyukuk River drainage,255 the Innoko River,256 the Chandalar River, the Porcupine River drainage, and the upper Yukon basin in Canada.257 In Canada, least cisco are more common in lakes than streams.258 There is one area with population

245 Ibid. 246 Ibid., 113, 127–30, 223. 247 Ibid., 223. 248 Ibid., 127, 223. 249 Ibid., 225. 250 Ibid., 45. 251 Ibid., 224. 252 Ibid., 127–30, 159–60. 253 Ibid., 159–60. 254 Ibid., 127–30. 255 Ibid., 102. 256 Ibid., 92. 257 Ibid., 159–60. 258 Ibid., 160. 46

estimates for least cisco in the Yukon basin: the Chatanika River. During the 2008 spawning season, there were 15,000 least cisco in the Chatanika River, the lowest estimate on record.259 8-2-5. Bering Cisco In the Yukon basin, Bering cisco appear to remain in mainstem habitats; they have not been identified in any tributaries.260 They are also fully anadromous, with all populations migrating to the Bering Sea each fall.261 Bering cisco are very rare in Canada.262 They are known to spawn in the upper reaches of the Yukon Flats, and it is possible that there is a single spawning population in the entire Yukon basin.263 There are no population estimates for Bering cisco in the Yukon basin. 8-2-6. Round Whitefish Round whitefish are common throughout the Yukon basin. Relative to the other whitefish species, they have smaller ranges, often spending their whole lives in or near their natal streams. 264 In general, they prefer clear, swift-flowing upper tributaries. 265 There are no population estimates for round whitefish in the Yukon basin.

259 Ibid., 45. 260 Ibid., 100. 261 Ibid., 160, 226. 262 Ibid., 151. 263 Ibid., 226–27. 264 Ibid., 162. 265 Ibid., 68, 91, 101, 113, 131, 150, 162. 47

9. Recommendations As discussed in Section 3-3, all fish habitat and potential fish habitat should be protected to ensure the resiliency of the Yukon River basin’s fish populations. However, habitat protection does not happen with the snap of a finger. Even with every Tribe and First Nation adopting the model ordinance embodying the basin-wide Watershed Management Plan, implementation would take time. As noted in Section 1, complete implementation would require, among other things, more localized planning efforts that describe in greater detail how fish use local streams and what the water quality and other habitat characteristics are. Policymakers would then use this more detailed information to develop appropriate local management frameworks. Assuming the Tribes and First Nations do in fact decide to adopt the Watershed Management Plan, the Watershed Council will need to determine the scales at which the more localized planning efforts will occur. Because the Yukon River basin is so large, it might be helpful to develop subbasin plans for each of the major drainage basins listed in Table 2-1-1. Each subbasin plan could discuss the physiography, ecology, demography, existing water quality, known threats to water quality, and other characteristics of the subbasin. Each subbasin plan could also further subdivide the subbasin into watersheds of a manageable size for local planning efforts,266 and it could set forth a basic framework for conducting local planning. Such “tiered” plans are common in a variety of planning contexts, including watershed planning, and might be particularly appropriate for the Yukon basin, given its size. Practically speaking, limited resources may require the Watershed Council to prioritize the development of subbasin plans and/or more local plans. Thus, this section suggests subbasins,

266 The U.S. Geological Survey hydrologic unit codes (HUCs) classify the waters of the United States into the following areas, from smallest to largest: subwatersheds, watersheds, subbasins, basins, subregions, and regional drainage basins. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Handbook for Developing Watershed Plans to Restore and Protect Our Waters (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA Office of Water, Nonpoint Source Control Branch, 2008), § 4.4. Under the USGS system, the Yukon River is classified as a subregion, and the subbasins listed in Table 2- 1-1 are classified as basins. U.S. Geological Survey, “Watershed Boundary Dataset,” http://water.usgs.gov/GIS/huc.html. According to the U.S. EPA, “[m]ost watershed planning efforts to implement water pollution control practices occur” at the USGS subwatershed or watershed scale—in other words, at much smaller spatial scales than even the subbasins listed in Table 2-1-1. U.S. EPA, § 4.4. Of course, the fact that much of the Yukon basin is relatively pristine and unpopulated may make planning at a larger scale more practical than it would be elsewhere. Nevertheless, it would probably be more manageable to go at least one scale smaller than the subbasins listed in Table 2-1-1. 48

and where possible watersheds within subbasins, that the Watershed Council could prioritize for planning. The subbasins were chosen predominately with reference to their importance for spawning, based on the information presented in this Assessment. Subbasins used heavily for spawning are a good place to begin, since fish populations tend to congregate during spawning season.267 Additionally, clean water is critical for proper egg and fry development.268 The chosen subbasins are used for spawning by multiple species and/or make a substantial contribution to the basin-wide population of at least one of the species present. Among the subbasins, one should clearly be prioritized. The Tanana River subbasin, particularly the middle and upper portions, should be prioritized for study and planning ahead of the other subbasins. The Tanana River drainage accounts for nearly half of the Yukon’s U.S.- side spawning population of chinook and potentially a quarter of the total spawning population of fall chum. It is also used by spawning summer chum, sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, least cisco, and round whitefish. Additionally, there appear to be more threats to water quality in the Tanana River subbasin than in many of the other subbasins. Threats include logging, mining, oil and toxic substance spills, planned new roads and rail lines, and urban development, the cumulative result of which could be “a steady reduction in the quality of aquatic habitats in the drainage.”269 Within the Tanana River subbasin, good places to begin studies include the Chena River watershed, the Salcha River watershed, and the portion of the Tanana River between them. The Chena and Salcha Rivers are used by both chinook and chum for spawning, and the braided area between the two tributaries is used by sheefish and other whitefish for spawning. Additionally, the lower portion of the Chena River flows through Fairbanks and is road accessible in many places, which has already impacted water quality. In fact, the 15 miles of the Chena River near Fairbanks is one of only three water bodies in the Yukon basin that the Alaska Department of

267 Brown et al., 48. 268 For example, E.O. Salo notes that proper stream flow, water temperature, and dissolved oxygen levels play a critical role in the “[i]ncubation and emergence and the ‘quality’ and ‘fitness’” of chum fry. Salo, 247. 269 Brown et al., 139. 49

Environmental Conservation has identified as impaired under the Clean Water Act, due to the presence of turbidity, petroleum hydrocarbons, oils and grease, and sediment.270 After the Tanana River subbasin, which is centrally located within the Yukon River basin, the Watershed Council could prioritize, in the order of its choosing, the Koyukuk River or Lower Yukon subbasin; the Porcupine River or Chandalar River subbasin; and the Stewart River subbasin. This strategy is presented in Table 9-1 along with a sample timeline. The location of the subbasins recommended for initial watershed planning is illustrated in Figure 9-1. Table 9-1. Subbasins Recommended for Initial Watershed Planning. Timing Subbasin Tanana River Subbasin Years 0–2 - Possible Place to Begin: The Chena and Salcha River watersheds, and the portion of the Tanana River between them. Subbasin Downstream of the Tanana: Koyukuk River Subbasin -or- Lower Yukon Subbasin (Possible Place to Begin: The Anvik River watershed.)

Subbasin Upstream of the Tanana: Years 2–6 Porcupine River Subbasin -or- Chandalar River Subbasin

Subbasin in the Canadian Portion of the Yukon Drainage: Stewart River Subbasin Year 6 - Onward Additional Subbasins

270 The other two water bodies are Crooked Creek and Birch Creek in the eastern part of the Yukon basin, which have turbidity and sediment problems. 50

Figure 9-1. Location of Subbasins Recommended for Initial Watershed Planning.

The strategy presented in Table 9-1 would result in spending the first few years after the adoption of the Watershed Management Plan focusing on four subbasins spaced throughout the Yukon River drainage. Two years are allocated for planning in the Tanana River subbasin, and slightly less time is allocated for planning in the remaining three subbasins, as over time, the planning process should become more streamlined. By distributing initial planning efforts across the watershed, the Watershed Council may be able to get a sense of whether there are any basin- wide water quality or fish habitat issues. Working in a diverse array of subbasins might also help the Watershed Council build up institutional knowledge and experience with watershed planning, which could facilitate planning in the other subbasins in the future. The Koyukuk River subbasin is located downstream from the Tanana River subbasin. The Koyukuk River subbasin is used for spawning by chinook salmon, summer chum salmon, the odd fall chum salmon, as well as all five tributary-going whitefish species: sheefish, broad whitefish, humpback whitefish, least cisco, and round whitefish. Another option downstream from the Tanana River is the lower Yukon subbasin. Within this subbasin, the Anvik River watershed would be a good place to begin, since historically it has accounted for up to half of the summer chum in the Yukon basin. The Chandalar River subbasin and the Porcupine River subbasin are located upstream of the Tanana River subbasin. Both are important spawning locations for chinook, fall chum, and

whitefish. Additionally, the Porcupine River subbasin supports a spawning population of sheefish, which only spawn in a few places within the Yukon basin. But, although it does not appear to support a spawning population of sheefish, the Chandalar River subbasin’s smaller size might make it a better choice for initial planning efforts. Finally, the Stewart River subbasin is located in the Canadian portion of the Yukon watershed. The Stewart River is an important chinook spawning stream, plus it is road accessible in parts, which might facilitate planning. There are almost certainly whitefish in the Stewart River subbasin as well. Additionally, Mayo, the location of the Watershed Council’s 2013 Summit, is in the Stewart River subbasin. Should the Tribes and First Nations decide to adopt the Watershed Management Plan at the Summit in Mayo, then it seems fitting that Mayo be a starting point for more focused watershed planning.

10. Conclusion Elsewhere in North America and the world, environmental degradation has devastated anadromous fish populations, leaving indigenous and non-indigenous people struggling to restore fish habitat and traditional ways of life. The Watershed Management Plan for the Yukon, and the planning process that could flow from it, represents a different kind of struggle: a struggle to stop degradation of water quality, fish populations, and a traditional way of life before it happens. If the Tribes and First Nations adopt the Watershed Management Plan, it will set in motion a watershed planning process that will be ongoing for many years to come. The process will require steadily acquiring knowledge and applying that knowledge in ways that ensure the enforcement of the water quality standards on which the Tribes and First Nations have agreed. The result could be quite extraordinary. By being at the vanguard of the watershed planning process, the indigenous people of the Yukon basin have an opportunity to be leaders in environmental protection and in tribal self-determination. If the process is successful, the Tribes and First Nations will not only help ensure that the Yukon River basin—an enormous, diverse, and spectacular landscape—is able to sustain the physical and spiritual health of its people, but also that the Tribes and First Nations have the power to keep it that way for many generations to come.

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Appendix: Anadromous Waters

Table A-1. Named Streams in the Alaska Portion of the Yukon Basin Containing Chinook, Chum, and/or Whitefish, According to Alaska’s Anadromous Waters Catalog, Version Effective June 1, 2012.

*Note: The nomenclature in the “Species Present” column is the same as that used in the Anadromous Waters Catalog. The capital letters are the species (K = chinook, CH = chum, SF = sheefish, W = whitefish, undifferentiated) and the lowercase letters are the life stage (p = present, r = rearing, s = spawning). UTM Coordinates of Lower Point (Mouth) of Stream Latitude/Longitude of Lower Point (Mouth) of Stream Stream Name Species Present X Coordinate Y Coordinate Latitude Longitude *One Mile Slough CHs 410671.56120000000 1595913.85330000000 64.09187379210 -145.54469622200 *Unnamed Creek #13 Kr 563196.20440000000 1750209.47580000000 65.24810343200 -141.88833789100 *Unnamed Creek #21 Kr 525786.78280000000 1760592.91740000000 65.39885989880 -142.63891762200 *Unnamed Creek #6 Kr 575726.77380000000 1740576.10720000000 65.14255303220 -141.66301889100 *Unnamned Creek #19 Kr 538069.16360000000 1755616.51330000000 65.33589883170 -142.39743488900 Alatna River CHs,Ks,SFs 61008.81440000000 1846432.57000000000 66.56974409000 -152.63027899100 Allen Creek CHs,Ksr,Wp -447720.23960000000 1419545.16020000000 62.48372549970 -162.73454003400 Aloha Creek CHs -70189.82940000000 1807828.46910000000 66.22077594510 -155.55547816900 American Creek Kr 602976.19280000000 1706909.56450000000 64.80005889960 -141.23022642400 American Creek Kr -134908.45190000000 1476225.58200000000 63.23018502090 -156.69081486400 Andreafsky River CHs,Ksr,SFp,Wp -481776.09410000000 1372841.25610000000 62.02869858470 -163.26426289300 Angel Creek Kr 366230.31450000000 1694848.62260000000 65.02062260810 -146.21332836000 Anvik River CHs,Krs,SFp,Wp -315424.90940000000 1426902.68800000000 62.68181087330 -160.18487081100 Archuelinguk River CHs,Krs,SFp,Wp -507009.12730000000 1383509.79110000000 62.09089622040 -163.77266690200 Arvesta Creek Kr -224710.15430000000 1695897.43250000000 65.15007787150 -158.79301056800 Atchuelinguk River CHs,Ksr,SFp,Wp -409506.87540000000 1410772.88330000000 62.44877013070 -161.97607867800 Baker Creek CHs,Kp 166318.27840000000 1672145.49190000000 64.97020387580 -150.47656166100 Batza River CHp,Wp -19694.61170000000 1777042.55230000000 65.95087830430 -154.43208666000 Bear Creek CHs,Kr 139800.37520000000 1714517.44080000000 65.36158500890 -150.99695107600 Bear Creek CHs -266963.73970000000 1530367.12200000000 63.64200620640 -159.40379128100 Bear Creek CHs -70104.32380000000 1801187.68780000000 66.16110728910 -155.55014947200 Bear Creek Kr 156037.97090000000 1898937.86680000000 67.01045320670 -150.43636316600 Bear Creek Kr 155013.54390000000 1560845.54950000000 63.97908451720 -150.82818535000 Bear Creek CHs 231195.14610000000 1584180.84140000000 64.14701475360 -149.23965223200

Bear Creek CHs,Ksr 302997.81260000000 1655951.61450000000 64.73411234260 -147.62766744500 Bearpaw River CHsr,Ksr 160736.75760000000 1573611.99890000000 64.09079856430 -150.69829205300 Beauty Creek Kr 152377.59810000000 1531036.12110000000 63.71355289110 -150.91039719600 Beaver Creek CHp,Ksr 290520.91140000000 1819855.09280000000 66.20945057740 -147.55494155100 Beaver Creek Kr -134718.11510000000 1468412.75830000000 63.16039270500 -156.68073583500 Beaver Creek CHs,Ksr,Wp -340906.00230000000 1447432.14610000000 62.84249063680 -160.72185155900 Beaver Creek Ksr 357631.81190000000 1664487.77170000000 64.75904063250 -146.46745001700 Beaver Slough CHp,Kp 287344.12540000000 1824033.24250000000 66.24959641490 -147.61609915800 Belle Creek Kr 318519.40040000000 1710440.25700000000 65.20660918920 -147.18625755400 Bettles River CHp 181640.83070000000 1970423.54600000000 67.64039963640 -149.74871403400 Big Creek CHp,Kp,Wp -63479.86040000000 1649136.40430000000 64.79771720880 -155.33608115700 Big Creek CHp,Kr 25646.28700000000 1777643.06590000000 65.95587354780 -153.43723143300 Big Creek CHs,Kr -34775.82620000000 1700008.06840000000 65.25799933080 -154.74400301300 Big Salt River CHs,Kr 187169.15390000000 1771364.72850000000 65.84859763250 -149.90645591900 Big Sitdown Creek Kr 580295.20070000000 1807785.45770000000 65.72746339980 -141.29519187800 Big Yetna River CHp -214320.35810000000 1474511.15690000000 63.17763764040 -158.26897288800 Billy Goat Creek Kr -169105.97670000000 1434961.08530000000 62.84745496380 -157.33061889900 Birch Creek CHp,Krs,SFp 381574.28890000000 1836969.73160000000 66.27048119020 -145.50593343900 Birch Creek CHp,Kp 119820.30290000000 1546766.53790000000 63.86642541170 -151.55813334200 Black River CHs,Kp 411182.02350000000 1887705.29820000000 66.68726205780 -144.69781181500 Black River Slough CHp,Kp 402099.29390000000 1881661.98920000000 66.64466598010 -144.91928341300 Black Sand Creek CHs -49758.82060000000 1685975.15170000000 65.13027911770 -155.05971639700 Blackburn Creek CHs -277130.92080000000 1500157.59310000000 63.36499742760 -159.55758931500 Blue Creek CHs 397742.00900000000 1602896.06390000000 64.16842190510 -145.79048078600 Bluff Cabin Creek CHs 405505.16070000000 1601608.36740000000 64.14832055730 -145.63525097800 Bluff Creek Kr 442638.47680000000 1789100.13050000000 65.76942217300 -144.31899322800 Bonanza Creek CHs 130756.30250000000 1850817.89420000000 66.58883269710 -151.06150727600 Bonasila River CHs,Ksr,SFp,Wp -318325.30100000000 1410421.88910000000 62.53260791020 -160.21127505400 Boundary Creek Kr 616095.93960000000 1696024.62320000000 64.68162531330 -141.00390461700 Box River CHp,Wp -211333.80100000000 1721602.14130000000 65.38859967450 -158.54608061900 Butte Creek Kr 559886.39250000000 1750326.15110000000 65.25450429870 -141.95751169000 Butte Creek Kr 386918.96480000000 1654862.43370000000 64.64247975220 -145.88117273200

Calamity Creek Kr 26541.92610000000 1778268.94020000000 65.96142784290 -153.41745852500 California Creek CHsr,Ksr -170366.39090000000 1437974.47060000000 62.87381343210 -157.35839998900 California Creek CHs,Ksr -188625.75190000000 1565926.18220000000 64.00858546470 -157.86420274100 Canyon Creek CHs 148430.24660000000 1722033.71040000000 65.42535966470 -150.80408624900 Canyon Creek CHs,Ksr,Wp -334987.98640000000 1491966.73660000000 63.24429909330 -160.69416540000 Captain Creek Kr 308140.21460000000 1702539.88220000000 65.14545956420 -147.42349299100 Caribou Creek CHs,Kp -65471.38910000000 1803401.70860000000 66.18194647340 -155.44880732300 Caribou Creek Kr 149975.29600000000 1530786.10560000000 63.71230913350 -150.95926953600 Caribou Creek Kr 347366.97670000000 1722475.01990000000 65.28622224250 -146.54531417000 Caribou Creek Kr 394727.31900000000 1658554.82980000000 64.66670160330 -145.70938425100 Cassiar Creek Kr 340310.13380000000 1719810.13960000000 65.26947541590 -146.70178759600 Central Creek Kr 434812.65730000000 1630792.27530000000 64.37323473820 -144.95635413600 Chandalar River CHs,Ksr 354670.81670000000 1871514.27310000000 66.60880946280 -146.00679337900 Chapman Creek Kr 153183.38360000000 1908094.97990000000 67.09421350940 -150.49039321700 Charley River CHs,Kp 520186.19140000000 1751076.02240000000 65.32317678790 -142.79200603800 Chatanika River CHs,Ksr 220819.81690000000 1688666.79630000000 65.08786942610 -149.30058483600 Chena River CHs,Ksr 288780.18640000000 1661411.46040000000 64.79478789840 -147.91447624000 Chena Slough Kr 308658.37610000000 1668579.04140000000 64.84188178360 -147.48339756000 Cheyenne Creek Kr 128955.47700000000 1701919.88170000000 65.25286143200 -151.24086600900 Chicken Creek Kr 109567.01150000000 1910848.76510000000 67.13682542890 -151.48616447500 Chisana River CHs 609151.60200000000 1508765.61590000000 63.04623070840 -141.86051725200 Christian River CHp,Kp 356822.34850000000 1878397.00070000000 66.66796867230 -145.94004305100 Chuilnak River CHs,Krs,SFp,Wp -460239.70100000000 1362144.24670000000 61.96007749340 -162.82793718400 Clear Creek CHs 373102.75420000000 1608663.53050000000 64.24612968460 -146.28055900200 Clear Creek CHs,Kpr,Wp -67441.31350000000 1807393.29080000000 66.21743169490 -155.49437226400 Clear Creek Kp 174177.77500000000 1610857.97190000000 64.41777389420 -150.38106784200 Clear Creek CHs,Kr 234988.47590000000 1617716.27310000000 64.44422660820 -149.11108256500 Clear Creek Krs 288920.30300000000 1655639.56280000000 64.74313969800 -147.92263965900 Clearwater Creek CHs 409728.04530000000 1596940.45320000000 64.10206738910 -145.56124225600 Coal Creek Kr 504670.84790000000 1751564.58820000000 65.35055156510 -143.11855306400 Coal Creek Kr 104030.35250000000 1695763.16140000000 65.20604229920 -151.77812367500 Coleen River CHp,Ks 500787.07180000000 1944901.08620000000 67.07014174230 -142.48467265800

Colorado Creek Kr 348491.15770000000 1679272.68800000000 64.89995934680 -146.62393549200 Colorado Creek Kr -179802.46420000000 1577091.40120000000 64.11292824780 -157.69654753900 Comeback Creek CHs -76366.54810000000 1811015.67710000000 66.24806578790 -155.69410502000 Cosna River Ks 122916.54610000000 1658230.95120000000 64.86346736010 -151.40642570300 Crawford Creek Kr 358192.56360000000 1679772.54680000000 64.89463735650 -146.41915089000 Cripple Creek Kr 342509.31550000000 1720695.39570000000 65.27519942580 -146.65291524400 Crooked Creek Kpr 225067.78420000000 1933563.38590000000 67.28086182870 -148.80347068000 Crooked Creek Kr 316664.97570000000 1709416.11380000000 65.19916719500 -147.22787827400 Curtis Slough CHp,Kp 428735.88790000000 1900225.24960000000 66.77624387290 -144.26499374300 Cutoff Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -103094.59180000000 1769889.50630000000 65.87145353670 -156.25565840400 Dagislakhna Creek CHp,Kp,Wp 82549.69190000000 1729714.43160000000 65.51642682900 -152.21719905200 Dagitli River Wp -136415.19670000000 1736339.03470000000 65.55863286570 -156.95124534100 Dakli River CHs,Kp,SFp,Wp -102625.11020000000 1784045.34320000000 65.99871664700 -156.25591117600 Dall River CHp 215393.30620000000 1790851.86360000000 66.00645379070 -149.26075158700 Deep Creek Kr 384939.36630000000 1652985.32280000000 64.62793597470 -145.92706637200 Delta River CHs 394561.24040000000 1601087.41730000000 64.15584076230 -145.86002707700 Dishna River CHs,Ks,Wp -162721.76250000000 1519472.95910000000 63.60570130280 -157.28741174900 Dome Creek CHr,Kr 293593.97500000000 1693232.66190000000 65.07493567890 -147.75070419000 Dome Creek Kr -2956.51040000000 1728222.94030000000 65.51297206770 -154.06383522200 Douglas Creek Kr 151148.69340000000 1881591.74770000000 66.85674662390 -150.56827532200 Dugan Creek CHs -273510.71190000000 1514074.39200000000 63.49183184060 -159.50841880300 Dulbi Slough Wp -107522.74550000000 1722430.04760000000 65.44414879320 -156.31626435400 Eagle Creek Kr 612194.42300000000 1705563.59400000000 64.77230863250 -141.04537502400 Eagle Creek Kr 152617.78680000000 1896646.59430000000 66.99147414040 -150.51707124300 East Fork Andreafsky River CHs,Ksr,SFp,Wp -473464.55140000000 1375027.52720000000 62.05831403260 -163.11218355800 East Fork Chandalar River CHs,Kp 294546.47680000000 1919693.63670000000 67.10004200570 -147.24157930400 East Fork Chena River Kr 366858.60790000000 1686221.21340000000 64.94311578460 -146.22147848400 East Fork Henshaw (Sozhekla) Creek CHs 73978.70470000000 1862718.47480000000 66.71361221810 -152.33000826200 East Fork Toklat River CHp 188783.13540000000 1554234.95270000000 63.90397346400 -150.14646225000 Eisenmenger Fork Ks 467074.68060000000 1646338.56070000000 64.47038199420 -144.24742921600 Eureka Creek Kr 482246.70660000000 1757862.48130000000 65.43850343190 -143.57283462100

Faith Creek Kr 354996.11720000000 1723623.05060000000 65.28870473950 -146.38019162200 Fish Creek CHs,Kps 106967.91940000000 1852164.77480000000 66.60955496370 -151.59448974400 Fish Slough CHp,Kp 297283.80880000000 1832308.09440000000 66.31491196030 -147.37843295900 Five Day Slough CHp,Kp -426743.30820000000 1357658.94920000000 61.95855150360 -162.18163152500 Flat Creek CHs,Kr 375895.89930000000 1647145.47400000000 64.58567319350 -146.12937723400 Flat Creek Kr 341810.40770000000 1675057.94780000000 64.86896485620 -146.77388099300 Flat Creek Kr 332360.36190000000 1714389.92080000000 65.22885205200 -146.88336541900 Fleshlanana Creek Kr 116963.21080000000 1733323.80440000000 65.53878766070 -151.47162607300 Flume Creek Kr 156867.98110000000 1563452.49270000000 64.00160830640 -150.78772135800 Folger Creek Wp -118626.76760000000 1511055.39680000000 63.54728450130 -156.39136986800 Foraker River CHp 93264.70270000000 1548594.94420000000 63.89056685620 -152.09791598200 Fourmile Creek Kr 353102.55950000000 1680310.47070000000 64.90459349940 -146.52468661700 Fourth of July Creek CHs,Kr 567806.38650000000 1745568.84130000000 65.19963323220 -141.80951542300 Fox Creek CHs,Kr -55938.09140000000 1677656.41790000000 65.05472764010 -155.18812086800 French Creek CHsr 327722.42660000000 1655795.50120000000 64.71062593770 -147.11160737200 Funchion Creek CHp 276412.74890000000 1918779.54880000000 67.10793747690 -147.65704942100 Garnet Creek CHp,Kp 150616.68620000000 1722420.14480000000 65.42787314650 -150.75667734600 Gilles Creek Kp 406969.23230000000 1624819.79660000000 64.35295635090 -145.54473887100 Gisasa River CHs,Ksr,Wp -171481.95910000000 1705274.00930000000 65.26445604990 -157.67137295800 Gishna Kr 121182.94460000000 1735297.10740000000 65.55502232270 -151.37881905900 Glacier Creek Kr 446717.12780000000 1643141.07010000000 64.46813455580 -144.67611570900 Glacier Creek Kr -33245.29650000000 1684650.09790000000 65.12036425000 -154.70775946800 Glacier Creek CHsr,Ksr 149267.53280000000 1532228.67410000000 63.72550133060 -150.97226692100 Glacier Creek Ks 234406.78580000000 1614784.63870000000 64.41840859470 -149.12760792100 Glenn Creek Kr 552897.11910000000 1754123.17900000000 65.29927349850 -142.09013428900 Goblet Creek CHp,Kr -334653.43480000000 1432383.71300000000 62.71412420050 -160.57012105000 Golden Creek Kr 41191.79360000000 1703219.78410000000 65.28611242750 -153.11783431600 Goodpaster River CHs,Ksr 405384.26470000000 1603569.51580000000 64.16588576750 -145.63264841800 Goose Creek Kr 406222.35850000000 1657324.58020000000 64.64274963630 -145.47385699400 Granite Creek CHs 423357.92160000000 1589906.53410000000 64.02387967730 -145.30254081100 Grayling Creek Kr -75847.34630000000 1652491.37280000000 64.82534271690 -155.59799022800 Grayling Creek CHs,Ps -306251.55010000000 1450316.50330000000 62.89794068550 -160.04769265400

Grayling Fork Black River CHp 525816.58040000000 1845838.94030000000 66.15302657960 -142.31749830600 Hadweenzic River CHp 318856.22520000000 1851502.98260000000 66.46656304450 -146.85567319700 Hammond River CHr,Kp 170615.21460000000 1949544.94310000000 67.45850585500 -150.03526857900 Hard Luck Creek Kr 574070.18700000000 1757092.01980000000 65.29093563190 -141.63255209200 Harrison Creek Kr 429794.79020000000 1738959.36300000000 65.34019225470 -144.74794177800 Hawk River CHs,Krp,Wp -353067.60670000000 1410256.84650000000 62.50054827020 -160.88423632700 Hayes Creek Kr 278962.73050000000 1688767.88870000000 65.04707313720 -148.06890374200 Healy Creek CHp 248252.01900000000 1552158.92370000000 63.84970910090 -148.93991161900 Hellbent Creek Kr 72509.43850000000 1714014.47570000000 65.37780982100 -152.44190342100 Henshaw (Sozhekla) Creek CHs,Ks,Wp 79095.32070000000 1844987.19360000000 66.55288894630 -152.22525353000 Hess Creek CHs,Kp 192546.17590000000 1751968.82510000000 65.67171585710 -149.81585548700 High Creek CHs -65551.22740000000 1799175.90450000000 66.14395084710 -155.44853416100 Hodzana River CHs,Kp 282757.19330000000 1827194.09850000000 66.28181872390 -147.71076366700 Hodzana Slough CHp,Kp 275028.77620000000 1821244.66360000000 66.23503139460 -147.89381351100 Hogatza River CHs,Kp,Wp -63810.65180000000 1782770.59300000000 65.99687143030 -155.40242868000 Holikachuk Slough SFp,Wp -276802.08490000000 1450118.46510000000 62.91899274000 -159.46858297500 Honhosa River CHs,Wp -173787.53020000000 1728808.56750000000 65.47419453100 -157.74904556600 Hoosier Creek Kr 180576.24470000000 1726808.11140000000 65.45276279410 -150.10736008300 Horner Creek Kr 334535.39280000000 1670919.19720000000 64.83907210420 -146.93578056100 Horse Creek Kr 347737.25240000000 1722734.26840000000 65.28816158850 -146.53681193900 Hot Springs Creek CHs,Ks -42830.49510000000 1691691.49810000000 65.18248177360 -154.91385868800 Hult Creek CHs 106778.16610000000 1502291.55640000000 63.47250197830 -151.85301676300 Hunch Creek CHp,Wp -117324.57100000000 1525694.88940000000 63.67868081410 -156.37569410900 Hunts Creek Kr 341116.40060000000 1673765.46120000000 64.85811823110 -146.79139193900 Hutlinana Creek CHs 172750.53160000000 1676852.45450000000 65.00923833590 -150.33506854800 Iditarod River CHsr -240613.78890000000 1459578.13460000000 63.02831865140 -158.76966791400 Illinois Creek CHs,Ksr,Wp 43242.10250000000 1691323.98380000000 65.17913370340 -153.07746904100 Illinois Creek CHs,Kp -188993.82530000000 1565880.79290000000 64.00798772420 -157.87167191800 Indian Creek Kr 435289.32970000000 1642452.02680000000 64.47616887130 -144.91358790600 Indian Grave Creek Kr 578489.05230000000 1794953.66700000000 65.61739048250 -141.38650274900 Indian River CHs,Ksr -18462.18360000000 1767993.05460000000 65.86964229760 -154.40384140500 Iniakuk River CHs 39983.07670000000 1904009.22850000000 67.09139474450 -153.08443799600

Innoko River CHp,Kr,Wp,SFp -296771.93470000000 1370323.70170000000 62.19271114180 -159.72561292200 Innoko Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -293061.18750000000 1348879.22050000000 62.00446305390 -159.61944304900 Isom Creek Kr 193178.78870000000 1760742.97460000000 65.75000023110 -149.79007441200 Jack Uheen Slough CHp,Kp 302924.65320000000 1835247.14980000000 66.33611000910 -147.24701307100 Jackson Creek Kr 101676.57060000000 1695699.48180000000 65.20616969910 -151.82840387500 Jackson Creek CHs,Kr -357814.38280000000 1434820.56720000000 62.71463679330 -161.02659875400 Jackson Creek Kr -376566.88400000000 1454512.88740000000 62.87153996050 -161.43498949000 Jim River CHs,Ksp 123566.92770000000 1872755.37110000000 66.78891002410 -151.20212140600 John River CHp,Ks,Wp 103201.75840000000 1885773.25000000000 66.91315482790 -151.65240688900 Johnson Slough CHp 462997.23810000000 1560024.37950000000 63.71050484420 -144.58514071000 Jordan Creek CHp,Kr 134004.48350000000 1706666.89970000000 65.29350023200 -151.12858047600 Judge Creek Kr 542511.08380000000 1769448.88720000000 65.45116360620 -142.25140092100 Julius Creek CHp,Kpr 233496.32720000000 1621710.71570000000 64.48090871740 -149.13593966600 June Creek CHs 231042.86720000000 1583003.08580000000 64.13658910010 -149.24451048000 Kako Creek CHs,Ks,Wp -383202.38980000000 1339302.80090000000 61.84084363380 -161.31539601500 Kala Creek CHsr,Ksr -131933.79210000000 1629882.62160000000 64.60626186640 -156.75879374900 Kala Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -139711.55460000000 1643279.32550000000 64.72325868800 -156.93359173100 Kalakaket Creek Kr -139265.37430000000 1614972.90870000000 64.46995232950 -156.89831246400 Kalasik Creek CHs,Ksr -224275.57810000000 1648061.99740000000 64.72245194110 -158.71150987300 Kaltag River CHs,Ksr -228009.73940000000 1604882.87970000000 64.33405120060 -158.72525914600 Kandik River (Charley Creek) CHp,Ksr 531561.70180000000 1758880.23990000000 65.37484636500 -142.52292463500 Kantishna River CHp,Kp 191923.99100000000 1650637.99930000000 64.76458824160 -149.96302456200 Kanuti Kilolitna River CHs,Kp 88256.92230000000 1806619.34750000000 66.20561612980 -152.04513282600 Kanuti River CHsp,Kp 44675.82080000000 1832837.75160000000 66.45006713770 -153.00149730800 Kateel River CHs,Ksr,SFp,Wp -168328.10430000000 1725717.84590000000 65.44921362970 -157.62787119100 Kevinjik Creek CHs,Kr 528668.62330000000 1887404.25940000000 66.51642888810 -142.09160857000 Khotol River SFp,Wp -230531.20130000000 1571848.36280000000 64.03725318000 -158.72867363000 Kinegnak River CHs,Ks,Wp -440901.58450000000 1005692.19700000000 58.81850181360 -161.67448133000 Klikhtentotzna Creek CHs -33274.11460000000 1821728.84300000000 66.35149586460 -154.74092998700 Koepke Slough Kr 367228.09890000000 1640433.71710000000 64.53499861470 -146.32540056700 Kokomo Creek Kr 314043.84860000000 1706710.13070000000 65.17739694800 -147.28937802100

Koserefski River CHp,SFp,Wp -307758.63700000000 1377201.47630000000 62.24536001550 -159.94832284500 Koyukuk River CHp,Kp,SFsp,Wps -168675.49340000000 1666662.95730000000 64.91997638170 -157.56704780700 Kuyukutuk River CHp,Kr -423870.70260000000 1376997.19900000000 62.13333577050 -162.17250699100 Kwemeluk Pass CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -563257.87440000000 1443984.20370000000 62.54670362200 -165.03018821500 Kwimlilthla Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -526704.06440000000 1449300.47150000000 62.64603484220 -164.34233141000 Liscum Slough Kr 423483.25110000000 1608183.89070000000 64.18604388590 -145.25081136200 Little Lockwood Creek CHs,Ksr -370599.56170000000 1406859.40520000000 62.45371355330 -161.21628635100 Little Melozitna River CHs,Kp 37141.86880000000 1742474.92300000000 65.63892440430 -153.19436086300 Little Mud River CHp,Kp -184896.37460000000 1542438.98230000000 63.80050884940 -157.76075044000 Little Salcha River CHp 334849.73650000000 1636183.61200000000 64.52912155270 -147.00614934200 Logan Creek Kr 554937.68870000000 1754930.05650000000 65.30312511360 -142.04402500200 Long Creek Kr 323548.29860000000 1712437.56630000000 65.21977529960 -147.07501224300 Lost River Kp -11824.87560000000 1615118.15630000000 64.49829693540 -154.24625909000 Lower Birch Creek Slough CHp,Kp,SFp 319897.92100000000 1849845.01450000000 66.45072672350 -146.83650482900 Lower Boulder Creek Kr 427449.68320000000 1661053.78120000000 64.65088611620 -145.02307313500 Lower Mouth Birch Creek CHp,Kp,SFp 328614.00170000000 1850281.75120000000 66.44607658910 -146.64181825400 Lyrad Creek Kr 344155.12230000000 1676874.68940000000 64.88286752890 -146.72051347400 Macaroni Creek Kr 10123.00400000000 1771726.46440000000 65.90353678990 -153.77829509200 Maiden Creek Kr 429790.63820000000 1662076.45920000000 64.65713359710 -144.97161027900 Mailbox Creek Kr 153468.44000000000 1909025.58920000000 67.10245209620 -150.48274627700 Malamute Fork Alatna River CHp,Kp 31994.76230000000 1897308.14870000000 67.03191135770 -153.26903253100 Malamute Fork John River CHps 95648.48960000000 1899380.56000000000 67.03798482950 -151.81391187600 Mardow Creek Kr 539580.78500000000 1767163.22330000000 65.43558035100 -142.32216940700 Marion Creek CHs,Kr 165536.44430000000 1933751.25230000000 67.31898866200 -150.17414147300 Mastodon Creek Kr 358503.56640000000 1679952.04510000000 64.89591873590 -146.41219371700 Matthews Slough CHs,Ksr -25449.56470000000 1766105.06760000000 65.85222767750 -154.55633110900 McCoy Creek Kr 364024.39220000000 1637750.75660000000 64.51440632070 -146.39815780800 McDonald Creek CHs,Krs 300554.11740000000 1656148.56770000000 64.73796071680 -147.67835646800 McDonald Creek CHs,Kr,Wp -312567.08890000000 1514450.90420000000 63.46417023290 -160.29131195200 McKinley River CHs,Kp 119820.30290000000 1546766.54510000000 63.86642547610 -151.55813333700 McManus Creek Kr 356482.57950000000 1724036.53850000000 65.29086037250 -146.34754836500 McQuesten Creek Kr 105895.33620000000 1733826.36160000000 65.54690036850 -151.71030462400

Melozimoran Creek Kr 38074.20730000000 1738267.58250000000 65.60104533950 -153.17527296000 Melozitna River CHp,Ksp,SFp,Wp -68849.30910000000 1644833.82960000000 64.75814004740 -155.44708633400 Mettenpherg Creek CHp,Kp 54907.08260000000 1905731.63600000000 67.10471342870 -152.74202067200 Michigan Creek CHs,Kr 568351.10390000000 1746169.67560000000 65.20404083240 -141.79573802300 Middle Fork Chena River CHs,Ksr 365391.32900000000 1685691.34730000000 64.93993078560 -146.25361177300 Middle Fork Koyukuk River CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp 127823.08490000000 1901594.52510000000 67.04677021680 -151.07715114000 Minnie Creek Kr 167807.84650000000 1945339.78280000000 67.42213628620 -150.10607794800 Minook Creek CHs,Kr 178595.35890000000 1733958.98750000000 65.51788402370 -150.14101800400 Mission Creek Kr 604355.42600000000 1706595.33430000000 64.79492770220 -141.20300066100 Mission Creek Kr 95546.01910000000 1693823.01350000000 65.19108563170 -151.96048487400 Modoc Creek Kr 345972.74290000000 1721563.40010000000 65.27949146480 -146.57716363000 Monarch Creek Kr 244898.57330000000 1923515.81870000000 67.17602497330 -148.36734332700 Moody Creek CHs 250832.09710000000 1552460.23620000000 63.85063155260 -148.88705680400 Moose Creek CHs,Kr 153675.02400000000 1726731.43510000000 65.46517083130 -150.68629981100 Moose Creek CHs,Ksr 151781.72320000000 1550443.81100000000 63.88739784330 -150.90413076300 Moose Creek CHp 321971.32860000000 1656148.29930000000 64.71906439900 -147.23089359400 Morelock Creek CHs,Ksr 125940.15790000000 1702652.31910000000 65.26053899400 -151.30467450900 Mosquito Fork Kpr 175693.11130000000 1904108.30030000000 67.04685782950 -149.98136921200 Mountain Creek CHp -347707.92220000000 1354153.57960000000 62.00627310330 -160.67094132800 Mud River CHp,Kp -182740.75090000000 1527222.39670000000 63.66556127160 -157.69977266400 Muddy River CHp,Kp 117898.85240000000 1548715.77470000000 63.88449722820 -151.59581945000 Mullen Slough CHs,Ksr 329612.86820000000 1669326.30050000000 64.82951947580 -147.04247321700 Munson Creek Kr 374182.87440000000 1687692.69780000000 64.94846688750 -146.06393035100 Murphy Creek Kr 277811.16140000000 1687622.13420000000 65.03775590440 -148.09541855500 Nabesna River CHp 609151.60200000000 1508765.61590000000 63.04623070840 -141.86051725200 Nageethluk River CHs,Ks -419373.99510000000 1399087.75320000000 62.33434232070 -162.13860901200 Nation River CHs,Ksr 572674.22930000000 1745944.67180000000 65.19494247690 -141.70589022000 Nenana River CHp,Kp 234261.55900000000 1631228.37600000000 64.56547816580 -149.10547021900 Ninemile River CHs,Wp -204874.14880000000 1636068.62350000000 64.62695914980 -158.28887236600 Ninetyeight Creek Kr 369973.36520000000 1642653.17980000000 64.55190901440 -146.26316414300 Nome Creek Ks 318769.59620000000 1730842.26350000000 65.38849304120 -147.13599383800 North Fork Birch Creek Kr 384188.96220000000 1738282.03420000000 65.38803579330 -145.72075899400

North Fork Chandalar River Ksp 247701.86880000000 1923091.93370000000 67.17006572720 -148.30401579700 North Fork Koyukuk River CHs,Ksr,Wp 127823.08490000000 1901594.52510000000 67.04677021680 -151.07715114000 North Fork Moose Creek CHp 162077.87100000000 1509696.17610000000 63.51856830110 -150.73527747700 North Fork Salcha River Ksr 412609.59120000000 1658809.16190000000 64.64855739290 -145.33725806500 Nowitna River CHp,Kp,SFp -13055.91060000000 1662773.62150000000 64.92548763400 -154.27602058600 Noyes Slough Kp 293278.46350000000 1667170.25520000000 64.84248144280 -147.80894567600 Nulato River Kr -239074.65210000000 1623124.76220000000 64.48984414010 -158.98204016400 Nulato River CHs,Ksr,Wp -196460.34070000000 1644156.89930000000 64.70409496010 -158.12369734900 Ophir Creek Ksr 321248.90600000000 1728608.91970000000 65.36625232830 -147.08797797300 Otter Creek Kr 154963.03170000000 1554869.44440000000 63.92564514240 -150.83504044600 Otter Creek CHs -217404.18510000000 1394876.95560000000 62.46486972090 -158.22935292000 Otter Creek CHs,Ksr,Wp -335017.73860000000 1491872.74000000000 63.24343534140 -160.69456721900 Paimiut Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -321103.21850000000 1344137.30130000000 61.94004018470 -160.14582202300 Paldo Creek Kr 447156.84860000000 1681922.11130000000 64.81175256980 -144.55267805700 Pektotolik Slough CHp,SFp,Wp -510671.04450000000 1423013.04080000000 62.43546464440 -163.95551495200 Piledriver Slough CHs 316944.71120000000 1655310.62760000000 64.71614222490 -147.33762038000 Poison Creek CHs -241997.34100000000 1567265.71160000000 63.98883557270 -158.95601325000 Poker Creek Kr 305407.34820000000 1701237.37070000000 65.13624379080 -147.48416272200 Poltes Slough CHp,Kp -440023.64270000000 1360115.86840000000 61.96552813190 -162.43950946100 Porcupine Creek Kr 434310.62920000000 1667758.25690000000 64.70206837200 -144.86152648000 Porcupine River CHp,Kp 385967.18810000000 1871220.16210000000 66.57090077130 -145.31003474200 Preacher Creek CHp,SFp 413304.82520000000 1825272.25640000000 66.12844263060 -144.84388002000 Prospect Creek Ksr 143777.46490000000 1873807.81780000000 66.79008503920 -150.74401588100 Quartz Creek Kr 123169.34210000000 1702401.35080000000 65.25928649830 -151.36412460900 Ray River CHs,Ksp 192032.41050000000 1774865.98250000000 65.87726314060 -149.79553105900 Red Mountain Creek CHp 5522.51840000000 1814598.26600000000 66.28899341910 -153.87731591800 Red Wing Slough CHp,Kp,Wp -298707.50400000000 1364334.38560000000 62.13785289120 -159.75278507400 Redmond Creek Kr 356417.46980000000 1633925.53650000000 64.48804485070 -146.56457799800 Reindeer River CHs,Wp -283510.20220000000 1362332.07420000000 62.13146790350 -159.45829119600 Roadhouse Creek Kr 159344.81230000000 1730671.44070000000 65.49790729840 -150.55985941100 Roberts Creek Kr -351530.11000000000 1424617.12240000000 62.62973637280 -160.88338983200 Rock Creek Kr 560349.21820000000 1753015.36760000000 65.27748963230 -141.93738289000

Rock Creek Kr 361559.65870000000 1681241.27350000000 64.90426586920 -146.34494828000 Rock Creek Kr 151739.60900000000 1530891.99570000000 63.71252893500 -150.92344978200 Rodo River CHs,Ksr,SFp,Wp -226953.45630000000 1598522.46060000000 64.27787620170 -158.69414054300 Rosie Creek Kr 160634.01740000000 1920240.59950000000 67.19987704870 -150.30456483900 Ruby Creek Kr 350252.26040000000 1724400.37800000000 65.30047719540 -146.47926071400 Ruby Slough SFp,Wp -99794.34740000000 1639149.44080000000 64.69980079080 -156.09336490400 Runkels Creek Kr -339267.46480000000 1465357.19520000000 63.00353117110 -160.72543448100 Runt Creek Kr 555646.15310000000 1883587.07360000000 66.43833869640 -141.51381342400 Russian Creek Kr 172248.58840000000 1729659.71500000000 65.48259923170 -150.28305721000 Salcha River CHs,Ksr 336293.58270000000 1630155.46020000000 64.47403345320 -146.98945761900 Salchaket Slough CHs,Ksr 284650.98960000000 1656047.66820000000 64.75025597590 -148.01118186200 Salmon Fork Black River CHs,Ksr 505950.99750000000 1886657.53080000000 66.54550624450 -142.59596866200 Salmon Trout River CHps 533927.20940000000 1961027.13410000000 67.15980776960 -141.67135293300 Sam Creek Kr 516688.69490000000 1749387.13390000000 65.31348756860 -142.87199605100 Sarah Creek Kr 176277.31600000000 1743400.56180000000 65.60371429840 -150.17927007800 Sargent Creek Kr 289701.74210000000 1690315.39070000000 65.05213893490 -147.83881846500 Sawmill Creek CHs 420941.59780000000 1592195.55720000000 64.04702679260 -145.34552679300 Schieffelin Creek CHs,Kr 119815.88510000000 1698824.01790000000 65.22838883220 -151.43876880900 Schley Creek Kr 564112.71360000000 1746679.22830000000 65.21546103230 -141.88276162300 Schrader Creek Kr 226802.89210000000 1953642.84640000000 67.46015902890 -148.72684094600 Sethkokna River Ksr 48947.52610000000 1596059.99270000000 64.32436321360 -152.98677256000 Sevenmile Creek Kr 537421.87220000000 1764080.59290000000 65.41171718460 -142.37949783600 Sevenmile Creek Kr 428616.89230000000 1624654.50230000000 64.32621558720 -145.10067300200 Seventeenmile Slough CHs,Kp 231158.60180000000 1616170.23410000000 64.43291189810 -149.19280656800 Seventymile River CHs,Kr 596823.76190000000 1720138.89800000000 64.92702835470 -141.30445578300 Shade Creek Kr 606764.45980000000 1717730.40940000000 64.88876127910 -141.10805478200 Shageluk Slough SFp,Wp -283187.07270000000 1437585.76010000000 62.80250806570 -159.57340927700 Shaw Creek CHs,Kr 378743.61160000000 1610488.82740000000 64.25646439980 -146.16048579800 Sheenjek River CHs,Kp 416024.17060000000 1894286.24320000000 66.73978763170 -144.56872136000 Sheep Creek Kr 440126.00990000000 1738667.98500000000 65.32457708830 -144.52940197300 Short Creek Kr -353066.47170000000 1453160.85570000000 62.88227564330 -160.97171660300 Shovel Creek Kr 263263.93930000000 1685140.36010000000 65.02685904300 -148.40753487800

Simon Creek CHs,Wp -286780.82870000000 1480828.68490000000 63.18530815170 -159.71687967600 Sinyalak Creek CHp 42064.91860000000 1861702.81360000000 66.71013620810 -153.05062087000 Sischu Creek Kr 34769.12610000000 1556999.62080000000 63.97613233400 -153.28889943800 Slate Creek CHp,Kp 164744.89290000000 1927134.11750000000 67.25983283250 -150.20113429000 Smith Creek Kr 356482.57950000000 1724036.53850000000 65.29086037250 -146.34754836500 Sourdough Creek Kr 350178.17920000000 1722655.27900000000 65.28499241370 -146.48505996600 South Fork Chena River Ksr 346400.22430000000 1677260.65210000000 64.88409810010 -146.67251170400 South Fork Goodpaster River Ksr 426880.70160000000 1610749.44620000000 64.20481129470 -145.17443688000 South Fork Koyukuk River CHs,Ksr,Wp 91487.09800000000 1848626.98740000000 66.58241340360 -151.94484466200 South Fork Nulato River CHs,Ksr,Wp -200386.59400000000 1647148.74030000000 64.72865746560 -158.20986660900 South Fork Salcha River Kr 408211.61430000000 1658524.72080000000 64.65112994740 -145.42933272500 Spicer Creek CHs,Kr 106548.71120000000 1695297.75800000000 65.20110403210 -151.72471867400 Squaw Creek CHs,Kr 177599.84180000000 1733839.85500000000 65.51733388190 -150.16262913500 Stink Creek CHs -241254.41130000000 1566567.35040000000 63.98309345900 -158.93979262400 Stone Boy Creek Kr 444787.25040000000 1677743.08950000000 64.77766092520 -144.61447022400 Stone Boys Tent Creek Kr 424837.20470000000 1659536.48620000000 64.64055376130 -145.08153211000 Stuyahok River CHs,Kr,Wp -350344.63030000000 1406608.63260000000 62.47059901040 -160.82423371600 Sucker Creek SFp,Wp -279946.33890000000 1454920.17330000000 62.95947925550 -159.53830900300 Sulatna River CHp,Kp -22284.66020000000 1626365.06140000000 64.59859830000 -154.46572654000 Sulukna River CHp,Kr,SFs -2371.96190000000 1573549.83400000000 64.12603261020 -154.04876191400 Sushana River CHs 194707.10530000000 1582555.31710000000 64.15404999260 -149.99097026800 Swanneck Slough CHp,Kp 222906.16510000000 1670123.52040000000 64.92064203550 -149.28430767800 Swift River CHs,Ksr,Wp -338033.12840000000 1472862.19930000000 63.07145843180 -160.71612658300 Tanana River CHs,Kp 93764.43220000000 1691199.46820000000 65.16804421950 -152.00017708000 Tatonduk River CHp,Ksr 593347.76990000000 1727277.78590000000 64.99580538310 -141.34803658800 Teklanika River CHs,Kr 224819.70350000000 1619888.06790000000 64.47019973960 -149.31874804100 Tenmile Creek Kr 426452.83370000000 1619801.11270000000 64.28569910790 -145.15841074900 Tetthajik Creek Kr 540823.41660000000 1888599.73620000000 66.50728283020 -141.81896569000 Texas Creek Kr 139646.70580000000 1712565.50460000000 65.34414703220 -151.00213901000 Thanksgiving Creek Kr 479688.28510000000 1755988.22030000000 65.42546615920 -143.63353046700 Theodore Creek CHp,Kp -341845.63200000000 1436868.80270000000 62.74762051100 -160.71925096900 Thompson Creek CHs,Wp -291566.06080000000 1471762.19560000000 63.10077149830 -159.79605682100

Threemile Creek Kr 534785.27760000000 1761455.04840000000 65.39261747440 -142.44513906500 Titna River CHs,Kp 17971.72500000000 1601404.28510000000 64.37514447690 -153.62733447900 Toklat River CHs,Kp 176824.95640000000 1615187.02400000000 64.45520743690 -150.32120079500 Tolovana River CHp,Kp 197540.73590000000 1660603.05200000000 64.85065963710 -149.83204750300 Tolstoi Creek CHs,Wp -162421.01780000000 1502156.90060000000 63.45101091570 -157.26416517500 Tough Luck Creek Kr 352745.16530000000 1724269.25910000000 65.29677131830 -146.42651316100 Tozitna River CHs,Krs,SFp,Wp 75330.31350000000 1686837.17840000000 65.13340960630 -152.39541852000 Troublesome Creek CHp,Kr 207954.17700000000 1758129.05640000000 65.71785131760 -149.47291519700 Trout Creek Kr 576034.93680000000 1738248.06290000000 65.12151634300 -141.66572541500 Tuckers Slough CHp -364201.20150000000 1346524.20700000000 61.92328577080 -160.96979592800 Tunurokpak Channel CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -508491.02210000000 1425128.00760000000 62.45707756310 -163.91975877600 Turnaround Creek CHs -55294.87990000000 1678893.56020000000 65.06592583200 -155.17492680400 Twelve Mile Creek Kr 159012.33500000000 1918007.18130000000 67.18058469610 -150.34462161000 Twelvemile Creek Kr 383197.12790000000 1738874.27300000000 65.39441583150 -145.74033381800 Twelvemile Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -340060.05980000000 1346140.09640000000 61.94174049340 -160.51014152400 Twentyfive Mile Creek Kr 369026.54510000000 1640298.97770000000 64.53193602220 -146.28847698600 Twentymile Creek Kr 187662.88110000000 1748005.45630000000 65.63891803150 -149.92697827800 Twentythree Mile Slough CHp 326287.59740000000 1651174.81350000000 64.67075165510 -147.15153186300 U.S. Creek Kr 339184.53480000000 1718917.64150000000 65.26262064790 -146.72782160300 Unaluk River CHs,Ks,Wp -438322.88030000000 1007177.90860000000 58.83435818960 -161.63295002900 Upper Boulder Creek Kr 431188.63140000000 1662494.66500000000 64.65914655700 -144.94141475600 Upper Mouth Birch Creek CHp,Kp 347080.33330000000 1861404.29110000000 66.52657727970 -146.20289775300 Victoria Creek CHp,Kr 336188.29710000000 1779334.42640000000 65.80470685800 -146.64873283300 Wallick Creek CHp -69011.24330000000 1801502.78540000000 66.16416675480 -155.52614789500 Waterfall Creek Kr 580804.53710000000 1767719.84930000000 65.37336809880 -141.44810782400 Webber Creek Kr 484263.90970000000 1754818.80320000000 65.40868509830 -143.54021522100 Weshrinarin Creek Kr 535156.51120000000 1754826.84680000000 65.33345038010 -142.46191022500 West Fork Chandalar River Ksr 238330.21290000000 1924311.80340000000 67.18812393170 -148.51621208100 West Fork Henshaw (Sozhekla) Creek CHs,Ks,Wp 73978.70470000000 1862718.47480000000 66.71361221810 -152.33000826200 West Fork Tolovana River CHp 248410.93070000000 1731136.82620000000 65.44915486570 -148.64301963200 Wheeler Creek CHs,Wp -104660.87210000000 1802498.01910000000 66.16384362920 -156.31475822200

Whirlpool Slough CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp 283711.13270000000 1826323.37940000000 66.27321189050 -147.69150704500 Wild River CHp,Ks,Wp 110716.46580000000 1890580.64070000000 66.95394598870 -151.47747205200 Willow Creek Kr -353481.19810000000 1452289.49770000000 62.87413360440 -160.97804449500 Wilson Creek Kr 41191.79360000000 1703219.78410000000 65.28611242750 -153.11783431600 Windy Creek CHp,Ksr -178302.05240000000 1441838.34320000000 62.90466285580 -157.51858013700 Wiseman Creek Kr 168009.17450000000 1943903.37260000000 67.40909570070 -150.10337037200 Wolf Creek CHp,Kr,Wp -7604.38690000000 1726022.62030000000 65.49314758450 -154.16407176600 Wood Creek Ks 234780.16740000000 1612763.22510000000 64.40009775860 -149.12295474200 Woodchopper Creek Kr 495102.63380000000 1750388.12420000000 65.35400723190 -143.32533048800 Yellow River CHs,Ksr,Wp -338089.35340000000 1456068.28780000000 62.92190405870 -160.68376898800 Yuki River SFp,Wp -101099.70210000000 1640911.31810000000 64.71521679860 -156.12190901800 Yukon River CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -550284.00570000000 1448022.30020000000 62.60132138640 -164.79335837900 Yukon River (Patsy Slough) CHp,Kp,SFp,Wp -190576.10300000000 1648336.77930000000 64.74472536440 -158.00577653500

Figure A-1. Extent of Adult Chinook Salmon Utilization in the Yukon River Basin, Canada (Image Courtesy of Al von Finster, Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (retired)).