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Department of Musicology Faculty of Music

International Journal of Music

42 Belgrade, II/2013 YU ISSN 0354–818X UDC 78:781(05) COBISS. SR-ID 80527367

International Journal of Music 42 Belgrade, II/2013

Publisher: Department of Musicology Faculty of Music Kralja Milana 50, 11000 Belgrade

Editorial Board: Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman Ph.D. (Editor-in-chief) Vesna Mikić Ph.D. (Deputy editor-in-chief) Academician Dejan Despić Dragoslav Dević, Ph.D. Sonja Marinković, Ph.D. Nenad Ostojić, M.A. Ana Kotevska, M.A. Marcel Cobussen Ph.D. (The Netherlands) Pierre Albert Castanet Ph.D. (France) Chris Walton Ph.D. (South Africa/Switzerland) Eduardo R. Miranda Ph.D. (Brazil/UK) Nico Schüler Ph.D. (Germany/USA)

Cover design: Andrea Palašti

Secretary of the Editorial Board: Ivana Ognjanović

Editorial Board and Office: Faculty of Music Kralja Milana 50, 11000 Belgrade E-mail: [email protected] www.newsound.org.rs

The Journal is published semestrally. The Journal is classified in ERIH – European Reference Index for the Humanities CONTENTS

COMPOSER SPEAKS Milena Medić Music is not a language – Interview with Miloš Zatkalik ...... 5

MUSIC – POLITICS – LANGUAGE Miško Šuvaković Aesthetics, Politics and Music in the Context of Contemporary Critical Theory ...... 17 François Nicolas Entrelacer musique et politique? ...... 28 Dario Martinelli Popular music, social protest and their semiotic implications ...... 41 Tyrus Miller On Albrecht Wellmer: Music and Modernism After Habermas ...... 53 Erik Vogt Music Drama and Politics: Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe and Alain Badiou on Richard Wagner’s Idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk ...... 62 Dragana Jeremić Molnar Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration Prior to the Revolution 1848–1849 ...... 71 Andrija Filipović Musica Inhumana: Towards the Posthumanistic Ethical and Aesthetical Paradigm in Music ...... 86

NEW WORKS Vesna Mikić Who Am I – I Am?:Reflections of/on Self in Srđan Hofman’s Ogledalo [Mirror] for trio (mezzo-soprano, violoncello, piano) and chamber ensemble (2012) ...... 103 Radoš Mitrović Suite Jurijev krug for the opera Zvezdani grad by Dragana Jovanović; chamber opera Ko je ubio princezu Mond? by Tatjana Milošević; chamber opera Petersburg by Branka Popović ...... 114 Branka Radović New works inspired by Njegoš (marking the bicentenary of the birth of P. P. Njegoš) ...... 122 New Sound 42, II/2013

ANALYSES Paolo Susanni Tonal Progression in Bartók’s Etudes, Op. 18 ...... 129

RESEARCH AND TRADITION Milica Gajić ‘Short lexicon’ of dedications in the handwritten legacy of Josip Slavenski (1896–1955) in the Library of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade ...... 147

STUDENT'S PAPERS Bojan Miljević Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen ...... 167

INTERPRETATIONS Ivana Petković Un art autre: Mikel Dufrenne on politics and art ...... 183

REVIEWS Ivana Miladinović Prica Identities: The World of Music in Relation to Itself [Tilman Seebass, Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman and Tijana Popović Mlađenović (eds.)] ... 189 Selena Rakočević Andriy Nahachewsky, Ukrainian Dance: A Cross-Cultural Approach ...... 194 Tatjana Marković Vesna Ivanović, Muzički život Podgorice i Crne Gore u doba Nikole I Petrovića Njegoša [Music Life in Podgorica and Montenegro in the Age of Nikola I Petrović Njegoš] ...... 196 Marija Dumnić Julie C. Dunbar, Women, Music, Culture: An Introduction ...... 200

Contributors to this Issue ...... 205

Appendix – Sanela Nikolić: Thematic Survey COMPOSER SPEAKS

Article received on Article accepted on UDC: 78.071.1:929 Заткалик М.(047.53)

Milena Medić1 University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music Department of Music Theory

MUSIC IS NOT A LANGUAGE

Interview with Miloš Zatkalik

Miloš Zatkalik (1959, Serbia) is a composer and music theorist. He studied music at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade under Professors Vasilije Mokranjac and Rajko Maksimović. He also holds a degree in English language and literature from the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade. He is Professor of the Department of Music The- ory, at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade and Visiting Professor at the Academy of Arts in Banja Luka. Professor Zatkalik has given invited lectures in the USA, Canada, Norway, Slovenia and Germany. He has presented papers at numerous conferences

1 Author contact information: [email protected]

5 New Sound 42, II/2013 and published scholarly articles at home and abroad (Musicological Annual, Joyce Studies Annual, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Peter Lang Publishers, etc.). His research interests include relationships between music and literature, music and language, music and narrative, music and myth; also the analysis of 20th-century non-tonal music, and psychoanalytic approaches to music. He is the author of the first Serbian electronic textbook on music theory (Clio, 2002). Between 2003 and 2012, he was one of the editors of the publication Muzička teorija i analiza / Music Theory and Analysis, featuring papers from domestic and international conferences hosted by the Music Theory Department. He is a member of the Managing Board of the Serbian Composers’ Association and member of the jury for the Stevan Mokranjac Award. His most important compositions, performed at home and abroad (Germany, Russia, Spain, Canada, USA) include What’s He to Hecuba for large orchestra (1995); Of Saralinda, Xingu and the Duke Who Was Swallowed by Golem – a Fable for Large Orches- tra (1996); The Mad Carriage-Greeter from Ch’u for soprano, mezzo-soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano and percussion (1998); Lost Fragments II for clarinet, cello and piano (2006); As If Nothing Had Happened for flute, clarinet, English horn, piano and percussion (2007); Four Visions of Absence for chamber string orchestra (2009); Seemingly Innocent Game for cello, piano and vi- braphone (2010); What Has, Among Other Things, Happened Before the End of Time for clarinet, violin, cello and piano (2012).

* * *

What was there in the beginning: logos or vox, lingua or musica? If it were absolutely necessary to provide an answer, I would say that some kind of acoustic phenomenon must be primary. Moreover, I believe there is proof that this claim is objectively founded. We are born not only with a developed hearing apparatus, but also with some pre-natal auditory experience, at the time when we are only beginning to learn how to use our sense of sight; not to mention words: they don’t even exist as words in our earliest infancy, they are again a kind of auditory experience. Or, to return to the Biblical spirit of the question: in the Book of Genesis, the emphasis, as I see it, is not so much on the content, on the particular words God utters, but precisely on “said”: and God said (rather then sent an SMS). The act of Creation is an acoustic act. Logos from St. John’s Gospel is belated wisdom.

The question of the relation between music and language is complex, multi- layered; its history is long, dating back far before modern time with its cogni-

6 Medić, M.: Music is not a Language (5–16) tive sciences and theories. It was already Plato who pointed out that the power of musical modes to move the spirit originated with their similarity to the sounds of noble speech. Although he never wrote about music within language, he drew attention to language in the musical context. The ancient Greek word “mous- ike” meaning “coming from the Muses” reveals that the understanding of the Muses calls for an appreciation of the role of music in the evolution of linguistic genres. Is language music? How and to what extent does language/speech make use of musical properties in order to achieve linguistic communication and the transmission of meaning? Let us start with an answer I can offer in the most direct manner: music is not a language. Of course, two such fundamental human activities simply cannot be utterly devoid of common or analogous features. Some of them are obvious: we talk about the melody of a sentence, speech intonation, rhythm, the timbre of the voice. This last item actually contributes to distinguishing between the phonemes of a given language. It is beyond doubt that such features are important for communication. Their developmental priority is also indubitable, at least at the ontogenetic level: a baby will be able to distinguish the timbre and intonation of its mother’s voice from all other voices long before any verbal- conceptual apparatus is formed. After all these irrefutable facts, the question still remains: are these characteristics really musical in the proper sense of the word, or are they acoustic phenomena sui generis? Such claims cannot be made with certainty. What I can make a claim about is something from an opposite stance: a highly musicalized verbal text can become less successful in communication and conveying meanings precisely owing to that musicalization. Who- ever doesn’t understand that let them read Joyce’s Finnegans Wake.

During the Renaissance a significant change occurred in the relation between music and language. The change was due to a new understanding of the possibility of the use of sound in language as an expressive means – in the poetry of Francesco Petrarch in particular – and the credit for this goes to the Venetian literary theoretician Pietro Bembo. Three centuries later, the poetics of symbol- ism was born, albeit in an entirely different way, out of the spirit of absolute music, and poetic language, in its endeavors to capture the fluidity of musical texture, returned once again to the source of sound. Infinite connotations of the relations between tones have become an impulse for the purification of poetry and language from mimesis, description and explication. Expressive freedom drew from the evocation of the infinity of meaning. During the avant-garde period, the transition from the linguistic to the musical, the appearance of speech as music, found its embodiment in sonic poetry, verbal music, verbo-voco, etc.

7 New Sound 42, II/2013

Are there any other ways in which a linguistic product can become closer to music?

Locally: morphology and syntax. Language consists of hierarchically organized discrete units; something similar could be said of music. If it weren’t for this similarity, I doubt that influences could be possible. Having established a basis for comparison, the differences are delineated all the more clearly, and it is precisely owing to these differences that we recognize when one of these areas has influenced the other. To be more specific: you will have noticed that talking about music I used the phrase “something similar could be said”, while my claim about language was quite categorical. The constituents of music are not nearly as precisely defined as those of language. Very often, a piece of music can be broken into its constituent elements in different ways. Music sustains both extreme fragmentation and extreme condensation. Try similar procedures in language and you end up with nonsense. Yet, writers have been known to take such a course, sometimes carrying the process to the point which they felt to be just barely this side of language. It is there that one finds really interesting results. On a global scale, we may speak of an overall structure of the text, where musical macroform can serve as a model for the construction of a given verbal product. Researchers have occasionally discovered a fugal or sonata structure in a novel, more or less successfully and with more or less justification. On their part, writers sometimes put great efforts to fashion their works not simply after a certain genre or formal type, but even after a concrete composition, like An- thony Burgess after Beethoven’s Third Symphony. By the way, do I need to say that the novel in question deals with Napoleon’s biography? And there is also the ever present question of meaning. Let us assume that there is a universal agreement that a product of language means something. I don’t know how much we agree when music is in question. Someone, I don’t remember who, drew attention to the following paradox: if music means something, why after several thousand years we are still far from any agreement as to what that meaning might be; if it doesn’t mean anything, why have we been raising that question for thousands of years. The least we can say is that the denotative meaning characteristic of words is hardly possible to prove in music. Desemantization of words, if I may say so, could be part of musicalization. Es- sentially, the emphasis would shift to construction, from constituent elements to relationships between them. To the extent that meaning – whatever that word meant – can be searched for in these relationships, one might say that the syntactic plane would assume the role of the semantic one.

8 Medić, M.: Music is not a Language (5–16)

Although vocal music (music with text) does not play a significant part in your compositional oeuvre, in two of your theoretical works (“Levels of the Musical- ization of Literature“, New Sound No.12; “How Musical a Narrative Can Be“, Narrative Conference, Washington DC, 2007) you did actually explore levels of the musicalization of literature and the degrees of the musicalization of narrative. Could you say more about that? There was a time when I expected from myself that music with text would be my strong point, that I would find ways to match words and music with great facility. And then it turned out that music without text came more naturally to me. The two streams could run independently of one another. Indeed, on second thoughts, perhaps therein lies something like a proof of the statement prima la musica. How can a narrative – I will restrict myself to literary narrative – achieve musical effects? I have tried to systematize the musicalizing strategies of narrative, and have reached several levels, some of them with sub-levels. I cannot give a detailed account here, I have published some of these findings, but my most concise overview would start with the zero level, i.e. music as the subject matter of narration. I call it the zero level since I don’t see it as a particularly musicalizing factor. At the first level where musicalization really begins, the emphasis shifts from the signified to the signifier, the starting point is the aspect that crucially defines music, namely, sound: word music, verbal flow characteristics for its sonic qualities, certain combinations of phonemes or rhythmic patterns. However, I also call for caution. Not everything we hear is music, and accordingly, verbal sound does not necessarily produce musical effects. Perhaps in a quite rudimentary sense, the very fact that a narrative course draws our attention by its sound makes is closer to music, but in order to have a truly musicalized narration I find it necessary to introduce further levels. The next level I call syntactic. The grounds for comparison lie in the fact that both in music and in language discrete elements are combined according to certain rules in order to produce hierarchically higher elements. Differences, hence the space for influences, occur owing to the fact that elements of music are much less strictly defined, their discreteness much lower, or in other words, their predilection for fusion much higher; from the opposite perspective, the segmentation of a verbal product is generally clear and unequivocal; music can be much more ambiguous. As a separate sublevel, I indicate thematic procedures, which can differ dramatically from the principles of combining linguistic units: just let us be reminded of the quantity of repetition that music allows, indeed demands; or the processes of motivic variation, expansion and the like. A number of writers have tried something like that in their works; with the support of other procedures they have

9 New Sound 42, II/2013 managed to achieve musical effects. A particularly intriguing question is related to polyphony, and more broadly, simultaneity: so typically musical, and so beyond the grasp of the verbal sphere. Very challenging for a whole series of writers, yet the essential breakthrough towards polyphony always remains elusive. Going further, on a broader scale, we tackle the question of the construction at the global level: macro form or formal typology. The shaping of a narrative flow after the sonata model, for instance. But what to do with tonality then, that is a major issue, and ultimately insolvable (although various solutions have been offered, the most original being that the equivalent of musical tonality is sought in the system of tenses!). Shifting the focus again, we arrive at the relation between music and myth, often pointed out and always fascinating. Without going into detail, and indi- cating only that the explanation can be sought in the domain of psychoanalysis – more on that later – we cannot fail to notice that mythical atemporality/ pantemporality, universality, irrationality, analogy with dream, the fact that myth offers insight into some fundamental truths without resorting to logical argumentation and proof, bear considerable resemblance with music. Therefore, the closer a narrative is to myth, the closer it is to music as well. Apart from Joyce, who is my stock character for musical analogies, I would like to draw attention to some achievements of the “Latin American boom”, their lo real magico (Carpentier, Onetti, Fuentes, to mention a few of my favorites). The psychological level also needs to be mentioned. At this level, we start from the assumption that music possesses certain psychological properties, that there are certain unique ways in which music affects us, or if these ways are not exactly unique to music, then at least they pertain to music much more than to other arts. Accordingly, a narrative approaching such effects would be musicalized. However, one needs to make certain distinctions. It was Mendelssohn, I believe, who said that music was far more precise in expressing emotions than words, able to capture the minutest emotional nuances – I don’t remember ac- curately, but something of that nature – and it’s all fine until we ask Hanslick or Stravinsky what they would make of it. Therefore, I speak of this aspect of music with great caution. There is something else, though, something I am much more convinced of, and here is where I refer to psychoanalysis.

In his theoretical considerations where he defended music against accusations that it was “a mere sonic structure without content and meaning” Carl Dahl- haus pointed out that such an apologetic motivation of music originated, on the one hand, from the idea of the emancipation of instrumental music from text and extramusical functions and contexts (beginning towards the end of the 18th cen-

10 Medić, M.: Music is not a Language (5–16) tury and ending with absolute music of the 19th century), and on the other, from the tendency of relying on the theory and terminology of the old disciplines of grammar and rhetoric. The idea of the autonomy of music was supposed to confirm its linguistic character. Adorno said in that sense that music is not a language, yet it is linguistically founded. In the meantime, all levels of language have been recognized in music: phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic. Our pedagogical practice seems to largely overlook the importance of the historical roots of morpho-syntactic analogies between language and music dating back to the 9th century with its Musica enchiriadis, when such an analogy laid the foundation for the construction of melody all the way to modern times. Little attention is paid also to the fact that mediaeval grammatical terminology was subsequently, with Johann Matheson and other German theoreticians, used in the modern context of the theoretical explication of the symmetrical musical phrase and the articulation of periodic structure, crucial for the understanding of musical syntax in the 18th and 19th centuries. When you teach your students, to what extent, if any, do you attach importance to the historic origins of the terminological parallelism between musical and linguistic syntax? To what extent is such parallelism justified in the first place? I will use this question of how justified this parallelism is to recall that given the preverbal nature of music, attempts to express it in words often seem simply pitiful. Listen to a musicological or music-theoretical lecture, immerse in a text on music (not least one of my own): it is swarming with metaphors, borrowed images, concepts from disparate fields. And the crux of the matter, the very essence, remains elusive nonetheless. In that sense, it is only natural that when we use language to interpret music we use notions and images from language. In this context, the inclusion of the historical perspective that you mention produces two opposite effects. By persisting throughout centuries, it confirms the vitality of music-linguistic parallels. At the same time, however, when we observe how much they have changed, we must become aware of their tentative and relative nature, which means that the privileged position of language does not imply its absolute domination. This, in its turn, points to the part of the question that refers to students. If a student shows interest in that direction, of course I will help. If one day I choose to teach a specialized course, such questions will be considered. But for a wider student population, I dare say there is good old arrogance of us pedagogues poking its head. As long as it is my field of interest, then it is so terribly important, and when it is so terribly important, then my student – each and every one – must follow me, like so many ducklings. No, not everybody has to do everything and they don’t all have to do the same.

11 New Sound 42, II/2013

What else can we learn from linguistics? Precisely what you find in my article of the same title. This answer is more serious than it sounds. I believe that the article does a rather good job of pin- pointing certain areas in which linguistic models could say something meaningful about music. For instance, the notions of prefix/infix/suffix could be used in music analysis very conveniently. And so could the linguistic distinction between free and bound morphemes: in music we come across certain units of the motivic or submotivic level that could be clearly isolated, but that never appear in isolation, only as affixes to other units; in a typical case they perform a defined syntactic role, cadencing or connecting to the subsequent events. Lastly, I was also interested in the issues of linguistic typology. Can we establish a relation between the morphological structure of a language – this kind of typology I am referring to – and the motivic structure of music? Is there any sense in comparing – I will use extreme examples for the sake of clarity – Webern’s pointillism with an extremely isolating language like Vietnamese, where words generally consist of a single morpheme without inflections (or for that matter, English is not far from that)? Or, contrariwise, to compare polysynthetic languages like In- uktitut with Ligeti’s micropolyphony? Culturologically bizarre, and yet, certain similarities cannot be denied. The trouble is that we haven’t learned much from the article: we have just learned what we could learn. We will shortly see that it is no accident I haven’t developed these ideas any further. But then, the question was meant to be: what else can we learn? In the meantime, I have reversed my perspective. Some ten years or so I was searching for what makes music similar to language. Afterwards, I became more interested in what makes music different from language. By all means, linguistics can also make its contribution by pointing to the differences. Let us take, for instance, the musical sentence, since it has the status of a holy cow of our pedagogical practice. Right, there is ample reason for such an analogy, but the meaningful use of language must be in the form of sentences. In music, thus we teach our students, there also exist loose, “fragmentary” structures; no such category exists in linguistics. Not to mention grammatical categories like subject, verb, object, how do we construe them in music? And I will reiterate the problem of the very status of constituent discrete units in music.

For thousands of years the concept of music was defined by its connection to literature based on the use of titles, libretti, programs, poetic texts, whether in the vocal or instrumental medium. Your chamber and orchestral works have striking, even lucid titles, which are without exception always attached to the already completed piece. These titles evoke various stories (mythical, Shake-

12 Medić, M.: Music is not a Language (5–16) spearean-Huxlean, stories about you and everyone, occurrences preceding the end of time), or else the play of interpersonal communication, as well as reflections on foreboding, loss, absence. They invoke certain universal questions in the form of personal interrogation and contemplation, and conversely. Is there in your compositional spiritual time-space some kind of circle where literary and literary-like impulses of musical reflection and imagination eventually emerge as verbal formulations of the musical piece? The only thing I cannot answer with confidence is how I compose. Mind, I don’t mean in the least to mystify the process. Not even when I myself am in question, and still less when I speak in principle, how I see the creative process in general. Every human activity must be rational, but evidently, not only rational. Let us allow, therefore, that the process of creation always contains something inexplicable, ineffable, beyond the grasp of knowledge. All right, I have now said something rather bombastic, but suppose it is irrationality making even. I think you will have recognized the answer “I don’t know” expressed in a learned style. Interesting is that idea about the circle. Nicely said. I’m not sure how accurate, though. Factually, the titles, each and every one of them, were concocted subsequently, when the compositions were completed. Do they really try to cast a verbal net over something important in the music; moreover, have they perhaps existed from the very beginning at the unconscious level as initial impulses, a guiding idea, something of that nature? Possibly so…

On one occasion you have said that Zatkalik the theorist and Zatkalik the composer do not necessarily harmonize with one another (particularly when talking about linguistic and literary questions), but there is still some interaction between them. Where and how is this interaction manifested? A debate between the pair of them might eventually result in the conclusion that their differences are not unbridgeable. Yet, there is also Zatkalik the pedagogue who ought to be invited there. Then, composing could be successful if the composer and theorist establish some kind of cooperation, provided they keep off the pedagogue and do not allow him to get involved. The theorist can assist the composer with his knowledge, but there would be no pedagogue to preach to him how to do it. The latter, so it seems to me now, was apt to inter- fere too much in some earlier phases. Now, in hindsight, I could very well say: look, here, this moment in the composition, I did it like this because at that time in my work with students I insisted on such and such a thing. It is irrefutable, however, that my research over the last six or seven years, much deeper analyti-

13 New Sound 42, II/2013 cal engagement with works of more recent music (this includes also my work with students, which may contradict my previous statement about the influence of the pedagogue, but in this case I have in mind postgraduate students, which makes a difference), my new awareness of the analytical naiveté with which I used to approach works of such major 20th-century personalities like Webern, Varese, Ligeti: all this made me see my own music in a new light. Not through direct influence, of course, but in a hardly explicable way, as my theoretical- analytical activities unfolded, I became aware that what suited me was rather different from what I had previously done. I ought not to be allowed to write longer pieces. Or, huge gradation ending in dramatic climaxes – I used to revel in such situations, while my attempts to do something of the kind turned out to be quite lame. And then, there was my obsession with forcing into the composition some semi-clandestine signals which purported to contribute to its coher- ence and integration… I’ve been much more satisfied since I stopped thinking about that. Let’s call it the awakening from a “dogmatic slumber”. But, neither do I renounce my previous work, nor claim that my music is now brilliant. Simply, I have discovered a way of better expressing myself (there you are, “express myself” – as a theoretician I would never allow myself such an unreserved statement about music being a personal expression), my theoretical work being somehow involved in the discovery.

You have said that “the process of creation always involves something inexplicable, ineffable, beyond the grasp of knowledge.” Great psychologists and psychoanalysts of the 20th century pointed to the archaic or deep layers of the psyche. If this is so, in what ways music is closest to these fundamental, preverbal levels of the human psychic structure? Here is what lies at the bottom: we are born with our hearing apparatus already developed, even with considerable pre-natal auditory experience. The auditory predates the visual, which in turn predates the verbal-conceptual. As adults, we obtain some 80% of information about the external world through sight, but at the earliest developmental stages it is hearing that dominates. Ap- parently, the earliest human fears, perhaps the only ones that are innate, are from loosing the ground and from an abrupt, sudden sound (a developmental psychologist would probably consider this statement too simplified, and would probably object to the word “fear” as adultomorphous, but I am sure that the claim I am making cannot be fundamentally refuted). This is already an interesting piece of information, the link between the senses of balance and hearing; therein lies the root of various gravitational metaphors in music (high and low tones, for instance: not even a pianist thinks of tones in terms of left and right;

14 Medić, M.: Music is not a Language (5–16) a cellist plays higher notes while moving fingers downwards; we are inclined to hear certain tones as “heavy”; and there is tonality, with the tonic as the center of gravity, etc.). If we are right about the fears just mentioned, or better the tension that tones produce in the earliest childhood, and if we take a child with a more sensitive hearing apparatus, then we can easily assume that this generates a need to conquer these terrible sounds, to “tame” them, to master auditory tensions – much in the same way as when at a later stage the child is terribly scared of the evil witch from a fairy tale, but will nonetheless ask to be told the tale over and over again. This could in part explain the motivation for becoming a musician. More broadly speaking, affects first experienced in individual development, operating at the most archaic core of mental structure are linked with auditory representations; visual and verbal ones are more recent acquisitions. We are talking now about primordial affects which form a unity with auditory sensations, but it obviously isn’t music yet. Needless to say, a work of art cannot be brought into existence without the engagement of entire emotional, spiritual and intellectual resources, which includes everything that the creator has assimilated through tradition, culture, education. It is pointless to argue what the share is of each of these aspects, which of them is more or less important. What matters here is that music never severs ties with its preverbal, archaic, unconscious roots, that it always engages the part of the mental structure that functions in accordance with primary processes, as some psychoanalysts call them. This is probably best seen in the study of dreams, which are, as Freud has famously said, the royal road to the unconscious. Transformations that per- cepts undergo in dreams bear a striking resemblance with thematic processes, or more general constructive procedures in music. Multiplication, fragmentation, condensation – these are some typical transformations readily identifiable in music. The idea of the existence of the manifest and latent content in dreams could be interpreted in a Schenkerian manner as the relationship between the surface and deep structures; images that mediate between the manifest and the latent in dreams could fit into this model as a Mittelgrund of sorts. Or, take for instance the experience described by some scholars as the “oceanic feeling”. In the earliest stage of development there seems to exist a feeling of unity with the outside world, external-internal ambiguity; individuation, the rift between I and not-I emerges only later. Such a mode of mental functioning becomes manifest in music: blending, permeation, fusion. Lines, voices, layers of musical tissue very naturally intertwine, blend, conjoin. Language – and as we have seen it is a newer acquisition, from the time well beyond the oceanic feeling – can hardly achieve that. Simultaneity, polyphony – it is beyond the reach of language. It is very well that Mikhail Bakhtin coined the term “polyphonic novel”, but he himself insisted that it didn’t have much in common with musical polyphony. Or,

15 New Sound 42, II/2013 to quote Susanne Langer who says that the discursivety of language belies the simultaneity of events. It is no accident that writers who endeavored to emulate musical processes not infrequently tried to do so through polyphonization, creating a form that would somehow resemble a polyphonic composition, a fugue for instance (DeQuincey, Joyce, Huxley) or referred to the string quartet as an ensemble which is by its nature preordained for the intertwining of melodic lines (Virginia Woolf, T. S. Eliot). To create polyphonic effects is unattainable for language, yet so challenging for musicalizing tendencies. It is characteristic that the visual sphere falls somewhere in-between sound and word, corresponding to its position in the development process. It is important to clarify the following. Listening to music somehow brings us into contact with these archaic layers. There have been interesting investigations concerning the phenomenon known as the aesthetic peak experience. In a typical case, the subjects stated that the experience was extremely difficult to verbalize. Clearly, it connects us with the preverbal layers. The most fascinating is the fact that this experience implies the loss of the sense of personal boundaries and merging with the work which produces this effect. It has been proven that such experience is most commonly brought about by music. Artistic experience is – among other things – regression of a kind; only the regression is not pathological. Therefore, psychoanalysts coined terms like creative regression, adaptive regression, regression in the service of the ego. Translated by Goran Kapetanović

16 CORE ISSUE – Music – Politics – Language

Article received on 12 November 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.01:32 ; 130.2:32

AESTHETICS, POLITICS AND MUSIC IN THE CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY CRITICAL THEORY Miško Šuvaković University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music, Department of Musicology

Politics, political, politization The history of the usage of the term “politics” has developed heteroge- neously and widely from the Greek term πολιτικός, to the medieval term vita activa as a translation of Aristotle’s term βίος πολιτικός1, to modern notions of politics in polysemic, often contradictory potential definitions. For example, what can be called politics is conducting the affairs of the city/state; the fulfilment of public life or public dialogue; the management, supervision and regulation of state and/or social relations; the implementation of the social/ communality; the wielding of concrete or abstract power; the organizing of the bureaucracy in everyday life; the establishing of relations between individual and collective identities leading to individual and collective subjectivization; an emancipatory event; the aspiration to preserve tradition; etc. In the foregoing and many other possible identifications of ‘politics’, two distinctive aspects stand out: community and relationship. The French philosopher Alain Badiou interpreted an event as political, emphasizing this: “Događaj je politički ako je tvar toga događaja zajednička, ili ako događaj nije prouzrok- ovalo ništa drugo do mnoštvo zajednice. ‘Zajednica’ ovde nije brojni koncept. Mi kažemo da je događaj ontološki zajednički, utoliko što taj događaj prenosi virtuelni zahtev svih.” [“An event is political if its material is collective, or if the event can only be attributed to a collective multiplicity. ‘Collective’ is not a

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 Cf. Hannah Arendt, “Izraz vita activa” [“The term vita activa”], in: Vita Activa, trans. Višnja Flego, August Cesarec, Zagreb, 1991, 15–19.

17 New Sound 42, II/2013 numerical concept here. We say that the event is ontologically collective to the extent that it provides the vehicle for a virtual summoning of all.”]2 From the vaguely outlined multitude of notions, one can single out two general structural moments that are expressed in the difference between the notions of “politics” and “the political”, according to the constructions of Chantal Mouffe3: i) the political – dimension of antagonism which is constitutive of human societies; ii) politics – the set of practices and institutions through which an order is created, organizing human coexistence in the context of the conflictuality by the political. This means that the term/notion politics denotes the ways in which a community and a relationship are materialized. Contrary to that, the term/notion political suggests the nature or character of a human community and relationship, which is antagonism. Antagonism, in that case, is the ontological prerequisite of a human relationship and the community emanating from that relationship. The role of antagonism in the constitution of relationships, i.e. a human community, lies in the way in which personalized or abstract power turns out to be the prerequisite for overcoming an antagonism or decomposition due to an antagonism. The notion of power is flexible, as well as variable both historically and geographically. One can speak of the power of people, citizens or participants in the community, of the power of the leader, of legal and illegal power, of the power of institution(s), of the power of the bureaucracy, of the power of a political party, of the power of a parliament, of the power of faith, of the power of the economy, but also of liberation from a superior power, of a change of the power wielder, or of a change in the nature of power. The relationship between power, the community and antagonism is complex and fluctuating. For example, power in medieval societies was the personal power of the ruler le- gitimized by religion, or more precisely, by the structures and institutions of the religious system. Power in bourgeois societies is depersonalized in the name of representative institutions and documents (rulebooks) of political life. Power in totalitarian societies was personalized in the leader or in the party. The ideal of modern democracy is the power of the people expressed through parliamentary – representative – administration and the execution of this power in a bureau- cratic way. Global neoliberalism causes a rift between politics and power, when politics as an institutional structure loses the power of decision-making, surren- dering it consequently to economic interest groups.

2 Cf. Alen Badiju, “Politika kao procedura istine” [Alain Badiou, “La politique comme pro- cédure de vérité”], in: Pregled metapolitike [Abrégé de métapolitique], trans. Radoman Kordić, Institit za filozofiju i društvenu teoriju, IP Filip Višnjić, Belgrade, 2008, 101. 3 Chantal Mouffe, “Politics and Political”, in: On the Political, Routledge, London, 2005, 9.

18 Šuvaković, M.: Aesthetics, Politics and Music in the Context ... (17–27)

Table 1 – Politics, political, politization

the the politization 1 politization 2 politics 1 politics 2 political 1 political 2 theoretical activist politics is a the political politics is the political is politization of The politization set of prac- is a multi- a set of a set of traits art, in the the- of any human tices and plicity of tech- that something oretical sense, activity, in the institutions antagonisms niques (anything) ac- leads to the activist sense, that effec- which are for creat- quires by epistemologi- leads to a phe- tuate a cer- constitu- ing a re- being put in a cal discovery nomenological tain social tional for a lation social relation or to the use confrontation system or human soci- between or in a relation of the political with an event relation- ety power between power in any human of human activ- ship and soci- and society activity ity as a social ety antagonism

Politization singles out a certain activity that uncovers, utilizes and/or demonstrates the political character of every human relation. Seeing every form of human life – a relation or a set of relations – as political suggests that antagonism has active role in every situation which appears to be independent from politics. Thus, in the first step, politization reveals that culture, religion or art are vague fields of politics, i.e. of the social with characteristic antagonisms. In the second step, it is shown that politics can be means of influence on antagonisms appearing in ostensibly autonomous fields of culture, religion or art. In the third step, the inverse potential appears. This means that, for example, at the moment when social antagonisms are shown to exist in art too, art can be offered as a sensibly affective sample of the fictitious or actual settling or aggravation of antagonisms.

Aesthetics and politics To develop the thesis on aesthetics as the intermediary between politics and music, I must remind that there is no unique notion of “aesthetics” which would be irrevocably delimited by the concepts of “the science of the beautiful”, of “the philosophy of specialized sensibility”, of “the philosophy of art”, of “the politics of human sensibility”, of “the revolutionary or emancipatory potential of sensibility” and of “the metacritique of the aesthetics and philosophy of art”. All of these outlined identifications of aesthetics have their specific synchrony and diachrony, which means the logic of narrative which was developed in a particular way and set against other narratives about what aesthetics was, what it is and what it will be. Due to certain revisions of aesthetics, forgotten or completed aesthetical stories were reactualized and revised in the new conditions of human life and the political, i.e. in the antagonisms of ‘new’ time. The aesthetic

19 New Sound 42, II/2013 now becomes a sort of contradictory cause and effect of the phenomena of politics and the political. In other words, I shall demonstrate that the elements of politics and the political are sensible phenomena connected in a complex way with the discourses of society. But at the same time, the manifestations of the articulation of the total individual and collective sensibility of humankind are always in a political environment – within a form of life (state, institution, social or cultural group, modalities of subjectivization). In the process, individual and collective sensibilities remain within a multitude of affects created by antagonisms which are overcome, provoked, evaded, surpassed or created by ‘that life’, while dealing with its collective and individual human sociability.

Table 2 aesthetics 1 aesthetics 2 aesthetics 3 aesthetics 4 aesthetics 5 autonomous aesthetics of art politization of aesthetization metaaesthetics aesthetics autonomy aesthetics judging/ philosophy and/or knowledge about knowledge and critique of the knowledge theory of art, in- political regimes ability to per- discourses of about a spe- cluding music. of the potential form a sensible specialized sen- cialized sen- Ernst Bloch, Prin- or real totality of transformation sibility, of po- sory cip nada 3 [Das human sensibil- or, more often, litical regimes experience of Prinzip Hoffnung ity with respect to identify the of human sen- an external 3], trans. H. to nature, cul- human world sibility, and of (visible, audi- Šarinić, Naprijed, ture, and even art (aesthetization) art, including ble) stimulus Zagreb, 1981 music

The French philosopher Jacques Rancière4, for example, foresaw the turning point in aesthetics which proceeded from the aesthetic as a specialized sensory experience judged impartially, or with a philosophical bias in the domain of the autonomy of art, to the politics of sensibility. In other words, this is “the politics of the distribution of sensibility” within political life. This is perceived as the transformation of politics and the political from a “non-sensible domain”5 into building sensible life forms and pursuing the desire for new visible and/ or audible life forms. The politization of sensibility and the sensibilization of politics are the outlined subjects of this aesthetical narrative. Over the history of aesthetics, such related strategies of aesthetization and politization can be most certainly identified in the works of Friedrich von

4 Jacques Rancière, The Politics of Aesthetics – The Distribution of the Sensible, Contin- uum, London, 2004. 5 Jacques Rancière, “Aesthetics as Politics”, in: Aesthetics and Its Discontents, Polity, Cam- bridge, 2009, 38.

20 Šuvaković, M.: Aesthetics, Politics and Music in the Context ... (17–27)

Schiller, in his ideas about the aesthetic education of man6; Ernst Bloch, in his quest for “the intensity-richest human world in music” [“intensitätsreichste Menschwelt in der Musik”]7; Herbert Marcuse, in his projection of the idea of “new sensibility”8 yearning for unlimited freedom; Wolfgang Welsch, in a revisionist theory of contemporary aesthetization which develops from the traditional notion of the aesthetic in arts towards the aesthetic in the sensuously altered world of the new media9; Thomas Docherty, who created the liberal notion of ‘aesthetic democracy’,10 etc… These and many other examples show the importance of understanding the aesthetic as a ‘political agent’ which plays an important role not only in the judgment or interpretation of art, but also in the complex multiplicities of the social life of humankind, which are often external with respect to art. This proves that aesthetization places a work of art, i.e. a work of music, into an external relationship to politics (a set of social relations, practices, institutions) and the political (constitutional social antagonisms). The aesthetic, in that case, is not seen as an essential feature of the artistic/musical, or as a distinctive intersubjective effect of a musical work. It is seen as a set of sensory events which make, for example, a single individual work of music or a work’s microstructure establish a relationship with politics and the political in a specific way. This way of establishing the relationship depends on the contextual, meaning historical and geographical circumstances of the work’s phenomenon in its artistic, cultural or social aspects.11

6 Cf. Fridrih Šiler, “Pisma o estetskom vaspitanju čoveka” [Friedrich Schiller, “Letters Upon the Aesthetic Education of Man”], in: O lepom [On the Beautiful], trans. Strahinja Kostić, Book & Marso, Belgrade, 2007, 111–202. 7 Cf. Ernst Bloch, “Prekoračivanje i čovjekov najintenzivniji svijet u muzici” [“Überschrei- tung und intensitätsreichste Menschwelt in der Musik”], in: Princip nada 3 [Das Prinzip Hoffnung 3], trans. H. Šarinić, Naprijed, Zagreb, 1981, 1248–1303. 8 Cf. Herbert Marcuse, “Nova osjetljivost” [“Die neue Sensibilität”], in: Kraj utopije / Esej o oslobođenju [Das Ende der Utopie / Versuch über die Befreiung], trans. Branka Brujić, Stvarnost, Zagreb, 1978, 151–170. 9 Wolfgang Welsch, “Aesthetics beyond Aesthetics; For a New Form to the Discipline”, in: Undoing Aesthetics, SAGE Publications, London, 1997, 79. 10 Thomas Docherty, “Aesthetic Democracy”, in: Aesthetic Democracy, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 2006, 149–160. 11 For instance, Courtney Brown politicizes the practice of performing Beethoven’s works depending on the historical context related to the fluent geopolitical space of Germany. He points to utterly different statuses of “Beethoven practice” in Beethoven’s own time; after the re-invention of his work in the Second Reich; during the Weimar Republic; in the Third Reich; and in the divided Cold-War Germany after 1945. Courtney Brown, “Beethoven”, in: Politics in Music. Music and Political Transformation from Beethoven to Hip-Hop, Farsight Press, Atlanta, 2008, 11–27.

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Music, aesthetics and politics The relationship between music and politics as mediated by aesthetics can be deliberated in various ways. Here, I choose the binary structural model with the categories of (1) politization of the aesthetic, i.e. the formal formations of a musical work, and (2) the aesthetization of political relationships between music and its cultural-social environment. The offered binary structure (1–2) is based on the distinction between the internal (micro) and external (macro) approach to music. The internal (micro) approach is effectuated through the recognisability of the sensible in politics in the phenomenal or functional modalities of music in culture and society. I identify the former approach as the immanent (i.e. inherent, intrinsic, internal) politics of music. I identify the latter approach as the transcendent (i.e. non-inherent, non-intrinsic, external) politics of music. The former approach is governed by the requirements of close/careful reading and listening to music, in order to reach and penetrate it. The latter approach is governed by the conditions of distant reading and listening to music, in order to show that it exists by everything else that is not music, which in this case means by politics. However, it transpires that this ‘highly dramatic division’ is not, in fact, a split, but a manifestation of one and the same under the different conditions of interpretative movement between a concrete and abstract knowledge about music and its political manifestations with respect to human sensuality. Table 3 in a musical work outside of a musical work internal external microplatform macroplatform immanent formalized aesthetics of music transcendent politicized aesthetics of music

close or careful reading/listening distant reading/listening

sociological formalism political interpretations interpretations of a musical work, musical politization of a musical form practice or music by cultural or social potentialities immanent politics of music transcendent politics of music Sociological formalisms – such as those that can be found, directly or indirectly, in the works by Theodor W. Adorno12, Fredric Jameson13, Tony Ben-

12 Theodor W. Adorno, Filozofija nove muzike [Philosophie der Neuen Musik], trans. Ivan Focht, Nolit, Belgrade, 1968. 13 Fredric Jameson, Marxism and Form: Twentieth-century Dialectical Theories of Litera- ture, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1971.

22 Šuvaković, M.: Aesthetics, Politics and Music in the Context ... (17–27)

Table 4, 5

immanent politics of music transcendent politics of music music and subjectivization: presentation of music and the public sphere self music and the emancipation of humankind music and ideology: construction of everyday life music and nation as an imaginary community politization of musical form music and representation of power

politization of musical technique music and revolution

signifier musical practices music and totalitarianism music and anarchism musical creation as productive work music and terrorism institutional critique of music music and war

political economy of music music and violence

ecstasy or participation: from style to strat- music and transition egy in music nett14, Franco Moretti15 and others – are based on a general hypothesis that an undisputable correspondence exists between the social processes and constitutional potentialities of a work of art, literature or music. In Philosophy of New Music, Adorno quite indisputably grounded his debate about Schönberg’s modernity on the thesis of ‘social formalism’: “Umjetničke forme zapisuju his- toriju čovječanstva istinitije od dokumenata. Nema ukrućene forme u koju se ne bi mogla očitati negacija krutog života. ... Schönberg je naišao na društveni karakter usamljenosti tako što je usamljenost utvrdio do ekstrema” [“The forms of art register the history of humanity with more justice than do historical documents. There is no hardening of form that is not to be read as the negation of the hardness of life. … Schoenberg hit upon the social character of loneliness by cleaving to it unconditionally”]16 or “Dok umjetnička djela gotovo nikad ne podražavaju društvo i k tome njihovi autori ne treba uopće da znaju o njemu, gestovi umjetničkih djela su objektivni odgovori na objektivne društvene kon- stelacije…” [“Though artworks have scarcely ever imitated society, and their authors need know nothing whatever about it, the gestures of artworks are

14 Tony Bennett, Formalism and Marxism, Routledge, London, 2003. 15 Franco Moretti, Distant Reading, Verso, London, 2013. 16 Theodor W. Adorno, op. cit., 70.

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objective answers to objective social constellations…”]17 For instance, Moretti uses the following words to present a similar hypothesis on the social potential of the form: “Forms are the abstract of social relationships: so, formal analysis is in its own modest way an analysis of power. … [S]tudying how forms vary, you discover how symbolic power varies from place to place.”18 The immanent politics of music can be another, more general and vaguer name for ‘sociological formalism’. It appears as a risky attempt at reading, or sometimes ascribing – i.e. inscribing – political meanings, values or references from/into the musical work itself, or more precisely, from/into formal effects and affects of the musical material. If one accepts this, then the unity and in- tegrity of the opacity of musical creativity and/or musical reception is broken up into potential segments. These segments, potentially open to politization, which can be found in any work of music, are many – I will give some of them: music is the means of subjectivization; music is the referential space of the performers’ and the listeners’ bodies; music is the agent of ideology in the processes of constructing everyday life; i.e. musical form is an abstract sample of the social, but so is the musical technique of performance; musical creativity (composing, performing, media design) is productive work in the domain which can be denoted by the political economy of the production of value and, more importantly, of surplus value; but music is also a signifier practice which, upon re-orientation from a delusion of ecstasy to the domain of productive, commu- nicational and consumer participation, becomes the transformation of a musical style into a political strategy. For example, subjectivization by music takes place as a material social practice both from the composer’s/performer’s and the listener’s point of view. Adorno fully centralized the subjectivization of the composer in Schönberg’s music in these words: “Subjekt nove muzike, o kom ona vodi protokol, to je onaj emancipirani, osamljeni, realni subjekt kasnograđanske faze. Ovaj realni subjektivitet i materijal što ga je on radikalno preoblikovao predstavlja za Schönberga kanon estetske objektivacije” [“The subject of new music, what its deposition transcribes, is the real, emancipated, isolated subject of the late bourgeois period. This real subjectivity, and the radical material that it has integrally structured, provides Schoenberg with a canon of aesthetic objectivation”].19 On the other hand, Roland Barthes, in the case of a listener to Robert Schu- mann’s music, promotes subjectivization to a bodily event which is the basis for the potentiality of music as social subjectivization: “But, in music, a field of sig-

17 Theodor W. Adorno, op. cit., 154. 18 Franco Moretti, op. cit., 59 19 Theodor W. Adorno, op. cit., 83.

24 Šuvaković, M.: Aesthetics, Politics and Music in the Context ... (17–27) nifying and not a system of signs, the referent is unforgettable, for here the referent is the body. The Body passes into music without any relay but the signifier.”20 By relating music to the body it enters, Barthes necessarily promises musical space as the social space of bodily action. But this is not a literary space representing/denoting or describing a social motive, subject or narrative. This is a space directly linked to the performer’s and listener’s bodies, bodies that through music become subjects confronted with what can anticipate any meaning, although it is not conveying a particular or specified meaning at that moment. This is certainly a ‘signifier’ which is a part of the signifier practice in music. Adorno understood art/music as the subject’s last refuge: “The work of art ‘reﬂects’ society and is historical to the degree that it refuses the social, and represents the last refuge of individual subjectivity from the historical forces that threaten to crush it… Thus the socio-economic is inscribed in the work, but as concave to convex, as negative to positive. Ohne Angst leben: such is for Adorno the deepest and most fundamental promise of music itself, which it holds even at the heart of its most regressive manifestations.”21 If we dramatically overemphasize this Adornian idea of refusing the social, we obtain the Althusserian-Lacanian image of relationship between the immanence of music and transcendence of politics, i.e. the censorship of the political in the artistic. From the Althusserian-Lacanian standpoint, it transpires that that which eliminates the social from the artistic/musical, and the social is constituted by that elimination, is not some pre-human chaos, an unfathomable abyss of the nature, the place of the source of truth; instead, a predetermined practice, a signifier practice, is the real foundation or the truth of what Sigmund Freud called the ‘unconscious’ in the relationship with sexuality, and Karl Marx ‘class conflict’ in the relationship with society.22 The transcendent politics of music can be attempts at going beyond “the artistic or musical text” and to perceive the text in quite different referential situations with respect to the social. Discussing Western music, the philosopher Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe underlined: “Il y a d’abord la question de la musique, laquelle, étrangement, n’est jamais la question de la seule musique” [“Firstly, there is the question of music which, strangely enough, is never only about music”].23

20 Roland Barthes, “Rasch”, in: The Responsibility of Forms, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1985, 308. 21 Fredric Jameson, op. cit., 34–35. 22 “Umetnost, društvo / tekst” [“Art, Society / Text”], Polja, No. 230, Novi Sad, 1978, 2. 23 Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, “Avant-propos”, in: Musica Ficta (Figures de Wagner), Chris- tian Bourgois Éditeur, Paris, 1991, 12

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To put it crudely: the sense and meaning of music do not emanate from the musical work itself but from the work’s place in the field of social relationships. One could say that musical work or music as an event is something that is structured into specific sense and meanings by an external relationship with social institutions (politics) and social antagonisms (the political). However, a musical work also causes potential affects in a listener, which are subjectivized by music in a specific context. If what has been previously said stands, one could say that music effectu- ates the potentiality of the political with respect to numerous forms of human life. These potentialities are manifold and possibly infinite, as are the situations of politics and the political in the reality of individual and collective forms of human life. There are many examples of the external or distant politization of music, which means bringing music into a specific relationship with the social. For example: the relationship between music and the public sphere24; the function of music in the emancipation of humankind25; music in the creation of the imaginary community that we call nation26; music and the representation of power27; music and revolution28; music and totalitarianism29; music and anar- chism30; music and terrorism31; music and war32; music and violence33; music and transition34, etc. All these examples, and many more, show that the “external politics of music” is carried out by the aesthetic which is vague and variable, i.e. by sen-

24 Christian Wolff, Bread and Roses – Piano Works 1976–1983, Sally Pinkas (piano), Mode, 1995. 25 Philip Glass, Satyagraha, DVD, Arthaus Musik, 2001. 26 Krzystof Penderecki, A Polish Requiem, Klosinska, Rappe, Minkiewicz, Nowacki, War- saw National Philharmonic Choir and Orchestra, Antoni Wit, Naxos, 2004. 27 Arnold Schoenberg, Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte Op. 41 (1942), Glenn Gould (piano), The Glenn Gould Collection, Sony, 2012. 28 Luigi Nono, Al gran sole carico d’amore, Staatsoper Stuttgart, Lothar Zagrosek, SWR, 1999. 29 Larry Weinstein, Shostakovich against Stalin – The War Symphonies, Nederland Radio Philharmonic, Kirov Orchestra, Valery Gergiev, DVD, Decca, 2005. 30 John Cage, Anarchy – New York City – January 1988, Wesleyan University Press, Mid- dletown, Con., 1988. Cf. John Cage, Roaratorio. An Irish Circus on Finnegan’s Wake (1982), Wergo, 1994. 31 John Adams, The Death of Klinghoffer, London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by John Adams, directed by Penny Woolcock, DVD, Decca, 2003. 32 Stefan Wolpe, Lieder; Battle Piece (1943–1947), Neos, 2007. 33 Cf. Susan Fast, Kip Pegley (eds.), Music, Politics, and Violence, Wesleyan University Press, Middletown CT, 2012 – a collection of papers on the relationship between popular music and violence. 34 Laibach, Rekapitulacija 1980–1984, NSK Records & Nika d.o.o., 2002

26 Šuvaković, M.: Aesthetics, Politics and Music in the Context ... (17–27) sory techniques of placing music in discursive and affective political contexts as a possible acoustic embodiment of politics and the political. This does not mean that music ‘transcends’ from the immanently musical (music as music itself) to the musical as politics and the political, but that music is understood as a political situation. For example, while theorizing music and politics, John Street puts forward the following opinion: “I would like to persuade readers that music embodies political values and experiences, and organizes our response to society as political thought and action. Music does not just provide a vehicle of political expression, it is that expression. And, furthermore, states organize us through their management of music and sound more generally. The boundaries between the two realms of music and politics, I will try to suggest, are largely illusionary.”35 The placement of the relationship between music and politics is carried out by the contextuality of music (culture, state, nation, race, gender, class); by programme actions (verbal denoting of a musical work as a political notional meaning); by functional institutional employments of music (assigning political, social and cultural functions to the musical work); by compositional politizations, identifications, but also obsessing over political ideas, myths and ideals; by performance actions (adding various social roles while presenting the musical work); or by motivational guidance of the performers’ and listeners’ attention (generating complex networks within discursive and affective appara- tuses related to usual or exceptional forms of everyday life). The relationship between discourse and affect enables music to become the means of the articulation and subjectivization of the human intelligible and sensible presence in the social world of antagonisms and institutions which provide or disturb various functions of society. In other words, music is not only the representative of politics and the political, but also an aesthetic – meaning sensible at the individual and collective level – potential of generating society and the social. Therefore, the external politics of music are aimed at showing that no music exists which is not politics within the political, i.e. antagonistic situations in society.

35 John Street, “Introduction: making Connections”, in: Music and Politics, Polity, Cam- bridge UK, 2012, 1.

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Article received on 18 October 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013

UDC: 78.01:32

François Nicolas* École Normale Supérieure (Ulm – Paris) Département de philosophie

Composer, Associate Professor and Researcher at Ens (Ulm – Paris)

ENTRELACER MUSIQUE ET POLITIQUE?

Introduction formelle Commençons par une petite formalisation. Partons de ce constat: musique et politique n’ont rien en commun etn’ont aucun rapport entre elles. Nulle manière donc de penser quelques flèches de ces types:

Aggravons le diagnostic: musique et politique n’ont pas plus de rapports in- directs ou composés qu’elles n’en ont de directs. Nulle manière donc de penser quelques flèches composées des types suivants:

* Author contact information: email: [email protected]

28 Nicolas, F.: Entrelacer musique et politique (28–40)

Pourrait-on alors faire l’hypothèse qu’au moins musique et politique se rapporteraient en commun à un troisième terme de la manière qui suit?

Élargissons encore l’hypothèse: pourrait-on supposer que chacun des deux rapports se trouve lui-même médié selon un diagramme de ce type:

Il s’agirait, par exemple, de supposer que le musicien d’un côté, le militant de l’autre entretiennent des rapports à la même société où tous deux vivent:

On pourrait alors tenter d’explorer les possibles conséquences «en amont» (sur la musique et la politique) de cette convergence sur l’objet «société». N’est-ce pas là ce que font bien des études, par exemple celles qui font con- verger musique et politique sous des signifiants socio-étatiques tels que «pouvoir», «groupes sociaux», etc.? Il suffirait, de même, d’inscrire «Histoire» à la place de «Société» pour reconnaître tant de travaux historiques s’attachant à corréler musique et politique au seul titre d’une «Histoire» commune supposée partagée, directement ou indirectement. Quand ces études ne se contentent pas, purement et simplement d’inverser les flèches pour mieux prôner l’intégration générale dans un grand Tout où musique et politique se trouvent corrélées comme le sont toutes choses!

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Je voudrai explorer ici une tout autre voie que je décrirai formellement comme celle d’un entrelacs et non plus d’actions (directes ou combinées). Un entrelacs n’est pas à proprement parler un nœud: il ne colle ni ne con- joint, il ne relie ni ne connecte; il solidarise tout en préservant l’autonomie de chacun. L’exemple canonique en est l’entrelacs borroméen, ici de trois ronds (mais on peut aisément le réaliser selon le même principe avec autant de ronds qu’on le souhaite), qui fait tenir ensemble différentes parties pourtant deux à deux indépendantes:

L’hypothèse de travail sera alors la suivante: peut-on envisager qu’un troisième terme vienne entrelacer musique et politique, vienne les faire tenir ensemble et les solidariser (sans pour autant les coller, les lier, les mixer, les nouer, les connecter ou les conjoindre)? On acceptera même l’idée que cet entrelacs puisse ne pas être borroméen c’est-à-dire que le troisième brin serve simplement de fil conducteur sur lequel s’accrochent séparément musique et politique (telle une tringle de rideau sur laquelle on enfile différents anneaux).

30 Nicolas, F.: Entrelacer musique et politique (28–40)

Dans ce dernier cas, la relation des trois ne sera plus symétrique puisqu’un seul brin videndra entrelacer les deux autres (quand, dans l’entrelacs borroméen, chaque brin entrelace les deux autres, en sorte que couper n’importe lequel de ces brins désolidarise l’ensemble). Bref, peut-on envisager d’entrelacer musique et politique au moyen d’un troisième terme qui, non pas les rapporterait mais en quelque sorte configurerait leur coexistence sous conditions?

Hypothèses de travail Je présenterai ici mes propres hypothèses de travail, attachées à un projet compositionnel très spécifique ayant pour nom propre Égalité ’68. Il s’agit, en deux mots, d’une œuvre composite (avant tout musicale, mais également littéraire et cinématographique), de grande ampleur (quatre parties – «tétralogie» si l’on veut – encadrées d’un prologue et d’un épilogue) et de vaste durée (cinq heures), envisagée pour le cinquantième anniversaire des événe- ments de mai 1968, pour 2018 donc.

Hypothèse 1 Dans cette perspective, quelle composante serait susceptible d’entrelacer musique et politique?

Dans Égalité ’68, une telle composante va s’attacher aux langues: c’est l’hypothèse qu’une intervention spécifique des langues peut venir entrelacer nos deux composantes, a priori sans rapports:

31 New Sound 42, II/2013

En première approche – j’y reviendrai plus en détail dans la suite –il s’agit donc que le jeu de différentes langues traitant de questions politiques et venant labourer une musique par le soc de leurs phonèmes (parlés ou chantés) vienne solidariser l’ensemble.

Hypothèse 2 La seconde hypothèse est que cet entrelacs peut prendre un nom global, non réductible à la somme de ses trois brins, et que le nom adéquat est ici celui de justice (je l’inscris ci-dessous au centre vide de notre entrelacs):

En première approche, on dira donc qu’un certain type d’intervention «linguale»1 peut faire justice d’une possible coexistence entre musique et politique, d’une relative solidarité sous conditions. Détaillons l’une puis l’autre de ces deux hypothèses, selon un ordre rétro- grade.

1 J’emprunte le néologisme à Bernd Alois Zimmermann (voir son Requiem für einen Jungen Dichter) en sorte de ne pas user ici de l’adjectif «linguistique».

32 Nicolas, F.: Entrelacer musique et politique (28–40)

«Justice»? La catégorie de justice est ici particulièrement intéressante à deux titres. • Elle intervient à la fois dans tous les domaines subjectifs (Platon dans sa République en fait une catégorie générale du sujet, au même titre que celles decourage, de sagesse et de tempérance2) et de manière plus circonstan- ciée dans le domaine politique («On appellera “justice” ce par quoi une philosophie désigne la vérité possible d’une politique.»3 - «Justice est le nom philosophique de la politique en tant que vérité du collectif.»4 Alain Badiou). • Elle opère explicitement comme un entrelacs («C’est la justice qui procure aux trois autres le pouvoir qui les fait advenir et, une fois advenues, leur procure la force de se maintenir aussi longtemps qu’elle subsiste.» Platon5) conçu sur le mode d’une harmonie musicale («Que l’homme harmonise les trois principes existant en lui exactement comme on le fait des trois termes d’une harmonie musicale, de manière à devenir, lui qui a une constitution plurielle, un être en harmonie.» Platon6) Ainsi, d’un côté justice subsume une pluralité subjective sous un paradigme politique et d’un autre côté, justice ordonne sa manière spécifique d’entrelacer cette pluralité à un paradigme musical. On comprendra donc l’intérêt tout à

2 soit une capacité à l’autolimitation subjective. 3 Vérités et justice (in «Qu’est-ce que la justice?»; PUV, 1996). 4 La relation énigmatique entre philosophie et politique (Germina, 2011). 5 République, 433b, Alain Badiou sur-traduit ainsi ce passage: «Dans la série des vertus, la justice vient en quelque manière comme le plus-un des trois autres. À la sagesse, au courage, à la sobriété, la justice prodigue la puissance réelle et le lieu de cette puissance, lieu où ces vertus, une fois activées, développent leur efficacité subjective.» (La République de Pla- ton; Fayard; p. 226). 6 id., 443d, Dans la version développée par Badiou: «La vraie justice a les mêmes caracté- ristiques, qu’il s’agisse de la vie collective ou de la vie personnelle, sauf que, dans ce dernier cas, on ne se réfère pas à des actions qu’on peut observer du dehors, mais à celles qu’on peut véritablement dire intérieures, parce qu’elles concernent le Sujet et ses trois instances constitutives, Pensée, Affect et Désir, quand le dit Sujet, loin d’autoriser aucune des dites instances à faire localement ce qui relève manifestement d’une autre ou à bouleverser globalement la structure tripartite, soutient tout au contraire sa propre économie en s’organisant lui-même, en créant une discipline subjective dans l’exercice de laquelle il ap- prend comment on devient ami de soi-même, en faisant sonner les trois instances comme le ferait au piano un accord parfait, avec le do grave de la Pensée, le mi médian de l’Affect, le sol dominant du Désir et le do aigu de la Justice qui enveloppe l’ensemble, oui, Sujet musicien de lui-même, liant entre elles toutes ses composantes et faisant ainsi surgir, de la multiplicité qu’il est, l’Un qu’il est capable d’être.» (id.; p. 251-2).

33 New Sound 42, II/2013 fait spécifique de cette notion pour notre question: peut-on, sous quelque forme entrelacée, mettre ensemble musique et politique? (et, si on le peut, le doit-on, mais aussi pourquoi le faire?). La réponse que je propose d’explorer est qu’on le peut sous le nom de justice, ce qui revient à dire: en rendant ainsi justice, par le biais de langues, d’un non-rapport entre musique et politique, de leur non-corrélation, de leur non- solidarité intrinsèque, de leur séparation complète. Mais qu’en est-il de cette idée de justice formellement abordée comme entrelacs? Ce n’est pas une catégorie du jugement, moins encore du droit et elle n’a bien sûr rien à voir avec quelque tribunal que ce soit. Plus globalement, cette catégorie ne relève pas de l’État et tout État d’ailleurs y est essentiellement - non par accident - indifférent. Ces points procèdent d’une caractéristique essentielle: la justice n’est pas l’envers de l’injustice. Certes, il y a des injustices, et notre monde, livré au capi- talisme déchaîné sous diverses formes (dont la moindre n’est pas la démocratie parlementaire, néocoloniale et partisane d’un apartheid généralisé), en regorge. Certes la colère, l’insurrection et la lutte contre les innombrables injustes sont légitimes: «on a raison de se révolter contre les injustices!». Mais de l’injustice à la justice, il n’y a pas de rapport, fut-ce d’inversion: la lutte contre l’injustice ne produit nulle justice, pas plus que la justice n’est à proprement parler une confrontation à l’injustice, une tentative d’éliminer les injustices.

Parmi mille autres, prenons dans la littérature deux figures politiques qui touchent à ce point. Dans l’Énéide de Virgile, Énée vit l’injustice subie par Troie, détruite par les Grecs coalisés autour du roi de Sparte. Sa longue errance de vaincu vise à rétablir la grandeur de Troie en une nouvelle Cité de la justice mais son savoir procède surtout des injustices combattues sans qu’il lui permette d’entrelacer la tempérance au courage et à la sagesse. Dans la nouvelle éponyme de Heinrich von Kleist, Michael Kohlhass, pay- san riche du XVI° siècle allemand, lutte contre l’injustice personnelle qui lui a été faite mais l’incapacité du bourgeois à penser une justice qui n’ au- rait pu avoir pour interlocuteur que les paysans pauvres de la guerre menée vingt ans plus tôt par Thomas Müntzer (et non pas l’aristocratie féodale qu’il combat) le condamne à rester prisonnier des nouvelles injustices qu’il génère.

34 Nicolas, F.: Entrelacer musique et politique (28–40)

À proprement parler, injustices et justice n’ont pas grand choseen commun («Pour pouvoir s’exclure, deux propositions doivent avoir quelque chose en commun»7). La justice partage ce trait avec l’égalité qui ne saurait davantage procéder d’un renversement des inégalités, d’une lutte soutenue, fut-ce jusqu’à son terme supposé, contre les inégalités; l’égalité n’est pas un résultat; l’égalité est au principe ou elle n’est pas.8 Tout de même pour la justice: elle n’est pas un horizon, une cible, un ob- jectif; elle est toujours déjà là ou elle n’est pas. Comme l’écrit Beckett dans Comment c’est: «En tout cas on est dans la justice, je n’ai jamais entendu dire le contraire.»9 La difficulté propre de la justice, qui cette fois la différencie fortement de l’égalité, c’est qu’à proprement parler, elle ne semble guère définissable10. Qu’est-ce que la justice? Pour Platon, «la question est obscure»11. Pour Badiou, «la justice ne peut être définie.»12 Bien sûr, il ne saurait s’agir ici de relever un tel défi. Nous nous conten- terons donc d’une caractérisation formelle: la justice harmonise la coexistence d’affirmations indépendantes les unes des autres, elle équilibre leurs existences autonomes et entrelace leurs dynamiques spécifiques sans à proprement parler les coller, les lier, les conjoindre, les sommer ou les nouer. Dans Égalité ’68, cette figure de la justice prendra deux formes plus pré- cises.

Rendre justice de mai 68 Il s’agira d’abord, cinquante ans plus tard, de rendre justice de mai 68 (on sait combien l’événement se trouve aujourd’hui calomnié, et ce de multiples fa- çons dont la moindre n’est pas liée au destin libéral du libertaire Cohn-Bendit) en un sens très précis: il s’agira de thématiser l’entrelacement des quatre composantes disparates qui ont fait 68:

7 Jules Vuillemin commentant les principes de Fichte (Grundlage der gesammten Wissen- schaftlehre, 1794) dans sa Philosophie de l’algèbre (PUF, 1962; p. 274). 8 En cette affaire, le livre de référence est Le maître ignorant de Jacques Rancière. 9 p. 193. 10 On peut par contre définir l’égalité, par exemple ainsi (en démarquant le principe d’égalité des intelligences que Rancière pose dans Le maître ignorant): ce qu’un homme a pensé et formulé, n’importe quel autre homme peut le comprendre et se l’approprier. Soit: en matière de pensée, ce qui vaut pour un vaut ipso facto pour quiconque, pour tout un chacun. 11 République, 368d. 12 Voir Vérités et justice (op. cit.).

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1. une révolte mondiale de la jeunesse, 2. une grève ouvrière (et salariée), 3. un mouvement idéologique libertaire et anarchisant, 4. une action politique émancipatrice. Chacun, bien sûr, tend rétrospectivement à privilégier telle composante plutôt que telle autre, et pour ma part, l’action politique émancipatrice reste le vecteur principal de cette époque «rouge». Mais précisément la justice implique de préserver à part entière chacune de ces quatre composantes et leur entrelacement incertain en sorte que l’événement en question préserve à distance sa part proprement indécise, son équilibre incertain, sa singularité secrète, son indécid- abilité intrinsèque.

Une autre justice, interne à l’œuvre Égalité ’68 voudrait également embrasser la justice à un tout autre titre, cette fois immanent à l’œuvre. Cette œuvre, en effet, se voudra composite c’est-à-dire faisant coexister une partie musicale (pour dix instrumentistes, six chanteurs et un chœur amateur), une partie plus proprement littéraire (dite ou chantée en six langues13) et une partie cinématographique (faite de films sans paroles mais non muets pour autant14). Le projet est de maintenir entrelacées ces trois composantes partageant le même temps chronologique, sans réduire l’une d’elles à la simple fonction d’accompagnement c’est-à-dire sans éponger leur autonomie discursive: le critère formel est ici que chaque composante doit pouvoir soutenir par elle-même l’attention durable du spectateur. Il s’agit donc d’entrelacer trois discours tous dotés d’une autonomie relative: un discours musical, un discours littéraire et un discours cinématographique. Il s’avèrera alors légitime de parler de justice mise en œuvre entre ces trois discours à une condition, laquelle constitue la cible même du projet dans son ensemble: que celui qui viendra écouter et voir Égalité ’68 puisse lui-même rendre justice de cet entrelacement, ce qui suppose qu’il ne se trouve pas can- tonné à une place de spectateur mais bien convoqué à une fonction de participant. Pour cela l’œuvre ne devra pas «verrouiller» les rapports entre les trois formes de discours synchrones: l’œuvre sera bien sûr soigneusement composée, non livrée aux aléas d’une pseudo-inventivité spontanée mais les rapports entre composantes conserveront du jeu15 (comme les trois ronds d’un entrelacs bor- roméen ne sont pas serrés les uns contre les autres – comme ils le sont dans un

13 français, latin, arabe, allemand, russe et anglais. 14 voir la présence de bruits de tous ordres liés aux images projetées. 15 au sens où l’on peut dire d’un mouvement mécanique qu’il «a du jeu»…

36 Nicolas, F.: Entrelacer musique et politique (28–40) simple nouage16 – et gardent du jeu), un jeu qui traduit l’autonomie préservée de chacun et qui retourne alors la question à qui l’écoute et le voit: à quel titre tout ceci finalement tient-il ensemble? L’idée est donc que l’opérateur de justice ici mis en œuvre se déplace dans les rangs du public, lequel se trouvera ainsi dépositaire de la question: comment rendre justice d’Égalité ’68 rendant justice de mai 68? Cette visée spécifique n’est-elle pas requise lorsqu’il s’agit de réactiver ici et maintenant quelque sub- jectivation enthousiaste pour l’émancipation et non pas de célébrer, nostalgique- ment17 ou mélancoliquement18, l’anniversaire d’un crépuscule19?

Langues? On vient de le voir: formellement, il s’agira pour le public d’Égalité ’68, d’une justice possible entre discours musical, littéraire et cinématographique. C’est à ce titre qu’il lui reviendra de participer à l’œuvre composite puisque chacun se trouvera en charge d’une opération d’entrelacement qui ne saurait être intégralement effectuée sans sa contribution propre. On l’a également dit: Égalité ’68 voudrait rendre justice de 68 en faisant jouer l’entrelacement des quatre composantes, relativement disparates, qui ont composé l’événement (une révolte de la jeunesse, une grève ouvrière, un mouvement idéologique et une action politique). Mais on a proposé, en ouverture de ce propos, de thématiser tout ceci comme la possibilité même d’un troisième entrelacement, cette fois entre musique, politique et langues, et c’est en cette première occasion que le nom de justice a d’abord été avancé:

16 On serre un nœud pour le faire tenir; on solidarise un entrelacs pour le faire consister sans qu’il soit ici nécessaire de serrer les lacets. 17 La nostalgie procède d’un désir ayant perdu son objet. 18 La mélancolie s’attache à un objet dont le désir est perdu. 19 Mai 68 s’avère, rétroactivement, avoir été un crépuscule plutôt qu’une aurore. D’où son potentiel prophétique qu’il s’agit d’élucider en «avouant» les secrets de cet événement en matière de politique émancipatrice. Seule une réduction de mai 68 à un «désir de révolution» peut déboucher sur une perte nostalgique de l’objet Révolution ou sur une perte mélancolique du désir de révolution (liée, par exemple, au désenchantement face à l’objet «révolutions arabes»…).

37 New Sound 42, II/2013

En quoi le dispositif précédemment décrit permet-il alors d’envisager que «langues» viennent ici entrelacer «musique» et «politique»? Il nous faut pour cela expliciter de nouvelles hypothèses, cette fois en mat- ière de langues. Posons que chaque langue est une singularité, qui rend indiscernable un certain rapport au sensible et un certain rapport à l’intelligible, qui fusionne deux faces: l’une sensible (disons celle qui mobilise les signifiants dans leur matérialité concrète, phonétique, sonore et littérale) et l’autre intelligible (disons celle qui mobilise les signifiés en leur possible traduction). À ce titre, une langue configure une manière de penser, un mode spécifique de présentation de l’idée: «La présentation des idées se différencie grandement suivant le système linguistique où elles se trouvent exprimées.» (Louis Massignon) Ainsi l’idée en question comme la pensée qu’elle met en œuvre reste traductible dans les autres langues- le présenté peut être traduit - mais son mode de présentation restera spécifique. On peut le dire autrement et poser qu’une langue donnée organise des secrets qui lui sont propres en repliant le signifié traductible sur des signifiants exclusifs. C’est cette double face de la langue qui peut la rendre apte à entrelacer musique et politique: d’un côté le discours de la langue peut s’immerger dans le discours musical en partageant non seulement la chronologie mais également la dimension sonore; d’un autre côté le discours de la langue, en son versant cette fois intelligible et transmissible, est un vecteur essentiel de toute discursivité politique où, cette fois, la matérialité prosodique des signifiants compte moins que la discursivité des signifiés.20

20 Il est vrai qu’en ce point, les discursivités politiques émancipatrices et réactionnaires se distinguent: la discursivité émancipatrice est éminemment traductible, ne serait-ce que parce

38 Nicolas, F.: Entrelacer musique et politique (28–40)

Ce type d’attention à la langue, à ses possibilités d’entrelacement d’une discursivité sensible (acoustique) et d’une discursivité intelligible (argumenta- tive), implique alors une attention aux langues, en leur diversité concrète, au plus loin donc d’une simple théorie du langage et de ses fonctions abstraites. Soit l’hypothèse suivante: l’entrelacs visé (de la musique et de la politique) opèrera d’autant mieux que différentes langues seront mobilisées à cet effet, chacune selon son génie propre. D’où l’orientation consistant à mobiliser pour Égalité ’68 six langues assez dissemblables (sans viser pour autant à recouvrir le spectre exhaustif des langues humaines): dissemblables par leur «forme» comme par leur mode d’appréhension de l’idée et de la pensée. Pour n’en donner ici qu’une idée, résumons la manière dont les six langues d’Égalité ’68 peuvent être rapportées les unes aux autres (sous l’angle de leur phonologie propre) en un hexagone:

qu’elle constitue une adresse universalisante; la discursivité réactionnaire, visant à consol- ider des subjectivations identitaires, joue par contre de «la magie oratoire du verbe» et aime user et abuser de la rhétorique sonore que toute langue configure à sa façon propre.

39 New Sound 42, II/2013

Cet hexagone est structuré autour d’un grand axe opposant centralement français et anglais, selon quatre gradations: – syllabes uniformes (français) – syllabes brèves et longues (latin/arabe) – syllabes accentuées et non accentuées (russe/allemand) – agglomération générale autour de l’accent, dissolvant l’unité-syllabe (anglais) Il ne s’agit pas ici de m’étendre plus longtemps sur la logique des opposi- tions à l’œuvre dans ce diagramme: il n’est là que pour indiquer une manière possible de s’emparer du spectre propre des langues et, par là, d’instaurer quelque jeu entre l’ordre matériel et sensible des signifiants et l’ordre plus idéel et intelligible des signifiés. On le dira encore autrement: il n’y aura pas dans Égalité ’68 de personnages au sens théâtral du terme; ce seront les six langues qui en un certain sens constitueront les «personnages» agissant l’action. Au demeurant, dans Égalité ’68, pas de représentation, de théâtre, de scène, de spectacle mais une présen- tation composite, des plateaux et une action collective incluant un public de participants.

* * * On l’aura compris21: si musique et politique n’ont a priori rien à voir, si musicien et militant peuvent certes coexister en un même individu (qu’il convient alors d’appeler plutôt un dividu puisque son mode d’existence est précisément la division et le partage plutôt que l’indivision et la fusion des tâches) sans que ceci établisse pour autant quelque rapport essentiel entre nos deux domaines, s’il s’agit cependant, dans certaines circonstances très spécifiques (tel le projet nommé Égalité ’68) d’inventer une manière d’entrelacer le sans-rapport (qui n’est pas un rapport d’exclusion ou d’opposition), alors les langues, pour peu qu’elles interviennent en un bouquet de singularités articulant de diverses manières sensible phonologique et intelligible communicatif, semblent con- stituer une voie possible pour solidariser (sans mêler ou confondre) deux modes disparates de discursivité (musicale et politique) si l’on veut bien s’assurer alors qu’un jeu est préservé entre ces deux composantes en sorte que l’entrelacs en question ne soit pas resserré et noué, que l’autonomie relative de chaque discours soit ainsi préservée et que ce jeu puisse alors être adressé à un public comme l’occasion pour lui d’une opération effective d’entrelacement dont le nom propre pourra légitimement être dit «justice».

21 Que le lecteur me pardonne la très longue phrase qui suit et conclut: son entrelacement m’a semblé consonner avec l’entrelacement général visé en cet article.

40 Article received on 11 September 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.067.26:316.7 316.74:78

Dario Martinelli* International Semiotics Institute Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

POPULAR MUSIC, SOCIAL PROTEST AND THEIR SEMIOTIC IMPLICATIONS

Abstract: The goal of this article is to discuss the relationship between popular music (song writing, in particular) and issues of social protest, as portrayed in the various repertoires. The interface of the analysis is of a semiotic type, and the steps will follow a path that goes from problematizing the issue as such (with an emphasis on the current difficul- ties of identifying protest songs in terms of “genre”), to the definition of those stylistic elements pertaining to the context (in/for which these songs are written and/or played), the themes (as appearing from the lyrics) and the music itself (with the implication that the latter aspect is normally underrated in its significance, within such a process).

Introduction The discussion around “protest songs” in popular music has been, and still is, at once rich and, to an extent, incomplete. If the literature on the subject is ample and authoritative, ranging from song-by-song1 to genre-by-genre2 analyses, plus more organic reflections3, on the other hand, the role of “music” as such has never been given the prominent role that I shall instead try to confer here. This article is the fourth ‘upgrade’ of a research path that I started in 2004, com- prising some insights on the notion of “protest songs” as a musical genre. My attempt, here, is to sum up the various reflections in a more systematic manner.

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 See, for instance, Edith Fowke, Joe Glazer. Songs of Work and Protest, New York, Dover Publications, 1973. 2 See Ray Pratt, Rhythm and Resistance: Explorations in the Political Uses of Popular Music, Westport, Praeger, 1990. 3 See Dorian Lynskey, 33 Revolutions per Minute, New York, Ecco, 2011.

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Problems, and therefore opportunities, start already from the expression that is normally employed to describe these repertoires: “protest songs”, which may benefit from a little implementation. I shall begin from a far worse expression: the Italian “canzone impegnata”, often used as an alternative to the more exact “canzone di protesta”. “Canzone impegnata” means “committed song”, with the implication of a political type of commitment, but of course the expression is rather superficial. Music can be useful to society also in other forms (would it not be fair, for instance, to call “committed” Paul Simon’s or Peter Gabriel’s efforts to let their audience become acquainted with non-western music?), and, in addition, there are dozens of “protest” songs that are simply not committed to doing anything at all, and explicitly so, since their goal is exactly that of showing a lack of interest in a society that appears rotten and impossible to fix. However, “protest”, too, shows its flaws. How else, indeed, should we call songs like The Clash’s “Train in Vain” or Alanis Morrisette’s “You Oughta Know”, which are clearly songs of protest, except that they protest against their cruel partner/lover? “Protest” may be the only word that manages to keep, in the same group, descriptions of and prescriptions for a wrong or just society, leftist or rightist musicians, songs of revolution, reaction or resistance, but nobody prevents us from applying the same attitude to private and intimate matters, unrelated to the conventionally shared idea of the repertoires we are dealing with, here. A second common denominator, to place along with “protest”, is possibly needed, and I suggest adding the adjective “social”. With “songs of social protest”, we are able to underline the equally important aspects of the “explicit dis- approval” of a given state of things (protest), and the “social” dimension of the latter. Other distinctions, besides these, are not too relevant, as a “song of social protest” (SSP, from now on) can feature a number of diverse, even contradictory, characteristics, and yet remain such. There are aggressive and pinpointed SSPs, but also quiet and diplomatic ones, up to soft and corny ones, like “We Are the World”. SSPs do not necessarily have a standard political color, and may easily be leftist, rightist or even anti-political (in fact, the latter option possibly constitutes the majority of SSPs). It may look forwards, backwards, or to the hic et nunc. And finally, it may be coherent and “committed” (in the Italian way), or it may rather sound like a Facebook user thinking that pressing “Like” to the picture of an abandoned dog or a starving child is enough to make him/ her a person of virtue. Obviously, the establishment of thresholds of analytical depth or intellectual honesty is not our problem (unless we want to get rid of the majority of the most celebrated protest singers: wife abusers singing feminist songs, rich superstars singing about poverty, 1400hectares property owners singing “Make a little space, make a better place”, and so on).

42 Martinelli, D.: Popular Music, Social Protest and Their Semiotic Implications (41–52)

In the end of the day, the adoption of the expression SSP is not unlike Dorian Lynskey’s idea that a protest song is “a song which addresses a political issue, in a way which aligns itself with the underdog”4

Songs of social protest as a “genre”: the challenges If, in popular music studies, notions like performance, multimodality, mul- timediality and others have become more central than the ‘good, old’ debate on styles and genres, it should not be forgotten that significant instances of research in this area are still being published, and scholars like Borthwick5 or Holt6 have certainly kept the discussion lively and fresh. At the same time, it is fair to say that the search for a commonly shared idea of a semantic and operative concept of the notion of “genre” is far from over. This is due first of all to different subjective demands: genres are important for the musicologist, sure, but also for the music critic who needs to decide how a certain work/ artist has to be reviewed (someone like Sting may be assigned indifferently to the rock or the jazz column, and – after Songs from the Labyrinth, released in 2006 for Deutsche Grammophon – to the classical column too); for the young band opening their page on MySpace (what music do we really play?); for any branch of the music industry (is it legitimate, say, that Grammy Awards have created, as they did, two separate prize categories for “Rap” and “Rap with singing”?), etc. Secondly, it is popular music as such, that is in constant development, and that of course is reflected on the genres too. It is a common practice that new musical (and/or social) events are circumscribed through the creation of a new genre, the latter eventually establishing a case that remains codified even when the event fades away. Britpop was in actual fact active during the 1990s, but it subsequently became a comfortable label to classify a number of more recent British bands whose stylistic features are vaguely reminiscent of bands like Blur, Oasis or Suede. Not to mention all those styles that (via an even minimal aesthetic development or refinement) result in a post-something that becomes in itself a genre (post–rock, post–punk, post–tango...). Finally, there is the never-ending question of the legitimacy in principle of stylistic classifications, and in this case one may move from populist, anti- ideological positions like the one attributed to Duke Ellington (“There are only two kinds of music: the good and the bad”), to straight refusals of musicology,

4 Dorian Lynskey, op. cit., xiv. 5 Stuart Borthwick, Popular Music Genres, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2004. 6 Fabian Holt, Genre in Popular Music, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 2007.

43 New Sound 42, II/2013 as such (“Writing about music is like dancing about architecture”, this one attributed to Elvis Costello)7. In all this, it is interesting to notice how the SSP repertoires were hardly, if ever, taken as a “genre”, either institutionally or theoretically. There are no Grammies awarded to the “protest song of the year” and students browsing the history books on popular music in search of Jor Hill or Pete Seeger, will more likely find them under “American folk singers”. What is this reluctance about? I believe it relates to two more basic questions: 1) The more general reluctance, within such taxonomic enterprises, to identify genres on the basis of the themes of the lyrics; 2) Another general reluctance to identify genres in a political and ideological sense. It is quite true that, unlike literary or cinematographic genre classifications, the musical ones are not particularly eager to place linguistic and thematic aspects at the center of attention. If we quickly browse the names of the main genres, we notice that the lion’s share goes to categorizations of a musical, or at least aesthetic, nature: we find references to music, as such (Prog, Boogie, Melodic Pop...), to music as art (Experimental Rock, Art–Rock...), to the instrumentation employed (Synth Pop, Acoustic Pop, Electronica...), to the venues of performance (Arena Rock, Club Music, Pub Rock...), etc. However, exactly the latter example produces a potential hypertext. Expres- sions like Club Music or Pub Rock do not refer only to music (as in: “where that type of music could/should be played”): more relevantly, they refer to a context, and that is a departure from music. Indeed, the contextualization of music is a rather common form of genre classification, as we can find hints about geog- raphy (Philadelphia soul, Delta blues, Mandopop...), social occasions (lounge, surf, skate punk...), emotional states (blues, soul, goth...), and so on, increasingly shortening the distances between music and lyrics. Let alone the vast, complex universe of blues (a genre that is richly codified both musically and thematically), we find for instance that genres like gothic rock are distinguished from other sub-categories of rock on the basis of the introspective, dark and pessimist atmosphere of the lyrics: that is what justifies the word “gothic”, certainly not the music, which sounds neither like a horror movie soundtrack, nor like Gregorian chant.

7 A rather unfortunate joke, I must say. As all the insiders of the two arts know very well, indeed, dance and architecture are closely related, in that they share most of their main con- cerns (and concepts of those): space, movement, objects‘ composition... To compare the dance and architecture to writing and music is thus a good argument to legitimize musicology, not dismiss it. Thank you Elvis, on the behalf of the category!

44 Martinelli, D.: Popular Music, Social Protest and Their Semiotic Implications (41–52)

That also means that it is not necessarily true that genre classifications are always alien to ideological reflections. In fact, it is popular music itself that is perfectly apt to be analyzed this way (Middleton’s classics have made that clear for decades, already8). In a genre like punk (which already comes to life as an ideological statement), we find a significant amount of sub-genres formulating their artistic paradigm in ideological terms. Anarcho–punk, Nazi–punk, Chris- tian punk... save the common musical identity (punk, indeed), the real difference lies in the political, religious, philosophical stands taken by the respective musicians, through their lyrics, first of all, but also through their attitudes, looks and public statements. The same applies to many other genres, especially if we do not confine ourselves to the so-called mainstream. There are also cases when various musicians organize themselves in groups and platforms of a political/ ideological nature: see the neo-Nazi Rock Against Communism or the leftist Rock In Opposition.

Songs of social protest as a “genre”: the opportunities So: can we say anything relevant about SSPs, in a strictly musical sense? To begin with, the historical presuppositions of the SSP, in terms of conceptualization, are not unlike those of film music, liturgical repertoires or muzak. That is: SSPs originate from the need to support events and manifestations of social protest. While it is true that nowadays we can find a SSP written by a musician who has no particular inclination to political activity, released on an album that has no other goal than to be purchased and listened to at home, not the same can be said about the vast majority of the early SSPs, until at least the 1960s. As a matter of fact, these songs were appositely written for strikes, labor union gatherings, public demonstrations, sit-ins, up to more recent charity or awareness raising events. SSPs, just like soundtracks or gospels, are therefore a form of functional music, and – as such – must be subject to some sort of musical codification. The author, for instance, must keep in mind that his/her song a) might be performed by people without a professional familiarity with music; and b) should be easy to memorize, with a clear and reproducible message, and with the capacity to create or enhance group feeling. Now, these are all musical problems, not only lyrical ones (or else, it should be possible to write a simple message like “We shall overcome one day” with a melody that covers four octaves, is in 5/4 and employs microtones, and still expect it to become one of the most popular SSPs

8 See, for instance, Richard Middleton, Studying Popular Music, Philadelphia, Open Univer- sity Press, 1990, or Voicing the Popular: On the Subjects of Popular Music, London, Rout- ledge, 2006.

45 New Sound 42, II/2013 of all times). My first contribution to this discussion9 was exactly devoted to those musical elements/strategies that contribute to a “successful” SSP: 1) Use of a common and easy-to-carry instrumentation: acoustic guitars, light percussions (or even improvised ones, such as handclapping), harmoni- cas… The key, here, is to let these instruments appear also in the recorded version of the song, in order to let the non-professional musicians know that “this is how the song sounds anyway”. The reason why tracks like “Blowing in the Wind” or “Give Peace a Chance” are so effective in their purpose lies precisely on the fact that, on record, they sound already like an improvised performance on a street, during a demonstration; 2) Use of simple and accessible harmonic structures: no difficult keys like F sharp or E flat, no complicated chords and not many of them, basic chord progressions… The prototypical SSP is in D, or G, or C major or E or A minor; the appearance of a augmented or generally “jazzy” chord is an event as rare as the Halley’s comet; and the usual progressions are of the cadenza-type (I-V, I-IV, I-IV-V-I, I-vi-IV-V, etc.); 3) Use of basic rhythmic structures: from the supreme synthesis of the hand clapping on the upbeats (not downbeats, please: that is for the Radetzky March), to the slightly more complex interaction of hands and feet, as in the case of Queen’s “We Will Rock You” (a very interesting case, because this song is not a SSP, and yet it is often employed in events of social protest – we shall see why). Light percussions (tambourines in particular) or whole drum-kits are of course welcome, too: the point is in the simplicity of the pattern as such (which means, among other things, an almost untouchable preference for 4/4 non-syncopated structures); 4) Catchy hooks and/or refrains: the refrain (in the typical strophe-refrain format, very often employed in SSPs) or the chorus (in the less recurrent chorus– bridge setting) are certainly the parts to handle with more care: the impact of the song on the public largely depends on their musical accessibility. Those, once taken care of, other choices are possible: a liturgical structure (with a “master of ceremonies” who sings the more complex strophes and the “community” that joins in the refrains – as in “Give Peace a Chance”); a choral piece from start to end (like “We Shall Overcome”), and so forth; 5) Culturally connoted (and recognizable) sound: also because of what we already listed, a recorded version of an SSP could already feature an “acoustic” feel, an “ethnic” atmosphere, or anyway something that is reminiscent of the genres and authors that already have a reputation in the SSP field. Many of my

9 Dario Martinelli, “S for Singalong”, in G. Ipsen, M. Bauters, D. Martinelli (eds.), Semiotics from S to S, Helsinki, Umweb, 2004.

46 Martinelli, D.: Popular Music, Social Protest and Their Semiotic Implications (41–52) generation will perfectly remember the appearance of Tracy Chapman, within the panorama of 1980s’ super-productions, alone on the stage, with the sole support of a folk guitar, singing songs like “Talkin’ About Revolution”. Her credibility as an SSP performer proceeded also (if not mostly) from the fact that she immediately recalled the likes of Joan Baez, while the music landscape of those days was filled with synthpop, LinnDrum sounds and Ibanez guitars with tons of effects. So: at least the traditional SSP seems quite suitable for a musical classification. As we shall see, its identity as “functional music” plays a relevant role in my reflections. In the following pages I shall attempt to draw an analytical model for SSPs, which would take into account three crucial aspects: context, contents and music. Like all forms of categorization, this one too is far too generic for me to claim that the whole complexity of the problem has been grasped: the idea, more humbly, is simply that of tracing a few relevant paths into a very foggy and heterogeneous landscape.

Songs of social protest and context

When, where and why a SSP is written/performed shall be the first step of the model. If the analysis of a soundtrack is inseparable from the movie that it accompanies, it should be equally difficult to keep the distances between a song like “The Preacher and the Slave” and the Industrial Workers of the World, or between “Bella ciao” and the Italian civil war (Resistenza). What type of relationship does exist between a SSP and its context (which could be either “innate” or acquired in time)? A significant answer to this question was given by one of the founders of musical semiotics as a field, Gino Stefani10, who suggested three different types of singing activity to be performed within an event of social protest. I took the liberty to slightly re-adapt the model to our purposes, but the substance is still faithful to Stefani’s original formulation: 1) Ad hoc, or focused, song – It is specific of the circumstances that caused the event: the song’s lyrics talk about such circumstances, and it is not unusual that it may be one of the event’s participants to actually write them11. To give a

10 Gino Stefani, “Canzoni e difesa popolare nonviolenta”, in A.Drago and G.Stefani (eds.) Una strategia di pace: la difesa popolare nonviolenta, Bologna, FuoriThema, 1993. 11 That was for instance the case with the likes of Joe Hill, Pete Seeger, Woody Guthrie, Phil Ochs and others, whose life was equally divided between musical career and political activism. If they went to a demonstration, most of the times you could be sure they would go with a new song.

47 New Sound 42, II/2013 famous example: if the context was a demonstration against Apartheid, a song like Peter Gabriel’s “Biko” would be an ad hoc choice; 2) Area, or general, song – The song, in this case, is pertinent but not typical of the context: lyrics cover the subject in a more general manner. To keep up with Gabriel’s beautiful song, “Biko” could still be employed in a demonstration against racism in – say – the United States, but in this case its pertinence would be indeed more general (Stephen Biko, notoriously, was a South African anti-Apartheid activist); 3) Phatic, or generic, song – In this rather peculiar case, the song may actually not be an SSP, strictly speaking, but it may become one on the basis of its employment within a given event. As Roman Jakobson’s well-known formulation of the “phatic function” of language goes, the idea is that this kind of song serves more for the purpose of enhancing contact and group feeling among the participants in the event, rather than describing the latter’s themes. Funnily enough, thus, in the very field where topics and contents seem to be indispensable, we find a type of SSP pro tempore where lyrics are almost irrelevant, and what matters is the song’s ability to create “the right atmosphere”. This is why a song like “We Will Rock You” (or “Let It Be”, to mention another recurrent case) is not an unlikely choice among the participants in an event of social protest. What we find here, at this point, is an enlarged perspective of what an SSP is or can be. I certainly do not wish to carry this notion to an extreme that would trivialize it (an extreme of the “anything goes” type: obviously, songs like “Stayin’ Alive” or “Walk Like an Egyptian” are not likely ever to be heard at a political demonstration). What is relevant, here, is to state clearly that the SSP is a relatively flexible semantic field that can be restricted or expanded thanks to this third element, the context, which proceeds in parallel motion with the music and lyrics. Once again, let us not be surprised by this, because it is exactly what happens in the field of functional music. Sure, Hermann or Morricone would write original and specifically filmic music, but so many directors (Kubrick, Lynch, Kaurismäki…) were eager to recontextualize existing music that was created for other purposes. Strauss’ “Einleitung” from Also sprach Zarathustra is a great piece in its own right, but how many people will resist the temptation to think about Space Odyssey while hearing it?

48 Martinelli, D.: Popular Music, Social Protest and Their Semiotic Implications (41–52)

Songs of social protest and contents In one of my previous studies12, I had had the opportunity to underline that the historical development of SSPs was brought to completion during the 1960s, when the appearance of a new approach to contents established the overall dominance of three main typologies of lyrics: 1) Classic type. Possibly the most prototypical one, the classic SSP is the one that we may associate with a young Bob Dylan with a guitar and harmonica, or an older Woody Guthrie with a cigarette and the inscription “This machine kills fascists” on his guitar. The classic SSP offers a fundamentally analytical approach, with the clear intention to discuss a topic in a detailed and focused way (as in the Talking Blues songs of Guthrie and Seeger, the parodies of Joe Hill, several European singer-songwriters, etc.). In reference to its context, the classic SSP is often an ad hoc song, as it normally refers to a real, specific circumstance. In this sense, it often produces a “here and now” type of message, though the latter can of course be generalized and applied to more contexts. Finally, the analytical inclination is often better conveyed through a strophe-refrain structure, which allows a thorough description of the theme in the strophes and a “tagline”-styled prescription in the refrain: in short, the classic SSP wants the listener to “know” and to “act”. 2) Spiritual type. Along with the classic model, there is always the strong genetic connection that many forms of popular music bear with early Afro- American repertoires, such as spiritual, gospel and blues. These songs have indeed a “spiritual” component (not necessarily in the religious sense of the word), as their main “action plan” is that of asking (or, indeed, praying), waiting and hoping that things will improve. They tend to be rich in metaphors, usually inspired by sacred texts (as in spirituals) or even private relationships (so many times blues has used the guise of a love story to actually address the society). From these roots have derived several other genres, or specific songs, which employ a similar attitude: emotionally involved but operatively passive (whereas, generally speaking, one could say that the classic SSP tends to be in- tellectually involved and operatively active). A typical example of the spiritual SSP is of course “We Shall Overcome”, but the perfect one, in my opinion, is Cat Stevens’s “Peace Train”. It is indeed most significant that the protagonist of that song is waiting for the peace train, promising everyone that, one day, that train will arrive. As a rhetorical device, the train can be employed in a much

12 Dario Martinelli, Authenticity, Performance and Other Double–Edged Words. Essays in Popular Music, Helsinki/Imatra, International Semiotics Institute, 2010: 163–182. I also remind to this study for a discussion on the origins of, and reasons behind the emergence of this new lyrical model, which, as I specify later, I call “Hippie type”.

49 New Sound 42, II/2013 more active way: Stevens could have invited the world to jump on the locomo- tive of that train, and drive it towards the peace station (or something like that: of course, one can be more poetic that this). On the contrary, Stevens opts for the spiritual choice: he waits and he hopes. Due to this approach, the main tendency of spiritual SSPs is that of being general or phatic, addressing wider instances and themes. For the same reason, even though the strophe-refrain remains a favorite choice (but this is also due to the fact that, in general, strophe- refrain songs are statistically the most recurrent lyrical model), the number of chorus-bridge templates increases considerably (“We Shall Overcome” itself, Marvin Gaye’s beautiful “What’s Going On”, etc.). As mentioned, lyrics are employed to “ask” and “hope”: the spiritual SSP wants the listener to “have an idea” (rather than knowing specifically) and to “have faith”. 3) Hippie type. While the first two categories appear already in the very early examples of SSPs, this third one is exactly the result of the abovemen- tioned new approach developed during the 1960s. It is in that period, indeed, that a significantly less analytical type of song emerges: The Beatles, and the post-Beatles John Lennon, are probably the best known cases, but of course there are several other instances, including Creedence Clearwater Revival (“Have you ever seen the rain?”), Queen (“One Vision”), Lenny Kravitz (“Let Love Rule”), many songs crafted for charity events, etc. The hippie SSP tends to adopt an anti-ideological, or even nihilist, lyrical approach, and the songs always need to be contextualized by the listener, rather than by the author (who always avoids being too circumstantial). Taglines like “All you need is love” or “All we are saying is give peace a chance” are launched, and it is up to the audience to decide when and where the message is to be applied. Evidently, this path is just the opposite of classic SSPs, which instead prefer to discuss/describe events circumscribed in space and time, which can be eventually generalized. From the 1960s onwards, it is like people feel that, first and foremost, all they need is love, and then, in a second moment, they find themselves thinking that the Vietnam War should be ended, that racial discrimination is unjust, etc. The hippie SSP, thus, tends to be general or phatic, anti-ideological, and universal in message. More often than not, it employs a strophe-refrain template, inclining the strophes to neglect/oppose analysis and ideologies (“There’s nothing you can do that can’t be done, nothing you can sing that can’t be sung...”) and the refrain (this time, just like the classic SSP) to prescribe and encourage to action. In other words, the listener is invited “not to waste time” and to “act”.

50 Martinelli, D.: Popular Music, Social Protest and Their Semiotic Implications (41–52)

Songs of social protest and contents Let us return to music per se. With the usual disclaimer that this categorization, like all others presented here, has no pretension to be a faithful photography of the various nuances of this complex question, the idea, here, is to emphasize a reasonable amount of stylistic features, so that a paradigm can eventually be drafted. Once again, being a functional form of music, the SSP has every right to be differentiated musically, for the same reason that film music may contain, at the same time, John Williams’ epic themes, Vangelis’ synthesizers and Miles Davis’s experiments on Frantic. Five, this time, are the areas I intend to focus on: 1) Simple SSP. The most typical one, it is often intended for direct employment in events of social protest, and tends to fall into the already discussed prototype of simple instrumentations, catchy melody, easy rhythmic patterns, etc.: it is most often found in genres like country, world, blues, and others with a distinctive folk matrix. For instance, most of the classic American protest singers are identifiable in this area: Pete Seeger, Josh White, Woody Guthrie, Joe Hill... 2) Solemn SSP. Typical of most charity events, it is the most radio-sexy and chart-friendly kind. It tends to have a mainstream, pop quality, with lavish arrangements and big productions. Songs like “All You Need Is Love”, “Do They Know It’s Christmas?”, “We Are the World”, which were indeed conceived for large scale events, bear such characteristics, but the principle can also apply to songs that were not necessarily written with that intent (“Biko”, “They Dance Alone”...) 3) Aggressive SSP. Usually emerging from the underground/alternative scene, it is the kind that we find most often in genres like indie–rock or rap. It is recognizable from the “angry” attitude of both the music and lyrics. The repertoires of bands like Green Day, Public Enemy, Manic Street Preachers, and of course The Clash are very generous within the category. 4) Manneristic SSP. Less common and more peculiar, this type follows the postmodern charm of creating retro pastiches with a recognizable identity. The effectiveness, as SSPs, of songs like Tears for Fears’ “Sowing the Seeds of Love” or the mentioned “Talkin’ about Revolution”, lies most of all in their respective reminiscence of The Beatles and Joan Baez, two very well-known acts often associated with SSPs. 5) Personal SSP. This last category works as a black box to store all those pieces which, rather than following a recognizable style, tend to reflect the personal artistic paradigm of single authors. The singer-songwriters’ movement of different countries and epochs offers a rich variety of examples in this field. It

51 New Sound 42, II/2013 is difficult to find a specific category for the anarchic sarcasm of George Bras- sens, the ambiguous theatricality of Algirdas Kauspedas, the nonsensical eclec- tism of Rino Gaetano. To conclude: no part of the model is alien to grey areas and flexibility (e.g., if the context changes, contextual functions change too, as we have seen in the case of “Biko”. Or: “Talking About Revolution” is “manneristic” if put in a historical perspective, but it can easily be classified as “simple” as well), and of course the three main groups (context, contents, music) are in constant interaction (“Sowing the Seeds of Love” is contextually “general”, lyrically “hippie” and musically “manneristic”, at the same time), Keeping in mind our initial warning against excessive trivializations, I dare suggest that this model may help a little to create a general understanding of the main conceptual and operative features of the SSP.

References

Fabbri, Franco, “A theory of musical genres: Two applications”, in D. Horn e P. Tagg (a cura di) Popular Music Perspectives, Göteborg and Exeter, International Association for the Study of Popular Music, 1981, 52-81 Denisoff, Serge, “Songs of Persuasion: A Sociological Analysis of Urban Propaganda Songs”, The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 79, No. 314, 581-589. Denisoff, R. Serge, Sing a Song of Social Significance, Bowling Green, Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1983. Eyerman, Ron – Jamison, Andrew, Music and Social Movements: Mobilizing Tradition in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

52 Article received on 04 October 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.01:111.852 141.78 Велмер А.

Tyrus Miller University of California at Santa Cruz Division of Humanities Department of Literature

ON ALBRECHT WELLMER: MUSIC AND MODERNISM AFTER HABERMAS

The work of Jürgen Habermas had a decisive effect on the current of Frank- furt School thought, leading to the critique and even abandonment of a number of defining elements of its first-generation programme and to an on-going reconstruction of other elements in light of Habermas’s “theory of communicative action”. Here, I will touch exclusively on one subset of the work of a key post- Habermasian thinker,1 Albrecht Wellmer, who has published an important set of essays on aesthetics, particularly pertaining to the aesthetics of modern music.2 Having taken as his starting-point Adorno’s strong association, in his Aesthetic Theory, of art’s validity with both conceptual truth and social emancipation, and

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 For a discussion of recent work in the Frankfurt School, contextualized in relation to earlier work, see Joel Anderson, “The Third Generation of the Frankfurt School,” online at: http:// www.marcuse.org/herbert/scholaractivists/00JoelAnderson3rdGeneration.htm, and “Selected Writings of German Members of the ‘Third Generation’ of the Frankfurt School,” at: http:// www.marcuse.org/herbert/scholaractivists/00JoelAnderson3rdGenBibliography.htm 2 Albrecht Wellmer, “Truth, Semblance, Reconciliation: Adorno’s Aesthetic Redemption of Modernity” in Wellmer, The Persistence of Modernity: Essays on Aesthetics, Ethics, and Postmodernism, trans. David Midgley (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1991) 1-35. Other relevant sources not directly cited here include Wellmer’s discussions of philosophy of language and interpretation in: Endgames: The Irreconciliable Nature of Moder- nity, trans. David Midgley (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1998), and Wie Worte Sinn machen: Aufsätze zur Sprachphilosophie (Frankfurt a/M: Suhrkamp Verlag, 2007).

53 New Sound 42, II/2013 having attempted to reconstruct these claims within a post-metaphysical philosophy influenced by Habermas, Martin Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer, Wellmer offers a useful perspective for focusing a set of specific claims about art and aesthetics in a “critical” vein: critical in the philosophical sense of both establishing the range of ways in which modernist aesthetics may have ethical, political, conceptual, and existential efficacy and the limits within which it ex- erts its possible effects. To address Wellmer’s approach to modernist art works, I will begin with the more general frameworks of the aesthetic reception that he formulates. No- tably, he orients his arguments towards reception in an explicit critique of Peter Bürger (among others), who, Wellmer argues, establishes a novel constellation of reality, art, and living praxis, but does so by abolishing the notion of “aesthetic semblance” and privileges “the significance of this constellation of reality for artistic production over its significance for reception” (PoM 17). In other words, for Bürger the decisive issue is how artists relate their production to the institutions of art–reflexively embodying autonomy in a modernist form or breaking with autonomy in the activist modes of avant-garde art–whereas Wellmer suggests that a focus on reception may mitigate some of the either-or dilemmas Bürger poses. Accordingly (and though he does not cite the essay, Wellmer here echoes Adorno’s important, late essay “Culture and Administration”3), while Bürger formulates the avant-garde break as the abolition of a culture of artistic experts, Wellmer argues that transforming the institution of art would entail the democratization of the communicative interchange between experts and a broader constituency with a plurality of interest and engagements with art: “I argue on the assumption that a transformation of the ‘institution of art’ cannot mean the abolition of the ‘culture of experts,’ but that it would amount rather to the establishment of a tighter network of connections between the culture of experts and the life-world on the one hand, and the culture of experts and popular art on the other” (PoM 31). In turn, he argues, art can play a role in a broader process of democratic emancipation: “we can defend the idea of an altered relationship between art and the life-world in which a democratic praxis would be able to draw productively on the innovative and communicative potential of art” (PoM 31). In developing this view, Wellmer sets out from the everyday communicative competencies of both makers and receivers of artworks. Both artists and audience members are, in this view, socialized individuals who have histories of participating in everyday practices of communication, both oral and written (and increasingly, televisual and digital). Their everyday competencies include

3 Theodor W. Adorno, “Culture and Administration,” in The Culture Industry 107-31.

54 Miller, T.: On Albrecht Wellmer: Music and Modernism After Habermas (53–61) a range of functions, from pragmatic, instrumental uses to aesthetically, emotionally, and existentially expressive uses of language, images, performing acts, and other signs. Their multifaceted participation in everyday communication will have shaped, to a greater or lesser degree, their abilities to use discourse consciously and make deliberative judgments about the discourse of others. In the course of performing everyday communication, in particular, they will have become competent in making and evaluating discursive claims to “truth” in a number of different dimensions. These truth-dimensions include: the factual dimension of how a statement representing a state of affairs measures up against our experience of the state of affairs itself; the expressive dimension of a statement’s “truthfulness” or authenticity in relation to a speaker’s personal beliefs, feelings, and way of life; and the dimension of moral, practical, and emotional “rightness” of a statement with respect to a concrete situation of life, measured against a background of culturally shared or even universally, human values and norms. Moreover, not only do they gain communicative competences in performing and evaluating claims to truth in these different dimensions; even in the relatively loose contexts of everyday life, they may also have become aware of the potential for dissonance between these different dimensions of truth employed in discourse: what we know to be true factually may nevertheless, for example, be morally repugnant to us or inadequate to our personal, existential sense of who we are. Lastly, as part of their own personal and professional biographies, individuals may have succeeded in composing and integrat- ing these different truth-dimensions into larger, more coherent wholes that are characteristic of their characters and lives. Everyday discourse, however, tends to shift sequentially between these dimensions and connect them at most in only loosely coordinated ways. It tolerates wide latitude for dissonance, bad faith, lack of awareness, and outright contradiction in the relations between these dis- cursively embodied domains of truth. In taking up the question of how art relates to these different dimensions of truth, Wellmer makes two specifications. First, he suggests, art does not so much literally represent truth as mobilize a potential for truth: “The truth content of works of art would then be the epitome of the potential effects of works of art that are relevant to the truth, or of their potential for disclosing truth” (PoM 24). This potential for truth in artworks is, however, related to a second specification: the claims to truth that artworks carry are related to their claims of aesthetic validity. To put it otherwise, only insofar as a work is aesthetically “right” does it realize its potential relevance to other sorts of truth; the aesthetically valid work allows us to focus on and evaluate some potential truth that previously was imperceptible, before being represented to us in a concentrated, specially framed experience of art. Wellmer goes on to suggest that insofar as

55 New Sound 42, II/2013 art mediates its relation to truth through aesthetic validity, through its complex “rightness” as composition, it is particularly suited to reveal the interactions and interferences of the different sorts of truth comprised in everyday communication: factual, moral, and expressive dimensions. As Wellmer writes: It transpires... that art is involved in questions of truth in a peculiar and complex way: not only does art open up the experience of reality, and correct and expand it; it is also the case that aesthetic “validity” (i.e. the “rightness” of a work of art) touches on questions of truth, truthfulness, and moral and practical correctness in an intricate fashion without being attributable to any one of the three dimensions of truth, or even to all three together. We might therefore suppose that the ‘truth of art’ can only be defended, if at all, as a phenomenon of interference between the various dimensions of truth. (PoM 22-23) Aesthetic reception attends to the intimate connection between the formal dimension of art works (or works, events, and performances that, by virtue of compositional qualities have been assimilated to art) and this reflexive work on a pluri-dimensional truth. To put this another way, aesthetic reception seeks to reveal how aesthetic validity (the “rightness” of artistic choices and structures) shapes a particular complex vision of truth–the possible interferences of factual, subjective, and moral truths in concrete human situations, and the ways in which, over time, these interferences may be negotiated. Focused in this way, this conception of the aesthetic helps us to interpret in a more rigorous light certain loosely shared aspects and background motivations of the critical, reflexive tendencies of modernist art and literature. Modernism represents the intentional practice of composing artworks that aim to reorient the communicative life of their receivers, offering them new ways of making sense not only within the microcosm of the artistic encounter, but also within the broader parameters of their everyday communication. Wellmer’s aesthetic writings are most directly related to the Aesthetic The- ory of Adorno, as an immanent critique and reconstruction of Adorno’s thought on reception-related and “communicative action”-oriented grounds. Adorno, as noted in my earlier chapter, developed his aesthetic theory teleologically around its contemporary endpoint, to establish and justify the fragile possibility of a critical modernism in an age tending towards the abolition of art. Critical modernism, as Adorno discerned it in a few singular, communicatively resistant works by Schönberg, Picasso, Kafka, and Beckett, gave testimony to the trace of “something else” in the hour of its disappearance into the night of indiffer- ence. In his focus on the experience of art as potentially disrupting the ease with which we ascribe cognitive, moral, and personal-existential “truth” not only to the aesthetic event, but also to everyday and perhaps even specialized statements and acts, Wellmer retains Adorno’s sense of art’s special relation to

56 Miller, T.: On Albrecht Wellmer: Music and Modernism After Habermas (53–61) truth. Moreover, it is easy to see that Adorno’s justification of difficult, complex modernist art can be well-encompassed by Wellmer’s revisionary perspective. When, for example, we puzzle over whether Beckett’s “Molloy” and “Moran” in the novel Molloy are versions of the same character rather than two different ones, our inability to resolve the question may unsettle the self-understood existential truth that whatever else we might know or not know, we know who we are; Beckett’s disruptions of character-identification might lead us to believe that holding onto a sense of self might not be so easy in the world we live in. Similarly, listening to a piece of atonal music, which has been emancipated from harmony as an organizing principle, we may perceive with new vividness various forms of local order that alternate throughout the longer piece: such musical means as the repetition and variation of rhythmic figures, sharp alter- nations between high and low pitches, the surprising dissemination of motifs among instruments of contrasting timbres, and the ways that dissonances are heightened or mitigated by each of these. Obviously, within the aesthetic experience of music, these various interacting forms of post-harmonic patterning call for different modes of attention and evaluation on the part of listeners. But new perceptual, affective, and cognitive intuitions originating in the experience of music need not remain encapsulated within the purely musical, but can extend by analogy to other dimensions of moral, existential, affective, and cognitive life. Indeed, Adorno himself is an extreme example of the contrary, insofar as he carried his musical training into a whole new way of writing philosophy and conceiving the nature of philosophical reflection. Martin Jay captured this translation of modernist music into philosophy well in his characterization of Adorno’s negative dialectics as “atonal philosophy”.4 Despite this proximity to Adorno–rendered even closer by Wellmer’s intimate knowledge of modern and contemporary music, unique among the major followers of Habermas–Wellmer also diverges from Adorno on a number of key points in his interpretation of modernist art. First, since his focus is on how artworks impact listeners, viewers, and readers as agents within a plurality of communicative practices (a Habermasian perspective), rather than on the production of artworks as complex constellations of subjective and objective elements mediated by artistic form (Adorno’s perspective), Wellmer abandons a key element of Adorno’s theory: his prescriptive focus on “progress” in the disposition of “artistic material,” which in turn leads him to dichotomous formulations such as the Schönberg / Stravinsky opposition elaborated in Philosophy of the New Music. Individual receivers of artworks are also social agents who live, act, think, work, and speak within a differentiated, plural set of social institutions,

4 Martin Jay, Adorno (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984).

57 New Sound 42, II/2013 rules, and discourses. The question of what sort of artwork might play a critical or even emancipatory role cannot be unilaterally determined by formal-material features, rooted in artistic production. The “progressive” effects of artworks de- pend on situational aspects of reception as well, which can positively motivate a far wider range of artistic forms, registers (“high” culture to “popular” and “counter” culture), and modes (“classical,” jazz, pop, etc.) than Adorno was willing to contemplate. This artistic pluralism–comparable to that advocated by Bürger–is most striking precisely where Wellmer moves upon Adorno’s signature artistic territory, in the field of modern classical and post-serialist “new” music. Wellmer’s recent collection of musicological writings, Essay on Music and Language,5 offers a wide-ranging treatment of different musical examples, including a sym- pathetic examination of two major composers who represent opposing, influential directions in post-war “new music”: John Cage, as the anarchist advocate of non-intentionality, indeterminacy, and chance in musical composition, as well as the expansion of musical materials to the whole range of natural and human sounds; and Helmut Lachenmann, as a rigorous, militantly politicized inventor of musical methodologies that extend serial techniques to new dimensions of instrumental and vocal sound, timbre, rhythm, and text. Rather than setting up an Adorno-like dichotomy of Cage’s anarchic informality and Lachenmann’s political and formal rigor, Wellmer offers a measured assessment of their artistic projects as complementary, if antipodal paradigms of new music. The final chapter on Essay on Music and Language, entitled “Transgressive Figures in the Field of New Music,” affirms a concept of “postmodernism” that is “equivalent neither to turning away from the modern nor with the return of an emphatic claim for art, but rather much more with a pluralistic modernism” (Versuch 302). Wellmer not only argues for this modernist pluralism philosophi- cally, but goes on to survey an open field of musical possibilities represented by particular composers and their works. Not accidentally, given Adorno’s exclusive opposition of Schönberg and Stravinsky, Wellmer follows the lead of Pierre Boulez in presenting them as complementary figures through whom the structural apparatus of tonality was disrupted and dismantled, with one focusing on the destruction of tonal hierarchy through serial formalization and the other on “informal” rhythmic and instrumental violence to tonal organization.6 He goes

5 Albrecht Wellmer, Versuch über Musik und Sprache (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2009). 6 Pierre Boulez, “Style or Idea?–In Praise of Amnesia” and “The Stravinsky-Webern Con- junction” in Orientations: Collected Writings, ed. Jean-Jacques Nattiez, trans. Martin Coo- per (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986) 349-59 and 364-69. David Roberts calls attention to Boulez’s essay in Art and Enlightenment 117-21.

58 Miller, T.: On Albrecht Wellmer: Music and Modernism After Habermas (53–61) on, however, to suggest other ways in which the emancipation of the musical field has proceeded–exemplifying not a dialectical logic of opposites (Schön- berg / Stravinsky, progress / regression, formalization / dissolution of form), as in Adorno, but a progressive differentiation of musical experience through the enrichment of compositional technique. Thus, for example, he enumerates: the expansion of the field of sound through electronic and aleatory musics; the exploration of microtonal elements through tremolo, glissandi, new vocal articula- tions, and use of non-Western and historical musical materials that reveal the contingency of classical and twelve-tone music’s chromatic scale; the recourse to parts of the overtone series and other features of physical sound suppressed by tempered harmonics; the focus on gestural and tactile aspects of instrumental sound, as well as the dramatic aspects of their performance; the highlighting of spatial features of musical sound; the structuring of musical pieces as a direct intervention into the listener’s perceptual faculties and bodily sensations; and the hybridization of new music with cross-overs into jazz, hiphop, gypsy music, rock and roll, and other forms of popular music. Accordingly, he incorporates into his open, non-exclusive canon of pluralistic modernism in music such highly divergent composers as John Cage, Giacinto Scelsi, Pierre Boulez, Pierre Schaeffer, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Helmut Lachenmann, György Ligeti, Hans- Werner Henze, Luigi Nono, György Kurtág, Luciano Berio, Heinz Hollinger, Mauricio Kagel, Iannis Xenakis, Cornelius Cardew, Alvin Lucier, Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Erhard Grosskopf, Georg Friedrich Haas, Hans Zenders, Hilda Pare- des, Clemens Gadenstätter, Gene Coleman, Bernard Lang, Klaus Huber, and Isabel Mundry: a very diverse, multi-generational catalogue of post-war composers that could undoubtedly be extended greatly beyond Wellmer’s largely German and Central European “new music” focus. The modernist pluralism represented by this list, moreover, allows Wellmer to reach back into Adorno’s modernism and open up the historical past that Adorno’s philosophy of music mediated to future generations of critical theorists and musicologists: not only do Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schönberg, Alban Berg, and Anton Webern represent “authentic” instances of musical modernism, according to Adorno, but also Claude Debussy, Igor Stravinsky, Oliver Messiaen, Edgar Varèse, Henry Cow- ell, Charles Ives, Béla Bartók, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, and Alois Haba. “Post- modern,” Wellmer writes, “would be... the consciousness of an infinite plurality of musical materials, including that of extra-European traditions, as well as the various procedures at the disposition [of composers] since the second half of the 20th century” (Versuch 302). Wellmer’s “postmodern,” however, does not come after modernism, but is rather the pluralization of modernism itself, which branches forward into a field of ever-greater differentiation as it extends into and past the later 20th century.

59 New Sound 42, II/2013

Moreover, in a passage in which he discusses the use of highly complex rhythmic structures and speeds and their effects on the senses and bodies of listeners, we catch a glimpse of the Utopian, futuristic possibilities that works of the historical avant-garde, from Marinetti and Khlebnikov to Schwitters and Breton, adumbrated, a total reinvention of the human sensorium. Describing the unaccustomed relations to the human body that the soundscapes of recent music establish, Wellmer evokes the Utopian suggestion of a transfigured body that would be adapted to the textures and speeds of a virtual world: Many of these rhythms race more swiftly ahead and oscillate more rapidly than would ever be possible for the body; many have a strongly gestural character, yet correspond to no known bodily or linguistic movement. While the early postwar composers presented the structures and skeletons for new, strange worlds, contemporary composers now create the flesh, muscle, and nervous systems not of traditional bodies, rather of completely new creatures that accordingly advance along an unfamiliar border of a “virtual movement.” (Versuch 310) Wellmer’s evocation of creatures with radically different bodily and sensory characteristics harks back to an earlier moment of critical theory, Walter Benjamin’s discussion of the expressionist writer Paul Scheerbart’s Lesabén- dio and his fascination with the utopian atmospheres of Scheerbart’s fictional planet. Scheerbart describes the sonorous space of the double funnel-shaped asteroid-planet, Pallas, which is designed by the author as a kind of total musical environment in which the inhabitants, with their extraterrestrial alien bodies, are continuously immersed. The planet itself is a kind of natural wind instrument, which has been adapted by the Pallasians into an enveloping musical and sound-space: Refined music resounded out of the depths of the funnel, including strange tones that were held and sustained for long periods of time. This music emanated from the Central Hole connecting the north and south funnels. Here in the Center, where the funnel walls were steep and sometimes separated from each other by no more than half a mile, here in the very heart of the star, winds caused by the speedy descent of the cobweb-cloud at nightfall made the hole emit wonderful sounds. Because of the interior music of Pallas, which, naturally, could be heard best from the star’s southern funnel, the Pallasians had set up many large, thin pieces of skin to strengthen the sounds and to link them into a melodious sonic flow. These hides were stretched and mounted in such a way as to cause the tones brought forth by the steep cliff walls to vary in a marvelous fashion. The pieces of skin were set up so that they would be easy to move to different spots in the larger system The moveable skins created fantastical harmonies naturally amplified by the acoustics of the funnels. Certain capacious metal instruments could even make the noises seem orchestral.

60 Miller, T.: On Albrecht Wellmer: Music and Modernism After Habermas (53–61)

(Scheerbart, 2012; 26-27) One could imagine that this is just the sort of music that creatures whose bodies are nothing but a “rubbery tube leg with a suction-cup foot at one end,” an umbrella-shaped flexible head, and telescoping eyes would enjoy hearing. Yet turning around the perspective in light of Wellmer’s discussion of contemporary music, we might also say that such a sound environment as Scheerbart describes, not unlike that of a contemporary composition exploring the resonant properties of materials and spaces and immersing the listener in slowly pulsat- ing rhythms, also evokes bodies more like those of the Pallasians than the bodies with which the listeners walked into the concert hall. Their harmony with such an environment implies that human bodies, such as we possess, would find it very, well, alien. Yet in Lesabéndio, as in the musical worlds created by contemporary composers, we are also asked to imagine and empathize with creaturely forms radically other than our own: to become them for a time. For the duration of the musical experience, as for the duration of our reading of Scheerbart, our bodies are aesthetically stretched and compressed, broken and reassembled, in ways that give us a sensuous intuition of new bodies, a shim- mering succession of virtual bodies evoked by the dissonances and tensions between our natural bodies and the techno-compositional environments to which we have submitted ourselves. Wellmer concludes that this temporary plunge into strangeness, into apparent senselessness or nonsense that is characteristic of avant-garde art, is the occasion for the production of new thought and feeling. “Upon such new thought and feeling produced by new music,” he quotes Karlheinz Stockhausen, “we can successively construct experiences, learning processes” (Stockhausen, quoted in Versuch 311).The extension, by Stock- hausen and subsequently Wellmer, of the key Habermasian concept of “learning processes” to aesthetic experience–to the non-discursive sonorous intensities of new music–at once demonstrates their indebtedness to Habermas’s thought, and underscores the bold step beyond Habermas’s discourse-based, rationalistic theory they must make when challenged by a complex aesthetic phenomenon.

61 New Sound 42, II/2013

Article received on 02 September 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 782.1:78.01 78.071.1:929 Вагнер Р.

Erik Vogt* Trinity College in Hartford (USA) Department of Philosophy

MUSIC DRAMA AND POLITICS: PHILIPPE LACOUE-LABARTHE AND ALAIN BADIOU ON RICHARD WAGNER’S IDEA OF THE GESAMTKUNSTWERK

Abstract: This paper sketches the debate between Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe and Alain Badiou concerning Richard Wagner’s idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk. Following in part the account of the Gesamtkunstwerk that was developed in Theodor W. Adorno’s pivotal text In Search of Wagner, Lacoue-Labarthe regards the notion of Gesamtkunstwerk as the central key for unlocking the implications of Wagner’s theory and practice of music drama. That is to say, Lacoue-Labarthe claims that the fusion of art and politics characterizing the Gesamtkunstwerk can only be grasped by unearthing the conception of (romantic) aesthetics that underlies Wagner’s staging of the relationship between art and politics. Lacoue-Labarthe identifies Wagnerian aesthetics as the anticipation of national-aestheticism (a term that Lacoue-Labarthe elaborates in the context of his reading of Heidegger’s deconstruction of aesthetics) that finds its completion in National Socialism. Conse- quently, Wagner’s art taking figure in the Gesamtkunstwerk engenders totalitarian politics. In critical opposition to Lacoue-Labarthe, Alain Badiou both relegates the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk to the realm of mere ideology and demonstrates that the former ob- scures the complex relationship between art and politics that is actually engendered in Wagner’s music dramas. Once the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk is dismissed as the central category of Wagnerian artistic production, one can return to Wagner’s music dramas as sites both for a “music of the future” and a different conception of politics. Key words: Richard Wagner; Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe; Alain Badiou; Music drama; Gesamtkunstwerk

The nature of the relationship between Richard Wagner’s conception (and praxis) of music drama and his idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk has remained a controversial issue in the literature on Wagner. Referring to the fact that Wag-

* Author contact information: [email protected]

62 Vogt, E.: Music Drama and Politics: Lacoue-Labarthe and Badiou ... (62–70) ner’s writings employ the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk rather sparingly,1 several commentators have argued that a strict conceptual distinction between music drama and Gesamtkunstwerk has to be maintained; for while the Wagnerian music drama defines and enacts innovative relations between language, music, and theatre – relations that are supplemented by a notion of myth conceived of as artistic and the religious generation of meaning providing a normative orientation for the audience - the Gesamtkunstwerk designates the site at which the music drama passes into the public realm in the guise of a festival (Bayreuth);2 moreover, the Gesamtkunstwerk ultimately signifies a cultural vision, a visionary ideal that “is merely an ideological construct which he soon abandoned and which has no material significance in terms of his dramaturgical praxis;”3 consequently, “the ideology of the ‘total work of art’ (...) needs to be distinguished from its aesthetic and dramaturgical praxis.”4 Other commentators claim, however, that a strict separation between music drama and Gesamtkunstwerk should not be drawn, unless one wants to dis- solve the very unity of both aesthetic and philosophic-historical considerations characterizing the novel aspect of Wagner’s writings on music drama. In other words, the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk provides precisely the interpretive key for an adequate understanding of Wagnerian music drama. Theodor W. Ador- no’s seminal study In Search of Wagner is a case in point.5 By way of immanent critique, Adorno examines, in the name of the authentic Gesamtkunstwerk as oppositional dissonance against the systematic order of bourgeois-capitalist society, the “categorical aesthetic-musical and philosophical-historical norms” that co-determine Wagner’s idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk.6 That is to say, Adorno distinguishes between different models of the Gesamtkunstwerk to be found in Wagner’s writings. On the one hand, the Gesamtkunstwerk as protest against the bourgeoisification of art (in opera) clearly presupposes the prior revolutionising of societal relations, thereby affirming the thesis that only a truly free society

1 Cf. Udo Bernbach, Der Wahn des Gesamtkunstwerks, Stuttgart/Weimar, Verlag Metzler, 2004, 173. 2 Ibid. 175. 3 Dieter Borchmeyer, Richard Wagner: Theory and Theatre, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1991, 68. 4 Ibid. 68. 5 Theodor W. Adorno, In Search of Wagner, London/New York, Verso, 2009. 6 Cf. Richard Klein, “Zwangsverwandtschaft. Ueber Naehe und Abstand Adornos zu Rich- ard Wagner“, Richard Wagner und seine Zeit, ed. E. Kiem and L. Holtmeier, Laaber, Laaber Verlag, 2003, 183 – 236; 188. In what follows, Klein’s seminal arguments regarding the affinity between Adorno and Wagner are paraphrased – an affinity that is owed to the fact that both remain faithful to a type of Left-Hegelianism transposed into the realm of aesthetics.

63 New Sound 42, II/2013 provides the proper conditions for the existence of the Gesamtkunstwerk; in this respect, Adorno agrees with Wagner’s insistence on the critical elucidation of the very social and historical conditions necessary for a successful realisation of the Gesamtkunstwerk. On the other hand, by simultaneously conceiving of the Gesamtkunstwerk as aesthetically representative of societal emancipation, Wagner renders the Gesamtkunstwerk ambiguous in that it becomes impossible to decide as to whether it contributes to societal emancipation in a real manner, represents it merely in the realm of Schein, or replaces the latter ideologically. Thus, while Adorno endorses the Gesamtkunstwerk’s artistic figuration of the antagonism between the autonomy of artistic individuality and collective heteronomy and recognises the Gesamtkunstwerk as accomplishing the dissolution of general genre norms in favour of the consistent individualisation of aesthetic construction, thereby questioning, from a nominalist perspective, the “form-conventions of the traditional opera and the allegedly natural and eternal structural principles of music”,7 he critically departs from Wagner’s move to sacrifice artistic individuality to the societal status quo, thereby falsely transforming the not yet realized socio-political utopia into an aesthetic state of the present;8 moreover, he rejects Wagner’s claim that intoxication is a necessary condition for the Gesamtkunstwerk because it accomplishes a levelling of the constitutive difference between aesthetic and social reality, thereby generating the illusion of the ideal unity of the Gesamtkunstwerk – an illusion that must be deciphered as phantasmagoria.9 Wagner’s voluntaristic attempt at a realisation of the aesthetic totality of the Gesamtkunstwerk in the absence of the proper socio-political conditions, as well as his mobilisation of intoxication to enforce reconciliation between the individual and the collective account for the merely arbitrary and non-dialectical synchronisation of poetry, music, and theatre;10 furthermore, this loss of artistic mediation results in a multi-media phantas-

7 Gyorgy Markus, “Adorno’s Wagner”, Thesis Eleven, 1999, 56, 25–55; 29. 8 Cf. Theodor W. Adorno, op. cit. 91. 9 Ibid. 93. 10 Adorno writes: “Like Nietzsche and subsequently Art Nouveau (…) he would like single-handed to will an aesthetic totality into being, casting a magic spell and with defiant unconcern about the absence of the social conditions necessary for its survival” – Theodor W. Adorno, ibid. 90. And: “For this reason the Wagnerian totality, the Gesamtkunstwerk, is doomed to failure. To disguise this is not the least of Wagner’s tasks in running together all the different elements into each other. (…) The whole no longer achieves unity, because its expressive elements are made to harmonise with each other according to a pre-arranged design. (…) The formal premisses of an internal logic are replaced by a seamless external principle in which disparate procedures are simply aggregated in such a way as to make them appear collectively binding” – ibid. 91.

64 Vogt, E.: Music Drama and Politics: Lacoue-Labarthe and Badiou ... (62–70) magoria that not only barely conceals its contingent, that is, disintegrative and inconsistent character, but also, by veiling all traces of the labour that entered the production of the music drama, stages technologically generated ecstatic sensations announcing simultaneously the birth of fascism and of the culture industry in the Gesamtkunstwerk.11 This inversion of reality into phantasmagoria enacted by the Gesamtkunstwerk is accompanied by expelling any concern with emancipative “politics from opera”,12 that is, by a de-politicisation for the sake of affirming myth (and a mythologizing of music itself) that “prefigures that nightmarish regression into an archaic past which completes its trajectory in fascism.”13 Thus, Adorno insinuates an indissoluble link between the synthe- sising and totalising programme of the Gesamtkunstwerk and political totalitarianism in that the Gesamtkunstwerk, by producing intoxicating global sound effects, by employing overpowering beat and authoritarian-regressive theatrical elements, and by enforcing in a repetitive manner the same motives as the main construction principle, violently incorporates the human collective through cal- culated effects, thereby fusing the latter with the mythical construction of the German Volk. These two opposed accounts of the relationship between the practice of music drama and the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk can also be discerned in the recent Auseinandersetzung between Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe and Alain Ba- diou regarding the actuality of Wagner’s work. That is to say, the exclusive focus of Lacoue-Labarthe’s reading of Wagner lies on the Gesamtkunstwerk; what is more, he reiterates not only Adorno’s contention that the Wagnerian Gesamt- kunstwerk marks the moment in which ‘the first mass art had just been born, through music (through technology),’14 but also Adorno’s claim that the Gesa- mtkunstwerk has to be grasped as the proto-fascist aestheticisation of politics, that is, as a configuration of (anti-Semitic) politics involving the constitution of the German Volk. Lacoue-Labarthe stipulates that both Wagnerian art and Na- tional Socialism must be interpreted in terms of national-aestheticist strategies aiming for the re-birth of ancient tragedy.15 Citing certain remarks by Goebbels

11 Cf. Andreas Huyssen, Adorno in Reverse. From Hollywood to Richard Wagner”, New German Critique, 1983, 29, 8–38. 12 Theodor W. Adorno, op. cit. 103. 13 Ibid. 36. 14 Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Musica Ficta, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1994, xx. 15 Lacoue-Labarthe extracts the term “national-aestheticism” from his reading of Martin Heidegger’s deconstruction of aesthetics which engages a complex mimetic relationship between the ancient and the modern. This clear indebtedness to the Heideggerian framework may also explain why Lacoue-Labarthe’s treatment of Wagner completely lacks Adorno’s insistence of the very progressive elements in Wagner that allow for Wagner’s possible re-

65 New Sound 42, II/2013 and by Syberberg, he demonstrates that National Socialist politics were cen- trally predicated on the notion of the Gesamtkunstwerk;16 more succinctly, the Gesamtkunstwerk served as the political model of National Socialism, “since it was the intention of the Festspiel of Bayreuth to be for Germany what the Greater Dionysia was for Athens and for Greece as a whole: the place where a people, gathered together in their State, provide themselves with a representation of what they are and what grounds them as such.”17 Lacoue-Labarthe continues: “Which does not merely mean that the work of art (...) offers the truth of the polis or the State, but that the political itself is instituted and constituted (...) in and as a work of art.”18 Moreover, Wagner’s political fiction of the German myth is very close to the Nazi myth in that in both myth functions as “the power that is in the gathering together of the fundamental forces and orientations of an individual or a people, that is to say the power of a deep, concrete, embodied identity;” in short, both Wagner and National Socialism are characterised by an “onto-typological interpretation of myth” according to which myth “is the figuration of a type conceived both as a model of identity and as that identity formed and realized.”19 In sum, Wagner’s national-aestheticist Gesamtkunstwerk constitutes, for Lacoue-Labarthe, the culmination and completion of Romanticism in that it keeps from romantic aesthetics the religious-political function of art to ground in myth the self-presentation of a people; that is, Wagner’s artistic project is essentially an aesthetic project characterized by the preponderance of the aesthetic over art. This primacy of the aesthetic in Wagner’s Gesamtkunstwerk is the result of the subordination of language under music generating an infinite demption, that is, for Adorno’s attempt to wrest Wagner from the clutches of National So- cialism. Since Lacoue-Labarthe completely abstains from any analysis of the musical elements, he necessarily has to ignore not only Wagner’s novel articulation of the relation between consonance and dissonance at the threshold of atonality and his emancipation of colour, but also the possibility of identifying in Wagner’s nihilistic decadence those very moments from which “the forces of the future” might be extracted – Theodor W. Adorno, op. Cit. 142. Ultimately, Lacoue-Labarthe seems to share Heidegger’s verdict that Wagnerian music drama, by privileging music over poetry, constitutes simply an aesthetic rendition of some metaphysics of feeling. 16 Cf. Lacoue-Labarthe, Heidegger, Art and Politics, Oxford, Blackwell, 1990, 61–63. 17 Ibid. 64. 18 Ibid. 64. 19 Ibid. 94. According to Lacoue-Labarthe, this ‘mythopoiesis’, this ‘pure self-formation’ finding ‘its truth or its verification as the self-foundation of the people’, can also account for both Wagnerian and National Socialist anti-Semitism because both claim that the ‘Jews’ are without myths and therefore incapable of entering into this process of self-fictioning characteristic of onto-typological accounts of myth. Ibid. 96.

66 Vogt, E.: Music Drama and Politics: Lacoue-Labarthe and Badiou ... (62–70) melocentrism that allows for a quasi-totalitarian communal fusion animated by “the ultimately romantic desire (...) for a religious, that is to say political, art, in the sense that Attic tragedy, according to his idealist myth, is such a (...) festival and celebration of the people or of the City.”20 Thus, Alain Badiou is right to claim that Wagner’s artistic apparatus represents for Lacoue-Labarthe a composite that consists of evocations of origi- nary myths, technological amplifications of operatic, orchestral, and musical techniques, totalizing gestures bringing about the closure of a certain type of opera in Western music, and, reinforcing the first three features, a type of uni- fication that, in the guise of endless melody, not only dissolves language and synthesizes all internal differences, but also renders music mythological in that the Wagnerian leitmotif is the very method by means of which the mythical elements of plot and narrative are musically over-determined.21 However, Lacoue-Labarthe’s construction of a “mythological, technological, totalizing figure of Wagner, in which the music effects a synthesis of the mythological imperatives,”22 must be rejected because it “prescribes a certain Wagner” on the basis of both “a theory of politics and aestheticisation.”23 Thus, in order to find access to a “new Wagner”, that is, to Wagnerian art as a creative project that still holds promises for the future, Badiou maintains that one has to dismiss the Gesamtkunstwerk as mere slogan24 and must instead “venture into Wagnerian fragmentation and ‘localization: at the point where continuity and dissonance, the local and the global, confront each other both musically and dramatically.”25 That is to say, only if the Wagnerian music dramas are uncoupled from the totality of the Gesamtkunstwerk, will it be possible to re-think Wagnerian art in such a way that is no longer fused with totality, but rather negates the latter. Recounting Lacoue-Labarthe’s main accusations against Wagnerian art – the imposition of seamless continuity in the form of his theory of endless melody that is based on the model of subjective affect for the sake of erecting identities, the dialectical subsumption of differences, dissonances, discontinuities under the figure of final reconciliation; the subjection of music to leitmotif – Badiou

20 Ibid. 100. 21 Alain Badiou, Five Lessons On Wagner, London/New York, Verso, 2010, 19. 22 Ibid, 21. 23 Ibid. 10. Moreover, Lacoue-Labarthe’s construction of Wagner is also owed to the imperative of nüchtern (sober) art borrowed from Friedrich Hoelderlin – an imperative directed against any attempted restoration of “great art”. 24 Ibid. 15. 25 Ibid. 83–84. The central reference point for Badiou’s “deconstruction” of Wagner is without doubt the Boulez-Chéreau-Regnault production of the Ring des Nibelungen from the 1970s – ibid. 6.

67 New Sound 42, II/2013 puts forth his hypothesis regarding the Wagnerian interplay between music and drama in which music, far from subordinating rhythmic and melodic aspects under some pre-conceived coercive totality, marks the very medium in which dramatic possibilities are created that engender unpredictable transformations and transitions testifying to the fundamental plasticity of metamorphosis ruptur- ing the teleological narrative structure of Wagner’s music dramas and its characters.26 The focus on music and on its processes of formal transformation reveals that music qua music is the site of metamorphosis and transition immanently questioning Wagnerian narrative, particularly in its mythical and monumental figurations. In this context, Badiou attempts to demonstrate that the leitmotif, far from simply being a technique guaranteeing mythical identity and continuity, “also functions as a non-descriptive, internal musical development, with no dramatic or narrative connotations whatsoever.”27 Consequently, Wagner’s leitmo- tifs constitute “a unique nexus between discontinuity or transformation (with its potential for disintegration and destruction), on the one hand, and continuity and persistence (with its potential for narrative dogmatism), on the other.”28 Further- more, Wagnerian music does not produce types in Lacoue-Labarthe’s sense, but rather generates non-dialectical subjective splits exposing (the figures of) Wag- ner’s music dramas to an inner heterogeneity that cannot be sublimated into, or reconciled with, some affirmative finale.29 Wagner’s music dramas cannot be totalized into the Gesamtkunstwerk because they represent an embodied multiplicity of artistic configurations and each artistic configuration constitutes a singular exploration ‘of a possibility of ending;’30 that is to say, each music drama elaborates musically the consequences of its own innovative mode of thought regarding the possibility of ending. For instance, Badiou claims that, whereas the ending of Goetterdaemmerung must be interpreted as the utter destruction of mythology,31 both Die Meistersinger von Nuernberg and Parsifal concern the question of the “relationship between the old and the new, between tradition and

26 Ibid. 88. 27 Ibid. 20. 28 Martin Scherzinger, “Wagner Redux: Badiou on Music for the Future”, Contemporary Music Review, 2012, 31, 474. 29 Alain Badiou, op. cit., 90 – 98. Here, Badiou refers to Tannhaeuser and its threefold split: the split regarding love; the historical split ‘between the strictly ordered world of chivalry and the anarchic world of individual wandering;’ finally, the ‘symbolic split’ between the ‘pagan gods (…) and the God of the Christian religion.’ Ibid. 92–93. 30 Ibid. 99. 31 Ibid. 105. This claim contrasts Lacoue-Labarthe’s thesis that Goetterdaemmerung presents the mythical self-enclosure of the Ring des Nibelungen.

68 Vogt, E.: Music Drama and Politics: Lacoue-Labarthe and Badiou ... (62–70) innovation.”32 One of the lessons of Wagnerian music consists therefore in the recognition that art cannot be solely “grounded in formal subtraction,” that is, in a simple break with the past that would neglect its transformative potential, but must rather be grounded in an incorporation or repetition of the past such that its disruptive effects can continue and persist in the present.33 What is more, this latter predicament of music is shared by politics; for Badiou shows that the subject of Parsifal is precisely the possibility of a new, non-religious, non-transcendent “modern ceremony” understood as a generic “community’s mode of self-representation.”34 Although Parsifal fails in bringing about a Darstellung of modern ceremony because Wagner’s conception of Bayreuth as theatre for ceremony redoubles representation and is therefore in danger of reinstating closure,35 Wagner’s idea of modern ceremony addressed to a generic (not to a mythical Volk) cannot be simply dismissed; for Badiou reminds us that “the question as to whether the Crowd declares itself (...) cannot be exclusively recapitulated in collective figures of revolt. (...) It must also put forward, examine and produce its own consistency.”36 Even though Parsifal ultimately does not change “the ceremony into something new”, its philosophical- political lesson nevertheless consists in inviting us “at least to be able to get ready to intrude into future celebrations, that is, to anticipate or have the necessary prerequisites for the future celebration.”37 Badiou claims that it is possible to extract both a notion of art and a notion of politics from Wagner’s work that are no longer complicit with myth, the violent fashioning of a people, and the totalisation of the arts in the name of the Gesamtkunstwerk, as long as one pays heed to “five rules (...) concerning what greatness, as distinct from totality or from messianic will, might be.”38 These five rules or directions comprise the creation of new (subjective) possibilities; the multiplicity of hypotheses operative in and tolerated by Wagner’s music dramas; the toleration of the split subject, of heterogeneity; non-dialectical figures of resolution; transformations that no longer operate under the guidance of teleological principles of development and of affirmative dialectic.39

32 Ibid. 107. 33 Ibid. 108. While Meistersinger accomplishes this productive-disruptive repetition of the past within the realm of German art (and not of politics), Parsifal subjects Christianity to this very same operation, thereby in a way both saving and abolishing it – ibid. 102 – 103. 34 Ibid. 147. 35 Ibid. 151. 36 Ibid. 158. 37 Ibid. 159. 38 Ibid. 130. 39 Ibid. 130–131.

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Ultimately, Lacoue-Labarthe and Badiou starkly differ regarding the conception of politics they claim can be extracted from Wagnerian music drama. Fully subsuming the music dramas under the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk, La- coue-Labarthe draws the conclusion that Wagnerian art marks the closure of the political because it is suffused with the will to realise a communal and national essence based on the identity principle of the German Volk; moreover, this imperative force of the figure of the German Volk accounts for Wagner’s metaphysical politics and its totalitarian impulse. However, by insisting on the nominalist necessity to keep the music dramas separate from the totalising framework of the Gesamtkunstwerk, Badiou suggests that Wagner’s singular music dramas ought to be grasped as artistic configurations that precisely disrupt the monophonic totality invoked by the Gesamtkunstwerk since they contain traces of a different politics challenging precisely Lacoue-Labarthe’s assumption that Wagnerian art simply presents politics in terms of a quasi-religious binding identitarian force. Consequently, Wagner’s music dramas operate as different and differing singular artistic sites producing not some essence of the political but rather embodied multiplicities that afford at the very least glimpses at the power of generic humanity irreducible to any identitarian assignation.40

40 Here, Badiou comes close to Adorno’s contention that Wagner’s attack on bourgeois art occurred “in the name of ‘real’, that is to say, a whole and free humanity” – Theodor W. Adorno, op. cit. 99.

70 Article received on 14 October 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1:929 Вагнер Р. 7.01:32 ; 78.01

Dragana Jeremić Molnar* University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music Department of Musicology

INCEPTION OF WAGNER’S DOCTRINE OF REGENERATION PRIOR TO THE REVOLUTION 1848–18491

Abstract: The predominant opinion in contemporary science is that Richard Wagner began formulating his doctrine of regeneration in the 1860s, with a subsequent elaboration in the so-called regeneration writings, creating a sort of theoretical platform for working on Parsifal, a festival play for the consecration of the stage. Wagner’s written legacy, however, shows that he had been thinking about regeneration ever since the 1840s, as well as that he used the term in a broad range of meanings – especially considering that he used that word of the French origin as the synonym for the German word Wiedergeburt. This paper focuses on three instances where he referred to regeneration in the fifth decade of the 19th century: a letter from 1843, a text “How do republican aspirations stand in relation to the monarchy?”, and a paper Art and Revolution. In 1843, Wagner had only vague ideas about regeneration in art; five years later, while the city of Dresden was eagerly awaiting the revolutionary wave from France, it was the rebirth of human society that he had in mind; after the collapse of the revolution, realizing his limitations and dispelling illusions about its success, he established a correlation – never to be dismissed – between regeneration and art; i.e. he fancied that the regeneration of the being of a nation’s members could be achieved by exposing them to the effects of a special, true art. Key words: Wagner, regeneration, rebirth, revolution, France, Germany

Wagner’s doctrine of regeneration has engaged researchers long after his death. Since this was his central subject in the late (so-called philosophical or

* The author contact addres: [email protected] 1 The paper is the result of research conducted within Project No. 177019, carried out at the Department of Musicology of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade, and funded by the Ministry of Science of the Republic of Serbia. I extend my gratitude to Professor Aleksandar Molnar for recommending the relevant sources indispensable for writing the sections devoted to the perception of the political situation in France.

71 New Sound 42, II/2013 regeneration) writings, it is no wonder that it attracted the attention of those who had an opportunity to meet him personally and to gain a direct insight into his views. The Wagnerians themselves have often claimed that the doctrine of regeneration is a sort of key to the easiest interpretation of all of Wagner’s main ideas (often completely contradictory to one another) – not only philosophical but political ones, too. Thus, for instance, in the book Richard Wagner (1985), the seminal work for the development of the Bayreuth Circle ideology, Houston Stewart Chamberlain noted:

Our enquiry into Wagner’s political and philosophical thoughts was much impeded by the circumstance that they only occurred as accessory parts of expositions in other of thought. We had to search for them amongst a mass of writings and letters, and the fact that his views were nowhere systematically laid down made it difficult to define them sharply. The doctrine of regeneration [Regenerationslehre] on the other hand forms the main subject of a whole series of essays, and is formulated so clearly that it would seem as if we were standing upon terra firma, and that it must be easy to follow a course of thought worked out so lucidly and in such detail, and to reproduce it to ourselves on a diminished scale.2 The interest in Wagner’s doctrine dwindled appreciably after 1945, and for a very tangible reason – it was too closely intertwined with anti-Semitism. Prior to that, the doctrine of regeneration was studied mostly by rightist intellectuals, who could hardly wait to bring Wagner’s anti-Semitic ideas to the fore. Those who dealt with Wagner after the war mostly strived to avoid the problematiza- tion of his doctrine of regeneration as something allegedly irrelevant in essence. For all the researchers who wanted to find a ‘healthy’ Wagner, not imbued with anti-Semitism, the doctrine of regeneration was a great obstacle; to those, on the other hand, who wanted to expose Wagner for an anti-Semite, it looked like an esoteric façade and unnecessary ballast. Today, a balanced dealing with Wag- ner’s doctrine of regeneration entails avoiding both extremes: either by pro- claiming it to be a magic formula which can gloss over all the contradictions in Wagner’s oeuvre (giving it a universal anti-Semitic orientation), or cheapening it to the level of a marginal discourse with great philosophical pretentions and feeble substance of meaning. ‘Regeneration writings’ (Regenerationsschriften) is the unified label most often used for Wagner’s shorter texts which he wrote late in his life and published in the Bayreuth Blätter.3 These texts, in which he dealt with joining art,

2 Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Richard Wagner, trans. Ainslie Hight, J. M. Dent & Co., London, 1900, 163–164. 3 The first of Wagner’s regeneration writings was “Modern” (“Moderne”, 1878), and the last was “Heroism and Christianity” (“Heldentum und Christentum”, 1881).

72 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85) religion and philosophy, were the pinnacle of his efforts at interpreting, elabo- rating and personally adjusting the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (which he had discovered in 1854).4 Therefore, an opinion was formed that Wagner problematized regeneration in his old age, as a sort of accompanying/complementary subject while working on Parsifal, and without any other foothold in his oeuvre to date, apart from those stemming from the reception of Scho- penhauer’s philosophy. The researchers of Wagner’s work included those who found his first regeneration writings among his texts written in the 1860s, when he became disillusioned about the power of a revolution and when he strived to rehabilitate himself and his art in the higher circles of Germany, caught up in the euphoria on the eve of the creation of the Second Reich. Thus, Carl Friedrich Glasenapp, who in 1904 published a six-volume biography of Wagner, is the originator of a widespread misconception that “Der Begriff der ‘Regeneration’ begegnet uns im literarischen Gedankenkreise Richard Wagners zuerst in der ebengenannten Schrift über ’deutsche Kunst und deutsche Politik’” [“the notion of ‘regeneration’ in Wagner’s thought is first encountered in the eponymous writing on ‘German art and German politics’] (“Deutsche Kunst und deutsche Politik”, 1867–1868), as well as that the meaning of the term was the liberation of Germany from “undeutschen Zivilisation durch eine Erneuerung und Wiedergeburt des deutschen Wesens” [“non-German civilization through the renewal and rebirth of the German essence”].5 A detailed inspection of Wagner’s written legacy shows that he thought about regeneration not only for the last sixteen years of his life, but for at least forty, and that he used the term in the broader range of meanings – especially considering that he employed that word of French origin as the synonym for the German word Wiedergeburt. Wagner started using the words Wiedergeburt and Regeneration as early as in the 1840s. From 1841 to 1849, he referred once to Regeneration, while he used Wiedergeburt six times, of which three times in a purely descriptive way. His words “Der Wiedergeburt der neueren Kunst bis zum Schluß des siebzehn- ten Jahrhunderts” [“the rebirth of the new art by the end of the seventeenth century”] from a text that, on 1st December 1841, he sent from Paris to be published in Dresdener Abendzeitung, clearly show that the first appearance of the word

4 Cf. Paul Lawrence Rose, Wagner, Race, and Revolution, Faber and Faber, London and Boston, 1992, 136; and Wolf-Daniel Hartwich, “Religion and art in Wagner’s later years. The Relationship between aesthetics theology and anthropology in the ‘regenerative writings’”, Wagner 21/1, 2000, 23. 5 Carl Friedrich Glasenapp, Das Leben Richard Wagners. Vol. VI, Breitkopf & Härtel, Leip- zig, 1905, 354.

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Wiedergeburt had the meaning of renaissance.6 Wagner also equated Wiedergeburt with renaissance at one point in the text Art and Revolution (Die Kunst und die Revolution, 1849).7 The third, ideologically relevant reference to Wiedergeburt can be found in the text The Wibelungen. World-history as told in the saga (Die Wibelungen. Weltgeschichte aus der Sage, 1848), at the point where he described the Germanic mythological notion of “die irdische Wiedergeburt eines idealen Gottes” [“the earthly rebirth of an ideal God”].8 The remaining four references to regeneration/rebirth – in a letter from 1843, in a revolutionary text “How do republican aspirations stand in relation to the monarchy?” (“Wie verhalten sich republikanische Bestrebungen dem Königtum gegenüber?”, 1848), and twice in the paper Art and Revolution – have a measurable ideological weight. I Wagner first mentioned Regeneration in a letter to Dr August Schmidt, the editor of the journal Allgemeine Wiener Musikzeitung, dated 14th Septem- ber 1843. In that letter he complained about the devastating reviews of Rienzi (which had its premiere in Dresden on 20th October 1842) and putforward a “well-intended plea that, for the sake of regeneration […] of our German opera […], the debuts of German musicians be greeted in a friendlier fashion”.9 In his first reference to regeneration, Wagner linked it with the critics’ partiality, which means that he understood it quite simply, as the renewal of the quality of opera. The quoted excerpt is important for two reasons: because it shows that Wagner decided on the word Regeneration instead of Wiedergeburt, and because it reveals that he already considered Rienzi his personal contribution to the regeneration of German opera. Taking into account that Wagner moved to Dresden from Paris a year earlier, in 1842, we could assume that the implicit qualification of Rienzi as a contribution to the “regeneration of our German opera” was a reverberation of the way of thinking he brought to Germany from France. For while living in Paris, from 1839 to 1842, Wagner could indeed learn

6 Richard Wagner, “Pariser Berichte für die Dresdener Abendzeitung. 8: Delaroche’s Wandgemälde”, in: Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, 6324. 7 Richard Wagner, “Art and Revolution”, in: Richard Wagner’s Prose Works, Vol. I: The Art- work of the Future, trans. William Ashton Ellis, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., Lon- don, 1892, 40. 8 Richard Wagner, “Wibelungen. Weltgeschichte aus der Sage”, in: Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, 736 9 “So stelle ich meine herzlich gemeinte Bitte im Interesse der Regeneration unserer deutschen Opera dahin, fortan die Debüts deutscher Musiker freundlicher zu begrüßen”. Richard Wagner, “An Dr. August Schmidt, Wien”, in: Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, 8356.

74 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85) that underlying the French word régénération were multiple meanings shaped over the course of time, especially in the 18th and the 19th centuries. As stated by Antoine de Baecque in the book The Body Politic: Corporeal Metaphor in Revolutionary France, 1770–1800 (Le Corps de l’Histoire: méta- phores et politique /1770–1800/, 1993), in France “before 1730, regeneration was still used only in religious and medical vocabularies. […] But, little by little, during the course of the last years of the ancien régime, regeneration came to designate rebirth in all its aspects – physical, moral, then quite specifically political”.10 The perception of regeneration through religious categories was, at any rate, primary. The authors of theological treatises understood regeneration as baptism and resurrection (by the former, an individual becomes a child of God, entitled to life everlasting, while by the latter, they exercise that right), and sometimes they spoke even of putting an end to this (‘degenerate’) world and establishing the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. Therefore, it was theological interpretations of the biblical concept of regeneration that first opened a perspective on a rebirth of the world, which begins by the act of the transformation of an individual (through baptism). In early-18th-century France, the medical (or more precisely, biological) meaning of regeneration (as in ‘regrowth of lost tissue’) came into use. Due to the increasing number of the domains of its use, as well as the growing fre- quency of its appearance, regeneration also found its way into general diction- aries, such as Dictionnaire de l’Académie, which previously (e.g. in the 1696 edition) did not even register it. The 1740 and the 1762 editions of this dictionary explained not only the theological meaning of the word, but the medical too, and the 1798 edition, under the direct influence of the ongoing revolution, informed the readership about its moral and political meaning. Albeit the most recent, the political meaning of regeneration has taken precedence over the other meanings since the very beginning of the French Rev- olution, and not later than 1792, the year of its radicalization. It synthesized the discourse of political degeneration11 with the religious (change of the entire

10 Antoine de Baecque, The Body Politic: Corporeal Metaphor in Revolutionary France, 1770–1800, trans. Charlotte Mandell, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1993, 131. 11 The application of the concept of regeneration in the political domain was a sort of reaction to the concept of degeneration which was increasingly present in France during the last years of the Ancien Régime. This is well-illustrated by De Baecque’s words: “At the end of the eighteenth century, when writers were denouncing at length the decline of the ‘French Empire’, it was precisely degeneration that occupied people’s minds. By rhetorical effects, they induced an emotional response to a fundamentally pessimistic discourse, a hope in which restitution became the central figure. The ‘regeneration of the kingdom’ is a concept whose emergence was thus prepared by the massive use of a pre-established pessimistic

75 New Sound 42, II/2013 world), medical (renewal of ‘the body of the nation’) and moral (reestablishment of virtues) components of regeneration. Regeneration thus became a synonym for the most ambitious goals of the Revolution. There was a propagation of claims – such as, “The Jacobins claimed to be the regenerators of the human race” – and new phrases – such as, “a regenerative Republic of the Universe” and “regenerative philosophy, destined to change the face of our societies”12 – which were unthinkable before 1789. The revolutionaries referred to regeneration in order to attribute a greater significance to the Revolution. However, regeneration also found its place in the discourse of the counterrevolutionaries, who saw it as a brutal and violent tool that God employed to eradicate all the consequences of the previous degeneration and to prepare the world for the true regeneration, the one which would have nothing to do either with the Revolu- tion or with its proclaimed goals, but only with the truest Christian doctrine. Such a perception of regeneration was hinted as early as in Letter to a friend, or philosophical and religious considerations on the French Revolution (Lettre à un ami, ou Considérations philosophiques et religieuses sur la révolution fran- çaise, 1795) by Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin,13 and fully shaped in the paper Considerations on France (Considérations sur la France, 1796) by Joseph de Maistre. At one point in the paper, De Maistre summed up his views: In short, the more one examines the apparently most active personages in the Revo- lution, the more one finds in them something passive and mechanical. We cannot repeat too often that men do not lead the Revolution: it is the Revolution that uses men. They are right when they say it goes all alone. This phrase means that never has the Divinity shown itself so clearly in any human event. If the vilest instruments are employed, punishment is for the sake of regeneration.14 De Maistre did not dispute the viewpoint that France, by the end of the Ancien Régime, had already become deeply degenerate and that the Revolution discourse, typically characterizing the morale of the French court at the end of the reign of Louis XV”. Ibid., 134–135. 12 Ibid., 133–134. 13 For Saint-Martin, regeneration was “a supernatural experience which is possible only to the immortal spirit” and Revolution was “the preparation of the Sabbatic way, and not the last reason was that it threw so many men, as it were, into the arms of God’s will because all other protections, all other resources, had been taken from them”. Arthur Edward Waite, The Unknown Philosopher: The Life of Louis Claude de Saint-Martin and the substance of his transcendental doctrine, P. Wellby, London, 1901, 203 and 355. Cf. Arthur McCalla, A Ro- mantic Historiosophy: The Philosophy of History of Pierre-Simon Ballanche, Brill, Leiden, Boston and Köln, 1998, 292. 14 Joseph de Maistre, Considerations on France, trans. Richard A. Lebrun, McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal, 1974, 97.

76 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85) was necessary. But in his opinion, the Revolution should not haveestablished a Godless republic in imitation of the pagan Rome. Quite the contrary. It should have given God the opportunity to punish (whereas “punishment can have no other end than the removal of evil”); it should have admonished the people for all the sins that they had committed in the 18th century, and then to have initiated a counterrevolution, which would be the true bearer of regeneration (in the 19th century). “For Maistre, it [the Revolution] destroys, but will not know how to build a lasting order. The Revolution called for a regeneration, an act of faith that required not a rational but an intuitive certitude; whence the necessity of counterrevolution.”15 De Maistre canonized the conservative discourse which stylized the French Revolution into “a seminal event, a turning-point, a ‘chance for regeneration’”, and which would be embraced by the rightists in France (and elsewhere!).16 In other words, the French Revolution put an end to an age marked by sin, irreligion and revolution, and restored providence in history in order to prepare the ground for the real regeneration that was to follow in the 19th century and which was to be understood as a sort of biblical prophecy coming true.17 The credit for the development of the conservative doctrine of regeneration in France should also be given to Pierre-Simon Ballanche, first and foremost for emphasizing the role of art in the process of regeneration. In his unfinished, ambitiously conceived five-volume work Essays on Social Palingenesis (Essais de palingénésie sociale)18, Ballanche took the word palingénésie (from the Greek

15 Jean-Louis Darcel, “The Apprentice Years of a Counter-Revolutionary: Joseph de Maistre in Lausanne, 1793–1797”, in: Richard Lebrun (ed.), Joseph de Maistre’s Life, Thought, and Influence: Selected Studies, McGill-Queen’s University Press, Ottawa, 2001, 37. 16 Peter Davies, The extreme right in France, 1789 to the present: from de Maistre to Le Pen, Routledge, London and New York, 2002, 29. 17 In that context, we should mention Thomas à Kempis’s book The Imitation of Christ (De imitatione Christi, 1427), which started to exercise a strong influence in this period. “Edited five times and multiply reissued between 1800 and 1848, the mystical classic became a source of reflection on the historical consequences of sacrifice and on the Revolution as a victimal event“: Carolina Armenteros, The French Idea of History: Joseph de Maistre and His Heirs, 1794–1854, Cornell University Press, New York, 2011, 257. 18 Ballanche published the introductory volume, Prolégomènes, in 1827. In a note he re- vealed his ambition to write “the true history of the human race” and outlined the contents of each subsequent volume. However, he fully completed only the second volume, Orpheus (1829), dedicated to the history of Greece. The third volume, General formula of the history of all peoples applied to the history of the Roman people (Formule générale de l’histoire de tous les peuples appliquée à l’histoire du peuple romain), as well as the fourth, The city of expiations (La Ville des expiations), he kept rewriting until his death, but he never published them as books. He published the fragments which he considered satisfactory in journals between 1829 and 1834.

77 New Sound 42, II/2013 word for regeneration, palingenesis) in the sense of a long historical process leading to recognition of all the key Catholic dogmas. Although he criticized the Saint-Simonists, whose enthusiasm for the French Revolution made them insist on quick changes, which they perceived outside the Catholic context, he was essentially very close to their doctrine about the avant-garde role of an artist in the process of regeneration.19Together with the Saint-Simonist notion of avant- garde, it was his doctrine that would have a profound influence on “Liszt’s cult of music of that time”.20 Franz Liszt, who had been living in Paris since 1827, was the first composer who came in contact with the doctrine of palingénésie (regeneration) and started to relate it to music21 and art in general. Moreover, in the late 1830s Liszt thought about the regeneration of theatres for performing operas (i.e. ‘dramatic music’). In an important essay-letter to Maurice Schle- singer, the editor of the Gazette musicale, which was published in the said journal in December 1839 under the title “On the Condition of Music in Italy” (“De l’état de la musique en Italie. M. le Directeur de la ‘Gazette musicale’”, 1838), Liszt deemed it impossible that in Italy, by the performance of some Weber’s or Mozart’s opera, the taste for truly dramatic music would be reborn as if by a miracle [der Geschmack für wahrhaft dramatische Musik wie durch Zauberei wiedergeboren würde].Liszt believed that such an attempt would necessarily entail a great deal of resolution and willingness to listen to a myriad of absurd comments, and that after a long time only a small number of supporters would be won over. But when a man withthe taste and talent of an artist turned a deaf ear to the regeneration of theatre [Regeneration des Theaters], he exposed himself to the doom that befell church music and believed that a reform was possible because it finally and ultimately depended on the individual.Stepping forward like a man who did not only have religious feelings, but artistic ones too, and who became irritated when at the Divine Service and celebration of the holy mysteries one could only hear ridiculous and clumsy theatrical remi-

19 For more about the doctrine cf. Dragana Jeremić Molnar and Aleksandar Molnar, Nesta- janje uzvišenog i ovladavanje avangardnog u muzici moderne epohe. Knj. 2 [Disappearance of the Sublime and Preponderance of the Avant-Garde in the Music of the Modern Age. Vol. 2], Institut za filozofiju i društvenu teoriju i IP “Filip Višnjić”, Belgrade, 2009, 10–15. 20 McCalla, A Romantic Historiosophy, 360. Ballanche’s influence on Liszt was mediated through the doctrine of “Palingénésie musicale” by Joseph d’Ortigue, who explained the history of Western music from Palestrina to Beethoven as the progress towards “the regenerated soil of Christianity”. Cf. Benjamin Walton, “The First Biography: Joseph d’Ortigue on Franz Liszt at Age Twenty Three”, in: Christopher H. Gibbs and Dana Gooley (eds.), Franz Liszt and his world, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford, 2006, 305. 21 Inspired by Ballanche’s concept of Palingénésie, Liszt composed the eponymous fantasy for piano in 1834 and the symphonic poem Orpheus in 1854.

78 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85) niscences [nur lächerliche und unschickliche Theaterreminiszenzen zu hören], Liszt complained about the degradation of the dramatic music performance in Italian (and not only Italian) operatic theatres.22 Liszt still did not refer to the regeneration of dramatic music itself (i.e. of opera as an artistic form). He obviously considered works by Mozart and Weber as perfectly worthy examples of true dramatic music and the real artistic coun- terparts of ‘the Divine Service and celebration of the holy mysteries’. Actually, what bothered him were the conditions in which these works were performed. Therefore, he talked about the regeneration of theatre (i.e. of opera as an institution), which should have made it suitable for performing truly dramatic music. The desired regeneration, at any rate, should not have been confused with superficial theatrical reform carried out by a dedicated individual. It had to be ambitiously designed and universal – so that it would embody the spirit of the universal social palingenesis which Ballanche had in mind. In nuce, that was the assignment which, several decades later, was undertaken precisely by an ‘individual’ – admittedly, ‘with the taste and talent of an artist’ – Richard Wagner. In 1843, when he wrote to Schmidt, Wagner still did not have in mind something as serious as the regeneration of theatre (he would begin advocating it during the revolution 1848–1849). On the other hand, in this period he was already thinking about the regeneration of German dramatic music itself, which Liszt (as a non-operatic composer) did not consider necessary. The two artists, whose viewpoints perhaps did not differ so much at the time, simply emphasized different dimensions of musical-dramatic art – the work, or the space in which the work is performed. Thus, it can be assumed that Wagner in France obviously formed some vague ideas about regeneration in the domain of art, but these were not mediated by Liszt,23and he did not become aware of all their meanings and implications. As it turned out, a political trigger was necessary to initiate the brewing of these ideas and notions in Wagner.

22 Cf. Franz Liszt, “An den Direktor der Gazette Musicale. Zum Stand der Musik in Italien”, in: Rainer Kleinertz (ed.), Sämtliche Schriften. Vol 1. Frühe Schriften, Breitkopf & Härtel, Wiesbaden–Leipzig–Paris, 2000, 293. 23 Wagner and Liszt had two brief encounters in Paris. They first met late in 1840, through the influence of the aforementioned Schlesinger. The following year, Liszt invited Wagner to one of his receptions. However, these encounters did not result in any sort of exchange of ideas. On the contrary: during the reception for the fashionable upper crust of Paris, which served to confirm Liszt’s artistic charisma, Wagner’s assuredness of the Manichaean image of the contemporary artistic world – split between true art, created by “social outcasts” (like him), and fashionable ostentatiousness of virtuosos (like Liszt) with the purpose of making money – could have only grown stronger, if anything. Cf. Sven Friedrich, Richard Wagner. Deutung und Wirkung, Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg, 2004, 98.

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II In the text “How do republican aspirations stand in relation to the monarchy?” Wagner wrote about Wiedergeburt as a political issue, with much greater ambition than previously. This writing –which he published in a special supplement of the Dresdner Anzeiger newspaper on 14th June 1848, and gave as a lecture to the Dresden revolutionaries gathered in the leftist organization Vater- landsverein the following day – radiated with his enthusiasm for the revolution, which poured in waves from France to the German lands. Consequently, Wag- ner established a relation between Wiedergebur tand the current events, ascribing a revolutionary quality and character to the concept: Sind wir nun in unseren republikanischen Bestrebungen soweit gelangt, auch diese wichtigste aller Fragen zum Glück und Wohlergehen der staatlichen Gesellschaft zu lösen, sind wir in die Rechte freier Menschenwürde vollständig eingetreten: werden wir nun am Ziele unseres thätigen Strebens angelangt sein? Nein! Nun soll es erst recht beginnen! Sind wir durch die gesetzkräftige Lösung der letzten Emanzipations- frage zur vollkommenen Wiedergeburt der menschlichen Gesellschaft gelangt, geht aus ihr ein freies, allseitig zu voller Thätigkeit erzogenes neues Geschlecht hervor, so haben wir nun erst die Kräfte gewonnen, an die höchsten Aufgaben der Zivilisa- tion zu schreiten, das ist: Bethätigung, Verbreitung derselben. Nun wollen wir in Schiffen über das Meer fahren, da und dort ein junges Deutschland gründen, es mit den Ergebnissen unseres Ringens und Strebens befruchten, die edelsten, gottähnlich- sten Kinder zeugen und erziehen [...] vom Aufgang bis zum Niedergang soll die Sonne ein schönes, freies Deutschland sehen und an den Grenzen der Tochterlande soll, wie an denen des Mutterlandes, kein zertretenes unfreies Volk wohnen, die Strahlen deutscher Freiheit und deutscher Milde sollen den Kosaken und Franzosen, den Buschmann und Chinesen erwärmen und verklären.24

24 “If in our republican ambition we have come so far as to resolve this most important issue of happiness and prosperity of the state society, then we have stepped deep into the rights of free human dignity: but is this the final goal of our activity? No! It is only now that it should really begin! If by rightful solution to the last issue of emancipation we have reached a complete regeneration of human society, from which emanates a free human race, universally educated for complete activity, then only now have we gained power to undertake the highest tasks of civilization, that is: to exercise it and to spread it. Now we want to sail the seas in boats, to establish young Germany all over the world, to fertilize it by the results of our endeavours, to beget and nurture the most noble, God-like children […]: from dawn till twi- light, the sun should watch a beautiful and free Germany; trodden and enslaved people must not live on the borders of German settlements, or in the mother country; rays of German freedom and German gentleness should warm and illuminate Cossacks and the French, the Bushmen and the Chinese.” Richard Wagner, “Wie verhalten sich republikanische Bestre- bungen dem Königtum gegenüber?”, in: Richard Wagner, Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtun- gen, 6415–6416.

80 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85)

A month earlier, in a similar mood, Wagner wrote “The Revolution” (1849), a political text in which he addressed the (obviously pagan) “goddess Revolution”,25perceived as “ever-rejuvenating, ever-fashioning Life” which destroys “the order of things” in order to enable the development of a free society.26 It is clear that revolution and “the regeneration of human society” were synonyms for Wagner in this period and that he used the terms as per his artistic fantasy. What was floating before his eyes was an image of a regenerated/revolutionized Germany, which would thereupon carry out regeneration in the whole world and bring to the most diverse nations its superior and autochthonous freedoms, originating from the Reformation. This phantasm, as Paul Lawrence Rose keenly observed, was very dangerous. For Wagner’s faith in “a peculiarly German revolution in which the sacred German race was to blaze a path to freedom” and “emancipate the whole human race from a loveless and irrational way of life” could later, after the abatement of his revolutionary enthusiasm, potentially turn into a racist and anti-Semitic crusade.27 On 9th July 1848, euphoric because the revolution had started in February of the same year, Wagner travelled to Vienna, a city already engulfed by revolution, where he wanted to attend the revolutionary labours not only of the new Austria, but all of Germany. In the surreal atmosphere of a republican festivity that lasted for just one summer, Wagner let his artistic fantasy roam again, feed- ing it this time only with political subjects. Eduard Hanslick remembered that Wagner was ecstatic for an entire evening that two of them spent in a Danube inn: “Wagner war ganz Politik; er erwartete von dem Siege der Revolution eine vollständige Wiedergeburt der Kunst, der Gesellschaft, der Religion, ein neues Theater, eine neue Musik.”28 Upon returning to Dresden, he very soon got the opportunity to meet Mikhail Bakunin, whom he had read about, admired and from whom he obviously could learn something about regeneration.29 After all,

25 Richard Wagner, “The Revolution”, in: Richard Wagner’s Prose Works, Vol. VIII. Posthu- mous, Etc., trans. William Ashton Ellis, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., London, 1899, 232. 26 Ibid., 235. 27 Rose, Wagner, Race, and Revolution, page 2 and onwards. 28 “Wagner became all politics; he expected the victory of revolution to completely regenerate art, society, religion, new theatre, new music.” Quoted after Martin Gregor-Dellin, Rich- ard Wagner. Sein Leben – sein Werk – sein Jahrhundert: Erster Teil: 1821–1849, in: Richard Wagner, Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, 50250. 29 At that time Bakunin published the influential “Appeal to the Slavs” (“Aufruf an die Sla- ven”, 1848), where he presented his vision of a regenerated, federative and republican Eu- rope. “Thus, dissolution, overturn, and regeneration in the entire North and East of Europe, a free Italy, and as the last result, the Universal Federation of European Republics”. Mikhail Bakunin, “Appeal to the Slavs (1848)”, in: Sam Dolgoff (ed.), Bakunin on Anarchy. Selected

81 New Sound 42, II/2013 years later, in the autobiography My Life (Mein Leben, 1865–1880), Wagner himself showed that he had been well-acquainted with Bakunin’s advocacy of regeneration. Among other things, he wrote that Bakunin was the intellectual offspring of Rousseau’s and Hegel’s philosophy and that, by way of France and Germany, he “wandered back […] to the borders of the Slavic world, from which he expected the regeneration of the world to begin on the grounds that the Slavs had been least corrupted by civilization”.30 Mikhail Bakunin first came to Dresden in 1842. On that occasion, he collaborated with Arnold Ruge, a Left-Hegelian who was the editor of Deutsche Jahrbücher für Wissenschaft und Kunst (under the pen name Jules Elysard, Bakunin published an article “The Reaction in Germany” [“Die Reaktion in Deutschland”, 1842] in this journal). Until 1843 (when it was moved to Paris and renamed Deutsch-Französischer Jahrbücher), the journal was an important organ of radical democrats in Germany. The contributors interpreted new democratic ideas as a prolongation of the tradition of the Prussian Wars of Liberation, which were referred to, as Ruge put it, as a movement dedicated to the regeneration of Prussia and the uprising of all the people against Napoleon.31 Indeed, the understanding of regeneration in the ‘French way’ became relevant in Ger- many only during the Anti-Napoleonic Wars of Liberation (1813–1815).32 After the Congress of Vienna (1815), it was being increasingly referred to by those who advocated democracy. The German youth movement, exalted by early nationalist sentiments, detached regeneration (or, in keeping with the linguistic purism of the time, Wiedergeburt) from the French sources and radicalized it by making a very peculiar connection with ‘the authentically German’ legacy of Luther’s Reformation. Thus, for example, on 18th October 1817, under the black-red-golden flag in Wartburg, the students and professors of the University in Jena had “doppeltes Fest der Wiedergeburt des freien Gedankens [in der Re- formation] und der Befreiung des Vaterlandes [von Napoleon]”.33

Works by the Activist-Founder of World Anarchism, trans. Sam Dolgoff, Vintage Books, New York, 1972, 67. 30 Richard Wagner, My Life, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983, 385–386. 31 Cf. Werner Conze, “Reform, Reformation”, in: Otto Brunner, Werner Conze and Reinhart Koselleck (eds.), Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Vol. 5, Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 1997, 884. 32 The notion of regeneration in politics first came into use in Prussia – in the very unpreten- tious meaning of the reorganization of administration and reform of a social system. Werner Wolgast, “Demokratie”, in: Ibid., Vol. 1, 345. Philosophers of that time, such as Fichte, used the German word Umschaffung (transformation) instead. Cf. Andrew Fiala, “Fichte and the Ursprache”, in: Daniel Breazeale and Tom Rockmore (eds.), After Jena: New Essays on Fichte’s Later Philosophy, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 2008, 183. 33 “[A] double celebration of regeneration of free thought [in Reformation] and liberation of the fatherland [from Napoleon]”. Gregor-Dellin, Richard Wagner, 49896.

82 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85)

Ruge and his collaborators (such as Bakunin) tried to take advantage of this ‘Young-German doctrine’ of regeneration by attempting to divert it from the Reformation towards modern democracy and, eventually, republicanism and revolution. In the text “How do republican aspirations stand in relation to the monarchy?” Wagner tied in precisely with this tradition, which was meanwhile further radicalized by the revolution in 1848 and the awakened French republicanism. Five years after Wagner’s death, Friedrich Nietzsche in The Case of Wag- ner (Der Fall Wagner, 1888) wrote: “Half his lifetime Wagner believed in the Revolution as only a Frenchman could have believed in it.”34 Nietzsche here definitely referred to the latter half of Wagner’s life (1848–1883), when he became publicly known for his conservatism and nationalism. Nietzsche’s statement implies that Wagner in 1848 had already acquired the typical French ‘faith’ in revolution, which, in spite of his subsequent nationalist rhetoric, he never renounced. Although malicious and simplified, Nietzsche’s observation has a grain of truth in it. In 1848 Wagner indeed became devoted to a ‘faith’ that originated in France. But that was not ‘faith’ in revolution, as Nietzsche thought, but – in regeneration. However, Wagner in 1848 did not acquire only the French ‘faith’ in regeneration, but also the German one, which had emerged in the meantime. None of them was only revolutionary. Typical of the French school of thought on regeneration was the dilemma whether regeneration begins by a revolution or after (the failure of) a revolution. The German tradition was marked by the quandary of whether a (long since initiated) regeneration ends with a revolution or whether it should keep thriving, completely indifferent to it. Thus, in 19th- century France the dilemma about the relationship between regeneration and revolution remained topical, since it was revived in 1851 (when Napoleon III brought down the Second Republic) and 1870 (when the military defeat against Prussia overthrew the Second Empire), whereas in Germany the increasingly conservative majority in the ranks of German intelligence degraded revolution to a disruptive factor of regeneration as early as in 1849. Wagner would start to adopt this precise viewpoint after 1849.

III Until May 1849, Wagner wrote about revolution both as a deity that rejuve- nated the world and as a destructive force that destroyed “the order of things”

34 Friedrich Nietzsche, “The Case Of Wagner”, in: The Case Of Wagner, Nietzsche Contra Wagner, and Selected Aphorisms, trans. Anthony M. Ludovici, T. N. Foulis, Edinburgh and London, 1911, 9.

83 New Sound 42, II/2013 in order to make room for a new, emancipated human race. After fleeing Dres- den on 9th May 1849, he remained an advocate of revolution, but he started perceiving it in a slightly different way and stopped identifying himself as a revolutionary. He changed his opinion on his own role in the revolutionary turmoil because, disillusioned by the crushing of the May Uprising in Dresden, he realized (thus approaching even closer to Bakunin35) that revolution must be a purely destructive force, not a revitalizing one. In the letter to his wife Minna, which he wrote only five days after leaving Dresden, he claimed that he belonged to the kind of men “nicht das Zerstören reizt uns, sondern das Neuge- stalten” [“who are not attracted to destruction, but to redesign”], and therefore he concluded:“So scheide ich mich von der Revolution” [“I am detaching myself from the Revolution”].36 In the same state of a disappointed revolutionary who nevertheless still “believed in the Revolution, and in its unrestrainable necessity”, Wagner in Paris wrote the paper Art and Revolution, aiming to present the “way of rescue” to the public. As the paper shows, not for a moment did he doubt that someday a successful revolution would be initiated, one that would leave behind ruins that would engulf the whole world. However, he personally lost the ambition to deal with the “political ordering” which “should grow from the ruins of a sham- filled world”. His new task was to describe an “Art-work which should rise from the ruins of a sham-bred Art”. Therefore he conceived Art and Revolution as a “prophetic mirror”, in which art reflected the future of life,37 i.e. life’s way of surviving the moment of it being swallowed up in ruins. In the light of “the last convulsions”, which “so mortally [affect] the artistic efforts of the day”,38 although they did not finish it off, Wagner wanted to dissuade artists from coun- terrevolutionary views and to show them that they can create artworks with a regenerative potential. In 1848 Wagner invoked revolution and failed miserably. The following year, he wanted to put his art (and all other ‘true’ art) on the track of regeneration. As he came to realize, revolution was, after all, incapable of rejuvenating the world, like a deity; he started believing that regeneration could do it if it adhered to ‘true’ art (as a radical opposition to the “lying world”).

35 Cf. Wagner, My Life, 386. 36 In the same letter he predicted that what lay ahead would be “einer nichtswürdigen Zu- kunft Deutschlands für vielleicht längere Jahre” [“a worthless future of Germany for possibly a long time”], and that the revolutionaries will “aus der tiefsten Hefe des Volkes entstehen” [“arise from the lowest dregs of the people”]. Richard Wagner, “Brief an Minna Wagner, den 14ten Mai 1849”, in: Richard Wagner, Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, 8892–8893. 37 Richard Wagner, “Introduction to Art and Revolution”, in: Richard Wagner’s Prose Works. Vol. I, 24. 38 Wagner, “Art and Revolution”, 30.

84 Jeremić Molnar, D.: Inception of Wagner’s Doctrine of Regeneration ... (71–85)

For that reason, Wagner in Art and Revolution for the first time immediately, permanently and unbreakably linked regeneration to art, and not to art as such, but to the synergy of arts that emerged from the “tragedy”, as a “great unified Art-work of Greece [das große griechische Gesamtkunstwerk]”, and which had begun to regenerate individually in the meantime.39 In 1849 Wagner, who previously showed no signs of religiousness, began to find his “personal creed” in art that was consistently sacralised40on the model of Antiquity.41 The basic dogma of this sacralised art was that every nation possessed a “spirit”, i.e. a “being”, and that cognition of this “being” leads to the regeneration of the entire nation; the most reliable guide to the “essence of the folk”, as Wagner believed, was art, which needed to regenerate first to be able to become the guide. The modern European nations – the Germans first of all – could have learned that lesson from the Greeks – the Athenians, first of all. Indeed, at the most important point in Art and Revolution Wagner included Aeschylus’s tragedies into his emerging doctrine of regeneration, tragedies that ‘honestly’ taught the Athenians, gathered in the Theatre of Dionysus during the Dionysia, about what people they belonged to, spreading social harmony among them. In Wagner’s opinion, what each Athenian felt was that “all impulses of his fair body, and of his restless soul, urged him to the new birth [Wiedergeburt] of his own being [seines eigenen Wesens] through the ideal expression of art”.42 In the following years, even decades, Wagner basically continued to recognize the place of birth or Western art in Aeschylus’s work, and the place of its rebirth in his own oeuvre. He stylized himself into a modern German Aeschylus and undertook a task that he would tenaciously, for decades, strive to fulfill: to find the artistic definition/expression of the German essence as the necessary condition for embarking on the process of the regeneration of a faltering Ger- many, and subsequently of all human society. Translated by Goran Kapetanović

39 Ibid., 52. 40 Roger Hollinrake, “Religious Beliefs”, in: Barry Millington (ed.), The Wagner Compen- dium. A Guide to Wagner’s Life and Music, Thames and Hudson, London, 1992, 146. 41 For more on aporias in Wagner’s understanding of the art of Antiquity cf. Dragana Jeremić-Molnar and Aleksandar Molnar, Mit, ideologija i misterija u tetralogiji Riharda Vagnera. Prsten Nibelunga i Parsifal [Myth, Ideology and Mystery in the Tetralogy of Rich- ard Wagner’s Tetralogy: The Ring of the Nibelung and Parsifal], Zavod za udžbenike i nas- tavna sredstva, Belgrade, 2004, 27 and onwards; Dragana Jeremić-Molnar, Rihard Vagner: konstruktor „istinske“ realnosti. Projekat regeneracije kroz Bajrojtske svečanosti [Richard Wagner, Constructor of a “True” Reality: Project of Regeneration through the Bayreuth Festival], Fabrika knjiga, Belgrade, 2007, 312 and onwards. 42 Wagner, “Art and Revolution”, 33.

85 New Sound 42, II/2013

Article received on 16 October 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1 Merzbow

Andrija Filipović* University of Arts in Belgrade Interdisciplinary Studies Theory of Arts and Media

MUSICA INHUMANA: TOWARDS THE POSTHUMANISTIC ETHICAL AND AESTHETICAL PARADIGM IN MUSIC

Abstract: This paper deals with the analysis of noise music by the Japanese artist Merz- bow, especially emphasizing the posthumanistic ethical and aesthetical paradigm as his artistic and political project. This project, or assemblage, has several aspects, three being particularly important: ‘musical’ system (acoustic material, creator, listener), visual and textual material (album covers, articles and interviews), and the attitude towards the nonhuman (machines, animals, nature in general). These three aspects are a particular assemblage that enables the critique of the “everyday body” and the contemporary society, by creating special aesthetics of existence and lines of flight, an aesthetics which, ultimately, removes the human subject and replaces it with an (in)organic multiplicity. Key words: noise, Merzbow, masochism, posthumanism, aesthetics of organization

The main claim of this paper is that the analysis of noise music by Masami Akita, also known as Merzbow, can result in what I call posthumanistic ethical and aesthetical paradigm in art. In other words, his music and lifestyle create a particular assemblage with an undeniable political project at its centre, i.e. this assemblage produces specific lines of flight,1 both with respect to the

* The author contact addres: [email protected] This study was carried out within the project Identiteti srpske muzike u svetskom kulturnom kontekstu [Identities of Serbian Music in the World Cultural Context] (Reg. No. 177019) by the Department of Musicology at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade, supported by the Minis- try of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia 1 Line of flight (ligne de fuite) is a notion that “defines the practical orientation of Deleuze’s philosophy” in the sense that what determines a certain situation is the distribution of possibilities, i.e. “the spatio-temporal division of existence (roles, functions, activities, desires,

86 Filipović, A.: Musica Inhumana: Towards the Posthumanistic Ethical ... (86–101)

‘everyday’ body as described by phenomenology and with respect to contemporary (post)capitalist consumer society. An assemblage (agencement), for Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, is a set of multiplicities: “On a first, horizontal axis, an assemblage comprises two segments, one of content, the other of expression. On the one hand it is a machinic assemblage of bodies, of actions and passions, an intermingling of bodies’ reactions to one another; on the other hand it is a collective assemblage of enunciation, of acts and statements, of incorporeal transformations attributed to bodies. Then on a vertical axis, the assemblage has both territorial sides, or reterritorialized sides, which stabilize it, and cutting edges of deterritorialization, which carry it away. […] Its territoriality (content and expression included) is only a first aspect; the other aspect is constituted by lines of deterritorialization that cut across it and carry it away. These lines are very diverse: some open the territorial assemblage onto other assemblages (for example, the territorial refrain of the animal becomes a courtship or group refrain). Others operate directly upon the territoriality of the assemblage, and open it onto a land that is eccentric, immemorial, or yet to come (for example, the game of territory and the earth in the lied, or in the romantic artist in general). Still others open assemblages onto abstract and cosmic machines that they effectuate”.2 Every assemblage, therefore, consists of a horizontal and vertical axis. The horizontal axis is made of bodies and discourses, words and things or knowledge and power or visible and utterable in the Foucaultian sense. That is, the horizontal axis articulates a framework for thinking about the way that ideology acts upon bodies and the way that bodies, in turn, discipline themselves into ideological forms or pull against them. The vertical axis depicts factors of stabilization and stability, but also factors of change, meaning that this is the temporal component of an assemblage, enabling the existence of the line of flight.3 Every assemblage is, on the one hand, individual, singular, but on the tastes, varieties of joy and pain, etc.)”. This primarily appears as a dichotomous division of these possibilities (pairs such as male/female, human/nonhuman, etc.), which determines in advance “our perception, affectivity, and thought, imprisoning experience within already- made forms, even forms of refusal and struggle”. In that respect, the line of flight is the process of deterritorialization, the redistribution of these limited possibilities, which is related to the “unforeseeable creation of new space-times and original institutional assemblages”. François Zourabichvili, Deleuze: A Philosophy of the Event, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2012, 174–175. Cf. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Pla- teaus, Continuum, London and New York, 2004, 147–148, 199–202, 320–323; Leslie Dema, The Inorganic Life of Assemblages: Deleuze and Guattari’s “The Geology of Morals”, The University of Guelph, 2006, 62–65 (unpublished manuscript). 2 Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, op. cit., 97–98, 556. 3 Cf. Drew Daniel, The Melancholy Assemblage: Affect and Epistemology in the English Renaissance, Fordham University Press, New York, 2013, 7–11.

87 New Sound 42, II/2013 other hand, assemblages can also include the most abstract and singular phenomena, from an individual inorganic entity to the general social entirety,4 or in other words: “This notion is larger than structure, system, form, process, etc. An assemblage contains heterogeneous elements, on a biological, social, machinic, gnoseological, or imaginary order.”5 This specific assemblage can be split up into several components, or lines, whose folds and mutual relationships make that assemblage. The first line is the entire ‘musical’ system – the acoustic material (noise as the research of the relationship between the musical and the nonmusical and their [non]porous boundaries), the listener (the utmost challenging of their capacity to listen, hence depletion of that capacity), and the creator (reassessment of the role and position of the musical creator as a creative agent within and outside the system of music production and consumption). The second line is Merzbow’s aesthetics reflected in various images (album covers), articles, interviews, etc., accompanying individual ‘albums’. Given that this is a very fruitful artist (with dozens, if not hundreds of ‘albums’ released since his ‘career’ has begun), this is also a multiplicity of such accompanying elements, but it is also possible to pinpoint the key characteristic of the acoustic and visual material: masochism. On the one hand, masochism refers to the listener (depletion of the capacity to listen), and on the other, it speaks of a specific aesthetics of existence, as Foucault would put it (the disorganization and, potentially, reorganization of the ‘everyday’ body through masochism). The third line contains everything that I labelled as posthumanism in Merzbow’s activities, which can be perceived both in his musical work (the nonmimetic use of animal and natural sounds as material for noise), and in the lifestyle (animal rights activism, vegan diet, etc.). Therefore, this assemblage, consisting of at least three different lines, aims to deconstruct and, eventually, completely obliterate the humanist concept of the human subject/body as the supreme and superior power of action or, in humanist-Darwinist terms,6 the crown of evolution, replacing it by (in)organic multiplicity.

4 Cf. Manuel DeLanda, A New Philosophy of Society: Assemblage Theory and Social Com- plexity, Continuum, London and New York, 2006; Manuel DeLanda, A Thousand Years of Nonlinear History, Zone Books, New York, 1997. 5 Félix Guattari, The Anti-Oedipus Papers, Semiotext(e), New York, 2006, 415. Cf. Gilles Deleuze and Claire Parnet, Dialogues II, Columbia University Press, New York, 2007, 69; François Zourabichvili, Deleuze: A Philosophy of the Event, op. cit., 145–148. 6 I intentionally use the term “humanist-Darwinist”, with the stress on “humanist”, because there are different interpretations of Darwin’s texts. Another perception, aided by Deleuze and Bergson, which is not focused on the human being as the crown of evolution, can be found in: Elizabeth Grosz, Becoming Undone: Darwinian Reflections on Life, Politics, and Art, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 2011.

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The emergence of noise as an artistic practice is related to British industrial music (Whitehouse, Throbbing Gristle, SPK), North-American experimental rock (Velvet Underground and no wave), free jazz (Albert Ayler, the late works of John Coltrane, improvisational collectives from the 1970s) and European post-war electronic composing and musique concrète.7 Some also relate it to the ideas and practices of John Cage, Arnold Schönberg, Edgard Varèse, Luigi Russolo,8 but also to Japanese traditional music, punk and popular electronic music.9 With all these influences, Japanese noise has developed from the 1970s, and the main exponents beside Merzbow, such as Masonna, Keiji Haino, MSBR, Boredoms, designed and determined their practices and styles during the 1980s, reaching a peak in the late 1990s and the early 21st century.

7 David Novak, Japan Noise: Global Media Circulation and the Transpacific Circuits of Experimental Music, Columbia University, 2006, 30 (doctoral dissertation). 8 Paul Hegarty, “Brace and embrace: Masochism in noise performance”, in: Marie Thomp- son and Ian Biddle (eds.), Sound, Music, Affect: Theorizing Sonic Experience, Bloomsbury, London, 2013, 133–134. We should also note the fact that genealogies of noise are not exactly the same everywhere. Thus, noise music in the United States of America developed primarily under the influence of no wave and punk music, together with the “hippie experi- mentalism of the West Coast”, while in Europe there is a clear influence of industrial music from the 1970s and 1980s. Cf. ibid. In that respect, Japanese noise is the most elusive, because its main exponents speak about various influences, ranging from European avant-garde and American experimental rock to Japanese traditional music. Cf. David Novak, Japan Noise…, op. cit. Novak also makes a distinction between noise and “noisy music”, whereas he describes noise as “dissonance, a discordant sound that disturbs appreciation. But beyond being merely unintelligible and unwanted, noise is also an interruption, a symbol of broken communication. As the opposite of a content-laden ‘signal,’ the mere presence of noise inter- feres with the transmission of sonic meaning... Noise is the opposite of shared public con- sensus, as resistance to social order: this noise relates to the ideologies of democracy in the public sphere and systems of incorporation in state and media contexts, both locally and in the face of globalization and globalist dreams of universal participation. Noise is the opposite of music, as the nemesis of beautiful or desirable things admissible as musical sounds; this noise pertains to aesthetics and affective evaluations of experience. Noise is the opposite of communication, against meaning and the transmission of information; this noise is part of a binary signal-to-noise dialectic that embeds sonic communication in a ratio of meaningful versus interruptive or obscuring material. Noise is the opposite of classification, in its refusal of categorical objectivity; this noise stands at the margins of musical style and the discursive emplacements of genre. Noise is the opposite of the natural world, and its silence; this noise emerges from the urban industrialized environment and in the experiential conditions of technology... The breakdown of performance time into song-like sections, the presence of more than one or two performers, a lack of timbral ‘harshness’, the use of recognized musical instruments, and the presence of melody or rhythm are all markers of sound more likely to be classified as ‘noisy music’ than noise”. David Novak, ibid., 133–134, 2, 136. 9 Paul Hegarty, Noise/Music: A History, Continuum, London and New York, 2007, 138.

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Around 1980, Masami Akita, after having already played the guitar and drums in experimental and free rock bands, started performing with a set of guitar effects pedals and junk electronics, i.e. sounds produced randomly and automati- cally by electronic machines. The performances consisted of pure, raw, coarse sound, without instruments. Akita conceived his acoustic creations as overbur- dening the other music, as transformations of the already existing information during the process of total distortion: “It’s an overload of information: every music can be Noise, if I make its volume overload. So maybe it’s a kind of overload of music. I don’t know, but this overload feeling of the sound is what makes it clear for me. So I’m making this feeling produce.”10 Merzbow’s system of altered electronics literally overloads the original sounds, transforming them into a mass of distorted microphonics, and the aim of such acoustic practice is “sound as political and erotic weapon” (including the album titled Music for Bondage Performance and a book on kinbaku, Japanese techniques of bondage).11 It is very difficult to describe Merzbow’s noise. The words most often used are ‘raw’, ‘rough’, ‘difficult’ (both in the sense of listening and noise level), ‘violent’, ‘metallic’ and so on. This is one of the typical descriptions, referring to the number “Looping Jane” from the album Amlux, released in 2003: “‘Looping Jane’ is sixteen minutes that progresses through a number of separate ‘movements,’ building from a field of slow-moving deep drones into full-out roaring noise, then evolving into mechanical overlapping droning sounds that buzz and move in a hypnotic way. […] Later the track gets pared down a bit more, leaving a bed of repeating low-end drones over which Akita throws a variety of other sounds, twisting and stretching instances of static and synthetic high-end sound sources into pricks and stabs of noise.”12 Or let us take the following section from the review of the 2008 album Anicca: “Digital textures are blended seamlessly with blistering feedback that seems to sweep in and out of the mix. […] A destructive mixture of laptop-based sound, combined with intense ampli- fier noise and junk-guitars pad out the sound, increasing the density of the mix and creating wild and engaging soundscapes.”13 This inability to describe and to find adequate language has its reason. Noise is based primarily on the act of listening (and its depletion), i.e. the reception of sound as a physiological reaction takes precedence over listening as the

10 Quoted in: David Novak, Japan Noise…, op. cit., 183. 11 Quoted in: ibid., 139. 12 Mason Jones, “Merzbow – Amlux”, http://www.dustedmagazine.com/reviews/518, accessed on 19 August 2013. 13 Starcorea, “Merzbow – Anicca”, http://www.sputnikmusic.com/review/28808/Merzbow- Anicca/, accessed on 19 August 2013.

90 Filipović, A.: Musica Inhumana: Towards the Posthumanistic Ethical ... (86–101) recognition of tonal utterances based on language. As David Novak says, “The embodied social interaction of a dance music concert discourages private aesthetic contemplation, while a symphony concert hall achieves its effect of mental elevation in part by enforcing bodily stillness. But because extreme volume is both heard as sound and felt as soundwaves, loud music blurs the division between mind and body in a synaesthetic moment of transcendence.”14 Noise engulfs the listener in extremely loud sound and creates a space of overwhelm- ing intensity. This sound space of noise is dominated by an involuntary physiological reaction to the sound that compels the listener to face their own body: “You can feel your whole body just go into shock when they start – the sound fills your mind completely and you can’t think. At first you’re just shrinking back, until you overcome that and let it go, and then you’re in it and you’re just being blown away.”15 The effect of high loudness is felt directly as visceral individual immersion in sound, and it differs from a normative musical experience by not separating aesthetic contemplation and corporeality. Noise is physiologi- cally ‘extreme’ because its sound is located on the extremes of individual sensory perception, and the extended sound range of a CD helps emphasize these qualities on noise albums. Thus, Merzbow’s album Venereology, in its time, was banned in the United States because it violated the laws about the permitted dynamic levels on a CD.16 A particular aspect of Merzbow’s noise creativity is the nonmimetic use of animal sounds. Thus, in a six-disc collection Houjoue from 2006 – especially on the fourth disc, in the numbers “Frog Variation 0505” and “Animal Mag- netism Variation 0305” – he uses digitally processed sounds of animals, actually his pets, including small show chickens, pigeons, ducks and other animal sounds he had sampled previously. As he said in an interview about the Houjoue collection, the theme of these six discs is related to the “vegetarian history of the early Japanese”,17 and while working on it, he was also writing the book Cruelty Free Life. Houjoue is a “ceremony of freeing captured animals”, and in the 7th century A.D. the emperor prohibited the consumption of animal meat, including fish and seafood. Some of the sounds he used to create this collection include the sound of hens pecking, because “they are always pecking some object, for the care of their beaks”.18 Another album from 2006, titled Minazo,

14 David Novak, Japan Noise…, op. cit., 227. 15 Quoted in: ibid., 227. 16 Ibid., 242 17 Roger Batty, “Animal Instincts – Interview with Masaki Akita”, http://www.musiquema- chine.com/articles/articles_template.php?id=73, accessed on 25 August 2013. 18 Ibid.

91 New Sound 42, II/2013 which is, as he personally said, more improvisatory, was recorded as a homage to Minazo, a giant elephant seal which shortly before that had died in a Japa- nese zoo. Minazo is shown on the album cover. Animals are featured on the covers of many other albums. Thus, Merzmorphosis, a ten-disc collection from 2012 shows turkeys; Kibako, from the same year, shows insects and flowers; Samidara, from 2013, shows a strange splice of rabbit and human; Jigokuhen, from 2011, shows a grouse; and Surabhi, from the same year, shows Indian holy cows. The album Dolphin Star was recorded in 2008 as a sign of protest against the killing of thousands of dolphins every year in a Japanese prefecture. By appropriation of animal sounds and by covers that depict the (non)human in the most diverse ways, Masami Akita wants to point to the bearing of a human being upon anything that is not a human being. Since he is a radical vegan and animal rights activist, these elements of his artistic practice are an attempt at changing the human attitude towards the environment, i.e. they suggest the possibility of building different ethics and aesthetics which will not be anthropocentric (nonmimetic aspect of the use of animal sounds). In fact, if extreme noise is also taken into account, then one can speak of the specific posthumanistic ethical and aesthetical policy of his artistic practice.

Minazo – Volume One, Important Records, 2006.

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Camouflage, Essence Music, 2009.

Hiranya, Noiseville, 2009.

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Hodosan, Vivo, 2008.

Dolphin Sonar, Important Records, 2008

94 Filipović, A.: Musica Inhumana: Towards the Posthumanistic Ethical ... (86–101)

As I have already explained, the extreme loudness of sound, both in the recorded material and in live performances, causes overcharge and, eventually, depletion of the capacity to listen. The relationship established between the listener or the audience and the performer or the acoustic material can be interpreted as a sadomasochistic relationship.19 Here I will be relying on the Deleuzian understanding of masochism, most of all because its approach to the body is different than that of Freudian (and Lacanian) psychoanalysis, limited by the Oedipal tri- angle which in fact constrains it to humanistic (binary) thinking.20 There is also a different interpretation of noise, using primarily Bataille’s philosophies of abjec- tion and transgression. In that case, noise is understood as the ethics of excess, as something rejected and formless which ecstatically deconstructs subjectivity.21 The problem in this interpretation of noise is that it is too general, i.e. its specific qualities cannot include and describe various phenomena within noise music.22 Hereby I mean that Merzbow is a singular assemblage containing multiple folded lines, each of them in turn having its own specific qualities. Also, these two approaches have different policies. The transgressive-ecstatic approach, unlike the masochistic-contractual, lacks coldness, i.e. a particular kind of sobriety with which problems in creating lines of flight should be addressed.23

19 Reinhold Friedl, “Some Sadomasochistic Aspects of Musical Pleasure”, Leonardo Musi- cal Journal, Vol. 12, 2002, 30. 20 “Freud’s understanding of masochism is founded on the familial relations of the Oedipal drama. Here, femininity is constituted as passive, whereas masculinity is constituted as active. The father’s dominance makes him the biggest threat to the male child. He has the power to castrate, imbue the son with lack, and turn him into a woman like his mother. While lack is deemed natural and normal in the female, it is not so in the male. The male child’s castration anxiety may therefore develop into masochist perversion. The male child’s guilt and fear of castration leads him to assume a passive role in order to placate the father and win his love.... But according to Freud, masochism as a sexual preference or desire in the male adult cannot stand by itself. It needs an opposite. Masochism needs sadism. At any time, the masochist can turn into a sadist. But not only are all sadists ex-masochists. Both masochists and sadists are sadomasochists as both desires are embodied within one and the same individual.” Torkild Thanem and Louise Wallenberg, “Buggering Freud and Deleuze: toward a queer theory of masochism”, Journal of Aesthetics & Culture, vol. 2, 2010, 2. 21 Paul Hegarty, “Noise as Weakness”, http://www.dotdotdotmusic.com/hegarty2.html, accessed on 28 August 2013. Other essays should be mentioned too, such as “Noise as Ethics of Excess”, “Merzbow and the End of Natural Sound”, “Theory and Japanese Noise Music”. 22 Lines of flight must be considered from the aspects of the specific character of each of the lines, their relative importance, mutual immanence and dangers that are distinct for each individual line. Cf. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, op. cit., 225–228. 23 Here we are talking about the problem of a sensory impression and its construction as the means for creating an opportunity for a line of flight. Given that every kind of art deals with creating a sensory impression, i.e. with their construction, this construction does not ema-

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Deleuze severs the connection between sadism and masochism, and credits masochism with a contractual nature by which it subverts power relations between individuals. The masochist is the one with the power, having in fact the power of action, contrary to the typical Freudian concept where the masochist is just the passive recipient in a sadomasochistic relationship in which the general power and power of action belong to the sadist. Deleuze deconstructs the Freud- ian concept of sadomasochism by offering a different aetiology of masochism. Contrary to the Freudian understanding that the father is the one who castrates, thus becoming the primary figure in the child’s life, Deleuze takes the mother as the crucial figure, making masochism reach the pregenital and symbiotic phase in the mother-child relationship. The mother is an ambivalent figure in the oral phase of development because, in Deleuze’s opinion, she, and not the father, is the one who can punish, thus being the primary source of authority due to the child’s fear of abandonment. The source of masochism is this fear of abandonment, and a masochist re-enacts scenarios of hiding and exposing, disappear- ing and appearing, seduction and abandonment, combined with pain in order to punish and reject the father symbolically. For Deleuze, this means that masochism cannot be an issue of the castration fear because the primary and crucial figure is the mother, not the father. By this move, Deleuze cancels Freud’s Oedipal scenario because a masochist, on the one hand, equates the mother figure with the law, while on the other, eliminates the father from the symbolic system. The re-enactment of the mother-child relationship in masochist scenarios includes the re-enactment of the pregenital and symbiotic relationship between a mother and a child. However, the fantasy about the total symbiosis and fusion of these two sides in the relationship can be fulfilled only at the imaginary level, because a real amalgamation implies death. Thus, death becomes the final resolution of the masochist fantasy, necessitating the deferment of orgasm. It must be post- poned for some undetermined future so that the masochist would survive, which makes waiting and repetition the determining categories of masochism. nate from something irrational, but only from careful preoccupation with the specific problem: “You have to keep enough of the organism for it to reform each dawn; and you have to keep small supplies of significance and subjectification, if only to turn them against their own systems when the circumstances demand it, when things, persons, even situations, force you to; and you have to keep small rations of subjectivity in sufficient quantity to enable you to respond to the dominant reality. […] This is how it should be done: Lodge yourself on a stratum, experiment with the opportunities it offers, find an advantageous place on it, find potential movements of deterritorialization, possible lines of flight, experience them, produce flow conjunctions here and there, try out continuums of intensities segment by segment, have a small plot of new land at all times. It is through a meticulous relation with the strata that one succeeds in freeing lines of flight.” Ibid., 178.

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The key differences between sadism and masochism, and consequently between various body policies supported by these two phenomena, are the following: “(1) Sadism is speculative-demonstrative, masochism dialectical- imaginative; (2) sadism operates with the negative and pure negation, masochism with disavowal and suspension; (3) sadism operates by means of quantitative reiteration, masochism by means of qualitative suspense; (4) there is a masochism specific to the sadist and equally a sadism specific to the masochist, the one never combining with the other; (5) sadism negates the mother and inflates the father, masochism disavows the mother and abolishes the father; (6) the role and significance of the fetish, and the function of the fantasy are totally different in each case; (7) there is an aestheticism in masochism, while sadism is hos- tile to the aesthetic attitude; (8) sadism is institutional, masochism contractual; (9) in sadism the superego and the process of identification play the primary role, masochism gives primacy to the ego and to the process of idealization; (10) sadism and masochism exhibit totally different forms of desexualization and resexualization; (11) finally, summing up all these differences, there is the most radical difference between sadistic apathy and masochistic coldness.”24 These determinants – among which I stress reiteration and de/resexualization as crucial – give rise to a particular ontology of desire. Namely, masochism causes the change of relationship between reiteration and the principle of pleasure: “Instead of repetition being experienced as a form of behavior related to a pleasure already obtained or anticipated, instead of repetition being governed by the idea of experiencing or reexperiencing pleasure, repetition runs wild and becomes independent of all previous pleasure. Pleasure is now a form of behavior related to repetition, accompanying and following repetition, which has itself become an awesome, independent force… Pleasure and repetition have thus exchanged roles, as a consequence of the instantaneous leap, that is to say the twofold process of desexualization and resexualization… Pain in this case has no sexual significance at all; on the contrary it represents a desexualization which makes repetition autonomous and gives it instantaneous sway over the pleasures of resexualization.”25 Pleasure, Deleuze says writing about Foucault, interrupts the immanent process of desire, it comes to interrupt the positivity of desire and the constitution of its field of immanence,26 meaning that, in masochism, repetition (with a difference),27 i.e. desire as opposed to pleasure, creates

24 Gilles Deleuze, Coldness and Cruelty, Zone Books, New York, 1987, 134. 25 Ibid., 120. 26 Žil Delez, “Želja i zadovoljstvo” [Gilles Deleuze, “Désir et plaisir”], trans. Andrija Filipović, QT: Časopis za kvir teoriju i kulturu, No. 5–6, 2011, 60. 27 For more on bare repetition and the repetition of difference or with difference, as funda-

97 New Sound 42, II/2013 lines of flight from the organization of the body and the body as an organism: “Désir ne comporte aucun manque; ce n’est pas non plus une donnée naturelle; il ne fait qu’un avec un agencement d’hétérogènes qui fonctionne; il est proces- sus, contrairement à structure ou genèse; il est affect, contrairement à sentiment; il est ‘haecceité’ (individualité d’une journée, d’une saison, d’une vie), contrairement à subjectivité; il est événement, contrairement à chose ou personne. Et surtout il implique la constitution d’un champ d’immanence ou d’un ‘Corps sans Organes’, qui se définit seulement par des zones d’intensité, des seuils, des gradients, des flux. Ce corps est aussi bien biologique que collectif et politique; c’est sur lui que les agencements se font et se défont, c’est lui qui porte les pointes de déterritorialisation des agencements ou les lignes de fuite.” [“For me, desire does not comprise any lack; neither is it a natural given; it is but one with an assemblage of heterogeneous elements which function; it is process, in contrast with structure or genesis; it is affect, as opposed to feeling; it is ‘haec- ceity’ (individuality of a day, a season, a life), as opposed to subjectivity; it is event, as opposed to thing or person. And above all it implies the constitution of a field of immanence or a ‘body without organs’, which is only defined by zones of intensity, thresholds, gradients, flux. This body is as biological as it is collective and political; it is on this body that assemblages make and unmake themselves, it is this body which bears the points of deterritorialization of the assemblages or lines of flight.”]28 Masochism as a contract producing de/resexualization of the body is a kind of strategy in the sense of Foucault’s thesis on sadomasochism as the erotization of power, i.e. the erotization of strategic relationships for creating pleasure or “l’utilisation d’un rapport stratégique comme source de plaisir (de plaisir physique)” [“the use of a strategic relationship as a source of pleasure (physical pleasure)”].29 Since the nature of masochism is contractual or strategic, this is a multi-part relationship, such as the relationship between a performer and the audience, but also the relationship of the individuals within the audience. The performer and the audience need each other to create a masochistic noise assemblage. In this regard, the differences in public performances of various noise artists are interesting. On one side there are performers such Masonna, Hijokaidan, Hanatarash and Incapacitants, who actively move over the stage mental notions of Deleuze’s philosophy of difference, cf. Žil Delez, Razlika i ponavljanje [Gilles Deleuze, Différence et répétition], trans. Ivan Milenković, Fedon, Belgrade, 2009. 28 Cf. Žil Delez, “Želja i zadovoljstvo”, op. cit., 59. 29 Cf. Mišel Fuko, “Seks, moć i politika identiteta” [Michel Foucault, “Sexe, pouvoir et la politique d’identité”], trans. Andrija Filipović, QT: Časopis za kvir teoriju i kulturu, No. 5–6, 2011, 241–242.

98 Filipović, A.: Musica Inhumana: Towards the Posthumanistic Ethical ... (86–101) and react expressively to every sound produced, while on the other there are performers such as Merzbow and MSBR, who are calmly seated behind their equipment and, in fact, often invisible during the performance. The difference in these two approaches to performing noise is crucial. Active expressivity strives to influence the listeners/spectators by a feedback, expecting them to take part in producing the atmosphere of the performance, while nonexpressive performances break all immediate and ‘live’ relationships between the performers and the audience, thus at the same time dismissing the phenomenological aspect of the entire event. The active, expressive performance of noise builds what Merleau-Ponty called “double sensation” of the body: “The body catches itself from the outside engaged in a cognitive process; it tries to touch itself while being touched, and initiates a kind of reflection which is sufficient to distinguish it from objects.”30 However, the problem with this is that the human subjectivity is still left intact.31 Merzbow’s inexpressiveness has precisely the opposite effect. Deprived of any reference in the form of the performer as the focal point of the performance, the spectator/listener remains confronted only with sound, which all the more effectively depletes the receptive capacity of bodily sensory organs. Inexpressive performance is colder and crueller, as the title of Deleuze’s book on masochism reads. Given the bodies reticulated with relations of power and knowledge, the strategic nature of the masochistic depletion of bodily capacities leads also to a sort of posthumanistic aesthetics of existence. The aesthetics of existence is a notion that Foucault developed in his last texts. It is a complex concept of subjectivization through the relationship of the self with itself and others (and the Other that is not necessarily human) under the conditions in which this self was produced by “rapports de pouvoir qui passent à l’intérieur des corps” [“power relations permeating a body”],32 thus being normalized and, ultimately, made human. At the end of Les mots et les choses [The Order of Things], Foucault wonders if there will be an end to ‘man’,33 bearing in mind the humanistic con-

30 Quoted in: David Novak, Japan Noise, op. cit., 216. 31 For more on the problematic retaining of the human in phenomenology through transcendental subjectivity which boils down to a doxa reticulated with capitalist power relations, cf. Žil Delez i Feliks Gatari, Šta je filozofija? [Gilles Deleuze et Félix Guattari, Qu’est-ce que la philosophie?], trans. Slavica Miletić, Izdavačka knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovića, Sremski Karlovci, 1995, 184, 188. 32 Mišel Fuko, “Odnosi moći prožimaju telo” [Michel Foucault, “Les rapports de pouvoir passent à l’intérieur des corps”], trans. Vedrana Veličković, QT: Časopis za kvir teoriju i kulturu, No. 5–6, 2011, 192–201. 33 “Si ces dispositions venaient à disparaitre comme elles sont apparues, si par quelque évé- nement dont nous pouvons tout au plus pressentir la possibilité, mais dont nous connaissons

99 New Sound 42, II/2013 cept of human nature, while Deleuze somewhat later adds and clarifies: “The death of man is in fact a very simple and precise theme, which Foucault takes over from Nietzsche but develops in a very original way. It is a question of form and forces. Forces are always interacting with other forces. Given human forces (like having an understanding, a will…), what other forces do they come into play with, and what is the resulting ‘composite’ form? […] It is in the nineteenth century, rather, that human forces confront purely finitary forces – life, production, language – in such a way that the resulting composite is a form of Man. And, just as this form was not there previously, there is no reason it should survive once human forces come into play with new forces: the new composite will be a new kind of form, neither God nor man. Nineteenth-century man, for example, confronts life and combines with it as the force of carbon. But what happens when human forces combine with those of silicon, and what new forms begin to appear?”34 The masochistic depletion of a normalized body leads to the disruption of the subjectified body and, thus, to the ‘death’ of man, i.e. it leads to the re-conceptualization of the human body, due to which it can no longer be dualistically structured (if we follow the Enlightenment-Rationalist line of thought), nor can its development be linearly conceptualized as in Freud- ian psychoanalysis. Namely, Freud ascertained the chronological sequence from the oral to the anal to the genital/phallic phase, ascribing to the final one the crucial importance in the formation of the personality. The masochistic relocation of the erogenous zones from the genitals and/or anus to the entire body usurps the normative understanding of the personality development and makes it possible to enjoy one’s own body in a way different from the one that Freud offered, which is, among other things, the basis of humanism.35 In Félix Guat- tari’s words, this is relocation of stress from symbolic castration, being lived as pour l’instant encore ni la forme ni la promesse, elles basculaient, comme le fit au tournant du XVIIIe siècle le sol de la pensée classique, – alors on peut bien parier que l’homme s’ef- facerait, comme à la limite de la mer un visage de sable.” [“If those arrangements were to disappear as they appeared, if some event of which we can at the moment do no more than sense the possibility – without knowing either what its form will be or what it promises – were to cause them to crumble, as the ground of Classical thought did, at the end of the eighteenth century, then one can certainly wager that man would be erased, like a face drawn in sand at the edge of the sea.”] Cf. Mišel Fuko, Riječi i stvari [Michel Foucault, Les mots et les choses], trans. Nikola Kovač, Nolit, Belgrade, 1971, 425. 34 Cf. Žil Delez, Pregovori 1972–1990 [Gilles Deleuze, Pourparlers 1972–1990], trans. An- drija Filipović, Karpos, Loznica, 2010, 150. 35 For more about building linearity as a way of orientation and the reconstitution of a ‘human’ body, and about what it means not to follow the usual standardized linear motion in everyday life, cf. Sara Ahmed, Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 2006.

100 Filipović, A.: Musica Inhumana: Towards the Posthumanistic Ethical ... (86–101) post-Oedipal submission, to “contingent choices” which lend existential consistency to new pragmatic fields: “Investigations must give special attention to the singular virtues of semiotic links that support such choices (ritournelles, facial features, becoming-animals, etc.). In parallel to their semiotic functions of sig- nification and designation, they develop an existential function that catalyzes new universes of reference. […] It will focus on unfolding innumerable incorporeal, indivisible materials that, as the experience of desire has taught us, are capable of carrying us far beyond ourselves and far beyond territorial encircle- ments, towards unexpected, unheard-of universes of possibility.”36 I have underscored, on the one hand, a special way of establishing a relationship with the acoustic material (masochistic contractual relationship); on the other, there are specifically aesthetic lines (the nonmimetic use of animal sounds in digital noise); while the third aspect is the ethical line, i.e. the line of aesthetics of existence (the vegan lifestyle). By folding these three lines – the depletion of the basic capacities of a human body, establishing a relationship with the silicic and the animal, a specific attitude of self towards itself and other – a special aesthetics of existence is built, leading to the potential establishing of posthumanistic subjectivity. In other words, Masami Akita opens the lines of flight in the process of becoming-other (becoming-Merzbow?), thus pointing to a direction one could take in order to resist the power relations: the destruction of the humanistic anthropocentric human subject, or decentralization of the human in its relationship with the evolutionary, technological and ecological coordinates,37 and giving way to the (in)organic multiplicity that constitutes the chaosmos. Translated by Goran Kapetanović

36 Félix Guattari, “Entering the Post-Media Era”, in: Félix Guattari, Soft Subversions: Texts and Interviews, 1977–1985, Semiotext(e), Los Angeles, 2009, 304–305. 37 Carry Wolfe, What is Posthumanism?, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis and London, 2010.

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102 NEW WORKS

Article received on 23 October 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1 Хофман С. 785.73(497.11)"2012"

Vesna Mikić University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music Department of Musicology

WHO AM I – I AM?: REFLECTIONS OF/ON SELF IN SRĐAN HOFMAN’S OGLEDALO [MIRROR] FOR TRIO (MEZZO-SOPRANO, VIOLONCELLO, PIANO) AND CHAMBER ENSEMBLE (2012)*38*

Abstract: The article deals with Srđan Hofman’s recent piece – Ogledalo for trio and chamber ensemble. The interpretation aims at discovering the vehicles for Hofman’s procedures, as well as defining the results he achieved in the piece. Starting from the assumption that the piece, in a way, sublimates all of his previous achievements, the article follows the lines of Hofman’s mature poetics in the form of a ‘story’ of composers searching and finding the answers to ontological, phenomenological and existential questions. Key words: Serbian music, Srđan Hofman, chamber music, sound objects, becoming

...Once upon a time, in a land almost forgotten, and in an “interactive screen-free world”, there was a composer who began his lifelong quest to answer two main questions: who? and how? So, back in those days, he started to compose (as in ‘to put together’) and decompose, arrange and rearrange, shape

* Author contact information: [email protected] The paper has been written as part of the scientific project Identiteti srpske muzike u svetskom kulturnom kontekstu [Identities of Serbian Music in the World Cultural Context], supported by Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia.

103 New Sound 42, II/2013 and reshape his reflections of sound, his reflections on music/the world. Each time he looked at his musical mirror, and heard his sound objects in space, the questions about their ‘provenance’ and about their ‘destiny’ kept popping up, as if he himself had been staring at the mirror at his own (interrogative) reflection(s). Hence, the questions about the objects he had invented, about who they were and how they worked, kept converging with the reflections of/on his own being, of who he was and of how he came to know the world, how varied and always newthe constant processes of his becoming were. So, he kept searching/reflecting and becoming, through composing, in search of the‘perfect’ sound object, capable of expressing the numerous ways in which he heard and sensed the world of music, the world around him. His attention was caught by the motion of spatial mirror reflections in Pokretna ogledala [Moving Mirrors],1 then there was a feverish exploration of the intra-musical motion of ‘pitch-objects’ in Heksagoni [Hexagons].2 Once he entered the studio and became familiar with how it worked, he was both blessed and doomed to continue his quest. He began reflecting via quotations/samples/signs, decon- structing their ‘meanings’, inventing new, non-existing ones – Déjà vu, Bajka [Fairytale], Uzorci [Samples], Znakovi [Signs], Makamba Ritual.3 In the process, he started looking at the screen more and more often, and it became his mirror. The question he once asked: “Who am I?” and tried to answer in Alice’s manner, by entering the world behind the ‘looking glass’, now had to be rephrased since that world was not there anymore – only a flat, smooth surface that was already showing the world he was making. The quest had ‘shifted’ its direction, it moved not behind, but rested upon the surface that began to invade and penetrate the body of the ‘beholder’. Thus, the questions

1 Pokretna ogledala [Moving Mirrors] for two pianos (four performers), 1979. 2 Cycle Heksagoni– Monodrama, Farsa, Pastorala, Ritual [Hexagons–Monodrama, Farce, Pastoral, Ritual]; for more cf. Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman, Stvaralačka prisutnost evropske avangarde u nas, Beograd, Univerzitet umetnosti, 1981. 3 Déjà vu, tape (1985); Kosamja? – bajka [Who am I? – a Fairytale] for mezzo-soprano, eight actresses, female choir, chamber ensemble and magnetic tape (1988); Uzorci [Samples] for flute, clarinet and electronics (1991); Znakovi [Signs] for flute, violoncello, piano and live electronics (1995); Makamba ritual (1997) for female choir and chamber ensemble. For more cf. Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman, Fragmenti o muzičkoj postmoderni, Matica srpska, Novi Sad, 1997, and: Vesna Mikić, “Hofman’s Electroacoustic Music / Constructing a Story of Serbian Electroacoustics and Beyond”, Music and Society in Eastern Europe, vol. 7, 2012, 11-21, Idyllwild, CA; Zoran Erić, “Signs, by Srđan Hofman, a Directory for the Use of Live Electronics, in the Process of Creating Real Music Time”, International Magazine for music New Sound, 6, 1995, 101–105; Miško Šuvaković, “Mimesis of Mimesis. The Aes- thetic as a Transgressive Element of Music”, International Magazine for music New Sound, 10, 1997, 85-94; etc.

104 Mikić, V.: Reflections of/on Self in Srđan Hofman’s Ogledalo... (103–113) posed till then, questions that back then were still ‘clinging’ on a thin shred of différance between actualities of sounds of the self and self as such, permeated all strata, becoming one and the same with the statement of be(com)ing– I am.

WHO– MIRROR Srđan Hofman (1944) is, of course, the composer in this story. And, the reason I have decided to begin the story in the manner of a fairy-tale is hidden in the relations that on the surface are shown in his latest piece, Ogledalo with his 1988 piece Ko sam ja? – Bajka for mezzo-soprano, eight actresses, female choir, chamber ensemble and tape. This story, however, is not a fairy-tale, inas- much as the relations mentioned are nothing more than associative. Still, with the addition of the connections this piece has with the previous one – Looking at the Mirrors by Anish Kapoor,4 as well as Hofman’s other compositions, they led me to a process of interpretation reduced to two ‘simple’ questions, I believe, are crucial for Hofman’s poetics. Hence, if I am to tell who is in question in Ogledalo, I will start from the facts. Ogledalo was written in 2012 for trio (mezzo-soprano, violoncello, piano) and chamber ensemble, consisting of a string orchestra with the addition of two flutes and two clarinets.5 Hence, for smaller and larger chamber orchestras, that of course could trigger the comparison with the medium of a Baroque concerto grosso. Yet, be it concerto grosso or not, more important seems to be the dual division, as such. It opens the space for ensembles to reflect upon one another instead of compete, and this is exactly the procedure Hofman came upon most obviously in his live electronic pieces such as Duel6 or Looking at.... The ‘surface’ for this ‘discovery’ was that of a screen, not of a mirror. Hence, the notion of reflecting has actually been remediated in the medium of the flat, but respon- sive-interactive surface of the computer screen. In such an environment there is no way that the ‘role playing’ as a means of self-identification conceived for instance in Fairytale could still be possible.7 For, there is an interactive

4 Gledajući u Ogledala Aniša Kapura [Looking at the Mirrors of Anish Kapoor] for two amplified harps and Logic Pro software, 2010. For more cf. Vesna Mikić, “From (Listening to) Moving Mirrors to (Listening Through/In) Mirrors in Motion – Srđan Hofman: Looking at the Mirrors of Anish Kapoor for two Amplified Harps and Logic Pro Software, Interna- tional Magazine for Music New Sound, 37, I/2011, 63–74 5 The piece is devoted to the Ensemble Gradilište, and was commissioned by Belgrade Music Festival (BEMUS). It had its premiere in October 2012 in Kolarac Concert Hall in Belgrade. 6 Duel for piano and MIDI keyboard, 1996. More in: Vesna Mikić, “The Duel as the An- swer”, International Magazine for Music New Sound, 8, 1996, 39–42, and in Mikić, Vesna, “Hofman’s Electroacoustic Music / Constructing a Story..., op.cit. 7 Referring to the ‘role-playing’ of actresses each of whom plays one female character from

105 New Sound 42, II/2013 self-identifying ‘feedback’ from that flat surface that penetrates and changes the ‘players’. Furthermore, not only that ‘concertino’ is the reflection of grosso and vice versa, but the voice, cello and piano, almost incessantly mirror one another. So, different and sometimes simultaneous sound reflections, distortions and echoes make the musical flow of the piece. Recently, Hofman’s more frequent use of text and human voice(s) could be matter for another discussion, but for this interpretation it bears the signs of coming up, once again, to the answers to the questions asked. Notably, for this piece he chooses verses from two, not just one text: from the verbal-vocal-visual piece Reflections by David Taylor8, and excerpts from Sylvia Plath’s poem “Mirror” (App. 1).9And, aware of the constant interaction between the two questions he’s asking,the inseparability of who and how, of mirror and reflection, of reflecting and becoming, he mixes the two texts, beginning with the mixture of Plath’s and Taylor’s verses and ending with Plath’s verses, while ‘filling’ the middle with the ‘echoes’ of Taylor’s Reflections. Of course, the mezzo-soprano is the only medium for pronouncing the lyrics ranging from ‘silver and exact’ speech to widely flourished melismata of “I am” instrumental-like statements, but the rest of the ensemble joins it in their interpretation, sometimes giving way to ‘sound poetry’ moments with ‘exchanged’ roles of vocal and instrument (such as in recitative ‘solo entrances’ of the violoncello and voice, or imitative glissandi in voice and instruments on the word ‘swallow’, or in the moments where the composer demands the ‘re- sounding’ interpretation of the words ‘mirror’ or ‘fish’ by sustaining the voice at the consonant ‘r’ or ‘sh’, thus simulation of the instrumental or non-musical sounds, etc. Examples 1a, 1b). Taylor’s lines bring about the specific word play typical for the verbal-vocal games Hofman himself is fond of. Hence he’s been attracted to the ‘echoing’ and ‘mirroring’of each line of the poem, that in its circling poses the questions of who is reflecting who in the mirror, and the only answer one can get while looking at the mirror is the one confirmed by the reflection – I am. On the other hand, Plath’s poem is shortened in the “gender-proof” way,10 putting forth the notion of the mirror’s truthfulness and objectivity, yet keeping the role the mirror assumes in the poem – the role of the (omnipresent) narrator. the fairytales such as: stepmother, Cinderella, the witch, etc.. 8 Presumably written in 2008 by British poet David Taylor (1956).Hofman uses the whole poem. 9 ‘Mirror’was written in 1961, and appeared in the collection Crossing the Water: Transi- tional Poems (1971). 10 Of course, most of the analysis of this particular poem, as for that matter the Sylvia Plath’s work in general, focus at the woman issues dealt with in it.

106 Mikić, V.: Reflections of/on Self in Srđan Hofman’s Ogledalo... (103–113)

Hence, the object becomes subject, yet only through the process of reflection. And, in reflecting it, shapes the subjects/objects it reflects. This is why Hofman decides to finish the work with the two last lines of Plath’s poem,11 even though they reject the proclaimed “objectivity” of the narrator. For, beside the fact that they structurally-wise had to be there (needless to say that the structure is symmetrically shaped, this ‘codetta’ balancing the opening bars of the piece), and moreover, the last word offers that particular ‘sound picture’ solution he’s so fond of (which actually through the ‘concrete’ sound solution enables his music to ‘fade out’ in space as if it were electronic, see again Ex. 1b) the two lines introduce the time dimension necessary to confirm that the processes of becoming, of “I am” are endless and in constant flux. Finally, who is the “I” of Ogledalo? Apart from the fact that the ‘mirror’ assumes the “I” position in “Plath’s sections” of the piece, i.e. in the text spoken or sung, is there any other object/subject? And, there we meet again that ‘perfect’ Hofman’s sound object we first met in Duel, and after that in Muzičke igračke [Musical Toys] for violoncello and doublebass, and in Looking at... (Ex- ample 2). It looks almost as if it moved from the ‘obsessive’, ‘returning’ object to the state of the ‘self-confirming’, perfect object. For, while in the previous three pieces it occurred as one of the materials (usually somewhat hidden in the opening sections and more evident in the fast, central ones), now it is the ultimate, omnipresent material. Its omnipresence is equal to the mirror’s/screen’s omnipresence, meaning that there is no reflection, no world, no self without it. It has been tested in a “one-on-one” manner for the piano medium in Duel, as well as a “one-on-one”, this time, for the violoncello medium in Muzičke igračke. The “closeness” of the media (MIDI keyboard – piano; violoncello – doublebass) in both cases was not coincidental, it was envisioned as an investi- gation in the human-machine, and colour reflections’ relations. The possibilities of sound reflecting were pushed further in Looking at... Now, as if the time has come for the perfect object to step up and stand for the self without fear of its ‘unstable’, ‘subject/object’, movable and shape shifting nature, admitting to its state of constant becoming through the interaction/reflection which enables it to state – I am, and that’s all. Hence, the question “who” shall be temporarily dismissed, or maybe forgotten forever by this admission, or better yet, it will be reformulated in the “who is reflecting (who)” of Taylor’s poem.

11 “In me she has drowned a young girl, and in me an old woman Rises toward her day after day, like a terrible fish.”

107 New Sound 42, II/2013

HOW – REFLECTIONS

Since we have established who the players of this mirroring/reflecting are, and that has often meant evoking the way they playing/reflect, since they are inseparable from how they are, let us turn to the specific reflections through which they are becoming in Ogledalo. As already mentioned, the ‘perfect’ object plays the crucial part as does its specific ‘reflection’/echo structured in intervals of major/minor seconds and their inversions. This exchange of the ‘same’ that begins the piece, as well as its sequential transpositions would set the stage for the whole. Thus, the structure is driven from inside by the transpositions, inversions, shifts, divisions, ‘vertical/chordal reductions’ of the ‘perfect’ object, while from outside it is driven by the textual segmentation of the texts. The overall plan is designed as a three- part whole: the first section up to 4 bars before score mark J, the final beginning in mark BB with the string ‘chorale’. The middle section revolves around Taylor’s ‘who is reflecting who’ lines (App. 1), while the outer section treats Plath’s verses and Taylor’s “am I: I am” line jointly. The further consequence of the concept to the structure is that each of the sections has been built in ‘double blocks’ of materials, double reflections of the same material, often paralleled by the sequential shift of the block adding to the expressiveness, “zooming in” on the reflection in question. This procedure is especially successful in the middle section of the piece. Starting from not to long lasting, yet ‘screaming’ seconds in piano supported by flutes, and ‘inversion’ of the ‘perfect’ object, it announces the almost ‘Petroush- kian’ sound and feeling of the section. Maybe those clarinets in B are not there just for their accordance with mezzo-soprano and cello? Really, ‘playful’ seconds in the piano part accompanied by strings with abrupt changes in dynamics, for a moment rephrase Stravinsky’s rhetorical question: “Aren’t we all the pup- pets on the strings of destiny” in the question: “Aren’t we all just the reflections of self/other?” (Ex. 3) After that, follows the gradation in double blocks with different actors- piano and cello with woodwinds and whole ensemble (score mark L), strings with piano (score mark N), trio with the accompaniment of flutes (by which the particular ‘metallic’ effect is obtained, score mark Q and after, and later in W), etc. The gradual immersion in the reflection by reflecting the results in horror, the almost expressionistic scream in the culmination (score marks from V to AA) achieved by the abrupt oscillations and exchange of ener- gies of the grosso and concertino, which are finally ‘united’ in a tutti of almost destructive strength (from score mark Z). After this complete disaster of facing the truth in the mirror, peace arrives in the guise of a string ‘chorale’ at the be-

108 Mikić, V.: Reflections of/on Self in Srđan Hofman’s Ogledalo... (103–113) ginning of the final section. This moment of peace freezes the time/image, and the reflecting can start once again, towards the (temporary) conclusion...

I AM Clashing with/stumbling upon one’s own reflection while looking at the mirror is unavoidable. As the conclusion is that there is nothing behind it, there is only the reflection that, however, defines who we are for ourselves and, maybe others. The computer screen has taught us that the play takes place at the surface, and that there is nothing more than a constant re-inventing of the self that is destined to constant and an ever-different emerging, becoming and actualizing. So, after numerous adventures, our composer seems to have come upon the answers he was seeking. For, the ‘land’ of Ogledalo showed him the answer that was so simple, yet hidden. And, he had to be wise and brave to face it. And, once he had done it, he knew. His sound objects, his music as himself were in a constant flux of re-invention. And, it suddenly struck him - however complex, however terrifying, however difficult, yet beautiful, innocent and comforting, ‘everything I made are the reflections of (my) self’. And to that one, which is usually followed by the question – (who) am I? the best answer is – I am. I am in this or that particular instant of the self, immersed in its own reflection, reflecting through time and space in these particular instances of actuality. Finally reaching the answer, the composer and his selves/reflections/sound objects continued to live happily ever after...

109 New Sound 42, II/2013

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 – Sylvia Plath's and David Taylor's poems

Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) Mirror (1961)

I am silver and exact. I have no preconceptions. What ever you see I swallow immediately Just as it is, unmisted by love or dislike. I am not cruel, only truthful--- The eye of a little god, four-cornered. Most of the time I meditate on the opposite wall. It is pink, with speckles. I have looked at it so long I think it is a part of my heart. But it flickers. Faces and darkness separate us over and over. Now I am a lake. A woman bends over me, Searching my reaches for what she really is. Then she turns to those liars, the candles or the moon. I see her back, and reflect it faithfully. She rewards me with tears and an agitation of hands. I am important to her. She comes and goes. Each morning it is her face that replaces the darkness. In me she has drowned a young girl, and in me an old woman Rises toward her day after day, like a terrible fish.

N.B. - the underlined lines are the one Hofman uses in his piece.

110 Mikić, V.: Reflections of/on Self in Srđan Hofman’s Ogledalo... (103–113)

David Taylor (1956) Reflections (2008?) am I : I am : reflecting who : who reflecting : mirrormirror, who : who, mirror mirror ...... : ...... who, mirror mirror: mirror mirror, who : who reflecting : reflecting who : I am : am I

Ex. 1 a

3 f 3 33 M. S. F > > & Ó Œ bœbœ. bœ bœ. ˙. œœ‰ j j bœ œ œ œ ˙ œ ‰ bœ œ œ Mirror- Mir- rorrr re --ﬂ>ec ting re --ﬂ>ec ting ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ b>œ œ S.Vlc. #œ œ- bœ˙ bœ œ bœ œ ˘ œ ? ˙ œ œ #œ œ bœ bœ 5 œ ˙ œ 3

œ 6 6 6 œ 666 p œ œ œ#œœ b>œ ˙ p œ œ œ#œœ b>œ ˙ ‰ ‰ & 3 3 œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ 3 3 #œ#œ œ œœ œ œœ œ Pno. #œ œ œbœ œ œ nœ œbœ œ œ nœ œbœ #œ #œ nœ#œ œ œ œ nœ#œ œ œ œ nœ#œ 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 6 6 6 3 ? ? & œ œ œ ‰ bœ ˙ & œ œ œ ‰ bœ ˙ & #œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ #œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ bœ œ nœ bœ œ nœ bœ œ F #œ ˙ œ œ bœ œ nœ bœ œ nœ bœ œ F #œ ˙ *°

174 b>œ œ b>œ œ ˙ Fl. 1 J & ‰ 3 p Fl. 2 & Œ ˙. f

111 New Sound 42, II/2013

Ex. 1 b

q = 52 ƒ p 3 3 f M. S. U > U j ¿ U & ˙. Œ œ¿ œ¿ œ¿ œ¿ œ ˙. ˙. ˙. her, like a ter-- ri ble. ﬁsh (sh)

S.Vlc. O O ŒŒ U U U ? œ J + ‰Œ Œ

Inside the Piano U U U & Œ j ‰Œ Pno. œ. with the palm of the hand p Œ j ‰Œ ? ‰ j ‰ j & œ . f ° * 312 key slaps U Fl. 1 U Ÿ~~~~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ U & Œ ˙¿ Œ ˙¿ ˙¿. a niente f key slaps U Fl. 2 U Ÿ~~~~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ U & Œ ˙¿ Œ ˙¿ ˙¿. a niente f air B Cl. 1 U U b U & Œ ˙ Œ ˙ ˙. a niente f air B Cl. 2 U U b U & Œ ˙ Œ ˙ ˙. a niente f

œ. œ. œ. D.B. ? U U U 3 ‰Œ Œ

Ex. 2 MIRROR OGLEDALO Srdjan Hofman Belgrade 2012 q = 56-60 M. Soprano p 4 Ó & 4 I am silver and exact.

sul Sol sul La pizz. pizz. pizz. arco s. arco s. arco arco rK Solo Cello o o œ > & 4 œ ‰‰ œ œ ‰‰œ¿ œ ¿ ‰Œ Ó ‰ œ ˙. œ J J J 3 J R f ƒ p f p w œ & 4 ww Ó Œ œœ Piano f w p œ ? w œ 4 Ó Œ ° ° 6 > >r r Flute 1 œ. œ œ œ . œ. œ œ œ . & 4 œ bœ œ. œ Œ œ ‰Œ œ œ . . 6 J . . 3 Flute 2 r 4 ‰ œ œ. bœ œ. œ œ œ œ œ b œ œ œ j ‰ & 4 œ œ . . œ . . > œ R œ . . . . > . Clarinet in B 1 b & 4

Clarinet in B 2 b & 4

112 Mikić, V.: Reflections of/on Self in Srđan Hofman’s Ogledalo... (103–113)

Ex. 3

J q = 52 F b˙>˙. b˙>˙. bœ>œ F bœ>œ 3 . . œ bœœ ˙˙ 4 >bœœ. ˙˙. 3 œ bœœ ˙˙ & 4 #œ 4 #œœ . . 4 #œ Pno. ƒ f bœ p bœ f œ bœ œ ˙ w f œ bœ œ ˙ ? 3 œ 4 3 œ 4 6 4 4 6 ° * .. 100 b˙. ˙. œ Fl. 1 3 J & 4 ‰ŒŒ4 43 ƒ ˙. ˙. œ Fl. 2 & 43 J ‰ŒŒ4 43 ƒ . . B Cl. 1 ˙ w œ b 3 4 3 J & 4 4 4 Œ p . B Cl. 2 ˙. w œ b 3 4 3 & 4 4 4 J Œ p

113 New Sound 42, II/2013

Article received on 09 November 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1 Милошевић Т. 78.071.1 Поповић Б. 78.071.1 Јовановић Д.

Radoš Mitrović* University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music Department of Musicology

SUITE JURIJEV KRUG FOR THE OPERA ZVEZDANI GRAD BY DRAGANA JOVANOVIĆ; CHAMBER OPERA KO JE UBIO PRINCEZU MOND? BY TATJANA MILOŠEVIĆ; CHAMBER OPERA PETERSBURG BY BRANKA POPOVIĆ

On some elements of the narrative structure of the works Abstract: Three works by contemporary Serbian female composers, although disparate as to the manner of their realization, do have some similarities. An affinity can be perceived by analysing the poetical planes supporting the textual bases of these compositions, as well as their relationships with the musical component. The intersections can be found in the specific attitude towards the subject and the subject’s identity, problematized in the librettos, as well as in the issue of the time/space dichotomy within the narrative. Key words: Dragana Jovanović, Tatjana Milošević, Branka Popović, chamber opera, Dragan Živadinov, postgravity art, Morian Lagartia, Andrei Bely

Chamber operas Ko je ubio princezu Mond? [Who Killed Princess Mond?] by Tatjana Milošević and Petersburg by Branka Popović, as well as the suite Jurijev krug [Yuri’s Circle] for the opera Zvezdani grad [Star City] by Dragana Jovanović, are works with divergent poetical foundations. The creative impulses and the basic conceptual ideas are different, and hence, naturally, the re- alizations of these compositions are disparate. However, one can register certain points within the works in which the poetical procedures of the three composers become closer. In that respect, what is evident is the similarity between certain components of the librettos, as well as their musical treatment. Of course, we * Author contact information: [email protected]

114 Mitrović, R.: Suite Jurijev krug for the opera Zvezdani grad by D. Jovanović... (115–121) are not talking about the similarities of stylistic traits, but of the authors’ attitudes towards certain elements of the works. On this occasion a deeper musical analysis, which would certainly provide more complete answers, will be omitted. Therefore we shall come to general conclusions about the compositions and their possible affinities. Thus, we are facing the issues of the narrativity of these works, the position (or dislocation) of the protagonists’ identity, and a specific attitude towards the elements of space/time within the narrative.

Teleportation suite for chamber ensemble and electronics Jurijev krug1 Jurijev krug is a suite which, paradoxically, anticipates the opera Zvezdani grad. It is based on a libretto by Dragan Živadinov, which deals with the basic ideas of postgravity art. In that respect, the suite, in its compressed form and with a specific narrative structure, presents a philosophical thought which is the foundation of Živadinov’s concept. This art is based on the idea of establishing a continuity with avant-garde movements, of joining two antagonistic styles – Constructivism and Suprematism. These two movements are framed by a discourse stemming from the ideas of cosmism and transhumanism, thus, in fact, resulting in a sort of futurist theoretical platform based on metaphysics. In that respect, the goal of postgravity art is transcending physics through physics. For this exact reason, the full description of the composition is teleportacijska svita [teleportation suite], which also creates a direct link to the libretto, given that the main protagonist, a cosmonaut Yuri, is trying to teleport himself to another, metaphysical dimension. In the composer’s own words: “On teži da pređe u novo – antigravitaciono stanje, da se prebaci preko empirijske i fiktivne rampe koja ga deli od bestežinskog prostora i druge dimenzije. On razume sve jezike, njegov cilj je da sva znanja i iskustva prevede u ‘um, zaum i vakuum’” [“He strives to change into a new – antigravitational state, to get across a empirical and imaginary barrier separating him from weightless space and the other dimension. He understands all languages, his goal is to transform all knowledge and experience into ‘rationality, transrationality and vacuum’”].2 Therefore, the opera is constructed on quasi-narrativity, which follows the protagonist’s physi-

1 Suite for the opera Zvezdani grad was premiered on 10th April 2013 at the Belgrade Youth Centre. The text by Dragan Živadinov was translated into Russian and adapted by Yuri Ba- turin. The work contains five movements: Орбитализация [Orbitalization], Супраорганизм [Supraorganism], Вакуум заум [Vacuum Transrationality], Методологи [Methodologists], С_ВИТАНЈЕ [D_AYBREYK]. The work was performed by the vocal-instrumental ensemble “Mir”, conducted by Ivan Marković. 2 Programme booklet for the premiere performance of the work.

115 New Sound 42, II/2013 cal and mental state through philosophical statements and pseudo-dialogues. His linear model of cognition, which is supposed to lead him to the ultimate foundationalist point, is constantly disturbed by Her,3 who in fact is a dynamic counterbalance in the narrative. As it happens, She does not contribute to the ontological attainment of the Truth by, for instance, some sort of case history; instead, She makes Yuri’s position harder, by raising doubt.4 If we delved more deeply into psychoanalysis, we could use the feminist discourse and develop the claim on the mythical female, which hampers, but also helps a man in confirming his own identity. However, if we put aside possible implications of that kind, the issue of Yuri’s identity remains central in the opera. He actually acquires his identity by losing it. The vacillation of his personality is the skeleton of the libretto, and consequently the music which adheres to the text, charged with high expressivity. Yuri’s dematerialization, namely, is accompanied by the- disappearance of the bodies of all the performers, with only the voices remaining, preserved in an audio recording. Electronically modified vocal parts are treated in a particular way, and the vocal timbres, i.e. the recorded performers, are integrated into the general acoustic image. They became independent signs, which/who lost their identity, yet, paradoxically, like Yuri, acquired it. In that regard, Yuri’s identity is built by means of various performers, which under- lines the character of his struggle and transformation. Apart from a bass,5 a baritone6 and a tenor,7 the most important in creating the dramaturgy of Yuri’s teleportation are the voice of a chanter and a child.8 The chanter represents Yuri in the second movement, Супраорганизм [Supraorganism], and renders his final parts in the last movements. The child’s voice, on the other hand, brings forward Yuri’s last words, which symbolically completes the circle of his journey by areturn to innocence. The simulation of Christian Orthodox music, apart from plenty of polistylistic elements, quasi-quotations and simulations, is thus a signifier, reinforced by the fact that it is represented by the specific voice of Pavle Aksentijević.9 On the other hand, with the words “попробуйте,

3 The part of She/Her was performed by Sanjana Nikolić, alto. 4 Apart from Yuri and Her, the composition also features Observatory (Aneta Ilić, soprano) and Laboratory (Natalija Mladenović, soprano). Their role is to comment Yuri’s state and situation. Besides, the author also uses a choir, Vox Populi. 5 Darko Manić. 6 Vladimir Dinić. 7 Ivan Debeljak. 8 Dimitrije Mladenović. 9 In the last movement, the meditative coda to the work suggestively follows after the culmination on the words, “без акта веры вселенная не существует!” [“Without the act of faith, the universe does not exist!”].

116 Mitrović, R.: Suite Jurijev krug for the opera Zvezdani grad by D. Jovanović... (115–121)

измерьтемойэкстаз” [“try and measure my ecstasy”], the opera ends with a child’s voice, “glas derla, oslobođen testosterona, oslobođen svih napora ove dimenzije” [“the voice of a brat, free of testosterone, free from all the struggles in this dimension”],10 as the author herself put it. In that respect, the choice of the musical procedures is directly related to the basic idea of destroying identity and creating what could perhaps be defined as super-identity. On the other hand, the act of teleportation entails the problem of time. Musically, it is manifested in the polistylistic construction of the composition, which, actually, presents the listener indiscriminately with divergent idioms teleported from one musical sphere to another. This makes the anti-temporality of Postmodernism obvious, which is also in keeping with the textual tissue. The poetic idea in such a procedure ultimately becomes similar to one of the points in the manifesto of postgravity artists – “there is no past and no future, just the absolute present! Theatre is the absolute present!”11

Chamber opera Ko je ubio princezu Mond?12 The idea of a Cartesian subject and the issue of temporality are parts of the poetical framework within which the chamber opera Ko je ubio princezu Mond? was composed. Namely, the libretto of this opera, written after a short text by Morian Lagartia, uses the form of narrative based on the tradition of French Renaissance literature to raise an immanently Modernist question of personal freedom. In that respect, Tatjana Milošević, like Dragana Jovanović, uses Mod- ernist poetics combined with a Postmodernist stylistic envelope. Morian (the Grand Page), like Yuri, acquires his identity by losing it.13 His mother, Eva, is represented in the opera by three performers, which explicitly presents her split personality, torn and divided into characters that complement each other (the fact implied by their insufficiently differentiated musical parts). By killing her, Morian kills himself, but at the same time he frees himself of an imaginary world he is part of. In fact, he needs her just as much as she needs him, and the epilogue is mutual liberation through death. In that respect, it is worth

10 The show “Vreme muzike” [“Time of Music”], Radio Belgrade 2, author and host Bojana Žižić. Broadcast on 10th April 2013. 11 Manifesto of postgravity art, section 17. Cf. http://elmcip.net/sites/default/files/files/attachments/criticalwriting/31079708-50-topics.pdf 12 Željko Mijanović translated and adapted the libretto. The premiere took place on 9th June 2012 in the Bitef Theatre in Belgrade, performed by the ensemble Gradilište [Construction Site] and conducted by Premil Petrović. 13 The work features the following characters: Morian (the Grand Page), Balthazar, Eva and Ludovico (the Decorator).

117 New Sound 42, II/2013 noting that the segments of the opera related to Morian’s liberation through death – first of the Decorator and then of Eva – are accompanied by hints of tonal waltz-like music. At the same time, these are the only moments in the composition that are explicitly, in such a way, separated from the rest of the musical tissue, thus representing the work’s punctum saliens. Abrupt changes in the character of the musical material follow the key points in the narrative structure, which are related to the gradual destruction of the protagonists’ imaginary world. Such a world is constructed by the characters, but it, in turn, shapes their personalities. In that respect, the opera also problematizes the time/space dichotomy, i.e. its role in making Morian’s, Eva’s and the Decorator’s identities. Namely, the action takes place in the world of illusions (initiated by the Decorator, through the idea of die neuzeitlich Sicht), and therefore it is significant that in Morian’s original text, the world of Princess Mond is compared to the world of Princess Brambilla, from the eponymous novella by E. T. A. Hoffmann. There, Hoffmann, like Morian, brings actuality per se to the fore, by interpreting everyday life as a dream, but also as hell created by human vanity.14 Such viewpoint can be compared to what was said in the programme note: that “opera pokušaj da se prikažu psihološki portreti protagonista drame u njihovim apsurdnim traganjima za vlastitim identitetom i njihovoj nemoći da prevaziđu opsednutost narcisoidnom imaginacijom” [“the opera is an attempt to present the psychological portrayals of the protagonists in their absurd quests for their own identities, and in their powerlessness to overcome the obsession with nar- cissistic imagination”].15 In that respect, one can draw a parallel between the action in this opera and a Romanticist wondering about life, i.e. a Hoffmannian question about the relationship between the subject and the world around that subject. This world, in the opera Ko je ubio princezu Mond?, exists trapped in time and space, because that is the exact habitat of fantasy, which subsequently creates its own protagonists. The unreality of time, as a philosophical construct but also as a theoretical thesis,16 is problematized within the context of the idea of personal freedom, i.e. a divided subject. Namely, the key point in the opera is the movement titled Neprekinuti trenutak zabave [An Uninterrupted Moment of Entertainment], where the Grand Page declares that “kuća bila mašina za proizvodnju veštačkih rajeva” [“the house was a machine for producing artifi-

14 Cf. Helga Slessarev, E. T. A. Hoffmann’s “Prinzessin Brambilla”: A Romanticist’s Contri- bution to Aesthetic Education of Man, Studies in Romanticism, 19/3, Boston University, Boston, 1970, 151. 15 Programme booklet for the premiere performance of the work. 16 Cf. e.g. Robin Le Poidevin (ed.), “The Philosophy of Time”, Oxford University Press, New York City, 1993.

118 Mitrović, R.: Suite Jurijev krug for the opera Zvezdani grad by D. Jovanović... (115–121) cial paradises”], and that “svi satovi u kući zaustavljeni” [“all the clocks in the house are stopped”]. The last sentence is repeated by the protagonists, as a clear symbol of time flowing, i.e. not flowing, which was underlined at the beginning of the opera, when the initial motive is repeated accompanied by percussion. By employing repetition, the composer actually establishes a correlation between two types of time, which is typical of any kind of narration, and consequently of the musical accompaniment to a narrative structure. Namely, on this occasion we can resort to the theory of the narrativity of a novel, which states that the very fabric of the novel establishes “tensions [and aporias] between narrated time and the time of the narration, chronology and plot, objective and subjective time, cosmological and phenomenological time, time as topic and time as technique (…) [this is] the discourse in which the dynamics and dialectics of time are most faithfully and properly observed”.17 The chamber opera Ko je ubio princezu Mond? establishes a correlation between the musical and the narrative tissues, on the one hand, and the temporal stagnation indicated by the very content of the libretto, on the other. The staging of the premiere, however, offered an addition to the text, as well as the resolution to the opera and the problem of the time and the protagonists’ identities: a child appears on the stage. Morian, like Yuri, returns to the age of innocence, i.e. childhood.

Chamber opera Petersburg18 The Neo-Kantian concept of rationalism and intuitiveness as a stereotypi- cal trait of the East are two confronted spheres which, in the literary work Pe- tersburg by Andrei Bely,19 are personified in the two main protagonists, Apollon Apollonovich and Nikolai Apollonovich. The question of identity is central. However, the clash of their identities is presented just like one of many, and in the same way they are only (arche)typical characters within a complex social system. That system is depicted by the urban space of Petersburg, and described by the subjective and complex narrative structure of the narrator. Thus, the my- thologization of everyday life takes place within a deconstructed dichotomy of time/space. The musical theatre piece Petersburg retains such dichotomic characteristics of the text, although Aleksandra Sekulić logically compressed it by her adaptation. The music, on the other hand, follows the narration and the action

17 Mark Currie, About Time: Narrative, Fiction and the Philosophy of Time, Edinburgh Uni- versity Press LTD, Edinburgh, 2007, 92–93. 18 The premiere of the work took place on 19th June 2012 in the Belgrade Youth Centre. 19 The novel was published in 1916 in Russia.

119 New Sound 42, II/2013 talked about instead of the individual characters, given that the protagonists are merely observed through the lens of the human myriapod in Petersburg, and thus are musically nondescript. Also, the musical tissue, in the composer’s own words, was reduced,20 and thus the basic building material of the work was based on repeating shorter motives, melodically and harmonically simple. They put into music the textual structure which Bely built, taking care of the sound of the words and sentences, guided by the ideas of Symbolist poetics. The writer in this work used both semantics and phonetics to construct a strati- fied narrative base.21 In that regard, the musical motives in the opera are often reduced to the rhythmical outlining of the sentences, or words, in the parts of the protagonists, while the narrator is the catalyst of the more expressive musical drama. The music thus decides on adhering to the external flow of time, given that the text actually represents a symbolic dualism, which can be linked to Bergson’s poetics that juxtaposes external form and fluid internal duration.22 Also, it seems that the musical structure is reduced to something like geometri- cal shapes, which directly corresponds with the treatment of space in the novel: the writer sees it precisely through the prism of geometry. The linearity of the musical tissue and the repetition as the symbol of the circular can be compared to Bely’s interpretation of the world – circularly and linearly as probably different, but nevertheless identical forms.23 It can be said that the music of the opera establishes a correlation between the Apollonian form and the Dionysian content of the text.24 In that respect, the opera Petersburg, like the other two works, raises the basic question related to the position of the subject within the narrative, the subject’s placement in time and the relationship of the musical parameters with the narrative structure and poetics of the libretto.

Translated by Goran Kapetanović

20 Cf. the programme booklet for the premiere performance of the work. 21 Cf. Eva Maliti, The World of Novel “Petersburg” by Andrei Bely, Human Affairs, 8, 1998, 90. 22 Cf. Hilary Fink, Andrei Bely and the Music of Bergsonian Duration, The Slavic and East European Journal, 41/2, 1997, 289. 23 Sandra Joy Russell, The City as Dialectic: Andrei Bely’s Creative Consciousness, its Ni- etzschean Influence, and the Urban Centre in Petersburg, TranscUlturAl, 1/4, 2011, 38. 24 Cf. Eva Maliti, op. cit., 288.

120 Mitrović, R.: Suite Jurijev krug for the opera Zvezdani grad by D. Jovanović... (115–121)

Literature:

Banjanin, Milica, Of Dreams, Phantoms, and Places: Andrey Bely’s Petersburg, The Interna- tional Fiction Review, 10/2, 1983, 98–103. Currie, Mark, About Time: Narrative, Fiction and the Philosophy of Time, Edinburgh Uni- versity Press LTD, Edinburgh, 2007. Fink, Hilary, Andrei Bely and the Music of Bergsonian Duration, The Slavic and East Euro- pean Journal, 41/2, 1997, 287–302. Lagatria, Morian, Ko je ubio Princezu Mond. Maliti, Eva, The World of Novel “Petersburg” by Andrei Bely, Human Affairs, 8, 1998, 85–96. Manifesto of Postgravity Artists. http://elmcip.net/sites/default/files/files/attachments/ criticalwriting/31079708-50-topics.pdf Poidevin, Robin Le (ed.), The Philosophy of Time, Oxford University Press, New York City, 1993. Russell, Sandra Joy, The City as Dialectic: Andrey Bely’s Creative Consciousness, its Nietz- schean Influence, and the Urban Centre in Petersburg, TranscUlturAl, 1/4, 2011, 31–46. Slessarev, Helga, E.T.A. Hoffmann’s ”Prinzessin Brambilla”: A Romanticist’s Contribution to Aesthetic Education of Man, Studies in Romanticism, 19/3, Boston University, Boston, 1970, 147–160.

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Article received on 13 November 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 821.163.41-13:78.02

Branka Radović*

NEW WORKS INSPIRED BY NJEGOŠ (MARKING THE BICENTENARY OF THE BIRTH OF P. P. NJEGOŠ)

Abstract: Celebrations of Njegoš’s anniversaries have always been an opportunity for the artist to approach – Njegoš. This also happened on the latest, 200th anniversary of Njegoš’s birth. Compositions commissioned from Montenegrin authors Žarko Mirković, Ale- ksandar Perunović and Nina Perović were premiered in Podgorica on 20th April 2013, and later performed in Negotin, at the Mokranjčevi dani [Days of Mokranjac] festival, on 19th September 2013. Key words: celebration, lament, Gorski vijenac / The Mountain Wreath, vocal language, choral texture, harmonic language

The first great celebration of a Njegoš jubilee took place in 1901, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the poet’s death. The newspapers and weekly magazines of the time wrote about it, particularly emphasizing the importance of the commemoration organized in all the Serbian lands, but the most lavish was in Novi Sad. We believe that the music of Isidor Bajić (1878–1915), written for a performance of The Mountain Wreath contributed to this. Documents about this, even reviews of his music, have survived: “Mladi kompozitor Isa Bajić pritekao je takođe u pomoć svojim umetničkim muzičkim darom. Koliko mu zameramo što je, markirajući muzikom kola crnogorska, izvodio to na sremač ki način, a nije uneo nikakvih crnogorskih mo- tiva (poznato je bar ono iz ‘Balkanske carice’: ‘U Ivana gospodara’), toliko mu ističemo s pohvalom što je pokušao da tužbalicu sestre Batri ćeve ‘izveštači’, pa opet da ostane na narodnom osnovu narodnih crno gorskih tužbalica.”1

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 “The young composer Isa Bajić also came to the rescue with his artistic musical gift. Inas- much as we hold it against him for evoking Montenegrin round dances in his music using the manner of Srem without including any Montenegrin motives (at least ‘U Ivana gospodara’ from ‘The Balkan Empress’ is well-known), we give him credit and commend him for trying to make the lament of Batrić’s sister ‘artful’, and yet not to deviate from the folklore

122 Radović, B.: New Works inspired by Njegoš ... (122–128)

Another great celebration was in 1951 in Cetinje, when the entire state of (former) Yugoslavia backed up the event and when the commissioned works by eminent composers were performed to mark the event: Vojislav Vučković (posthumously performed the first movement of Herojski oratorijum [Heroic Oratorio]), Svetolik Pašćan (choral song Bješe oblak [A Cloud Caught the Sun]), Jovan Bandur (choral song Crnogorski madrigal, Lovćenu [Montenegrin Madrigal, To Lovćen]), Svetomir Nastasijević (choral song Čašu meda [A Cup of Honey]), Božidar Trudić (Pjesma svata Crnogorca [Song of the Montenegrin Wedding Guest], bass and orchestra), Ljubica Marić (Stihovi iz Gorskog vijenca [Verses from The Mountain Wreath], baritone and orchestra, i.e. piano), Nikola Hercigonja (cantata Gorski vijenac [The Mountain Wreath]). These works met with a resoundingly favourable public reception, and Nikola Hercigonja’s cantata in subsequent years became the stage oratorio Gorski vijenac (1952–1957), performed more than 35 times in the country and abroad. The idea from 1951 seems to have inspired and influenced the concept of the celebration in 2013, in the sense that this time the works were commissioned not only from renowned Montenegrin composers (Žarko Mirković), but also from two very young authors, unknown to the general public: Aleksandar Perunović (1978) and Nina Perović (1985). These two young authors are still students (doctoral studies of composition at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade, with Professor Srđan Hofman). All these works, as well as some previously written, were performed in Podgorica, on 20th April 2013.2 The same concert was held at the Mokranjčevi dani festival in Negotin, on 19th September 2013, within the events marking Njegoš’s jubilee. One of the authors of the new works, Žarko Mirković (1952), turned to Njegoš – just like Ljubica Marić and Dejan Despić had done for the second time foundation of Montenegrin folk lament.” Brankovo kolo, 31st January (13th February) 1902, Sremski Karlovci, VIII, 4 and 5, 192. 2 On 20th April 2013, the concert titled “Njegoševe armonije” [“Njegoš’s Harmonies”] was held in the National Theatre of Montenegro in Podgorica, at the close of the festival A Tempo. The Montenegrin Choral Ensemble took part, consisting of the Choir of Stanko Dragojević Cultural Society; the Choir of the Vasa Pavić Music School from Podgorica; the Choir of the Music Academy in Cetinje; and the Choir of the Vida Matjan Music School in Kotor. The ensemble of 150 singers was conducted by: Darinka Matić Marović, Ilija Dapčević, Zoja Đurović, Aleksandra Knežević and Mihajlo Lazarević. The programme included Tužbalica [Lament] by Dejan Despić; Počitajemi [Honourable] by Vojin Komadina; parts of Testame- nat [Testament] by Rajko Maksimović; and three premieres: Trenos [Threnody] by Žarko Mirković; Kletva [Oath] by Aleksandar Perunović; Neka bude [Let It Be] by Nina Perović. The soloists were Ivana Petrović, soprano; Srđan Sretenović, violoncello; Ols Sinćo, violin; Petar Novaković, narrator, and others.

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– several decades after the first performance of his Pisma [Letters], a vocal- instrumental work inspired by excerpts from Njegoš’s Pisma and Luča mikrokozma [The Torch of the Microcosmos]. Trenos [Threnody] by Žarko Mirković was composed on the verses of Tužbalica sestre Batrićeve [Lament of Batrić’s Sister] and Sirdar Vukota’s monologue from Gorski vijenac, for two soloists (soprano and violoncello) and mixed choir. The title of the work brings forth the forms of Ancient Greek art and cults from which this art originated. Lamentation, threnody, as well as glo- rification and praises, hymns and paeans, constitute the major part of Ancient Greek musical art, stemming from archaic and mythical traditions. The work has no common ground with Penderecki’s Threnody for the Victims of Hiro- shima, nor with the New Polish School in general. This is the author’s comment on the work from the Programme Booklet: “Kada sam poslije decenija oklijevanja odlučio da ponovo tražim svoju muziku u Gorskom vijencu, privukli su me naricanje sestre Batrićeve i vapaj serdara Vukote, potresni monolozi u kolektivnom biću tadašnje Crne Gore, na- viknute, ali ne i pomirene sa smrću; uzvišeni dvoglas izvan i iznad vremena, koji čine da opšte i herojsko zaćuti pred dubinom ličnog bola. Otuda Trenos, tužna pjesma o onome koji zauvijek odlazi, i nemoći onih koji ostaju.”3 The verses are combined so that the recognizable introduction “Kuda si mi uletio” [“Where have you flown away from me”] is omitted; thus the composition begins with the verses from the second part of Njegoš’s text and is freely and randomly merged with other verses from Tužbalica, interpolated with verses recited by Sirdar Vukota in the so-called Turkish Scene, as his response to Sk- ender Aga’s speech during the earliest attempts at negotiating with the Turks. This part of Gorski vijenac is written in decasyllabic verses, unlike Tužbalica, which is in octosyllables with a tetrasyllabic refrain. Both internally and externally, the structure of the composition is highly symmetrical. Internally, it is made up of eight-bar long units. Atypical textual beginning corresponds to an atypical musical beginning, which is conceived in long parts of solo soprano, in the melismatic and ornamented chant of a female voice in harmonic G minor. Initially, the choir has the role of bourdon. The

3 “When after decades of hesitation I decided to look for my music once more in The Moun- tain Wreath, I was struck by the lament of Batrić’s sister and the cry of Sirdar Vukota, tragic monologues in the collective being of Montenegro at the time, accustomed, but not resigned to death; the sublime duo outside and above time, which renders the general and the heroic silent in the face of the depth of personal pain. Therefore Threnody, a sad song about the one who leaves forever and the powerlessness of those who stay.” Programme booklet, Interna- tional Music Festival “A Tempo”, Montenegrin Music Centre, Podgorica, 2013, 10.

124 Radović, B.: New Works inspired by Njegoš ... (122–128) violoncello creates a dialogue with the soprano, in bitonal structures rendered by the soprano and choir voices. The whole first part of the composition is entrusted to the soloists, while the middle part is taken over by the mixed choir, leading to a fortissimo culmination on the words “Da ti crne oči viđu” [“Again to look into your dark eyes”] and “Da ti očešljam dugi perčin” [“To comb again your locks of hair”]. The cadential incantation in the middle section is rendered by the violoncello, followed by the solo soprano. After the dialogue is over, the curse of Sirdar Vukota begins in the male choir (“O prokleta zemljo, propala se!” [“O accursed land, may you perish in doom!”]). The middle, lyrical part is entrusted to the female choir, replaced in turn by a fierce curse, and everything ends in an emanation of pain, where the entire apparatus is employed on the words “Kud će tvoja mlada ljuba” [“What will happen to your young wife”]. By many features of its language and expression, Trenos belongs to postmodern poetics and stylistics. The melodies have a basic affiliation with folklore, but the truly ethnic lamentations and their roots in cults and myths are merely outlined and hinted. Teaching Assistant at the Music Academy in Cetinje, Aleksandar Perunović (1978) for his composition Kletva [Oath] chose the verses spoken by Sirdar Vukota in Gorski vijenac. The work is written for mixed choir. About his own work, the author wrote: “Kompozicija Kletva zasniva se na odlomku iz Gorskog vijenca (2407– 2437) koji predstavlјa svojevrsnu kulminaciju ovog Nјegoševog djela. Riječ je o (za)kletvi koja je izrečena na kraju skupštine o Malom Gospođinu dne. Najavlјuje je serdar Janko riječ ima: ‘Izdati se nećemo, ama treba da se ut- vrdimo kletvom; zdravi je posao’, a izgovara je serdar Vukota, kome se Vuk Mićunović obraća sa ‘Kuni serdare Vukota, ti, e ti najbolјe umiješ, a mi ćemo svi vikati: Amin’. U vezi sa izvođenjem ovog ri tuala zaklinjanja u Crnoj Gori, Vuk Karadžić u svom Ri ječniku pored ostalog napominje i to da oni što sjede oko onoga što kune valјa da viču ne samo ‘amin’ već i ‘da Bog da’, što sam takođe unio u tekst/kompoziciju. Konstantnim ulančava njem ovih dvaju gov- ornih instanci želio sam – u skladu sa značenjskom pozadinom datog odlomka – da proizvedem ritualno-repetitivni proces koji je, uz to, potcrtan i time što pjevači u horu udaraju nogom o pod pri njihovom izgovaranju. Čitav ovaj muzičko-ritualni proces/kompozicija počinje ‘od nule’, a zatim se postepenim pojačavanjem aktivnosti svih muzičkih komponenti (tempa, dinamike, faktur- no-strukturnih elemenata itd.) stiže do vrhunca – maksimalnog stepena egzalt- acije na samom kraju.”4

4 “The composition Oath is based on an excerpt from The Mountain Wreath (2407–2437) which is a sort of culmination of Njegoš’s work. It is an oath (in the form of a curse) uttered

125 New Sound 42, II/2013

The work unfolds according to more modern compositional procedures than the opuses of the other authors. Perunović does not hesitate to overlap lines of text simultaneously, losing parts of the words in the process, i.e. making the words unintelligible. Besides the stomping, instead of timpani or some other percussion instrument, he uses the confirmation of the oath – first as a refrain, and then as a constant inner voice, i.e. a counterpoint in the recapitulation – to underscore the oath itself. Regardless of the vivid and devastating verses, the main idea was dislocated from them into the mixed choir, rendering a trichordal, terse, short melody, which, by means of repeating it, represents the musical expression of taking an oath. Although it seems short, the composition contains over 240 bars. The development follows the meaning of the spoken verses and text, but in the way the composer heard it – in a dramaturgical structure with a few smaller culmina- tions and a large and hymnic one, at the end. The harmonic language of the work is based on the Phrygian mode, and at the very end, after a multitude of dissonances, the musical language approaches tonality by introducing tertian chords. Basically, the formal structure is monothematic, with numerous repetitions of the same themes – motives – archetypes, as if in a mantra or a cult. The musical formula is repeated like in a ritual, in order to determine the truth, so that the mantra would have the most direct effect on the senses, on the listeners, those whom the oath is directed to. The third name among the authors is also the youngest. Nina Perović (1985) composed the work Neka bude [Let It Be] for solo violin and mixed choir, on the verses “Neka bude borba neprestana / neka bude što biti ne može” [“Let the struggle go on without respite. / Let it be what men thought could never be.”], at the end of the assembly on the day of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Sirdar Janko heralds it with the words, ‘We will not betray you, but we must confirm it with an oath; it will be sounder business,’ and it is uttered by Sirdar Vukota, to whom Vuk Mićunović says, ‘Administer the oath, Sirdar Vukota! You know it best, and we shall all cry out: Amen!’ Regarding this ritual of taking an oath in Montenegro, Vuk Karadžić in his Dictionary wrote that those sitting around the person taking the oath should not only exclaim ‘Amen’, but also ‘God grant it’, which I also included in the text/composition. By the constant interweaving of these two spoken phrases, I wanted – in keeping with the semantic background of the chosen excerpt – to produce a ritualistic and repetitive process which would also be emphasized by the choir singers stomping the floor while pronouncing them. The entire musical and ritualistic process/composition starts ‘from scratch’, and then, by gradual increase of the activity of all the musical components (tempo, dynamics, textural and structural elements etc.), a climax is reached – the highest degree of exaltation at the very end.” The programme booklet, 7.

126 Radović, B.: New Works inspired by Njegoš ... (122–128) from Bishop Danilo’s second monologue. This monologue takes place during the assembly on the day of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, after the second Round Dance, where the verses “Čašu meda” [“A Cup of Honey”] are sung. The author wrote about her work: “Kompozicija Neka bude za mješoviti hor i violinu nastala je 2012. godine povodom 200 godina od rođenja Petra II Petrovića Nјegoša. Djelo je napisano na stihove Gorskog vijenca. Hor iznosi riječi vladike Danila, koji poziva na borbu: Mlado žito, navijaj klasove, pređe roka došla ti je žnjetva... Pored borbenog karaktera koji se ogleda u stihovima i koji je dat u središnjem dijelu kompozicije, očigledno je prisustvo lirskog elementa naročito izraženog u stihovima na završetku djela: Na groblјu će iznići cvijeće Za daleko neko pokolјenje! Dionica violine asocira na arhaične folklorne elemente karakteristične za tradicionalni crnogorski instrument, gusle.”5 The first part of the composition (Andante) consists of four verses. The second (Moderato espressivo) is based on the next section of the monologue, from “Čujem lelek đe gore prolama” [“Wailing echoes I hear in the mountains”] to “Neka bude borba neprestana” [“Let the struggle go on without respite”]. The first grand culmination coincides with the words “Nek ad proždre” [“Let Hell devour”], while the remaining verses are treated as Sprechgesang, a com- bination of talking and singing, “whispering”, as marked in a footnote to the score explaining the desired performing technique of the choir. This section is dominated by the solo violin accompanied by the whisper of choral voices. The third section takes us back to the initial tempo (Andante), with a musical reminiscence of the beginning of the piece, now with the words “Na groblju će iznići cvijeće / za daleko neko pokoljenje” [“Flowers will sprout and grow in

5 “The composition Let It Be for mixed choir and violin was written in 2012, on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the birth of Petar II Petrović Njegoš. The work is composed on the verses from The Mountain Wreath. The choir utters the words of Bishop Danilo, calling to battle: ‘Ripen, young wheat and corn, into the grain! / Your harvest has arrived before its time.’ Apart from the fighting spirit, evident from the verses and presented in the middle section of the work, there is also a lyrical element, particularly prominent in the verses at the end of the composition: ‘Flowers will sprout and grow in our graveyards / for some distant future generation.’ The violin part brings forth archaic folklore elements typical of the traditional Montenegrin instrument, the gusle.” The programme booklet, 9.

127 New Sound 42, II/2013 our graveyards / for some distant future generation”], which are the final verses of Bishop Danilo’s monologue. Between struggle, fear, uncertainty, pain and hardship of all kinds, life is victorious in this composition with four sections (a b a c), which includes complex techniques, from counterpoint to homophony, from the wailing of the violin at an indefinite pitch (approximately a quarter-tone scale) to broad and developed lines which are often juxtaposed in the choir. One of the culmination points, on the words “Nek ad proždre, pokosi satana” [“Let Hell devour, let Satan cut us down”], is the defiant pause before the hymnic, homophonic finale. The vitality and inspiring quality of Njegoš’s work has proved itself over a long period of time, from the first composition of the earliest authors from Njegoš’s time, to addresses from the time of King Nicholas, to professional composers of the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. So far, we have found 50 compositions inspired by Njegoš’s verses and prose. Most of them used the verses from Gorski vijenac, but in the late 20th and the early 21st century, some works are inspired by Luča mikrokozma, such as performances (Tatjana Prelević, Concerto ma nongrosso) or video-clips (Jelena Tomašević).6 Borislav Boro Tamindžić planned to compose an opera after Lažni car Šćepan Mali [Šćepan Mali, a Fake Emperor], but after his death only the first movement was found, and it was a choral with a piano reduction. The largest-scale works to date remain Hercigon- ja’s opera-oratorio Gorski vijenac and Rajko Maksimović’s Testamenat [Testa- ment], the most frequently performed work since its emergence (1986). For the most part, composers turn Njegoš’s works into songs and choral pieces, and the most frequently used verses are those from Tužbalica sestre Batrićeve. Translated by Goran Kapetanović

6 Both artists live and work in Hannover, Germany, and deal with contemporary and multimedia forms.

128 ANALYSES

Article received on 11 September 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1 Барток Б. 786.2.087.5 Paolo Susanni* Yasar University. Izmir, Turkey

TONAL PROGRESSION IN BARTÓK’S ETUDES, OP. 18

Abstract: Bartók’s mature musical language was born of both folk and art-music sources which influenced the composer in equal measure. The Three Studies for piano, Op. 18, represent a significant step in the evolution of the composer’s synthesis of the art-music source. All three etudes are based on equal-interval chains called interval cycles. Each of the three etudes represents a stage in the process of intervallic augmentation the composer named diatonic expansion. This concept, together with that of chromatic compression, is fundamental to all his mature works. The first etude expands the chromatic scale to two whole-tone scales. In the second etude the intervals are expanded to include the minor and major thirds as well as the perfect fourth, while in the third etude the tritone becomes the final step in the expansion process. The interactions of the ever-expanding interval cycles generate an array of diatonic, non-diatonic and abstract pitch collections. Parts of the opus rely on the concept of tonal progression based on axes of symmetry, which reached its perfection in later works such as the Out of Doors Suite and Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta.

In “Organic Development and the Interval Cycles in Bartók’s Three Studies, Op. 18., Elliott Antokoletz states that the “background unifying principle in Bar- tók’s three Etudes, Op. 18, is based on the systematic interlocking of the interval cycles and expanding interval ratios between semitones”1 While this statement holds true for the entire opus, Antokoletz ‘s does not examine the second and

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 Elliott Antokoletz. “Organic Development and the Interval Cycles in Bartók’s Three Stud- ies, Op. 18. “ Studia Musicologica 36/3-4 (1995): 249–261

129 New Sound 42, II/2013 third etudes in any detail. Because the continuous process toward diatonic extension occurs over the arch of the entire opus, it is essential that the latter two pieces receive the same attention given to the first. Because the single principle of diatonic extension on its own does not detail the intricate relationships that exist between the whole-tone and octatonic pitch collections of the second and third Etudes, this study will include an analysis of these relationships. Once established, these collections continue to function as individual enti- ties in the process of organic growth. This process stems from the single 1/11 and 2/10 interval cycles of the first etude to the compound cycles represented by the octatonic collections of the second and third Etudes. The whole-tone cycles, which unfold in the first Etude, generate inversionally symmetrical cyclic figurations in the opening of the second Etude. These local figurations, which articulate the formal structure of the Etude, generate a kind of musical progression based on a non-systematic use of axes of symmetry. The systematic use of axes to articulate musical progression is of fundamental importance in many of Bartók’s later works such as the Fourth and Fifth String Quartets, as well as the Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta. The three octatonic collections, already suggested in the first Etude, are the principal pitch collections of both second and third Etudes. In the second Etude octatonic collections are linked to one another by shared interval-3 cycles. The chromatic alteration of these shared cycles transforms one octatonic collection into another and brings about a new means of musical progression. The simultaneous use of two octatonic collections in the second Etude is an extension of the same principle underlying the simultaneous use of both whole-tone collections in the first etude. It can also be seen as a general extension of the principle of bimodality to the more abstract pitch collections. In the third Etude the octatonic pitch collections unfold complete paired Z cells.2 This is one of the principal compositional aims of his very next piano pieces, the Improvisations Op. 203 Furthermore, chromatically adjacent Z cells

2 We will assume a referential order for a given pitch-set, the transposition number being determined by the “first” note. If we arbitrarily designate pitch-class C as 0 and assign a corresponding number from 0 to 11 for each of the notes of the chromatic scale (C = 0, C# = 1, D = 2 Eb = 3.....C=12 or 0), then, as one instance, Eb-Ab-A-D, will be designated as Z-3. Since Z-3 maintains its intervallic order at its tritone transposition, A-D-Eb-Ab, Z-9-3), we will refer to it, regardless of its contextual ordering, by both T – nos. The Z cell, together with two other types of symmetrical tetrachords (X and Y cells), are fundamental to the musical progression of many of Bartok’s works. 3 Elliott Antokoletz The music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twen- tieth-Century Music. ( Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1984), 103–109.

130 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146) play an important part in the whole-tone transposition of octatonic sets.4 The completion of all three octatonic collections in both second and third Etudes also becomes an important structural event in later works such as the Piano Sonata5 and Fourth String Quartet.

Etude Op. 18 No. 2 The formal analysis6 of this etude is based on changes in musical texture and developments in musical progression that are detailed throughout this study. After a two-measure introduction, which consists exclusively of a continuously expanding arpeggio, the remainder of this section consists of a melody in the lower part and accompanying arpeggii in the upper part. Both whole-tone and octatonic pitch sets, fundamental to the musical language of this etude, are presented systematically in this section. Both inversionally related whole-tone collections unfold from a common axis of symmetry that is established in the first three measures. The completion of the whole-tone cycles also coincides with the completion of octatonic collections. The unfolding of both whole-tone collections toward the end of the first Etude (mm. 110-114), is initiated in the second Etude by two interlocked, inversionally related augmented triads, F-A-C# and Gb-Bb-D, which unfold linearly in the arpeggiations of the opening measures (mm. 1-2) (Ex. 1). The first note of the piece, E, which extends the triad F-A-C#-[E] upward by a third, continually intrudes (to m. 3) into the symmetrical unfolding of the two whole-tone collections. Note, Eb, which is the inversionally related counterpart to the E, is sounded as a new intrusion as the first note of the bass melody. The pitch content of this measure unfolds two inversionally related segments, E-C#- A-F and D-Bb-Gb-Eb from a common Eb/E axis. This axial semitone interlocks both whole tone cycles as they move toward completion. The B and G that complete the whole-tone-1 collection are furnished by the bass melody (mm. 4-5), while the C and Ab that complete the whole-tone – 0 collection are furnished by the melody (m. 4) and the accompaniment (m. 5). The whole-tone cycles are completed by the systematic interlocking of their component interval – 4/8

4 In Etude III, Z 5/11 (F-Bb-B-E) progresses to Z-3/9 (Eb-Ab-A-D) by the way of Z-4/10 (E-A-Bb-Eb). The movement from Z-5/11 to Z-3/9 represents the whole-tone transposition from an octatonic-2 collection to an octatonic-0 collection. 5 Paolo Susanni “The Musical Language and Formal Structure of Bartók’s Sonata for Piano (1926)”. (D.M.A treatise. University of Texas, 2001), 7-9. 6 The formal structure is as follows: A (mm. 1-12), A’ (mm. 13-27), B [Cadenza] mm.27-29), A” (mm. 30-40), Coda (mm. 41-46). Since there are several striking similarities between the A sections, the large-scale formal structure can be condensed to an A-B-A plan.

131 New Sound 42, II/2013 cyclic segments, F-A-C# plus Eb-B-G of whole-tone 1, and Gb-Bb-D plus E- C-Ab of whole-tone – 0. In both cases the second of the two segments is given in reverse order. With this orderly completion of the whole-tone cycles, the bass melody (mm. 3-6) yields two inversionally related segments, B-C-Eb (mm. 3-4) and B-Bb-G (mm. 5-6). This is a direct duplication of the axial unfolding of the two interval-2/10 cycles of the opening measures.

Example 1. Etude Op. 18 No. 2, mm 1

In this case, however, the two interval- 3/9 cyclic-segments, C-Eb and Bb-G, which are generated as part of the process, allude to the formation of an octatonic collection through the interlocking of two interval-3/9 cycles (C-Eb-Gb-A and C#-E-G-Bb) separated by a semitone. When combined, they form the octatonic -1 collection C#-Eb-E-Gb-G-A-Bb-C.7 The unfolding of these cycles extends the process of diatonic expansion that began in the First Etude that began with the partitioning of the interval-1/11 cycle into the two interval 2/10 cycles.

7 The three octatonic scales are octatonic-0 (C-D-Eb-F-F#-G#-A-Bb-C), octatonic-1 (C#- D#-E-F#G-A-Bb-B-C#), and octatonic-2 (D-E-F-G-Ab-Bb-B-C#-D). The numbers are re- tained irrespective of scalar rotation or permutation.

132 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146)

The initial pitch content (mm. 1-2) can also be seen as two incomplete octatonic-2 and octatonic-1 collections, C#-D-E-F-[ ]-[ ]-Bb-[ ] and [ ]-C#-[]- E-Gb-[ ]-A-Bb. These two octatonic collections have in common the complete interval-3 cycle, C#-E-G-Bb. The last five notes of m.6 signal a change of octatonic sets by interlocking two segments (F-Gb-Ab-C and E-F-Ab) of a new pair of incomplete octatonic collections, namely octatonic-0 and octatonic-2, respectively. The interval-3/9 cyclic- segment, F-Ab, is extended by two of the first three notes of the following measure (m. 7), D and B, establishing the completed interval-3/9 cycle, D-F-Ab-B, as the common link between the expanded octatonic-0 (F-Gb-Ab- []-B-C-D-[ ] ) and octatonic-2 ( E-F-[ ]-Ab-[ ]-B-[ ]-D) segments (Ex. 2).

Example 2. Etude Op. 18 No. 2, m. 7

The ostinato arpeggio (mm. 7-8) describes the alternation of three-note segments the two octatonic collections (F-B-[Eb] and Ab-[Db]-[G] ) respectively each collection missing only one note (F-Gb-Ab-[ ]-B-C-D-Eb and E-F-G-Ab- []-B-Db-D). The two missing notes, A and Bb are furnished by the first two notes of the melody (m. 8.). A similar process of combining and completing begins anew in mm. 9-11. This time, three of the four notes of the complete interval- 3/9 cycle (C-Eb- []-A) interlock the final pair of octatonic collections i.e., octatonic-0 and octatonic-1. The only changing element within the arpeggii (mm.10-11 ) is a linear octatonic ascent, Eb-E-F#, which furnishes the missing cyclic note, F# . (Ex. 3) This is a striking anticipation of an analogous compositional technique adopted in the third movement of the Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta.8

8 Elliott, Antokoletz. The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984. 184-197.

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Example 3 Etude Op. 18 No. 2

The melody returns to the three notes with which it started, Eb-C-B (mm. 11-12). This time however, they are presented in reverse order (B-C-Eb), thus signaling the end of the second section. By the end of the section (m. 12) Bartók unfolds the entire chromatic continuum, both interval-2 cycles, all three interval-3 cycles and all three octatonic collections. The octatonic collections are presented in a succession of pairs, in which the second pair retains one of the subcollections of the first pair and the third pair retains one of the collections from the second pair to form the sequence, octatonic 1-2, 2-0, and 0-1. All three interval-3 cycles are of great importance in the development of the following section ( m. 13 ff. ) The registral inversion of arpeggios and melody i.e., as invertible counterpoint, signals the opening of this section. The transformations of the octatonic scales through the alteration of the component interval-3 cycles generates the musical progression of these measures. Toward the end of the section, the whole-tone collections emerge once again, reestablishing their coexistence with the octatonic collections. The alterations of the octatonic collections create diatonic chord progressions that further the process of organic growth not only on the micro level, of the piece, but on the macro level as well. The arpeggio (mm. 13-14) unfolds [ ]-D-[ ]-F-F#-Ab-A-[ ]. The melodic segment, B-C-Eb (m. 13), completes the octatonic-0 collection. Notes Eb and C are melodically raised to E and C# (m.15). The accompaniment (m. 15) immediately furnishes the cyclic notes A# and G within the first arpeggiation. However, their occurrence within the arpeggio is not orderly. The systematic

134 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146) unfolding of the missing cyclic notes is outlined by the first and last note of the descent, described by the second note of each arpeggio, A#-A-Ab-G#-G, (mm. 15-17). The process of chromatically raising one of the two interval-3 cycles of the octatonic-0 collection is clarified. In so doing, octatonic-0 is transformed into octatonic-2, confirmed by the exclusive octatonic-2 pitch content of the first half of m. 16. (Ex. 4)

Example 4. Etude Op. 18 No. 2 mm. 14-17 (first half)

This procedure is repeated (mm. 16-18), where the melody (mm. 16-17, downbeat), unfolds the incomplete cyclic segment, A-F#-[ ]-C, completed by D# (m. 17) in the accompaniment, which unfolds the D# in the same register as that of the melody. Thus, the chromatic raising of the interval 3/9 cycle, D-F- Ab-B to D#-F#-A-C, transforms octatonic-2 into octatonic -1. The C#-D#-E-F#-G-A segment of the octatonic-1 becomes an accompaniment arpeggio (mm. 20-22). Above this accompaniment, a five-note segment, Bb-Ab-D-F-C, is stated three times prior to being given in its ascending scalar order, C-D-F-Ab-Bb ( m. 22). This segment contains four notes of the whole- tone 0 collection (C-D-[F]-Ab-Bb). The note F (m. 23) is raised to F# to yield the WT-0 segment [ ]-D-F#-G#-A#. The accompaniment in the arpeggio (m. 24) unfolds WT-1 segments, sounded in scalar order (F-[ ]-A-B-C#-Eb) directly before the sounding of the WT-0 segment (Ab-Bb-C-D-[ ]-[ ] ) (mm. 24-25). The trill (m. 26), an incomplete octatonic-2 segment G-Bb-Db-F, is countered by an incomplete octatonic-0 collection spelled out in terms of its tritones, F#-C, G#-D, and A-Eb. For the second time in the Etude, octatonic-2 is juxtaposed with octatonic-0. This time, however, chromatic alterations of the incomplete octatonic collections transform these into diatonic segments, which further the process of organic growth . In the chordal progression of the bass (m. 26), the note F, required to complete the octatonic-0 collection, F#-G#-A-B-C-D-Eb-(), is replaced by a single

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E in the same measure. When the progression resumes (m. 27, bass ), the incomplete octatonic segment D#-()-F#-G#-A-B is transformed into the diatonic segment D#-E-F#-G#-A-B. This segment is partitioned into three clearly defined chords, E-G#-E, D#-A-D#, and F#-B-F#. When combined, the latter two form the major/minor seventh chord, B-D#-F#-A, which alternates with the E- G#-E chord in a V7-I pattern. The treatment of the incomplete octatonic-2 collection that occurs in the top register of the same measure (m. 27) differs only in that the C# is maintained in alternation with C of the octatonic-2 segment, C#-D-E-F-G. Again, the V7-I pattern is established between the E-C-E and the somewhat impure G-[C#]-D-F chords (Ex. 5)

Example 5. Etude Op. 18 No. 2, Cadenza.

The cadential patterns of this section are the clear indicators of the move toward diatonicism already begun in the first etude. The impurities of the second set of cadential chords indicate that the process is not complete because the diatonic and more compressed octatonic sets are intertwined, thus restricting the process. The completion of the process of diatonic expansion is realized in the third etude when the interval-5/7 cycle emerges in its pure form. With the melody absent, the texture of this section consists of an extensive succession of chords that continue the diatonicism previously established. However, it is in the cadenza that the whole-tone scales reemerge from the diatonic passage to foreshadow the return (m. 30) of the opening whole-tone arpeggios. Following the introduction to the cadenza (m. 27), the chords in the two registers at the end of the measure continue in their established ostinato sequence until they begin to move in opposite directions. The whole-tone pitch content of the top register chords, [D]-Eb-F-G-A-()-[C]-Db-Eb-[E], contains five linearly adjacent notes of the whole-tone-1 collection (Eb-F-G-A-()-Db). The whole-tone pitch content of the bottom register chords [F]-F#-G#-A#-[B]- []-D-E-[F], contains five notes of the whole-tone-0 collection (F#-G#-A#-()- D-E). In this case however the whole-tone movement is found in the inner voice of the chords that outlines the whole-tone segment A#-G#-F#. (Ex. 6)

136 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146)

Example 6. Etude Op.18, Cadenza

Of the notes that render the individual whole-tone collections impure (D, C, and E vs. the whole-tone – 1 collection and B and F vs. the whole-tone – 0 collection), the D and F form the boundary of a series of slurred figures. These two notes are symmetrical around the Eb/E axis of the opening which is now reestablished through assertion. This prepares the return of the opening arpeggios that unfold symmetrically from this Eb/E axis. The melody – arpeggio texture returns, but is considerably varied. The melody shifts to different registers through a series of octave displacements while the arpeggios move in every direction often overlapping the notes of the melody. The initial Eb/E axis of symmetry is reestablished and clarified through literal inversion of the arpeggiated figures. The axial concept extends systematically to include other axes at different sums.9 The return of axes not only confirms the axial concept as a means of musical progression, but also delineates the formal structure of the piece. The arpeggiation, now in a four-voice texture (mm. 30-31), returns to the opening material. While the octatonic sets are renewed in the same manner of the opening (mm. 32-34), the axial idea is brought back and developed. In the same way that the Eb/E forms the axis for the two segments Eb-Gb-Bb-D and F-A-C#-E (m. 32), a Bb/B axis lies between the two inversionally related segments Bb-Db-Gb-A and C-Eb-Ab-B (m. 36). The single octaves (m. 40) outline the incomplete octatonic-1 segment, C#-[ ]-Bb-A-[ ]-F#-[ ]-[ ] The same texture of the A’ section returns in the coda. The melody is in the upper part and is accompanied by the arpeggiation in the lower part. The mel-

9 Any collection of two notes is symmetrical because they can be shown to be equidistant from an imaginary axis of symmetry. If one assigns a numerical value to all twelve notes of the chromatic scale, where C = 0, C# = 1, D = 2...... C = 12 or 0, then one can calculate the sum of complementation of any two notes around the axis. For example, if D = 2 and F# = 6, the axis of symmetry is at sum 8. The sum is a convenient means of representing the axis of symmetry. All dyads of the same axis will have the same sum.

137 New Sound 42, II/2013 ody ( mm. 41-43 ) supplies three new notes (E, G, and D#), which contribute to the completion of the melodic octatonic-1 collection ( begun by the octaves of m. 40 ) so that by the end of m. 43, the collection consists of C#-D#-E-F#- G-A-Bb-[ ]. While the melodic E (m. 41) completes the WT-0 collection (C-D- []-F#-G#-A#), of the accompaniment, the C of the accompaniment completes the octatonic-1 collection of the melody. The coexistence of whole-tone and octatonic collections is achieved. The final three measures return to the octatonic-1 and octatonic-2 collections confirmed by the final octatonic chord, C#-A-E-G-D#-F#, together with dyad B-A#, which immediately precedes the chord in the final measure. The dyad outlines the boundary of the octatonic-2 collection. The octatonic-1 and octatonic -2 collections are the ones that are first unfolded and interlocked at the beginning of the piece (Ex. 8).

Example 8. Etude Op. 18 No. 2, final measure

In the second etude, the means of progression is based on the interaction of octatonic pitch sets and their component cycles. This is underlined by the im- minence of literal symmetry not only in the large scheme of focal points but in the local textures as well. The Eb/E (sum 7) axis, which is created by the first note of the bass melody against the accompanying arpeggios (mm. 1-3), seems at first to be an isolated event. However, an analogous sounding of C/C# (sum 1) and G/F# (sum 1) by the ensuing bass melody and accompanying arpeggios (mm. 4-5) provides the second of the two odd axes of the octatonic-1 scale. The octatonic - 1 scale is the first to be completed in these measures. The completion of the octatonic-0 collection that takes place at the beginning of the second section (mm. 7-12) is initiated (m. 6) by a shift to sum 5, represented by the high G of the arpeggio and the Bb of the melody . This sum represents one of the odd axes of the octatonic-0 scale. The final two measures that end this section on the repeated B/Bb of the melody and harmony are at sum 9. Toward the end of the third section, there is a return to the sum 1 axis (m. 17), repre-

138 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146) sented by the C#/C of the linear and vertical dimensions. This is reinforced at the beginning of the trill section (mm. 20ff.), where the upper note of the trill, C, is juxtaposed by the C# of the accompanying arpeggio. After the preliminary reestablishment of the Eb/E axis in the cadenza (m. 28), the recapitulation (mm. 29 ff.) opens with the arpeggio that rotates around that same Eb/E (sum 7) axis. This time however, the axis is created by the literal inversion around the Eb/E axis. This focal point is also the key structural point as it highlights the beginning of the final section of the etude’s ABA structure. In an analogous manner, the arpeggii (m. 36), C-Eb-Ab-B in the right hand and Bb-Db-Gb-A, together, are symmetrical around a Bb/B axis at sum 9. In the opening (mm.1-6), the complete interval-3 cycle (C#-E-G-Bb) common to the octatonic-1 and octatonic-2 collections, is represented on the background level by C# and E (m.1f.) of the arpeggio and the G and Bb of the melody (m. 6). The odd axial dyads (F/F#, G#/A, B/C, and D/D#), around which the complete compound cyclic collection can be permuted, are the two axes of symmetry at sums 11 and 5. These two sums also represent the odd axes of the octatonic-0 collection. The interval- 3/9 cycle (C#-E-G-A#), whose presence is implied by the prominently placed C# and A# (mm. 45-46) ends the piece at sum 11, one of the two odd axes of octatonic-0. This octatonic collection opens the third etude and is the first to be completed therein.

Etude Op. 18 No. 3 The musical texture of this etude, which consists of a continuous accompaniment in the lower part punctuated by chords in the upper part, is inter- rupted briefly (mm. 38-51) in the middle of the piece by a melody that is shared between the two parts and seems therefore to be a large-scale formal clarifier that takes on a central structural role. Since changes of musical texture are in- frequent, one must look more to the repetition of accompaniment figurations and transformations of pitch sets within the texture in order to define the formal structure of the piece. In doing so one might arrive at the following symmetrical formal scheme: Introduction- A-Transition-A’-B-Transition-A”-Codetta.10 This formal symmetry is confirmed by the coda that restates the same French augmented sixth chord (G#-B#-D-F#) of the Introduction as well as the beginning A’ section, which replicates the same notes of the A section two octaves lower. The opening figure (mm. 1-3, first beat), A-C#-B#-F#-G#-D, contains the French augmented sixth chord, G#-B#-D-F#. This chord is made up of two

10 Introduction (mm. 1-4), A (mm. 5-23), Transition (mm. 24-37), B (mm. 38-52), A’(mm. 58-74), Codetta (mm. 74-77).

139 New Sound 42, II/2013 whole-tone related cyclic interval segments (B#-D and F#-G#), two cyclic interval- 4 segments (G#-C and D-F#), and two interval-6 cycles (G#-D and C-F#) (Ex 10).

Example 10. Etude Op. 18 No. 3 mm.1-2

The presence of these cyclic segments makes both whole-tone and octatonic elaborations of the opening figure possible. The presence of C# only increases the octatonic possibilities because with it, the figure furnishes four notes to each of three pitch collections, that is WT 0 (B#-D-[]- F#-G#-[ ]), octatonic-0 (B#-D-[ ]-[ ]-F#-G#-A-[ ]), and octatonic-1 (B#-C#-[ ]-()-F#- [ ]-A-[ ]) Two new notes (E# and Fx), which are added to the repeated figure (mm. 3-4, downbeat), start to fill in both octatonic collections (B#-D-()-E#-F#-G#-A-[ ] and B#-C#-[ ]-[ ]-F#-Fx-A-[ ]), respectively. Cell Z appears (mm. 5-18 ) in its incomplete form and eventually emerges not only in its complete form but in an interlocking chain that allows for a systematic transposition of the octatonic collections. The octatonic collections unfold at a much faster rate than in the second Etude because of the rapid manner of transposition afforded by the accompaniment. The accompaniment is also the focal point of most of the musical activity because it is the part that unfolds the majority of pitches that make up the different pitch sets. At the opening of this section (mm. 5-6), the pitch content remains un- altered. However, the repeated E#-F#-G# chord in the top register suggests a move toward the octatonic-0 collection by the addition of D# and B to the accompaniment figure (m. 7). This completes the octatonic-0 collection (B#- D-D#-E#-F#-G#-A-B) and, at the same time, adds the D# to the octatonic-1 collection (Ex. 11). The completion of octatonic-0 is also defined by the last chord of m.7, A-D#-B, which when considered in conjunction with the note F directly below it in the accompaniment, unfolds the French sixth A-B-D#-F, the octatonic-0 complement of the initial French augmented-sixth chord (m. 1). It is no coinci- dence that the very next chord, A#-E-B# (m. 8, downbeat), which results from

140 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146) the chromatic raising of the A-D#-B chord, completes octatonic-1 by furnishing its missing tritone, A#-E.

Example 11. Etude Op. 18 No. 3, m.5 – 7

The major seventh and tritone components of the next two chords, G#-A-D and E-F-B (m. 8), suggest the presence of incomplete Z cells. Beneath these chords the accompaniment unfolds two incomplete Z cells ( Z-0/6 ,C-F-[ ]-B, and Z-10/4, Bb-Eb-[ ]-A ). These two Z cells are interlocked by Z-11/5 (B-E- F-Bb).The three cells are therefore interlocked at the semitone. The chromatic interlocking of Z cells is repeated (mm. 10-11) where Z-10/4 (A#-D#-E-A) is interlocked with Z-8/2 (G#-C#-D-Fx) by an incomplete Z-9/3 (A-()-D#-G#). The process is clarified (mm. 11) when Z-5/11 (F-Bb-B-E), Z-4/10 (E-A-Bb-Eb), and Z-3/9 (Eb-Ab-A-D) are unfolded in their complete form (Ex.13).

Example 13. Etude Op. 18 No. 3, mm. 11-12

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The transposition of entire octatonic collections by whole-step was already suggested in m. 8, where the entire musical texture moved down by whole- tones. The accompaniment of this measure also completed a WT-0 collection in its descent. The octatonic-1 collection is kept in the accompaniment (mm. 12-14) and transposed down to octatonic-0 (m. 15) where it dissolves into a chromatic ostinato (mm. 16-18). Above the chromatic ostinato of the ensuing transition, chordal segments G#-A#-B and Db-E-F alternate with one another to establish the octatonic-2 collection (mm. 19-22), which is finally punctuated by an incomplete Z-5/11 (F-[]-B-E) arpeggio. During this transition (mm. 19-22), the chromatic accompaniment discloses an octatonic-1 segment, Bb-C-[ ]-Eb-E (m. 20), the complete WT-1 collection (m. 20), and an octatonic-2 segment (Ab-Bb-B-Db-D-E-[]-G) completed by the F of Z-5/11 (m. 22). The interlocking of segments from paired octatonic collections is the structural focus of the next section (mm. 24-37 ). The complete pitch content (m. 24, first four sixteenth notes) yields the lower segments of octatonic-1 (C-C#- D#-E-F#) and octatonic-0 (C-()-D#-F-F#), which are intercalated by semitones, the same process by which two interval-2 cycles were interlocked in the first Etude. By the end of the measure (m. 24) the octatonic-0 collection is complete, while octatonic-1 requires only a G#, which is furnished by the accompaniment (m. 26). The octatonic-1 collection (m. 29-33), defined by incomplete Z-4/10 (E-[ ]-A#-D#) statements in the top register, is maintained and interlocked with an incomplete octatonic-2 segment (C#-D-[ ]-E#-G) in the final beats of mm. 29-30. The octatonic-2 collection, characterized by incomplete Z-11/5 statements (B-E#-A#), is completed in m. 34. This Z cell is emphasized (mm. 36-37 ) over an ostinato accompaniment (D-E-G), extracted from the octatonic accompaniment of the previous two measures. The following passage (mm. 38-52 ) represents the final stage of organic growth toward the interval-5/7 cycle which represents the culminating stage of diatonic expansion . The unfolding of the 5/7 cycle occurs around the only clearly discernible melody of the etude. The melody thus serves a dual purpose i.e., culmination point of the organic growth process and formal clarifier. The interval- 5 cycle segments, D-G and E#-A#, from accompaniment and Z cell, form the starting point in the unfolding of the complete 5/7 cycle (mm. 38-42), which occurs in ordered three-note segments and their respective cycle 5/7 dyads. The unfolding of the 5/7 cycle is anchored to a central octatonic-1 melody that completes the entire octatonic-1 collection (mm. 38-41) (Ex. 14).

142 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146)

Example 14. Etude Op. 18 No. 3, mm. 38-41

The octatonic melody (mm. 44-51) intrudes into the three-note cyclic-interval 5/7 segments to create a three-layered texture where each of the layers represents a single octatonic collection. At the end of this passage (m. 48-49, downbeat), the complete octatonic-0 collection (C-D-Eb-F-Gb-Ab- A-B) emerges. At the point in which the melody ceases (m. 51, second beat) the top and bottom parts once again assume their individual places. The top part begins a series of incomplete Z statements, which alternate in the following manner: Z-2/8 to Z-5/11, and Z-4/10 to Z-7/1 (mm. 52-53, downbeat). The incomplete alternating Z cells outline incomplete octatonic collections. Z-2/8 (D-[ ]-G#-C#) and Z-11/5 (F-[ ]-B-E) outline the incomplete octatonic-2 collection (C#-D-E- F-[]-G#-[ ]-B), while Z-4/10 (E-[ ]-A#-D#) and Z-7/1 (G-[ ]-C#-F#) outline the incomplete octatonic-1 collection (C#-D#-E-F#-G-[ ]-A#-[ ]). When sequentially paired, the Z pairs ascend by whole-tone. The whole-tone movement is directly reflected by the descending whole-tone-1 scale (A-G-F-Eb-Db-B) that accompanies these four Z cells transpositions. The G and A of the whole-tone-1 collection supply one note to each of the octatonic collections (Ex. 15). The Bb in the descending scalar figure, while not belonging to the whole-tone scale, nevertheless completes the octatonic-2 collection. Partial Z-3/9, which represents the final octatonic-0 statement, is eventually introduced (m. 55, second beat), thus preparing the way for the recapitulation (mm. 58ff). The component intervals of the partial Z cells (intervals 5 and 6) of this passage and those of interval-5/7 cyclic segments (intervals 7) of the previous passage represent the state of maximum expansion in the process of organic growth.

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Example 15. Etude Op. 18 No. 3, mm. 51-53

The first measure if the quasi-recapitulation (m.58) is a replica of the seventh measure of the opening. This signals the return to octatonic-0. The contents of the entire measure are transposed several times (mm. 59-61) in a sequence that unfolds seven-note segments of all three octatonic collections. The entire pitch content of m. 58 is replicated in m. 68) and slowly subjected to a process of fragmentation (mm. 68-73). The bass chords and pedal notes of the beginning at the codetta (mm. 74-75) yield the incomplete octatonic-2 segment, C#-D-E-F-G-G#-[ ]-B, which is followed immediately (m. 76) by the opening French augmented-sixth chord, B#-F#-G#-D ( = D-F#-G#-B#), from octatonic-0. This is the final whole-tone transposition of the octatonic set. The Etude closes ( m. 77 ) with a partial Z cell [C#-G-B#]. “The last two measures juxtapose whole-tone (B#-F#-G#-D-Bb), pentatonic (D-Bb-F-G-B#), and Z cell (G-B#-C#) segments, cell Z representing the largest gap of semitones at ratio 1:5.”11 These two measures summarize the entire process of organic growth begun in the first etude. In the first etude the chromatic scale was partitioned into the two whole-tone cycles. In the second etude the particular interlocking of the two whole-tone cycles allowed the unfolding of the octatonic collections that persisted, together with the whole tone cycles, to the end of the opus. In these etudes, the interaction of pitch sets within the process of organic growth represents a new means of progression. The second and third Etudes extend, expand and transform the process begun in the first Etude. The single cyclic-interval partitions ( interval 1/11 and 2/10 cycles) of the first Etude are

11 Elliott Antokoletz. “Organic Development and the Interval Cycles in Bartok’s Three Stud- ies Op. 18.” Studia Musicologica 36/3-4 ( 1995): 260.

144 Susanni, P.: Tonal Progression in Bartok's Etudes, Op. 18 (129–146) combined to form the compound cycles (octatonic scales) in the second and third Etudes. In the second Etude, the transformation of one octatonic set into another is achieved by the systematic lowering of one of the component 3/9 cycles of the octatonic set. The 3/9 cycles are significant in that they not only represent an intermediary stage of organic growth, but the means by which musical progression occurs. In the third Etude the octatonic sets generate the Z-cell statements that demarcate the penultimate stage of diatonic expansion and the unfolding of the cyclic - 5/7 segments in the same Etude. The chromatic interlocking of Z cells underlies the whole-tone transposition of octatonic sets in this etude. These etudes mark a significant point in Bartók’s compositional development and are also a milestone in the development of the piano etude as a genre. The Etudes Op. 18 were amongst the first to be written in the new musical language of the twentieth century, a language based on the equality of the twelve tones, often void of tonal references. While in keeping with the tradition of exploring certain pianistic techniques, the Etudes Op. 18 deal mainly with new kinds of sonority, and in this sense, they follow the early twentieth-century aesthetic ideal inaugurated by the etudes of Scriabin and Debussy. The musical language of the Fifteen Hungarian Peasant Songs bears little resemblance to that of the Etudes, which were being composed at the same time. While the Fifteen Hungarian Folk Songs are based on the modes of folk song, the Etudes are based on the more abstract whole-tone and octatonic collections. The former pieces contain strong tonal references while the latter tend toward atonality. This apparent inconsistency can be explained if one examines Bartók’s experimental tendencies as well as the musical influences exerted on him by the music of other composers. Bartók had already begun to experiment with the concept of an axis of symmetry in the Fourteen Bagatelles Op. 6, specifically No. 2.12 Though not completely systematic, the axial concept is developed significantly in the second of the Op. 18 etudes, in which it establishes the use of axes as a new means of tonal and formal delineation. In the Suite Op. 14 the systematic use of simple and compound interval cycles, i.e., the whole-tone cycles in No. II and octatonic sets in No. III, predates the Etudes by four years. In the Suite the whole- tone cycles and octatonic sets are used individually. In the Etudes Op. 18, they are combined and developed to create a new means of progression. The influence of Debussy’s piano writing is clearly visible and audible in the second of the Etudes, especially with regard to the use of whole-tone scales

12 Elliott Antokoletz. “The Musical Language of Bartoks 14 Bagatelles for Piano.” Tempo 137 (June 1981) : 8-16.

145 New Sound 42, II/2013 in extensive arpeggiations. While the individual sonorities exhibit some affinity to Schoenberg, given their atonal bent, the repetition of entire musical figurations gives this etude some form of asserted tonal essence. The Etudes Op. 18 foreshadow the Etudes of Ligeti in their use of interval cycles and asymmetrical rhythms. The sonorities of the cadenza of the second Etude are echoed by those of many of Messiaen’s piano works. While the musical language of the Etudes Op. 18 demonstrates strong historical influences, it points to the future and, to date, these etudes remain the only ones based on the process of organic growth.

Summary The Three Studies for piano, Op. 18, systematically articulate the use of continuously expanding interval cycles that generate diatonic, non-diatonic and compound cyclic pitch collections. The generation and interaction of these pitch collections represent a significant development in the evolution of Bartók’s personal musical language. The use of tonal progression based on axes of symmetry would become a hallmark of the composer’s later works. The compositional techniques used in these etudes would be of great influence on a large number of twentieth-century composers.

146 RESEARCH AND TRADITION

Article received on 23 October 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1:929 Славенски Ј. 027.7:78(497.11)

Milica Gajić* University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music, Library

‘SHORT LEXICON’ OF DEDICATIONS IN THE HANDWRITTEN LEGACY OF JOSIP SLAVENSKI (1896–1955) IN THE LIBRARY OF THE FACULTY OF MUSIC IN BELGRADE

Abstract: The paper presents some aspects of the handwritten legacy of Josip Slavenski, stored in the Library of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade – dedications that the composer wrote by his own hand are collected in one place. These are mainly dedications to musi- calperformers – soloists and ensembles. They reveal many biographical details from the author’s life – from performances of his works to friendly and professional contacts. Per- ceiving Josip Slavenski’s oeuvre from this aspect calls to mind many associations with the general artistic climate of the age he was living and working in. Key words: Josip Slavenski, dedications, handwritten legacy, Library of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade

Studying the voluminous handwritten legacy of Josip Slavenski, an extremely important composer even on an international scale, largely contributes to the accurate perception of the various developmental stages in his creative path. The thematic list of this legacy, which today is stored in the Library of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade, was done about thirty years ago, in two ways:

* Author contact information: [email protected]

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1. Chronological list – which was published as the second volume of the book “Josip Štolcer Slavenski” by musicologist Eva Sedak1

2. Genre list – made by a group of enthusiasts, who were putting the legacy of Josip Slavenski in order before it was moved out of the apartment in 33 Sveti Sava Street.2 It contains about forty pages of text with detailed descriptions of each of the composer’s works, sketches, variants, copies and the author’s most important handwritten notes. In essence, it refers to about 180 compositions – from beginner efforts and the oldest sketches to original and autonomous pieces which made Josip Slavenski a creator of international influence and importance. At the same time, these are the works which undoubtedly secure permanent artistic value and greatness. Besides, these handwritten notes offer an plenitude of indisputable evidence that Josip Slavenski was sometimes absorbed, even obsessed, with tremendous, all-consuming preoccupations about the world, humankind, the universe, and with various cultures and civilizations. Following his handwritten dedications3 in autographs, chronologically creates, in our opinion, not only an easy-to-follow catalogue of the works included but also a different perspective of his creativity. This knowledge greatly en- riches the pool of data on the diversity and stratification of Josip Slavenski’s personal, professional, and even conceptual contacts, as well as the fullness of this artist’slifestyle. For he was so well-informed and had such breadth of vision, regarding both day to day events and the eternal, unsolvable mysteries of humankind, that many today might envy him. Firstly, the most frequent are dedications to musical performers – soloists and ensembles. The majority of these dedications on the pieces by Josip Slavenski reveal certain details from his professional and private life – from performances of his works to various friendly and professional contacts, but also artistic and moral convictions. Apart from personal and intimate reasons,

1 Eva Sedak, Josip Štolcer Slavenski – skladatelj prijelaza [Josip Štolcer Slavenski – the Composer of Transition] (I, II), Muzički informativni centar i Muzikološki zavod, Zagreb, 1984. 2 Cf. the text by Professor Mirjana Živković about the history and work on this legacy: “Zaostavština Josipa Slavenskog u Biblioteci Fakulteta muzičke umetnosti u Beogradu” [“Legacy of Josip Slavenski in the Library of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade”], Banja Luka, 2013 (in print). 3 Dedication, from Latin dedicare – consecrate, proclaim, affirm, set apart, meaning the act of bestowing something to someone, regardless of whether the gift will be requited. It is mostly used for things, manuscripts of compositions in this case, which the author made personally, including the inscription of dedication.

148 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165) the composer’s dedications are often related to commissions and competitions, but also to the author’s personal gratitude after the successful performances of certain works. Josip Slavenski’s sincerity, and often even exalted enthusiasm, spontaneously inspired him to dedicate his musical works, as a token of gratitude, mostly to the outstanding performing capabilities of particular soloists and diverse ensembles. Thus we find the names such as the violinist Zlatko Baloković, the conductor Matej Hubad, the choirs Hlahol from Prague, Mla- dost, Balkan, Lisinski, Tomislav, Obilić… Let us peruse the legacy and briefly elaborate each of the works that had a purpose other than purely artistic. The first, and the oldest surviving, composition by Josip Slavenski was written exactly one hundred years ago, in 1913. It is the piece Uspomena iz Varaždina [Souvenir (de Varaždin)] for piano solo. Written before the author’s departure to study music in Budapest, this waltz-type miniature by a sixteen-year old composer-to-be bears the following double dedication: “Svečano mojemu učitelju glasovira v. n. g. Dragutinu Simonu4 kr. Kot. Sudac u Varaždinu. Mojem milom dobročinitelju Ante Stohru5 za uspomenu na componista 1913, IX, 3” [“Solemnly to my piano teacher, the esteemed Mr Dragutin Simon, RoyalCounty Judge in Varaždin. To my dear benefactor Ante Stohr, in memory of the componist, 1913, IX, 3”]. The rear page of the piece reads: “Les adieux et le retour Dolores”. The work is supplemented with the author’s letter to Ante Šter from Budapest, asking him to modify bars 9–20 of the composition so that “ne bi bila slična K. Leharu” [“it would not resemble K. Lehar”]. It seems that he was the first to realize that such a composition was the fruit of initial, self-taught attempts, in which we find spontaneous and intuitive harmonies. Igraj kolo [Go to a Round Dance] for piano, from 1914/1915. The autograph of this composition is dedicated to Vinko Žganec, with whom the composer was a close and life-long friend – in his own words, “moj Međimurac” [“my man from Međimurje”].6 The title page reads: “Improvizacija na jugoslov-

4 Dragutin Simon was a judge in Varaždin and a thoroughly educated man. He was also a good musician and choirmaster. 5 Ante Šter, or Stöhr (1847–1923) from Varaždin was a respected and distinguished music teacher, composer, pianist, violinist and music educator, who also established a private music school in Varaždin. He noticed young Josip Štolcer and gave him his first professional musical education. He helped him to apply at the Musical School of the Croatian Musical Institu- tion, but Štolcer’s works received negative reviews on that occasion. What Josip Slavenski owed to him was not only the first professional lessons and advice, but also important and unreserved support in his earliest creative efforts. 6 Vinko Žganec (1890–1976), although a trained lawyer with a long career in the law, he

149 New Sound 42, II/2013 enske popevke i igre” [“Improvisation on Yugoslav songs and dances”]. A list of three compositions is added: FROM MEĐIMURJE – copied in Belgrade 1925. Serenada [Serenade] for string quartet, 1914. This piece was also dedicated to his first music teacher in Varaždin: “Mojemu najmilijem prijatelju vg. A. Stohru Štolcer Međimurec 1896.” [“To my dearest friend, the esteemed Mr A. Stohr, Štolcer of Međimurje 1896”. Što bo tebe ljubček troštal, four-part mixed choir, 1915. This work is dedicated to the Glasbena matica Music Society from Ljubljana.7 Besides, we can also notice the dedication to the Croatian Choral Society Kolo.8 Moreover, Slavenski dedicated to Kolo an entire choral cycle titled Pesme moje majke [My Mother’s Songs], containing “5 zborova na međimurske narodne pjesme za koje mi je inspiracije ili tekst dala moja majka Julija Novak” [“5 choral pieces on folk poems from Međimurje, for which the inspiration or verses were provided by my mother Julija Novak”]. Voda zvira iz kamena, four-part mixed choir, 1916. This was the first signature work of the young composer which became popular and famous, even a classic. Initially, it was dedicated to the renowned choral society Hlahol from

became a well-known and distinguished ethnomusicologist, melographer and composer. He started collecting and arranging folk tunes from Međimurje as early as secondary school, and later he expanded his melographic activity geographically. His research of Glagolitic chant is also important. Žganec was among the first in these parts of the world who conducted scholarly research and analysis of folk tune structure using contemporary scholarly and scientific methods. The domains and subjects of his research were diverse: from the tonal and modal structure of folk music, to folklore elements in the Catholic and Orthodox liturgical chant, to decasyllabic folk versification. 7 The Glasbena matica Music Society from Ljubljana was established in 1872, at the initia- tive of Vojtech Valenta, and soon they started to publish their own musical editions. Almost all Slovenian composers collaborated with the Society; hence it has played an important role in the development of Slovenian music. In 1882, they established their Music School, which in 1919 became the Conservatory. As early as in 1891 they formed a choir which, with Matej Hubad as the choirmaster, achieved a great performance quality, forcefully inspiring the development of domestic creativity in choral music. 8 It was established in 1862 in Zagreb, under the slogan Tko pjeva – zlo ne misli [He who sings, thinks no evil], and its main goal was to nurture Croatian music. However, it was not before 1912 that their amateur orchestra was founded. As other similar ensembles of the kind, they had several crises in their history – they were cancelled, re-established, joined with other ensembles… Apart from important domestic and foreign choral pieces, they also performed larger vocal-instrumental works. They cultivated their publishing activity, and they also initiated the foundation of the Croatian Choral Union. As an important fact, it should be mentioned that Kolo bought up Vatroslav Lisinski’s manuscripts.

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Prague.9 The choir gave the premiere performance in Prague, on 22nd May 1922.10 Sa Balkana [From the Balkan], suite for piano solo, 1917. The autograph contains dedications to two notable pianists of his time: Alexander Borovsky11 – the 1st and the 3rd movements; and Nikolai Orlov12 – the 2nd and the 4th movements. Fuga [Fugue] in the form of a symphonic poem, for large orchestra, 1917 (see Ex. 1). There are two identical copies of this work in Josip Slavenski’s legacy, bearing different dates and places of origin: Ploieşti 1917 and Čakovec 1920. This work for a big post-Romantic symphonic orchestra is dedicated to his teacher of musical forms and counterpoint, Victor von Herzfeld,13 in the second year of his studies at the Budapest Conservatory. It was one of the rare works that the author later repudiated. He personally wrote this: “Ova Fuga je jedan eksperiment u duhu evropske muzike te zabranjujem ovo delo za izvođenje javno: iz tih razloga ne priznajem ovo delo za izvođenje javno. Josip Slavenski 1939.” [“This Fugue is an experiment in the spirit of European music and so I forbid this work to be publicly performed: for these reasons, I do not acknowledge this work for public performances. Josip Slavenski 1939”]. Nokturno [Nocturne] for orchestra, 1917 (see Ex. 2). The dedication on this work reads: “A Monsieur Dr. Hugo pl. Michalovich”. This is Hugo Mihalović, a well-known pianist at the time, who whole-heartedly helped Slavenski in his admission to the Budapest Conservatory. Besides, the title page of the compo-

9 The famed and popular Hlahol choir, a choral society from Prague, first appeared in public on 4th January 1861, as a male choir, but in time they became a mixed ensemble. The programmes and interpretations always depended on the current choirmaster. At the time when Josip Slavenski wrote Voda zvira, it was Jaromír Herle, who achieved outstanding professional and artistic results with the choir, won international prizes and held great international tours. They visited Yugoslavia in 1932. 10 Cf. Milica Gajić, “Praške godine Josipa Slavenskog (1920–1923)” [“The Prague Period of Josip Slavenski (1920–1923)”], Međimurje, Čakovec, 1985, 7, 109–115. 11 Alexander Borovsky (1889–1968) was a Russian pianist who studied piano at the Petro- grad Conservatory. He emigrated in 1920 and gave concerts all over Europe, North and South America. From 1941 he lived in the USA, and in 1956 he became a professor at the Boston University. His repertoire was broad and diverse, and he left behind a great number of recordings, particularly of Bach’s works. 12 Nikolai Andreyevich Orlov (1892–1964), Russian pianist. He studied piano and composing at the Moscow Conservatory, where he later worked as a professor. From 1922, he lived in Paris and gave concerts all over the world. He spent his last years in Scotland. 13 Victor von Herzfeld (1856–1920), a violinist and composer, studied music in Vienna. After spending time in Berlin, from 1886 he worked in Budapest, as a professor at the Con- servatory and the second violinist in the Hubay-Popper Quartet.

151 New Sound 42, II/2013 sition’s autograph bears an author’s note: “Simfonijska muzika je veće objav- ljenje negoli svaka religija i filozofija. Betoven Štolcer.” [“Symphonic music is a greater revelation than any religion or philosophy. Beethoven Štolcer”]. Although Nokturno is an early symphonic piece, it shows to a great extent the composer’s preoccupations and talent, which fully developed later, and it is considered to be one of the pinnacles of Josip Slavenski’s first creative period. Besides, the great success of this piece performed by the Zagreb Philharmonics in 1920 brought enough financial means for him to fulfil his great desire – to go and study music at the Prague Conservatory. Tri tičice, improvisations on Yugoslav folk songs, for mezzo-soprano and piano, 1918. The author’s copy is marked “Zagreb, 5. III 1924”, and the title page bears a dedication to Maja Strozzi,14 soprano, and Bela Pečić, her husband and accompanist. Radnička pesma [Workers’ Song], for mixed choir, 1918. Dedicated to Er- nest Krajanski,15 a friend from Varaždin who was a lawyer, but also a musician working as the choirmaster of the Tomislav Choral Society from Varaždin. Krajanski was a life-long driving force and support to Josip Slavenski, hispro- nounced thirst for knowledge and determination to persist with his education. As a broadly educated man with a sound knowledge of music, he was thrilled by the compositions shown to him by the young composer at the time.

14 Maja Strozzi-Pečić (1892–1962), coloratura soprano, occupies a place of honour among the artists from this part of the world. Apart from engagements in the Graz and Zagreb opera houses, she also had a concert career as an excellent interpreter of songs. She performed songs by Yugoslav authors on her many tours, thus greatly contributing to the development and recognition of Yugoslav vocal music in the country and abroad. Her husband, Bela Pečić (1878–1938), was a graduated pharmacist, but in time he developed into a competent accompanist. Their concerts in Zagreb – famous Matinées and Musical Soirées – mostly featured the works of Slavonic composers. As a point of interest, Igor Stravinsky dedicated four of his works to Maja Strozzi. 15 Dr Ernest Krajanski (1885–1941), a lawyer, was an excellent musician who, besides grad- uating from a law school in Vienna, also studied music with Josef Max. A singer and violinist, but also the choirmaster of the Tomislav Choral Society in Varaždin. His harmonisations of folk songs have survived, and he published texts about music in the local newspaper and the journal of the St. Cecilia Academy. He was murdered in the concentration camp in Stara Gradiška in 1941. Concert programmes of the Tomislav Society “pokazuju, kako je njegov dirigent E. Krajanski finim ukusom odabirao djela starih majstora i modernih naših domaćih skladatelja koji su društvu posvećivali svoje skladbe za pravo prvih izvedbi” [“show that their conductor, E. Krajanski, has tastefully chosen the works of old masters and our modern composers who have dedicated their compositions to the Society, giving the first performances”]. Krešimir Filić, Glazbeni život Varaždina: Muzička škola Varaždin[Music Life in Varaždin: Music School in Varaždin], 1972, 472–474.

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Jugoslovenska svita [Yugoslav Suite], the third suite for piano solo, was finished in Prague on 15th May 1921. It is dedicated to Slovenian pianist Ciril Ličar,16 who premiered the work in Zagreb, on 9th May 1922. He was a close friend and collaborator of Slavenski’s. Like Slavenski and Tkalčić, he moved to Belgrade to work at the Music School, in response to an invitation from Jovan Zorko, the principal. He was a very interesting musical artist and teacher, as well as an ambitious and active participant in the restoration of the music life in Belgrade. Ljubica ljubezna/Ružica rumena, four-part mixed choir from 1921, the fourth work in the choral cycle Pesme moje majke. Originally it was dedicated to the Tomislav Choir from Varaždin,17 and then to the Lisinski Choir from Za- greb.18 De si bila ružica rumena, eight-part mixed choir, 1921. It also belongs to Pesme moje majke, as the third song in the cycle. It is dedicated to the Kolo Choral Society from Zagreb,19 who gave the premiere performance in Zagreb in 1923, with Oskar Smodek as the choirmaster. Sastali se čapljanski Tatari, for mixed or male choir, 1922, dedicated to the Obilić Choral Society from Belgrade. Romarska popevka, for three-part female choir, is dedicated to the Lisinski Choral Society from Zagreb. The manuscript of this composition contains notation for non-tempered singing and a note with the polyrhythms of indigenous peoples.

16 Ciril Ličar (1894–1957), Slovenian pianist, studied piano in Ljubljana and at the Prague Conservatory (1912–1917) with Professor Hofmeister. First, he was a piano teacher in Za- greb, at the Secondary School of the Music Academy, between 1921 and 1925. After moving to Belgrade, he first worked in the Music School and then, from 1937, at the newly founded Music Academy. After graduation, he frequently toured as a refined and reliable accompanist to renowned artists, including Zlatko Baloković, Jaroslav Kocian, Jan Kubelik, Jure Tkalčić, Josip Rijavec. Ličar’s most important activity, which he also personally favoured, was chamber music – first he had a trio in Zagreb, with V. Huml and J. Tkalčić. Later, in Belgrade, in 1925, he became a member of the Belgrade Quartet, with the violinists Marija Mihajlović and Jovan Zorko and the violoncellist Jure Tkalčić. He also worked with the pianist Milica Moč from Novi Sad. 17 The Tomislav Choral Society from Varaždin, cf. Footnote 15. 18 Lisinski was a Croatian choral society established in 1910 in Zagreb, which soon developed into the best choir in Croatia, with a rich and diverse vocal and vocal-instrumental repertoire. They gave a host of concerts not only in Zagreb, but in cities all over the country and abroad. They achieved their highest artistic results in between the two world wars, when they contributed significantly to the development of Yugoslav choral music. 19 Cf. Footnote 8.

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Iz Jugoslavije [From Yugoslavia], piano suite, 1923. It is dedicated to Dr Ivan N. Novak, benefactor and patron of the arts from Varaždin.20 Gudački kvartet br. 1 [String Quartet No. 1], Op. 3, 1923, is in fact his graduation work at the Prague Conservatory, under the mentorship of Josef Suk. The note in Cyrillic script can be found in the variant B of the Quartet, and reads: “U Pragu dne 1. maja 1923. izveden 26. juna 1923. Ovo delo je posvećeno Kvartetu op. 133 L. v. Betovena, preciznije veličanstvenoj Betovenovoj Fugi op. 133.” [“In Prague, 1st May 1923, performed on 26th June 1923. This work is dedicated to the Quartet Op. 133 by L. V. Beethoven, more precisely to Beethoven’s magnificent Fugue Op. 133”]. In this way, the author symbolically expressed his admiration for the unparalleled master of string quartet. This quartet was Slavenski’sfirst work that earned him international recognition and paved the way for his international career. First, with the foregoing performance of the work, which ended his music studies in Prague, in June 1923 at the Prague Conservatory; in October of the same year, when Zagrebački kvartet [The Za- greb Quartet] performed the piece in Zagreb; and most importantly, when the same ensemble played the composition at a gala concert at the Donaueschingen Festival the following year. And in the jury, who accepted its performance at the event, were Busoni, Schönberg, Schreker… Sonata for piano, Op. 4, 1924. Slavenski dedicated his Sonata for piano to the pianist Svetislav Stančić,21 who also gave the first performance on 25th February 1927 in Zagreb. The legacy contains the sketches of this work, done in pencil, 22 pages altogether. There are harmonisations of given melodies on one of the pages, and two songs for two-part male choir on another – harmonisations of songs Uzo deda svog unuka and Još ni jedan zagorec. Besides, the cover page of the Preludium from the Sonata exists, bearing the dedication to Božidar Kunc,22 a student of Svetislav Stančić who lived and worked in New

20 Krešimir Filić, op. cit. 21 Svetislav Stančić (1895–1970), a versatile piano teacher and pianist, was educated in Za- greb and took private lessons in piano and composing in Berlin. He was the first concert pianist in Croatia, and then a professor and the head of the piano department at the Music Academy in Zagreb for a long time, until 1965. He developed into the most distinguished Yugoslav artist and piano educator, and he was mentor to a number of generations of students, having an individual educational approach to each of them. He received numerous prizes and awards, and he was a full member of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts and a corresponding member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. 22 Božidar Kunc (1903–1964), a composer and pianist, graduated in Zagreb, studying piano with Svetislav Stančić and composing with Blagoje Bersa. He gave concerts promoting domestic literature for piano, and he ran the Opera Studio at the Music Academy in Zagreb. Since 1951 he lived and worked in the USA.

154 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165)

York City. It is interesting that he, like Josip Slavenski, dedicated his Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1954) to the famous violinist Zlatko Baloković. Slavenska sonata [Slavonic Sonata], Op. 5, for violin and piano, 1924. It is dedicated to the distinguished violinist Zlatko Baloković.23 This gesture “može se smatrati mladenačkom ambicioznošću, kao pogled miša na slona ili želja žabe da postigne veličinu vola iz basne. Na to svatko ima pravo i to nitko nikome ne treba zamjeravati… U odnosu između Balokovića i Štolcera očito nije bilo dvojbe: Štolcerovu posvetu Baloković je prihvatio, ali ne samo kao gestu dobro- hotne podrške mladom i perspektivnom talentu. On je sa svoje strane pokazao nesumnjivo priznanje već visokoj kompozitorovoj zrelosti čovjeka koji je tek na pragu svoje umjetničke karijere.” [“can be considered a youthful ambition, like a mouse’s gaze upon an elephant, or the proverbial frog’s desire to attain the size of the ox. Everybody is entitled to that and it should be held against no one… The relationship between Baloković and Štolcer obviously left no room for doubt: Baloković accepted Štolcer’s dedication, but not only in a gesture of benevolent support to the young and promising talent. For his part, he showed an unmistakable respect for the creative maturity of a composer who was still on the verge of his artistic career”].24 Although a relatively early work, written at the same time as Sonata for piano, Sonata religiosa for violin and piano and the First String Quartet, the power of its musical expression is overwhelm- ing. It is a one-movement work of complex and multi-layered form – “Big in Small”, as people said. Although this composition was also dedicated to Zlatko Baloković, the Zagreb premiere was performed by Francis Aranyi, a member of the Zagreb Quartet. Nikad [Never], four-part mixed choir, 1924, after the verses of Zvonko Milković. It is dedicated to the Zora Choral Society from Karlovac25, and today

23 Zlatko Baloković (1895–1965), a world-renowned violinist, also called ‘a violin genius’. A student of the notable Czech teacher Vaclav Huml in Zagreb, he took master classes with Otakar Ševčík in Vienna. After that, he developed an international concert career, appearing in concert halls in cities all over the world. He settled in New York City and developed a rich social and artistic life. As a friend of Nikola Tesla, he played at his funeral in 1943 – first, Schubert’s Ave Maria, and then a folk song Tamo daleko. All the while, besides his artistic engagements, he was a selfless humanitarian, especially during the world wars. He partici- pated in charity concerts for the benefit of the International Red Cross, and later he was the chairman of the Society of Friends of the New Yugoslavia in the USA. Cf. Vladimir Kapun, “Zlatko Baloković prvi put u Međimurju”[“Zlatko Baloković for the First Time in Međimurje”], Međimurje, Čakovec, 1986, 147–160. 24 Cf. Vladimir Kapun, op. cit., 156–157. 25 Zora was the first Croatian choral society, established in 1858 in Karlovac. It played an important role in the history, culture and art of the region. Apart from concerts and entertain-

155 New Sound 42, II/2013 all that exists is a lithograph of this work published by the Society.The work is a variation on Mladost, more precisely a section of four songs which, both in poetry and music, deal with the subject of love. The verses were written by the poet Zvonko Milković, the composer’s friend from Varaždin, and this work, in a way, demonstrates the close and affectionate cooperation of the two young friends. Iz Srbije [From Serbia], suite for piano, 1925. The handwritten dedication reads: “Za Danicu Dimić prepisao sam autor u znak dubokog poštovanja, u Parizu dne 29. 5. 1926.” [“For Danica Dimić, copied by the author personally, as a sign of deep respect, in Paris, on 29th May 1926”]. The recipient was the pianist Danica Dimić, almost forgotten today. Jugoslovenska pesma i igra [Yugoslav Song and Dance], for violin and piano, 1925. One autograph of this work is dedicated to the violinist Mr. Jovan Zorko,26 the principal of the Music School in Belgrade, which today is the Mokranjac Music School. At his invitation and intervention, Josip Slavenski moved to Belgrade, as well as some other young educated musicians, because it was Zorko’s ambition to gather the most distinguished colleagues in his school. This was yet another occasion where Slavenski entrusted one and the same work to different performing ensembles. Thus, this composition was also rewritten for violoncello, the autograph bearing the date 5th March 1942. The current version was dedicated to Marija Đermanović, the author’s marriage witness, and her husband, great friends of Josip Slavenski and his wife Milana. Slavenski composed or rearranged some of his trios in order to be performed at chamber music sessions, which they frequently organized at home. Sa sela [From the Country], quintet for flute, clarinet, violin, viola and double bass, Op. 6, 1925. The dedication reads: “Dedie a Mahomet fondateur d L Islam en temoignage de profonde admiration” [“Dedicated to Muhammad, founder of Islam, as a testimony of profound admiration”]. We could not find out what the reasons were for such a dedication on the cover page of this composition. Mladost [Youth], symphonic picture for orchestra, 1925, is a work dedicated to Matej Hubad (see Ex. 3).27 The back page of the work bears the follow- ment, this society organized amateur theatre shows. It was most active after the First World War, achieving its highest artistic results at that time. 26 Jovan Zorko (1881–1942), a violinist and music teacher. He studied violin in Moscow. First he taught music in the seminary, the normal school and secondary schools in Belgrade, and from 1922 to 1942 he was the teacher of violin and chamber music at the Music School. Besides, he was the choirmaster of several choral societies. He was a member of chamber ensembles, the most notable of which was the Belgrade Quartet. He also was a music critic, the author of many compositions and of the textbook Škola za violinu [Violin School]. 27 Matej Hubad (1866–1937), Slovenian singing teacher and choirmaster, studied at the Vi- enna Conservatory. He was a teacher at the School of Glasbena matica, and later a teacher

156 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165) ing note by the author: “Veliki učitelj slovenačkih muzičara Matej Hubad bio je jedan od najboljih interpretatora moje vokalne muzike. Po njegovoj želji sam instrumentirao te moje horske kompozicije iz mladosti. Ali tokom instrumen- tacije usled harmonskog i melodijskog produbljenja međuvremeno su nastale nove simfonijske slike te sa blagodarnošću sam posvetio to delo Matej Hubadu kompozitoru i organizatoru slovenačkog muzičkog života. Josip Š. Slavenski, Beograd 11. maja 1925. god.” [“The great teacher of Slovenian musicians, Matej Hubad, was one of the best interpreters of my vocal music. By his wish, I in- strumented these choral compositions I had written in my youth. But during the instrumentation, due to harmonic and melodic intensification, new symphonic pictures emerged in the meantime, and so I have gratefully dedicated this work to Matej Hubad, composer and organizer of musical events in Slovenia. Josip Š. Slavenski, Belgrade, 11th May 1925”]. Later, Slavenski rearranged this composition for a much smaller orchestra of string instruments, as the accompaniment, and its task is much more modest – to play an instrumental introduction to every song and to support the choir while singing, but so that the choir nevertheless retains the main role. It is likely that this arrangement was made for a school performance. Once again, it confirms that Josip Slavenski wrote versions of his compositions for diverse ensembles, because he carried several versions of their sound in his inner being. Ftiček veli da se ženil bude, for four-part female choir with piano accompaniment, 1925. It is dedicated to the Prvo beogradsko pevačko društvo [First Belgrade Choral Society] from Belgrade. Pesme i igre sa Balkana [Songs and Dances from the Balkan], suite for piano, 1927. The work is dedicated to Milana Ilić, who would later become the composer’s wife Milana Slavenski. This composition later became the famous orchestral composition Balkanofonija [Balkanophonia]. Koncert za violinu i orkestar [Concerto for Violin and Orchestra], 1927. It is not known if this work was originally unfinished. The title page bears another dedication to the violinist Zlatko Baloković.28 of singing and the principal of its Conservatory. From 1923 to 1927 he was the intendant of the National Theatre. As a choirmaster, he attained a high artistic standard with the choir of this institution and influenced the development of the art of choral performance in every way – interpretative and creative. 28 Zlatko Baloković maintained contact with the Jugoslovenska kulturna matica [Yugoslav Cultural Society] in New York City, whose member was also Aleksandar Savin, and they also collaborated in the Jugoslovensko prosvetno kolo [Yugoslav Educational Circle]. Cf. Sanja Grujić-Vlajnić, “Neki interesantni momenti iz prepiske Josipa Slavenskog” [“Some interesting details from Josip Slavenski’s correspondence”], Međimurje, Čakovec, 1988, 111–129.

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Slepačka, for four-part mixed or male choir, 1927. The author’s copy, dated 12th June 1932, is dedicated to Kosta P. Manojlović. Among other things, Manojlović wrote a newspaper review of the sevdalinka song Oj slavuju moj during the filming of the movie Fantom Durmitora [Phantom of Durmitor], for which Slavenski wrote the soundtrack. Besides, they were lifelong friends. And when Manojlović became the first Vice-Chancellor of the newly founded Music Academy in Belgrade, Slavenski supported his endeavour to acquire quarter- tone harmoniums. Kolo [Round Dance], for two-part female choir and string quintet or string orchestra, 1927 (see Ex. 4). The back page of the work reads: “Narodna svita za violinu i klavir” [“Folklore Suite for Violin and Piano”] (see below), and the piece is dedicated to the Music School in Belgrade. Besides, there is also a separate handwritten violin part, with a dedication to Zlatko Baloković on the cover page, and the list of movements which in Kolo differs from that in Naro- dna svita. Although Baloković performed Slavenski’s compositions on many occasions on his world tours, it seems that he never played Narodna svita, probably because of its modest technical demands. The Second String Quartet (Lyrical Quartet), Op. 11, 1928. Dedicated to the Zika String Quartet from Prague, who gave the premiere performance at the Frankfurt Radio on 18th April 1929. Narodna svita [Folklore Suite], for violin and piano, 1932 (cf. Kolo), see Ex. 5. A copy of the violin part survives, with a dedication to Zlatko Baloković, who was active in the Yugoslav Cultural Society in New York City. It is based on the soundtrack for the film Fantom Durmitora [Phantom of Durmitor] and “predstavlja kaleidoskopsko nizanje sedam stavova folklorne građe po principu smene ‘igranja’ i ‘pevanja’. Izdvojen od ostalih filmskih numera, u jednom au- tografu nosi posvetu našem čuvenom violinisti Zlatku Balokoviću” [“presents a kaleidoscopic sequence of seven movements based on folklore, with ‘dance’ and ‘song’ taking turns. The material was chosen from among the movie numbers, and the autograph is dedicated to our famous violinist Zlatko Baloković”].29 Nevesto tanka, two folk songs for male choir, 1933. Dedicated to the Gusla Male Choir from Sofia. Čije je ono devojče, for three-part male choir, 1933. Also dedicated to the Gusla Male Choir from Sofia. Simfonija Orijenta [Symphony of the Orient], for soloists, choir and orchestra, 1926–1934. (Ex oriente lux.), see Ex. 6. Slavenski called music a super-religion,

29 Mirjana Živković, “O filmskoj muzici Josipa Slavenskog” [“On Film Music of Josip Slavenski”], Zvuk, Sarajevo, 1982, 4, 41. Also see ex. 5 in Appendix, a fragment of Slaven- ski's letter to Baloković.

158 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165) and besides, this composition bears the author’s dedication to the magnificent Missa Solemnis, written by the composer he held in the highest esteem of all – Ludwig van Beethoven. It “predstavlja plod centralnih preokupacija Slavensk- ove stvaralačke mašte koja ga je začela još u ranoj mladosti da bi ga ostvarila u zrelim godinama” [“represents the result of the main preoccupations of Slaven- ski’s creative imagination, which first appeared in his early youth, only to bear fruit in his mature years”].30 On the back page he wrote: “Često izvođenje ove moje simfonijske kantate opasno je za monopoliste državnih nagrada i položaja svih režima” [“The frequent performance of this symphonic cantata of mine is dangerous for the regular receivers of state prizes and positions in all regimes”]. Oj, kuli, stage music for the play and to the verses of Louis Aragon, for mixed and speaking choir, piano, flute and narrator, 1937. Dedicated to the Abrašević Choral Society from Belgrade,31 and performed on 10th November 1937 in the Abrašević Workers’ Chamber. Directed by Pavle Stefanović, the stage design by Lujo Davičo. The Abrašević Choir had about 80 members at the time and was led by Pavle Stefanović. In the autumn of 1937 he engaged the composer Josip Slavenski, the choreographer Lujo Davičo and the pianist Stana Đurić Klajn, together with two anonymous musicians, to perform this ambitious stage-music work, after a social poem by Louis Aragon whose subject was the exploitation of the dockyard labourers in China.32 In this summarized presentation of the chronology of Josip Slavenski’s works bearing attributed dedications, we also summarized, in a certain way, his creative preoccupations, professional tributes, but also ambitious constructions and obsessive philosophical views. Although very clear and explicit, they never divulge to the full extent the most intimate and subtle relations that were inter- actively established between the author and the person or thing that merited a gift from our great composer. Translated by Goran Kapetanović

30 Mirjana Živković, op. cit. 31 Abrašević Workers’ Choral Society was established in 1905 in Belgrade, and their entire activity influenced the development of the political and class consciousness of the workers. Besides following workers’ manifestations and demonstrations, with obligatory participation in celebrations on every 1st May, Abrašević unambiguously expressed their political views at spectacles, theatre shows and concerts. 32 Cf. Milica Gajić, “Revolucionarni duh J. Slavenskog” [“Revolutionary spirit of J. Slaven- ski”], Međimurje, Čakovec, 1989, 139–140.

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APPENDICES

Ex. 1 - Fugue in the form of symphonic poem for large orchestra (1917), title page, dedicated to Victor von Herzfeld

160 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165)

Ex. 2 - Nokturno for orchestra, op. 1 - title page, dedicated to Hugo Mihailović

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Ex. 3 - Mladost, symphonic picture for orchestra (1927), dedicated to Matej Hubad

162 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165)

Ex. 4 - Kolo for female choir and string quintet (1927), dedicated to Music School in Belgrade

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Ex. 5 - A fragment of Slavenski's letter to Zlatko Baloković, 2 January 1935.

164 Gajić, M.: ‘Short Lexicon’ of Dedications in the Handwritten Legacy ... (147– 165)

Ex. 6 - Simfonija Orijenta, title page

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166 STUDENT’S PAPERS

Article received on 14 November 2013 Article accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 78.071.1 Хилдегарда Бигенска 272-789-055.2:929 Хилдегарда Бингенска, света Bojan Miljević*

MUSICAL WORLD OF HILDEGARD OF BINGEN1

Introduction Hildegard of Bingen (Hildegard von Bingen, Hildegardis Bingensis, Saint Hildegard, Sibyl of the Rhine) was born in 1098 in the German province of Rheinhessen, and she died in Rupertsberg near Bingen, on the 17th Septem- ber, 1179. She was an extraordinarily interesting personality, ‘the first’ in many fields, known for her literary, musical, scientific and research work, as well as religious and diplomatic activities. Her oeuvre includes recorded visions, medical, botanical and geological treatises, letters, lyrical and dramatic poetry which survived alongside monodic music. Hildegard of Bingen is one of the first composers ever – and most definitely the first female composer – whose biography has survived. When she was eight, her parents sent her to church as a ‘tithe’ – a sort of tax, as was the custom in medieval times. Six years later, she was assigned to the newly- built Benedictine double monastery near Disibodenberg. Jutta of Sponheim,2 sister of Count Meinhard of Sponheim and Hildegard of Bingen’s tutor until her death, was very popular, with a great number of followers, thanks to which the

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 The term paper titled “Svet muzike Hildegard of Bingena” [“Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen”] was written under the mentorship of Tijana Popović-Mlađenović, Associate Professor, in the first year of undergraduate studies, and it was presented at the annual review of student papers in the academic year 2012/2013. 2 Jutta was born to a rich and distinguished family. She despised all secular temptations and decided to dedicate her life to God.

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monastic circle around Jutta grew wide even during her lifetime. Under Jutta’s ‘mentorship’, Hildegard of Bingen learned Latin and was instructed in the strict religious practices of the time. After Jutta’s death in 1136, Hildegard of Bingen was elected as the superior of the community (the abbess) and moved the group to a new (strictly female) convent in Rupertsberg, on the banks of the Rhine, near Bingen. Later sources described her as the ‘Sibyl of the Rhine’, and popes, emper- ors and other secular and spiritual leaders, as well as the lower clergy, even the laity, obtained counsel from her and maintained lengthy correspondences. She was involved in politics and diplomacy at a time of great political and ecclesiastical turmoil. Inconceivably for a medieval woman, between 1160 and 1170, she headed four missions, travelling mostly across the German lands and preaching sermons. It is recorded that she had been having quite specific visions since she was five years old and that in 1141, the Church authorities allowed her to write down her visions, in which the monk Volmar assisted her. Thanks to his help, and the opportunity to attend sermons every day and consult numerous theological treatises of the time, stored in the convent where she lived, Hildegard of Bingen wrote three books: the first and the most significant is Scivias [Know the Ways], completed in 1151; then Liber vitae meritorum [Book of Life’s Merits]; and De operatione Dei [On God’s Activity], also known as Liber divinorum ope- rum [Book of Divine Works].3 Over the last decades, the increasing interest in the activities of women in medieval times led to the popularization of Hildegard of Bingen’s music.4 Re- cent literature, which, among other things, examines her compositional work,

3 In these books, Hildegard of Bingen first described every vision, and then explained it. The descriptions of her visions were richly decorated on her instructions, and the illustrations and decorations were most probably rendered by other nuns in the convent. Her interpretations of the visions, for the most part, comply with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Her vivid descriptions of physical sensations accompanying the visions were diag- nosed by neurologists (including Oliver Sacks, the author of the book Migraine published in 1970) as the symptoms of migraine. The others saw them just as colourful illustrations of the governing doctrine supported by Hildegard of Bingen, rather than as real visions. The book Scivias was widely acclaimed in medieval times and first printed in Paris in 1513. Cf. http:// sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildegard_od_Bingena 4 Cf. Margot Fassler, Composer and Dramatist: ‘Melodious Singing and the Freshness of Remorse’, Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World, ed. Barbara New- man, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1998; Barbara Newman, Voice of the Living Light, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1998; Fiona Maddocks, Hildegard of Bin- gen: The Woman of Her Age, New York, Doubleday, 2001; Rosemary Radford Ruether, Vi- sionary Women, Minneapolis, Augsburg Fortress, 2002; Carol Reed-Jones, Hildegard of Bingen: Women of Vision, Bellingham, Paper Crane Press, 2004; etc.

168 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182) lists about eighty (surviving) compositions, a rich musical oeuvre in medieval terms. The most significant work is Ordo virtutum (Order of Virtues or Game of Virtues), a very specific kind of early oratorio for female voices and one male voice (representing the devil): like all of her works, it was written with the intention to be performed within the order of nuns whose spiritual leader was Hil- degard of Bingen. The texts of her compositions were written in her individual modification of Medieval Latin, containing a large number of new and/or ab- breviated words. The monodic music which she composed could be performed with a modest instrumental accompaniment, most often the pan flute, or it could be joined by another sung (improvised) part. Pursuant to the modern tendencies of musicologists who have focused their research on the musical world of Hildegard of Bingen, this paper, on the one hand, aims to contribute to these tendencies by underlining the importance and function of music within Roman Catholic worship as practiced in the convent in Rupertsberg, and on the other, to mark the particulars of Hildegard of Bingen’s musical language using three works – O ignee Spiritus, De Spiritu Sancto and Item de virginibus – as examples.

The musical world of Hildegard of Bingen Music was very important to Hildegard of Bingen: on the one hand, it was a mundane manifestation of humanity’s voice and, on the other, the ultimate means of communication between people and the divinity. Her music, conform- ing to ecclesiastical teachings, was an integral part of worship, thus having an implicit didactical and rhetorical role. Believing that man’s everyday spiritual and physical balance is disturbed by this earthly life, Hildegard of Bingen advocated the healing power of music. In other words, she believed that the language of music was the most natural means for restoring the balance of humankind, i.e. to “redirect our hearts toward heaven and put our feet back onto the whole- some pathways of God”.5 Although the exact year when Hildegard of Bingen started composing cannot be ascertained, one can assume that her early music was an integral part of the medieval lives of all the members of the spiritual community this composer and visionary belonged to. In monasteries, convents and churches, rituals accompanied by music were performed according to a strict timetable. The right to participate in these rituals called ‘Hours’, which were contained in a breviary and which, by Benedictine rules, were performed eight times a day (i.e. every

5 Quoted in: Nancy Fierro, Hildegard of Bingen: Symphony of the Harmony of Heaven, Mount St. Mary’s College, Los Angeles, California, USA, 1997. Cf. http://www.hildegard. org/music/music.html

169 New Sound 42, II/2013 three hours), was restricted to monks and nuns. Christopher Page, the author of about a dozen books on medieval music, states that Hildegard of Bingen, thanks precisely to frequent worship in the convent she lived in, had the opportunity to hear the music of that geographic region. This British scientist wrote that Hildegard of Bingen’s “life was spent singing the words of the liturgy and reading the words of the Latin Bible until the fabric of [her] memory was dyed with them to the deepest, to the most irremovable, tint”.6 Hence, it can be assumed that the composer was involved in the monastery’s musical life from the very beginning. It is interesting that women did not participate in the rituals in the same way as men: living in the female section, which had two windows – one opening outwards and the other connected to the church – they were, in fact, almost completely excluded from the Divine Office; hence, only through these openings could the nuns hear the music performed at worship, and it was a form of ‘learning’ music for Hildegard of Bingen too. The monastery was ideally suited to meet her needs as a composer, since it had experienced copyists in the scriptoria, who were able to write down her music, performers who could play it and liturgical events within which it could be performed. In her autobio- graphical texts, Hildegard of Bingen wrote, “I composed and chanted plainsong in praise of God and the saints even though I had never studied either musical notation or singing.”7 Today, two manuscripts are in existence: Dendermonde and Riesenkodex, containing 77 songs written in neumes. Scholars gave these songs a joint title Symphony of the Harmony of Heaven, although it does not appear in any of Hildegard of Bingen’s surviving texts. The foregoing song collection includes 43 antiphonal songs, 18 responsorial songs, seven sequences and a few hymns. All of them were performed within some part of the liturgical cycle or a festivity. Hymns and sequences are marked by syllabic melodies, while melismata in responsorial songs can contain up to 75 notes on a single syllable; antiphonal songs are a ‘stylistic middle ground’ based on the alternation of syllabic and melismatic sections, while sequences are distinctive as they do not adhere to the rhyme scheme. Another significant musical work is the already mentioned ‘dramatic’ piece, Ordo Virtutum, containing 82 mostly syllabic melodies with accompaniment. The work’s subject is the struggle of a human soul with sixteen personified virtues and vices. The texts of her songs are marked by a richness of symbolic imagery, and ‘apocalyptic language’ similar to her visionary writings; one can even find some similarities with the poetry of Notker Balbulus, while their richness and imag-

6 Ibid. 7 Ibid.

170 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182) ination make them closely related to the works of Petrus Abaelardus (Pierre Abélard). Based on her letters, it is assumed that the compositional oeuvre of Hil- degard of Bingen included elements of secular music, since the 12th century was one of the most prolific periods for aristocratic art, or more precisely, the art of troubadours, trouvères and minnesingers. Given that the emergence and activities of minnesingers coincided in time and space with the life and work of Hildegard of Bingen, one can assume that the composer had the opportunity to become acquainted with the creative and performance practice of some of the most renowned minnesingers of the time – Walther von der Vogelweide, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Tannhäuser and others. Namely, according to some surviving written evidence, she was acquainted not only with secular music, but also with the musical instruments and musical practices of the liturgy. In the book Scivias there is an illustration of a female figure wearing armour and a helmet, with a sword and a spear, and the following text: “And there were also people, some of whom were sounding trumpets, and others were drolly making a noise with players’ instruments, and others were playing diverse games.”8 While a text so worded suggests that the author was inclined to these kinds of secular events, later on it is concluded that a woman warrior “savagely trans- fixed them with the spear she carried in her right hand”.9 This is probably one of her visions, which, in fact, favours the opinion that Hildegard of Bingen supported secular music, but at the same time disapproved of a certain shallow- ness and vulgarity in the secular pastime. In another passage, the author wrote about what would have happened if man had decided to walk in God’s ways: “He would have displayed you as the light of clarity in the renown of most holy deeds and made you ring like the sweet sound of a lyre.”10 This quotation leads us to the conclusion that Hildegard of Bingen certainly held non-liturgical musical practice and cultivating instrumental music-making in high regard. For her, secular music was another intense brightness,11 hierarchically placed just below sacral music. Proof of this are the author’s words: “And in it I perceived the totality of every delight, and all kinds of music, and voices of many singers and the joy of those who rejoice, and an abundance of all gladness […] And [secular musicians] were touched from time to time by a certain very sweet

8 John White, The Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen, College Music Symposium, 1998. Cf. http://cms.axiom4.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2142:the-musical- world-of-hildegard-of-bingen. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid.

171 New Sound 42, II/2013 breeze, proceeding from the hidden places of God, having all the perfumes of plants and flowers; and then they gave forth the sound of sweetest harmony, and their voices resounded as the sound of many waters.”12 From this quotation we can conclude that the musical world of Hildegard of Bingen, apart from the traditional monodic melodies of sacral chants, included instrumental music too, both polyphonic and secular. The author considered musical instruments as a means to soften the heart and to turn man’s soul towards God; she even ascribed particular functions and meanings to certain instruments: • Tambourine inspires discipline. The skin of the tambourine is spread tightly over the frame, like that of a fasting body. • Flute, with its seductive and intimate sound, reminds us of the breath of the Spirit. • Trumpet is clear, strong, wakeful, like the voice of the prophets. • Strings correspond to the earthly condition of the soul as it struggles back to the light. The sounds of the strings stir up the emotions of our heart and lead us to repentance. • Harp is the instrument of heavenly blessedness. It brings back thoughts of our holy origins and helps us remember who we are and who we are called to be. • Psaltery represents the unity of heaven and earth since it is played both on the top and bottom strings. • Organ, as an instrument capable of playing harmonies, helps create community.13

Properties of Hildegard of Bingen’s musical language Hildegard of Bingen’s musical language is marked by a certain departure from the rules set by the church at that time. Broad and melodious lines, wide and unexpected intervallic leaps, long and ornamented melismatic ‘sentences’ were parts of her ‘musical vocabulary’. The complexity and diversity of melodic phrases stemmed from the fusion of poetry and music, i.e. from interlacing the grammatical and semantic properties of the text with a well-developed, mostly

12 Ibid. 13 Nancy Fierro, Hildegard of Bingen: Symphony of the Harmony of the Heaven, Mount St. Mary’s College, Los Angeles, California, USA, 1997. Cf. http://www.hildegard.org/music/ music.html

172 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182) melismatic melodic style. The texts of the songs are punctuated with rhetorical devices, such as personification, ambivalence of meaning, vivid descriptions and comparisons (cf. Example 4). Thus, for instance, in the song De Spiritu Sancto (To the Holy Spirit), the ‘Spirit’ is ‘the root of all created being’ which ‘wakens’ ‘life’, while in another song, Item de virginibus (In Praise of Virgins), Hildegard of Bingen identifies ‘virgins’ with natural ‘Greenness’, comparing them to the ‘dawn’ and the ‘flame of the sun’. In order to ‘breathe life’ into these metaphors, the author uses musical means that emphasize the primary subjects and key words of her poetry. These tools include intervallic leaps, repeating short melodic phrases and ornamental variations of a single melodic pattern, which Hildegard of Bingen used to blend musical and textual ideas into a coherent entity. More precisely, she mostly employed melodic motion with ornaments, using referential pitches and characteristic notes of certain modes, to stress and musically ‘deepen’ the meaning of certain words, while on the other hand, she adhered to the inflection of the spoken word and punctuation provided with the texts. In the time of Hildegard of Bingen’s compositional activity, the melodies of Gregorian chant, already formed and mature, were broad and slow, diatonic, and restricted to medieval modes. They could be accompanied with a parallel melodic line, at a distance of a fourth or fifth, above or below the plainsong part. Eight church modes were in use – more precisely, four authentic modes (Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Mixolydian) and four plagal modes, which were transposed a fourth downward compared to the corresponding authentic ones.14 Scales that Hildegard of Bingen used most often in her works had the minor triad on the final.15 Contrary to medieval church melodies, plainsong composed by Hildegard of Bingen is marked by a very wide range. Unlike choral chants, where melodies move conjunctly, with small intervallic leaps and the arc-shaped contour – ascent from the initial melodic formula (initium), plateau at a certain pitch (tenor) and closure (finalis), which is actually the return to the initial position16 – the melodies composed by Hildegard of Bingen are somehow more ‘angular’. The reason for this ‘angular’ shape of church chants lies in the use of wider intervallic leaps – fourths, fifths, even sevenths. Often, at the very beginning of a chant, we can note ‘quick’ melodic ascents to a certain pitch, followed by

14 Cf. Roksanda Pejović et al., Muzika minulog doba [Music of the Times Past], Belgrade, Portal, 2004, 88. 15 This was probably an influence of the minnesingers, since they paid more attention to the minor-triad modes (Dorian and Phrygian). 16 Cf. Roksanda Pejović et al., op. cit., 88.

173 New Sound 42, II/2013 conjunct/‘slower’ downward motions. The high registers reached in her melodies are reminiscent of the spires of Gothic cathedrals ‘shooting upwards into the sky’17 (cf. Examples 2 and 3). The usual range of the chants known to Hildegard of Bingen did not exceed the ninth interval, most of them remaining within the scope of a fifth or sixth. Her chants, on the other hand, exceeded an octave by a fourth or a fifth, and in Marianne Pfau’s opinion, the better part of Hildegard of Bingen’s church songs go beyond the ranges defined by medieval theoreticians. The range in some of her works is even wider than two octaves (cf. Example 3). In that respect, this composer seems to have given precedence to the musical space occupied by each individual melody, rather than its modal basis. The way of Hildegard of Bingen’s musical thinking is marked by the ‘strategic’ repetition of melodic ‘motives’ which are specific for each mode (cf. Examples 1 and 2). Besides, the melodic tissue contains fourth and fifth leaps upwards and downwards, serving as a sort of ‘entrance’ to high registers, separating and stressing certain words in the text at the same time (cf. Examples 1 and 2). Also, two consecutive leaps may occur at the beginning: an upward fifth, from the final to the reciting tone, and then the upward fourth, from the reciting tone to the upper final (cf. Exam- ple 2). Hildegard of Bingen’s melodies contain long melismatic sections, like in Item de virginibus, where their function is to focus the listener’s attention on the desired musical and/or textual ideas, or ‘images’ (cf. Example 3). The compositional oeuvre of Hildegard of Bingen is restricted to four modal scales, but due to the exceptionally wide range of certain chants, it is hard to determine whether they are in the authentic or the plagal mode. Besides, around 25 songs have notes A and C as unconventional finals (cf. Examples 2 and 3). Although these finals were not accepted in the standard system, they certainly served as alternative points for the transposition of the melody. One can also assume that Hildegard of Bingen ‘played’ with modes, and in the process un- knowingly discovered the Ionian and Aeolian modes, i.e. the precursors of the modern major and minor scales.

O ignee Spiritus (O, Spirit of Fire)18 The song O ignee Spiritus is in the Dorian mode; it begins and ends with the note D, i.e. the final, and the reciting tone is A. The note B-flat appears throughout the work, which leaves the impression of the natural minor scale.

17 Nancy Fierro, Hildegard of Bingen: Symphony of the Harmony of the Heaven, Mount St. Mary’s College, Los Angeles, California, USA, 1997. Cf. http://www.hildegard.org/music/ music.html 18 Example 1 at the end of the paper.

174 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182)

The range is a – d2. The song begins with a leap typical of the Dorian scale (D – A), which is subsequently repeated at the beginning of the textual phrases. The style is neumatic, and a few notes assigned to one syllable, most often three or four, are to be articulated quickly – as if their function is to ornament a particular note or word. The melodic motion is conjunct, with occasional leaps of a third, fourth and fifth. The song consists of four melodic and textual sections which coincide with one another. This example contains initial, medial and final formulae. The final formula in O ignee Spiritus is the one that is repeated most frequently, and can be found at the end of each melodic and textual phrase, which apparently makes it the most important one. On the hierarchical scale, the initial formula is right beneath the final one; it appears more rarely and is more liable to varying than the final formula. And finally, there is the medial formula, which is the least predetermined and serves as a connection between the initial and the final formulae. In the last melodic-textual section an accompanying parallel melodic line enters, at the distance of a fourth, which is reminiscent of an early polyphonic form – organum. It is interesting that Hildegard of Bingen mentions musical instruments in the spiritual song O ignee Spiritus, such as the lyre and the timbrel; these two words, curiously enough, are accompanied by the melody with the greatest amount of ornamentation (row 2). In the middle of the chant (row 4 of the sheet music example), the melody is marked mostly by conjunct motion, but this in fact illustrates the word ‘animarum’ (souls). The climax is reached at the end (rows 6, 7 and 8 of the sheet music example), with the words ‘lantern’, ‘insight’ and ‘reason’.

De Spiritu Sancto (To the Holy Spirit)19 The final in this song is A, the reciting tone is E, and the subsequent melodic tissue mostly features the note B-flat, from which it can be concluded that the song is in the transposed Phrygian mode. The range is a ninth – from g1 to a2. Although the chant is dominated by conjunct melismatic motion, there are also intervallic leaps of thirds, fourths and fifths. The melodic and textual sections coincide with each other and there are seven of them altogether. Since the chant is melismatic, we cannot definitely determine the melodic formulae, but what we can determine is the melodic framework appearing throughout the chant as the core around which melismata are formed: the notes in question are A – E – A – E.

19 Example 2 at the end of the paper.

175 New Sound 42, II/2013

In this song, the melodic ‘framework’ is first presented with the least amount of added notes, on the word Spiritus (Spirit), which leads us to the conclusion that the ‘framework’ itself is the essence/core/‘spirit’ of the chant. In that way, the re-entrance of the melodic ‘framework’ on the second word leaves us with the impression that the ‘spirit’, now in a different shape, emerges as the ‘root’ of all existence, just as the ‘framework’ is the ‘core’ of the melody.

Item de virginibus (In Praise of Virgins)20 Item de virginibus is melismatic in character. The longest melisma in the song contains 67 notes, and it appears on the word “divinorum” (the melisma is underlined in the Example). The mode is transposed Mixolydian, the final is C, and the reciting tone is G. In the course of the melody, occasionally the note B- flat appears. The range is from g to d3, which makes a fifth over two octaves.21 The melody is mostly conjunct, with the leaps of thirds, fourths and fifths, and at one point, the leap of a major seventh is employed (cf. line 9 of the sheet music, the framed place). It is interesting that the leap leads to the (foregoing) longest melisma in the song. Similarly to the previous Example, we can only determine the melodic framework around which the melisma develops (C, G, C, F), and which disap- pears over the course of the chant. The song can be divided into six textual and melodic sections.

Conclusion In this paper I have dealt with the importance and function of music in the monasteries and convents where Hildegard of Bingen lived and worked. Her musical oeuvre includes only spiritual works containing some elements of secular and instrumental practice of the medieval age. Given that aristocratic music was becoming popular during her lifetime, it is assumed that Hildegard of Bingen had the opportunity to hear the music of the minnesingers who, on their travels across the German lands, visited the monasteries and convents too. She approved of secular music and considered it to be the means of acquiring an exhaustive knowledge of music. While analysing the three musical works – O ignee Spiritus, De Spiritu Sancto and Item de virginibus – I established that Hildegard of Bingen’s musical language deviated from the rules prescribed by the medieval church. Chants

20 Example 3 at the end of the paper. 21 It is probable that Hildegard of Bingen wanted to describe the vocal capabilities of a woman by this range.

176 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182) are much more melodious, have a wider range and contain a greater number of intervallic leaps, while the long and ornamented melismatic sections of the musical tissue are used to stress important words in the text. It would be very interesting, in future research, to compare her chants with Byzantine music and ascertain their similarities and differences. The frequent use of the Ionian and Aeolian modes anticipates the major-minor system. The musical world of Hildegard of Bingen, placed somewhere in between spiritual and secular music, is a new and quite specific world of music, almost inconceivable at the time. Translated by Goran Kapetanović

Literature

D. Bent, Ian, Hildegard of Bingen, in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004, 553–556. Fassler, Margot, Composer and Dramatist: ‘Melodious Singing and the Freshness of Re- morse’, Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World, ed. Barbara Newman, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1998. Fierro, Nancy, Hildegard of Bingen: Symphony of the Harmony of Heaven, Los Angeles, 1997, http://www.hildegard.org/music/music.html, accessed 5th February 2013 at 15.30. Judkin, Džeremi, Muzika u srednjovekovnoj Evropi [Yudkin, Jeremy, Music in Medieval Eu- rope], trans. Ivana Perković, Clio, Beograd, 2003. L. Grant, Barbara, Five Liturgical Songs by Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179), in: Signs, Vol. 5, No. 3, 557–567, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173606, accessed 11th February 2013 at 7.30. Lerman, Kristina, The Life and Works of Hildegard von Bingen (1098- 1179), New York, Fordham University, 1995 Maddocks, Fiona, Hildegard of Bingen: The Woman of Her Age, Doubleday, New York, 2001. Newman, Barbara, Voice of the Living Light, California, University of California Press, 1998. Newman, Barbara and Matthew Fox, Vision, Penguin Group, New York, 1995. Pejović, Roksanda et al., Muzika minulog doba, Beograd, Portal, 2004. Radford Ruether, Rosemary, Visionary Women, Minneapolis, Augsburg Fortress, 2002. Reed-Jones, Carol, Hildegard of Bingen: Women of Vision, Bellingham, Paper Crane Press, 2004. Storey, Ann, A theophany of the feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schönau and Herrad of Landsberg, in Woman’s Art Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1, 16–20, http://www. jstor.org/stable/1358649, accessed on 15th February 2013 at 20.35.

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White, John D., The Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen, College Music Symposium, Vol. 38, 6–16, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40374317, accessed on 10th February 2013 at 13.40. Wood Holsinger, Bruce, The Flash of the Voice: Embodiment and Homoerotics of Devotion in the Music of Hildegard of Bingen, In Sings, Vol. 19, No. 1, 92-125, http://www. jstor.org/stable/3174746, accessed on 15th February 2013 at 21.20.

178 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182)

APPENDICES

Example 1. O ignee Spiritus

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Example 2. De Spiritu Sancto The red overline marks the notes of the melodic ‘framework’.

180 Miljević, B.: Musical World of Hildegard of Bingen (167–182)

Example 3. Item de virginibus The green underline marks the notes of the melodic ‘framework’.

181 New Sound 42, II/2013

Example 4. Translations of the songs

1. O ignee Spiritus (O, Spirit of Fire)

Praise to you, Spirit of fire! To you who sound the timbrel and the lyre.

Your music sets our minds ablaze! The strength of our souls awaits your coming in the tent of meeting.

There the mounting will gives the soul its savour and desire is its lantern.

Insight invokes you in a cry full of sweetness, while reason builds you temples as she labors at her golden crafts.

2. De Spiritu Sancto (To the Holy Spirit)

Holy Spirit, making life alive, moving in all things, root of all created being, cleansing the cosmos of every impurity, effacing guilt, anointing wounds. You are lustrous and praiseworthy life, You waken and re-awaken everything that is.

3. Item de virginibus (In Praise of Virgins)

O most noble Greenness, rooted in the sun, and who shines in bright serenity upon the wheel, nothing on earth can comprehend you, you are encircled in the arms of divine mysteries. You are radiant as the dawn and burn as the flame of the sun.

182 INTERPRETATIONS

Article received on 08 November 2013 rticle accepted on 30 November 2013 UDC: 7.01:32 Дифрен М.(049.32) Ivana Petković* University of Arts in Belgrade Faculty of Music Department of Musicology

UN ART AUTRE: MIKEL DUFRENNE ON POLITICS AND ART BOOK REVIEW: MIKEL DIFREN, UMJETNOST I POLITIKA, [MIKEL DUFRENNE, ART ET POLITIQUE], TRANS. JUGANA STOJANOVIĆ, SVJETLOST, SARAJEVO, 1982

The opinion that there are always direct and/or indirect interrelations and an interweaving of politics and art does not always nor exclusively appear in times of social and political turmoil or great wars. This opinion has been strongly encouraged and widespread all over the political and cultural map of Europe for several centuries, and thus, no wonder, philosophers of the most diverse orientations in various time periods and contexts have chosen it as the subject of their works. Mikel Louis Dufrenne (1910–1995), a French philosopher of phenomenological orientation, regardless of the events that marked the ideological, political and cultural ambiance of Europe in the late 1960s, published a book entitled Umjetnost i politika (Art et politique) in 1974.1 Although written in the time of a highly specific social and political ‘vibe’, it almost seems that this book asked to be read again on the eve of the 100th anniversary of the First World War, but

* Author contact information: [email protected] 1 Mikel Dufrenne, Art et politique, U.G.E., Paris, 1974; Mikel Difren, Umjetnost i politika, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 1982.

183 New Sound 42, II/2013 now offering a different view of the relationship between art and politics, still topical even today. Mikel Dufrenne’s book, on the one hand, problematizes art and politics as ‘institutions’ (whose individual structures are described through the notions such as status, personnel, norms, material, activities)2 – the first chapter, Umjet- nost i politika kao institucije (Art et politique comme institutions), the second chapter, Pojam institucije (La notion d’institution), the differences and similarities between them, the points of intersection and divergence, dualities and individualities, the submission of one to the other – the third chapter, Šta je zajedničko dvjema institucijama (Ce qu’il y a de commun aux deux institutions), and the fourth chapter, Veze između dvije institucije (Les relations entre les deux institutions), while on the other hand, thanks to introducing the concept of other art (un art autre) – which permeates almost all the chapters in the book, thus becoming the central concept of the entire study – it suggests possible processes of going beyond the bounds of the foregoing institutions and their ‘final breakdown’ – the fifth chapter, Utopija (L’utopie); the sixth chapter, Razbijanje institucija (L’éclatement des institutions); and the seventh chapter, Utopija i utopizam (Utopie et utopisme). Namely, according to Mikel Dufrenne’s words, the notion of other art refers to art that leaves its ghetto, art that transcends its traditional meaning, i.e. that goes beyond the bounds of acknowledged institutionalized art – art which was chosen, accepted, rejected or offered as art by artists and clerks, representing the institutions through aesthetic, economic and political cooperation.3 As a utopian practice par excellence, art, in Mikel Dufrenne’s opinion, can leave its imprint on the entire society, i.e. the society where imagination would rule (l’imagination serait au pouvoir) and which, consequently, could be regarded as a work of art.

2 Institutions understood as departments of social reality, which make specialized practical work possible, form a separate reality. Bronisław Kasper Malinowski (1884–1992) used the foregoing concepts/elements to describe the structure of these institutions, based upon cultural anthropology, which Dufrenne himself considered indispensable in his intellectual development. Cf. Mikel Difren, op. cit., 77; Marivon Sezon [Maryvonne Saison], “Mikel Difren: Jedna neobična priča” [original title unavailable], Miško Šuvaković, Aleš Erjavec (eds.), Figure u pokretu. Savremena zapadna estetika, filozofija i teorija umetnosti [Figures in Motion. Contemporary Western Aesthetics, Philosophy and Art Theory], Atoča, Belgrade, 2009, 399. 3 Cf. Miško Šuvaković, Diskurzivna analiza. Prestupi i/ili pristupi ‘diskurzivne analize’ filozofiji, poetici, estetici, teoriji i studijama umetnosti i kulture [Discursive analysis. Viola- tions and/or approaches of ‘discursive analysis’ to philosophy, poetics, aesthetics, theory, art studies and cultural studies], Univerzitet umetnosti, Belgrade, 2006, 448–450.

184 Petković, I.: Un art autre: Mikel Dufrenne on politics and art... (183–187)

However, ideology – as a concept referring to a relatively connected and determined set of ideas, symbolic representations, values, beliefs and ways of thinking, expressing, presenting and acting which are common to the members of social groups, the individuals in political parties, state institutions or social classes4 – is almost inextricably linked with art and politics, as well. Thus, it is essentially important for Dufrenne’s study, although it bears no positive influence on the author’s perception of the relationship between art and politics. Du- frenne comes to the conclusion that the term ideology can only and exclusively be connected with the ruling class, since the oppressed have no ideology, theirs is utopia. In the very distinctive fabric of his formulation, one recognizes the author’s wish to take the original human freedom of thought, action and creation in the world and have it ‘defended from ideology’, from ideological theat- rics and formalizations, offering the idea about the regress to pure experience – experience that will not tolerate influences of ideology, in which one feels the presence of reality and Nature, which Dufrenne feels is the only possible origin of a creative movement from freedom, a utopian road from the primeval to other world, that is to say other art. In this other world, this other art would finally bring to life the experience of original perception, and thus create a naïve and original viewpoint, unencumbered by any ideology, the author opines. In that respect, Dufrenne continues, such art would have the power of liberation from all future ideologies, given that it is also “à la source, l’afficher avant de vraiment – à savoir, la réalité perçue, la convivialité originelle de l’homme et le monde, ce qui est exemptée de l’obligation de devenir immédiatement soumis au jugement – ce qui ne lui permet pas l’objet de la représentation” [“on the source, depicting what comes before truth – namely, the experienced reality, the primeval union of man and the world, that which is free of obligation to become immediately an object of judgment – which does not allow us to make it an object of representation”].5 Being at such a source, art can be perceived in two ways, in Dufrenne’s opinion: on the one hand, as the point of origin and the emergence process of art in the historical sense, and on the other, as the birth- place of other and new art in the utopian practice of ‘our’ time. The first way of perceiving art speaks, in fact, about the source or primordial source of art as discovering the primeval (l’originaire), discovering the primeval union of man and the world, pre-real, pre-objective experience of reality stemming from Nature as the basis, all this as an expression of an entire human community, as a popular expression in a festivity (fête) which encourages social changes, questions all the values of cultural life and reveals the natural side to human survival, which

4 Cf. Miško Šuvaković, “Ideologija” [“Ideology”], Pojmovnik teorije umetnosti [Glossary of Art Theory], Orion Art, Belgrade, 2011, 319–321. 5 Mikel Dufrenne, Art et politique, op. cit., 104–105.

185 New Sound 42, II/2013 culture conceals and covers.6 What is unexpected here, and yet so important, is that Dufrenne establishes a relation between discovering the primeval in the original art and the utopian action which defines the new art, and which is popular all the same, i.e. it transcends the boundaries of the institutionalized art of class society.7 Advocating the fellowship in utopian action (action utopique) – joint thinking, joint knowing, joint feeling as the essence of the popular – Du- frenne recognized the incentive (anime) for changes in society and the world, as well as the changes in art and politics as independent institutions under the ruling ideology. Thus, the author, precisely at this point, introduces the notion of revolution which is no longer a strictly political concept and which is valid in the domain of politics as an independent institution. On the contrary – now revised, the notion of revolution becomes, or rather, should become the matter of life, of free action concerning the culture in its entirety, which makes it possible to speak of cultural revolution. This means that the new practice, both as utopian and as revolutionary, includes not only art and politics, but all the other institutions as well, i.e. the whole of social and cultural life, opening the doors for the other world. In order to reach this other/changed world through other art, it is necessary, Dufrenne stresses, to resort to a completely specific type of organization – self-management. However, although self-management turns out to be the solution to the puzzle that is the relationship between art and politics, the author warns that it should not be understood only as a matter of social, political and economic organization, but on the contrary, as self-management that on the broadest democratic basis leads to the self-assertion of man’s creative being, which is productive both in the natural and the cultural domains. And right now we come to the central concept of not only this book of Dufrenne’s, but of his entire phenomenological thought, and that is aesthetic experience, defined as metaphysical experience.8 “Ono aktuelizuje vraćanje (remontrée) bića u svetu ka izvornom, ka drugom biću subjekta, odnosno ka osnovi koja u sprezi sa mogućnostima ‘rađa’ jedan drugi/novi svet” [“It actualizes the reappearance (remontrée) of the being in the world towards the original, the other being of the subject, i.e. towards the basis which, operating together with possibilities, ‘gives birth’ to the other/new world”].9 Aesthetic experience is an original experience

6 Cf. ibid., 185. 7 Cf. Milan Damnjanović, “Za drugu umetnost u promenjenom svetu” (Predgovor) [“For other art in a changed world” (Foreword)], in: Mikel Difren, op. cit., 17. 8 More details in: Mikel Dufrenne, Phénoménologie de l’expérience esthétique, P. U. F., Paris, 1953; Mikel Dufrenne, The Phenomenology of Aesthetic Experience, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1973. 9 Cf. Milan Damnjanović, “Estetičareve oči i uši” [“Aesthetician’s Eyes and Ears”], in: Mikel Difren, Oko i uho [Mikel Dufrenne, L’œil et l’oreille], Glas, Banja Luka, 1989, 13.

186 Petković, I.: Un art autre: Mikel Dufrenne on politics and art... (183–187) which precedes the separation into a subject and an object – the primeval experience of the world – and Dufrenne recognizes this original totality in Nature as an aesthetically available totality, primordial both in terms of time and being, as what is sensual, intuitive and emotional in a broad sense.10 And precisely this aesthetically available totality, i.e. Nature, guarantees the revolution, while “metafizika sa svoje strane ponovo nalazi s politikom i podstiče je; jer taj drugi svet, koji se može predosetiti iz estetskog iskustva, treba unapređivati […] Ono što se u svakom slučaju može ostvariti iz tog sveta […] jeste utopijska akcija […] I ono što smo imenovali za umetnost u najširem značenju te reči je upravo utopijska praksa par excellence, i možda čak istina filozofije” [“metaphysics, in turn, meets politics and encourages it; because this other world, which can be intimated from an aesthetic experience, needs to be improved […] At any rate, what can be realized from this world […] is a utopian action […] And what we called art in the broadest possible sense of the word is precisely a utopian practice par excellence, and maybe even the truth of philosophy”].11 Translated by Goran Kapetanović

10 Cf. ibid., 14–15. 11 Cf. Mikel Dufrenne, “Introduction: Les métamorphoses de l’esthétique”, Esthétique et philosophie, II, Klincksieck, Paris, 1976, 48. Quoted after: Milan Damnjanović, “Za drugu umetnost u promenjenom svetu” (Predgovor) [“For other art in a changed world” (Fore- word)], in: Mikel Difren,Umjetnost i politika, op. cit., 24.

187 New Sound 42, II/2013

188 REVIEWS

Article received on 21 October 2013 regulates cultural and social identities. It Article accepted on 30 November 2013 was this Congress that gave the initial im- UDC: 78.01(082)(049.32) petus for publishing the book Identities: 78(497.11)(082)(049.32) The World of Music in Relation to Itself, edited by musicologists Tilman Seebass, Ivana Miladinović Prica Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman and Tijana Popović Mlađenović. The nine studies con- Identities: The World of Music in tained in it mark some of the crucial sub- Relation to Itself jects and directions in this exciting and, Tilman Seebass, Mirjana apparently, constantly growing research Veselinović-Hofman and Tijana field, stimulating for the application of the Popović Mlađenović (eds.) most diverse methodologies. The volume, Belgrade, Faculty of Music in Belgrade, written in the English language, includes 2012, 163 works by five musicologists from the De- ISBN 978-86-88619-21-9 partment of Musicology of the Faculty of Music in Belgrade – Mirjana Veselinović- Hofman, Tijana Popović Mlađenović, Tat- In recent years, the phenomenon of jana Marković, Ivana Ilić and Marija identity has made it not only to the centre Masnikosa – written specifically to be pre- of a “veritable discursive explosion,” as sented at the Congress, but its content is Stuart Hall has noted, but also to the reper- ‘enriched’, i.e. ‘extended’ by related stud- toire of key ‘operational notions’ of con- ies in which the authors, employing the temporary musicological discourse. whole range of contemporary musicologi- Attesting to this is the fact that the 19th cal and theoretical approaches – from se- Congress of the International Musicologi- miotical and post-structuralist, to cognitivist cal Society, titled Musics, Cultures, Identi- and psychoanalyst, to culturological and ties (2012),1 was dedicated precisely to the historical – have dealt with different as- ways in which music reflects, shapes and pects of the ‘world of music’, urged by the concepts of identity and (self-)identifica- ∗ Author contact information: tion.2 In other words, the authors in their [email protected] 1 The 19th Congress of the International 2 The studies collected in this book are a partial Musicological Society was held in Rome, from result of a research within a scientific project 1st to 7th July 2012. At that time, the president of Identiteti srpske muzike u svetskom kulturnom the International Musicological Society was kontekstu [Identities of Serbian Music in the Tilman Seebass. http://www.ims-online.ch World’s Cultural Context], supervised by

189 New Sound 42, II/2014 independent interpretational discourses erogeneous and dynamic nature, manifesta- have used relational and categorical ways tions and transformations of the identity of of identifying certain musical practices and Serbian musical culture, which has emerged phenomena, according to their position and changed in the complex and contradic- within a specific ‘relational network’, but tory, social and political circumstances, also according to affiliation to a particular from the 1850s to the late 1900s. cultural, national or ethnic identity. In such In the opening study, “The Culture of a procedure, they have discovered, on the Musical Identities,” Mirjana Veselinović- one hand, in what way music represents/ Hofman establishes a thematic and notional constructs individual or collective identi- framework as the tool for breaking a musi- ties, and on the other, how social circum- cal identity down into components, empha- stances reflect on the formation of specific sizing that “the aspects of the purely musical practices, thus gaining a more ap- musical and institutionally musical are mu- propriate insight into the dynamic nature of tually caused and essentially connected in musical culture as the area of negotiating the shaping and the existence of musical with the Other, about power relations, dif- identities”.3 Although a separate thematic ferences, one’s own / somebody else’s, entity, this chapter is also a kind of ‘gate- central/marginal… way’ leading to the next problem areas, The book Identities: The World of since the author indirectly suggests the pos- Music in Relation to Itself fills many gaps sible ways of deliberation on the relation- in the research on musical identities in one ship between music and identity – music in more way too: the authors approach the identities, i.e. musical identity as the com- subject with a latent ‘coordinated relation- ponent of a particular collective or indi- ship’ between the diachronic and syn- vidual identity, and identity in music, which chronic axes of positioning and involves relations and changes in music it- interpretation of this complex phenomenon. self. The author focuses her investigative The first part of the book – “Transculture attention mostly on policies of identity in of Musical Identities” – is dedicated to sub- postmodern times, stating that due to the jects of a more general nature, to the ex- de(con)struction of great metanarratives amination of whether the (de)construction and establishing of “the universe without of musical identities is (im)possible, and to the universality,” the musical identity of a the position of marginal musical cultures particular social or ethnic community is no and the articulation of cultural identities longer a singular or fixed category: what through music in contemporary, globalized develops is a “multifaceted, ‘mixed’ and society, while the six contributions in the plural nature of musical identity, which second part – “Identification Card of Ser- means that it comprises the identities of bian Music in a Global Cultural Exchange” different phenomena within a musical cul- – give a chronological insight into the het- ture, such as those related also to ethnicity,

Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman, PhD, and finan- 3 Identities: The World of Music in Relation to ced by the Ministry of Education, Science and Itself, Tilman Seebass, Mirjana Veselinović-Hof- Technological Development of the Republic of man and Tijana Popović Mlađenović (eds.), Bel- Serbia. grade, Faculty of Music in Belgrade, 2012, 16.

190 Reviews gender, social or occupational groups, using culturally, stylistically and ethnically media favored identities”.4 The author’s marked patterns – the author considers “the wondering about identities in the Postmod- simultaneity of those multiple musical ern deepens in the next study, titled “Music identities”.8 Based on the analysis of a at the Periphery under Conditions of De- postmodern “game” with the genre and sty- graded Hierarchy between the Centre and listic identity of a work, the treatment of the Margins in the Space of the Internet,” heterogeneous procedures taken from the focusing on the question of how the music domain of artistic and popular music, as industry and the electronic media, as a new well as traditional and marginalized musi- kind of public sphere, initiate the decon- cal practices, the author concludes that “the struction of the “hierarchical relation be- compositional procedures and processes, tween the centre and the margins in the on the basis of which the heterogeneous el- world of music”.5 Among other things, the ements of different cultures and musics can author concludes that the Internet, as “the exist, coexist, communicate or, better said, centre of meta-media connections of world become amalgamated in the same musical music,” provides legitimacy and visibility work, are those on the basis of which to marginal musical cultures “so the pe- music/related states of affairs are inter- riphery with ‘industrial ease’ changes its linked and are the same for all stylistically, 6 status from subordinate towards foremost,” historically, religiously, ideologically and and consequently, “perhaps paradoxically, culturally specific musics”.9 the electronic media by which the music An interdisciplinary analysis of per- industry and the uniformity it advocates are formance, (in)stability, and variability of spread, are at the same time the media the identity of Serbian music was carried which potentially protect individual music out in the second part of the book, through identities”.7 case studies, i.e. by reading and analysing In Tijana Popović Mlađenović’s text concrete musical discursive practices and “Music has a Vision: Listening to Others their positions within specific narratives, and Oneself Through It,” which concludes which is to say, within historical, ideologi- the first part of the book, the author argues cal, institutional, social, stylistic and/or po- about the complex process of acquiring a etical frameworks. new cultural identity through music, and Hence, in the text “Identity under Con- which is in fact always constituted in rela- struction: The Foundation of Serbian Music tion to the Other. Using the case study of Concerto for viola and orchestra (2003) by Historiography,” Tatjana Marković exam- Benjamin Yusupov (1962) – a contempo- ines the roots of establishing the identity of rary composer who ‘acknowledges’ the hy- Serbian music historiography in the first brid character of his music and carefully professional musical journal Gudalo [Bow] nurtures the concept of ‘difference’ by (Nova Kikinda, 1886–1887). The author explains that the written word about music, 4 Ibid. as a cultural text, also functioned as a repre- 5 Ibid., 23. 6 Ibid., 27. 8 Ibid., 44. 7 Ibid., 28. 9 Ibid., 48.

191 New Sound 42, II/2014 sentative of national unity and an active tion in Serbian music, clearly stressing that factor in the construction of the national a musicologist needs to be introspective identity, which Serbian music built recog- and responsible in order to ‘decode’ and nizing it within Europe, i.e. “in relation to uncover the ideological and social mean- the German Other […] in the intertextual ings produced by music as the subject and relations with Viennese cultural and music object of historical events. Exemplifying magazines, and were accepted as a canon the responses to Mokranjac’s works that until nowadays, with recent definitions”. 10 have been going on for over a hundred Perceiving the dynamics of the rela- years, the author perceives a change of par- tionship between musicology, music theory adigm – from the Romanticist myth of and analysis, Ivana Ilić in the text “The originality to a Postmodern view that “the Identities of Music Theory in Serbia: Two value of Mokranjac’s works lies in their im- ‘Historical Accords’ on its Disciplinary Au- pressiveness and the need for the continuity tonomy /1958–1973 and 2009–/” considers of memories, for an indefinite period, if the institutional place where the discourse possible…”12 – and concludes that Mokran- of music theory, as a separate scientific dis- jac’s music can be interpreted “from the course in Serbia, had formed (the Study current perspectives […] as a specified Department of Music Theory at the Music auto(re)description that presents a specific Academy and the Study Program of Music self-approach, one’s own pre-description, Theory at the Faculty of Music in Bel- self-understanding and self-representation grade), the location of its legitimate ‘origin’ relative to, at a distance from and together and the field of application. Building from with (‘unoriginal’, ‘someone else’s’) folk- the presumption that the disciplinary au- lore material”.13 tonomy of music theory “was not only the In the following text, “The Cultural consequence of its ‘internal’ developments, Context and Modernist Identity of Bel- but also of the whole network of ‘external’ grade’s Musical Environment of the Mid- social factors and processes,” Ivana Ilić 1960s,” this author contours the modernist uses the Foucaultian methodology and identity of Serbian art in the 1960s, i.e. analyses the dispositive of music theory on various ‘ideospheres’ and ways of expres- three levels of disciplinary identifications: sion (socialist aesthetism, Informel, New “academic constellations, program orienta- Figuration), as well as the “differentia tions and institutionalization”.11 specifica of modernist achievements in In the next theoretical treatise, titled Belgrade’s musical environment”. In the “The Potentials of Self-Representation in author’s opinion, the key characteristic of the Serbian Music of Romanticism – Ste- compositional practice in Belgrade – “the van Stojanović Mokranjac (1856–1914) – second onslaught” of Serbian musical In the Past and Now,” Tijana Popović avant-garde – which, using European musi- Mlađenović deals with an intriguing issue cal accomplishments, strived to emancipate of self-identification and self-representa- and define its own artistic space, was “the

10 Ibid., 63, 69. 12 Ibid., 110. 11 Ibid., 81. 13 Ibid., 108.

192 Reviews exploration of the new,” which also implied the drawbacks of the postmodern and post- “the creation of a musical entity that is sep- historic world such as the “ghettoization arated from current music ‘trends’ which and gradual fading of (autochthonous cul- also imparts to it the quality of being new tures of local communities),” but also the with a specific creative meaning in the de- aesthetical (ideological) affiliation of Ser- velopment of modern music in that period bian Postminimalism to all the transforma- in general”.14 tions taking hold of art in Europe, or even The book ends with studies by Marija the world. “The postminimalist works […] Masnikosa about the identities of Serbian cannot be understood as a part of specific Postminimalist music, striving to examine national musical heritage of certain (here not only individual poetics, but also cul- Serbian) musical culture, but as a part of tural factors which are intentionally linked the international and universal postmodern with the issues of the devastation and frag- culture production influenced by the great mentation of identity in the Postmodern. In ‘project’ of world music”.16 the text “Postminimalism in Contemporary New analytical strategies and theoreti- Serbian Music as Part of the Global Post- cal approaches in the book Identities: The modern Culture,” the author considers the World of Music in Relation to Itself shed discourse of folklore, established in the light on the multiform statuses and identi- works by Vuk Kulenović (1946) and Jasna ties of (Serbian) musical culture, putting Veličković (1974) as a simulacrum, a vir- many phenomena and subjects disregarded tual image of ‘real’ musical folklore, while by musicological practice on the map, in the concluding study, titled “The ‘Satu- while previously treated subjects (such as rated Self’ of Serbian Postminimalist the response to Mokranjac’s work and the Music. The Case of Zoran Erić’s Konzert- Serbian musical avant-garde of the 1960s) stück,” she examines the particular compo- are considered from a specific standpoint. sitional poetics and there finds confirmation The interpretative profile of the authors, as of the postmodern cancellation of binary well as the visual design of the covers, logic in identity construction. Using com- based on the stylized reproduction of a positions by Zoran Erić (1950) as an ex- painting by Georges Braque (The Violin, ample, Masnikosa reflects upon the ‘hybrid’ 1914), rounded off the striking identity of identity of a postmodern musical work, en- this edition, which is an example of an ex- abled by linguistic pluralism, as well as ceptional scientific contribution and an im- “the specific nature of its complex post- portant reference point for every serious modern fragmented subjectivity”15 which musicological research of identity – a phe- is made of a multiple self, established nomenon which is, as Erik Erikson claimed, through social interactions and relations. “all-pervasive,” but also “vague” and “un- The author also emphasizes the change in fathomable”. the cultural and artistic/musical map of the Translated by Goran Kapetanović world under the influence of globalization,

14 Ibid., 123. 15 Ibid., 147. 16 Ibid., 146.

193 New Sound 42, II/2014

Article received on 08 November 2013 books about dance are still quite rare. An- Article accepted on 30 November 2013 driy Nahachewsky’s Ukrainian Dance: A UDC: 781.7(477)(049.32) Cross-Cultural Approach not only over- 394.3(477)(049.32) comes this deficiency, it is also a quite original contribution to the development of Selena Rakočević* many terminological and conceptual issues in the study of ethnic/national dance. Andriy Nahachewsky, Thanks to his great experience as a Ukrainian Dance: A Cross-Cultural performer, choreographer, adjudicator, and Approach, McFarland & Company, historian of Ukrainian dance for over forty years in Canada (he works at the Univer- Jefferson, North Carolina, and sity of Alberta in Edmonton), but has also London, 2012, pp. 268*17 done so in many other countries (Ukraine, the United States, Brazil, the former Yugo- slavia and Slovakia), Andriy Nahachewsky Over the past years, there has been a considers all the forms of Ukrainian dance growing interest in dance studies as a in a broad geographical and historical per- scholarly discipline. Most dance scholars spective. In the aim of a gradual, reason- all over the world are making efforts to im- able and comprehensive presentation, the prove and develop the discipline within author concentrates the book chapters, suc- their dedicated academic work, and by cessively, on basic questions concerning gathering together within international so- dance: who, what, where, why, when and cieties, such as the Congress in Dance Re- how. search (CORD), the Society for Dance The first three chapters are devoted to Research (SDR) or the Study Group on the basic terminological and conceptual Ethnochoreology of the International Coun- matters. Starting from the fundamental on- cil for Traditional Music (ICTM). Even tological question ‘What is Dance?’ Nah- though some of these societies of dance achewsky distinctly expresses his holistic scholars publish specialized journals about approach to dance through defining it as dance (such are Dance Research Journal or the form, context, and meaning of the ac- Dance Research) or are actively engaged in tivity. Articulating the main purposes for publishing the congress proceedings, the dancing, Nahachewsky sets apart and elab- production of methodologically elaborated orates four basic dance categories: ritual dance, recreational dance, art dance and ∗ Author contact information: ethnic/national dance. The possible over- [email protected] lapping of these categories is explained as This text is realized within the project ‘Muzička a consequence of ‘the complex, multidi- i igračka tradicija multietničke i multikulturalne mensional reality of human cultural experi- Srbije’ [‘Music and Dance Tradition of Multi- ence’ (23). ethnic and Multicultural Serbia’], (reg. nr. 177024), financed by the Ministry of Education Focusing on the last category and try- and Science of the Republic of Serbia, within a ing to (re)define and untangle the problem- series of research in 2011–2015. atic definitions of ethnic/peasant/folk/

194 Reviews vernacular/traditional/national/spectacular worldwide. Along with defining and apply- dance, Andriy Nachasewsky introduces ing those concepts, Andriy Nahachewsky two new concepts: vival and reflective also sets a hypothesis, which certainly de- dances. While vival dance denotes ‘any serves further examination: vival and re- dance in which the participants are fully flective modes of ethnic dance can engaged with the present flow of experi- cyclically alternate with each other. ence while dancing’(24), reflective dances One of the special qualities of this are those in which ‘the participants make book is its methodological comprehensive- conscious references to their tradition’s ness. In addition to the historical and con- past in current performances’(26). textual, cross-cultural considerations of The detailed discussion on the many Ukrainian dance, the author also examines differences between vival manifestations of the structure and form of Ukrainian dance Ukrainian dances, and their reflective stage through the use of Labanotation. Beside all presentations, represents one of the corner- that, in one of the last chapters, Nah- stones of this book. They are comprehen- achewsky develops a methodology of sively discussed in the following chapters. analysing the theatrical presentation of eth- From the descriptions of peasant dancing nic dance, through the application of the in Ukraine, the presentation of the geo- so-called three principles of staging. graphical and historical zones where they Andriy Nahachewsky’s book Ukrai- come from, through the national dance nian Dance: A Cross-Cultural Approach movement led by Vasile Avramenko in offers a real cross-cultural perspective on Canada, and the recreational folk dance Ukrainian dance, as part of the European communities of Ukrainians across North and Western dance traditions, and repre- Amerika, to the more recent forms of their sents one of the methodological modes of spectacular presentation, all forms of achieving a broader and more balanced Ukrainian dance are described and elabo- view regarding any ethnic dance. Due to its rated. The author explains the many differ- clear and applicable theoretical and con- ent phases of Ukrainian dance over the ceptual settings, I am sure that Nahachews- years, looking at them in a broad social ky’s Ukrainian dance: a cross-cultural context, comparing them with other cases appruach will be used in the future, not of ethnic dance in Europe and the United only by those who study ethnic/national States. dance, but also by those who perform it – As comprehensive and distinct cate- choreographers, performers, and promot- gories that sublimate the basic meanings of ers. Its great scholarly applicability is ethnic dance, the concepts of vival and re- complemented by some audio-visual mate- flective dances could be potentially very rial: many dances in this book can be useful, not only when considering the het- viewed on the Internet at http://www.ukr- erogenous aspects of Ukrainian dance, but dance.ca. also miscellaneous forms of ethnic dance

195 New Sound 42, II/2014

Article received on 18 October 2013 (pp. 21–170), Zaključak [Conclusion] (pp. Article accepted on 30 November 2013 177–182), fourteen extensive supplements UDC: 304.44:78(497.16)(091)(049.32) (pp. 183–321), appendices, i.e. mostly pho- 304.44(497.16)(091)(049.32) tographs and copies of two theatre posters 061.2:78(497.16)(060.13)(049.32) (pp. 323–351), peer review (pp. 353–356), selected literature (pp. 357–360) and a reg- Tatjana Marković* ister of names (pp. 361–366). It relies on Vesna Ivanović, Muzički život the literature on the history, culture and Podgorice i Crne Gore u doba Nikole I music of Montenegro, as well as on pri- Petrovića Njegoša [Music Life in mary sources, which makes it highly valuable. The author, namely, used the material Podgorica and Montenegro in the from the State Archives of Montenegro in Age of Nikola I Petrović Njegoš], Cetinje, including the files of the Ministry Muzički centar Crne Gore, Podgor- of Education and Church Affairs, the Min- ica, 2012, ISBN 978-9940-538-04-0 istry of Defence, the Ministry of Interior Affairs, the Chief School Administration Musicologist Vesna Ivanović wrote and the County School Administrations. the first extensive study on music life in Besides, Vesna Ivanović consulted periodi- Podgorica and Montenegro from 1878 to cals from the period in question, as well as 1916. Ivanović has dealt with the subject the syllabus in Cetinje before the First ever since her BA thesis, defended in 1989 World War, the rulebooks and statutes of at the Department of Musicology of the cultural and artistic institutions, memoir Faculty of Music in Belgrade. The results literature, personal archives and so forth. of research on music life in Montenegro in Part of the archive material is given in the the second half of the 19th century, con- Supplements, and the documents include ducted so far, are presented in her previ- the manuscripts Pravila Društva Zetskog ously published works about the music Doma [Rulebook of the Society of Zeta education and music life of Cetinje; about Centre] (Supplement 2: undated), Zakletva Stevan Mokranjac; and about Montenegrin Roberta Tolingera knezu Nikoli I Petroviću music heritage. i njegovim naslednicima povodom zapos- Vesna Ivanović’s monograph is largely lenja [Robert Tolinger’s oath to Prince a pioneering work in the history of music, Nikola I Petrović and his heirs after being when it comes to the music life of Monte- employed] (Supplement 4: 2nd November negro. Therefore, it is a very valuable con- 1890), the composer’s innovative syllabus tribution to knowledge on the subject and, for the Girls’ School (Supplement 4a: undoubtedly, an imperative starting point 1890), the extensive correspondence of for all subsequent research in this domain. Stevan Lukačević and the county officials The study contains 366 pages (23.5 cm × of Podgorica with the State Council, Min- 15 cm) and includes Uvod [Introduction] istry of Defence and Ministry of Interior (pp. 9–20), thirteen mostly short chapters Affairs (Supplement 5: 1898–1899), a tele- gram from Archpriest Petrović to the Min- ∗ Author contact information: tatjana.markovic istry of Internal Affairs about establishing @assoc.oeaw.ac.at

196 Reviews the Zeta Church Choral Society in Podgor- inje (“Cetinjska čitaonica kao centar cr- ica (Supplement 9: 1912), and so on. nogorske duhovnosti” [“The Cetinje Library Particularly interesting is the chapter as the centre of Montenegrin spirituality”], dealing with the travels of Stevan Sto- “Uticaj Balkanske carice na demokratizaciju janović Mokranjac to Montenegro, i.e. to pozorišne umjetnosti i horske muzike” Cetinje, where he gave a guest performance [“The influence of The Empress of the Bal- in 1893, as the conductor of the Belgrade kans on the democratization of theatrical art Choral Society, and then twice in 1910: and choral music”]) and Podgorica first as the guest of Crown Prince Danilo (“Podgorička čitaonica, Pjevačko društvo Petrović, while the ceremony of the procla- Branko sa pozorišnim društvom” [“The Li- mation of the Kingdom of Montenegro was brary in Podgorica, the Branko Choral Soci- being prepared, and later as a participant of ety with a theatre company”], “Muzički the said event, conducting two combined život u Podgorici do pojave Pjevačkog choral ensembles, the Belgrade Choral So- društva Branko” [“Music life in Podgorica ciety and the Stanković Choral Society. before the Branko Choral Society”], “Prvo Visits to Cetinje were also inspiring for podgoričko pjevačko društvo Branko kroz Mokranjac’s subsequent work, given the bilješke hroničara i tekstove onovremene fact that he included two folk melodies crnogorske štampe” [“The first choral soci- (“Oj, đevojko, dušo moja” and “Višnjičica ety in Podgorica, Branko, in chronicles and rod rodila”; 1892–1893), whose character items in the Montenegrin papers of the is typical of Montenegrin folklore accord- time”]), as well as the contribution of indi- ing to the claims of Vesna Ivanović, in the vidual musicians and musical creators to the Fifth Choral Garland (Iz moje domovine music life of Montenegro in the said con- [From my Homeland]), and later, based on text, including Franjo Vimer, Robert the songs from Cetinje, he wrote his Ninth Tolinger and Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac Choral Garland (Pesme iz Crne Gore (“Muzički život u Podgorici u vrijeme bo- [Songs from Montenegro]). The author ravka Franja Vimera” [“Music life in analysed Mokranjac’s visits to Montenegro Podgorica during the sojourn of Franjo and his activities on these occasions in a Vimer”], “Uloga Roberta Tolingera u raz- broader Montenegrin cultural context, as voju muzičkog života Crne Gore” [“The well as within the coordinates of Prince role of Robert Tolinger in the development Nikola I Petrović Njegoš’s cultural politics, of music life in Montenegro”], “Stevan which could have been placed at the begin- Mokranjac u Crnoj Gori” [“Stevan Mokran- ning of the monograph. jac in Montenegro”]). The choice of these Vesna Ivanović was guided by the de- thematic areas resulted in a configuration of sire to include various problem areas, and somewhat inconsistent narrative texture, thus the study subject includes: the mental- which raises the issue of the very title of the ity of the inhabitants of Podgorica (“Neke monograph, as well as its concept. As stated, karakteristike načina života i mentaliteta it includes thirteen shorter texts, which Podgoričana” [“Some features of the life- could have been grouped into (probably style and mentality of the inhabitants of three) longer and more firmly conceived Podgorica”]), cultural and music life in Cet- chapters. Due to that, the book resembles a

197 New Sound 42, II/2014 collection of essays with a common subject, by various narratives in the literature – among which some were indeed published from the discourse of anecdotes about the previously as separate articles, but without Montenegrin mentality in a slang vernacu- the continuity expected from a chapter in a lar to a scientific discourse. monograph. Thereby, as the author herself As already said, in spite of this study noted, a great deal of data is repeated in being an indisputable contribution to the these smaller individual units. The title and contemporary Montenegrin history of the author’s explanation in the Introduction music, we should also mention some short- suggest that the research was focused on comings, which can certainly be corrected music life in Podgorica – more precisely, in the next edition of the monograph or in the activities of the Branko Choral Society future works by Vesna Ivanović, given the – in the context of all of Montenegro. How- volume of the material she has been re- ever, the work of musical and other cultural searching for decades. institutions, as well as the activities of indi- First of all, certain aspects of the fore- vidual musicians and composers in Podgor- going narrower thematic areas could have ica and Cetinje has been studied almost to been considered in more detail, possibly the same extent, but not chronologically, with an insight into more extensive litera- which is also emphasized in the Introduc- ture. Thus, the book Studije i ogledi o tion. A short text about the features of the diplomatiji Crne Gore [Studies and Essays lifestyle and mentality of the inhabitants of on the Diplomacy of Montenegro], edited Podgorica and about the multiculturality of by Đorđe N. Lopičić (Belgrade, 2006) – in the folklore heritage in Podgorica is fol- particular, Nikola I Petrović Njegoš’s texts lowed by two short units on the culture of about negotiations at the Congress of Ber- Cetinje in relation to the Library and the lin (published in his Zapisi [Writings] in theatre play Balkanska carica [The Empress Cetinje in 1928) – would have improved of the Balkans], without any connective and deepened the perception of the princi- threads, linking it with the preceding sec- pality’s political position. This would have tion of the text. It seems that dealing with given a whole new perspective – lacking in the study’s central subject, i.e. its longest Vesna Ivanović’s monograph – on the sta- chapter, is foreshadowed on page 75 tus and reputation of Montenegro, the po- (“Muzički život u Podgorici do osnivanja litical prestige of Nikola I Petrović Njegoš, Pjevačkog društva Branko”), but it does not known as the “European Father-in-Law” in begin before page 103 (“Prvo podgoričko contemporary diplomatic circles, as well as pjevačko društvo Branko kroz bilješke the country’s pre-established heroic image hroničara i tekstove onovremene crnogor- in Europe. The extremely great personal ske štampe”), only to be followed by textual contribution by the Prince and, subse- units on other subjects (for example, “Druga quently, first King of Montenegro to the vojna muzika” [“Alternative brass bands”], development of the national culture was “Instrumentalni ansambli u Podgorici” [“In- partly explained. In that respect, we can strumental ensembles in Podgorica”]). only regret the fact that the author, relying The author’s style is not completely mostly on Simo Matavulj’s text, decided to uniform and she was apparently influenced dwell only briefly on the emergence and

198 Reviews performance of the Prince’s theatre play the culture of Muslim townspeople, was Balkanska carica (1884) and establishing not presented in sufficient detail. This as- an amateur theatre company, in spite of the pect would have further enriched the image fact that the play had far-reaching conse- of the music life of what would become the quences on the further development of Montenegrin capital. Montenegrin literature, theatre and music. From a technical standpoint, I would In fact, the very content of this play, trans- like to mention the lack of a note about the lated into many languages, could have pro- author, which would have helped readers to vided Vesna Ivanović with an opportunity learn more not only about her resumé, but to analyse the entire political program of also the areas she has dealt with, as well as Prince Nikola, both through the restoration the previous results of her research in this of the cultural values of the medieval state particular domain. The texts related to of Zeta from the time of Ivan Crnojević – it music life in Montenegro which Vesna is enough to remember the establishment Ivanović published, are given in the list of of the first South Slavonic Cyrillic printing literature, but incompletely, as is the case house in the legendary “last free country in with many other items in the list. Instead of the Balkans” in the fifteenth century – and selected literature, a bibliography is ex- through the policies agreed with Serbia. pected at the end of a monograph, includ- Therefore, it is all the stranger that Vesna ing texts related to a context broader than Ivanović did not at all mention the epony- the one the author covered, as well as all mous opera (1891), called “the first na- the necessary data about them, such as the tional” Montenegrin opera, after the name of the translator, the pagination when premiere (of the, admittedly, largely re- a journal item is cited, the city and the pub- vised composition) took place in Cetinje, lisher for all the included monographs, and on 14th June 2008. This opera was, in fact, so on. Also, an index of institutions would a gesture of political respect and a diplo- have been very helpful for readers of this matic gift to the play’s author by the then study whose interests are directly con- Italian ambassador to Montenegro, com- nected with music and cultural life in Mon- poser Dionisio de Sarno San Giorgio. Con- tenegro. What is also peculiar is the lack of sequently, a recommendable item in the list data on the publication itself, which is the of literature should have been the study publisher’s responsibility – the imprint Opera “Balkanska carica” Dionizija de does not contain the book size, the number Sarna San Đorđa iz XIX vijeka – muzičko of pages, and the name of the peer reviewer ostvarenje drame Nikole I Petrovića is also omitted (Sonja Marinković). Njegoša [Opera “The Empress of the Bal- Vesna Ivanović’s monograph is based kans” by Dionisio de Sarno San Giorgio on a positivist presentation of the material, from the 19th Century – Musical Version of which is the consequence of her goals and the Play by Nikola I Petrović Njegoš] by methodology, defined in the Introduction. Ivana Antović (Podgorica, 2008). According to her words, therefore, the aim Although mentioned several times, was “da prikupi sve raspoložive podatke, iz and directly ‘promised’ in a separate chap- literature koja obrađuje muzički život Crne ter, the multiculturality of Podgorica, i.e. Gore, sveopšti razvoj (istorijski, politički,

199 New Sound 42, II/2014 kulturno-prosvjetni itd.) stare crnogorske i Article received on 18 October 2013 druge štampe, arhivskih podataka, te Article accepted on 30 November 2013 otkidajući nit po nit sistematično predstavi UDC: 78.01:305(049.32) raspoloživi mozaik činjenica” [“to collect all the available data, from the literature Marija Dumnić* dealing with the music life of Montenegro, overall development (historical, political, Book Review: cultural and educational, etc.) from the old Julie C. Dunbar, Women, Music, press in Montenegro and elsewhere, archi- val data, and to systematically present the Culture: An Introduction, Routledge, fabric of obtainable facts by unravelling New York – London, 2011, pp. 18* them strand by strand”] (Uvod, page 16). XIX+379 As Ivanović explains later on, the methodology of the study is the chronological pre- Julie Dunbar, the author of a recent sentation of the facts, within three steps: 1) publication about musicology and gender general conditions “pod kojima je nešto studies, is a lecturer and an orchestra con- nastalo i čega je to posljedica” [“under ductor at Edgewood College in Madison, which something emerged and of which it Wisconsin. Her textbook, presently taken is a consequence”], 2) the development under consideration, is aimed at students, path, and 3) “krajnji rezultati ostvarenog” primarily those interested in the position [“the ultimate results achieved”] (Uvod, and role of woman in the history of West- page 16). The author realized these goals ern music, popular music, and various folk- and carried them out according to a very lore musical cultures, i.e. in the general simplified methodological framework, but aspects of music creation, performance, lis- it can only be regretted that she did not map tening and education. The title subject is out more ambitious targets, which were increasingly topical in contemporary feasible – to contextualize her study in a (ethno)musicological works, and so is this new theoretical framework of urban cul- review motivated by monitoring topical is- tural studies, a culture of remembrance, sues in the discipline. national identity, cultural politics studies In the Preface (XV-XIX), Dunbar ex- and many others. Given that she will carry plained her need for this work, pointing out on her research, as she herself stated, Vesna Ivanović will have an opportunity to complete her studies and, possibly, contextual- * Author contact information: marijadumnic@ ize them in a more extensive domain. The yahoo.com The paper was written as a part of the project results she published in the study Muzički “Identiteti srpske muzike od lokalnih do život Podgorice i Crne Gore u doba Nikole globalnih okvira: tradicije, promene, izazovi” I Petrovića Njegoša can certainly be rec- [“Serbian Musical Identities within Local and ommended to a broader audience. Global Frameworks: Traditions, Changes, Challenges”] (ОN 177004), funded by the Translated by Goran Kapetanović Ministry of Education, Science and Techno- logical Development of the Republic of Serbia.

200 Reviews that educational literature of undergraduate Context), the author presented an approach level was short of information about the to music which is expected from the read- achievements of women in music and about ers, who do not necessarily have to be mu- historical circumstances that influenced sical experts: listening, analysing and their activities, and so she endeavoured to contextually discussing particular “hu- take scholarly literature about ‘women in manly organized sound”. In a very popular music’ (which thrived most intensely in the writing style, which marks the entire book, 1980s) and make it accessible to those who she advocates a superficial musical analy- are interested, but have a lower level of ex- sis (mostly of the form), whose goal is to pertise, to stimulate their critical thinking. examine the role of woman in society, i.e. She strived to avoid narrowing the focus to to describe the relationship between music ‘great female composers’, and by compar- and culture on a larger scale. However, the ing various phenomena she appraised the analytic discourse about music was not em- position of a woman in music in the inter- ployed in order to explain the concrete re- cultural network. One can say that her gen- latedness of the musical text and gender eral goal was to write an alternative history identity, but, as it seems, to make musical of music. notions easier to grasp for the students of The book is divided into five parts, other academic programs. In the first chap- according to subjects: “Telling Musical ter the author speaks about gender segrega- Stories: Missing Voices in the Documenta- tion in society and the emergence of women tion of Musical Tradition” (1–65), “Re- from the private sphere (the example was stricted Domains: Gender Spheres in Art Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel), and in the Music” (67–128), “Visual Images in an second (“Medieval Liturgical Roots and Aural World” (129–191), “A Century of the Documentation of the Western Canon”) Change: The Impact of Education on Wom- about their position in the written sources en’s Art Music Activity” (193–260), “No on religious musical creativity (Hildegard Longer ‘One of the Boys’” (261–326). The von Bingen, Libby Larsen and Sofia structure of the book is so conceived that Gubaidulina). The purpose of the third each of the fifteen chapters is related to a chapter (“Women in the World of Music: specific social issue, while at the same time Another Picture of Musical Documenta- the chapters deal with biographies of par- tion”) was to study the central issue within ticular female musicians as examples. For the genre determinant of world music, with the sake of the educational use of the book, respect to the textbook. Although she in- the author provided for the possibility of tended to emphasize the diminished impor- flexibly organizing the text. tance of women in the scholarly discourse The first part begins with Dunbar’s at the very beginning of the chapter, it re- observation that women are marginalized mains unclear why the author decided on in writings about music, a fact that made the statistics of their presence in the photo- her curious about written historical sources graphs in ethnomusicological textbooks, as on the musical representation of gender. In the most valid indicator of the claim. Fur- the first, introductory chapter (“Reflections ther on, she showed interest in the position on ‘Deep Listening’: Exploring Music in of woman in folklore communities, and so,

201 New Sound 42, II/2014 in order to illustrate the existence of differ- with aristocratic families, became esteemed ent interpretations of one and the same ob- performers and composers. The subject of ject of research, she specified the data the sixth chapter (“Romantic-Era Per- gathered in her own field interview about former/Composers: Walking the Public/ drumming in Ghana – although the practice Private Line”) are women from famous is considered to be dominantly male, in the Romanticist musical families (Fanny Men- original ritualistic context it is performed delssohn Hensel, Clara Wieck Schumann), by women. Aiming to shed light on con- who, in spite of women generally being on crete folklore practice in female perfor- the sidelines of public musical creativity mance, the author presented an analysis of and performance in this cultural and his- documentary narratives related to the social torical context, achieved notable results, position of the mother and her role in hand- but not without being socially identified as ing down and interpreting musical heritage. the sister or the wife of a renowned male Since there are specifically female per- musician. forming practices in some traditional cul- The theme of the third part is the posi- tures, it can be assumed that these, more tion of women as visual objects in popular complex phenomena are meant to be stud- culture. The seventh chapter (“American ied after becoming acquainted with this Popular Music: 1895–1945”) deals with book. several phases in the development of popu- The second part is dedicated to the po- lar music in the USA and placing women in sition of women in the history of Western the focus by means of live performances art music, more precisely in the Renais- and commercials, which made them fa- sance, Baroque and Romanticism. The mous, but also caused a gender identifica- fourth chapter (“The Renaissance and Be- tion. The eighth chapter (“Empowered yond: Courtly Worlds of Women and Voices in the Public Eye: Women of Gos- Music”) deals with the female figure at a pel and Blues”) describes the role of Renaissance court (on examples such as women in sending political messages the courtesan and the geisha), by emphasiz- through music in the first half of the 20th ing her exceptional education and musical century, with the goal to clarify the musical skills, but on the other hand, the author un- practice of a doubly marginalized group – derlines the negative social connotation of “black women”. The ninth chapter (“Visual a woman who makes music in public, a Media and the Marketing of Women Per- prejudice which is alive even today. Also, formers”) is focused on the popular music Dunbar emphasizes the dependence of of the second half of the 20th century, when women on men, who, as commissioning the representation of women directly em- parties, were in fact the creators of female phasizes their bodies (by voice, verses, musical aesthetics. The fifth chapter (“Ba- image), which is accepted by general audi- roque Keyboard and Vocal Genres: Gender ences (especially in video-clips and the in- Roles in Musical Families”) refers to ternet). women (Francesca Caccini, Barbara The fourth part deals with the art Strozzi, Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la music of the 20th century, the period of fe- Guerre) who, thanks to their connections male equality with male musicians. The

202 Reviews tenth chapter (“Gender Integration in music and sound engineering, which is Twentieth-Century Instrumental Ensem- typical for men, as the proponents of tech- bles”) first examines the presence of nological development. The last chapter women in instrumental music, and then (“A New Message: Taking Charge in the discusses their position in the professional Mass Music Market”) deals with women in world of classical musicians, particularly contemporary global popular culture, and dwelling on the cases of women conduc- examples of various genres (punk, rock, tors. The eleventh chapter (“Twentieth- hip-hop, country) serve to express the re- Century Large-Scale Works: Contrasting bellion against gender discrimination. Compositional Voices”) is dedicated to The textbook features “Focused Top- women who were distinguished composers ics”, shorter textual units in which the au- in the 20th century, when they had an op- thor strives to explain more thoroughly portunity to acquire the appropriate educa- certain genre and stylistic musical determi- tion and gain professional recognition nants, such as mass and office, troubadour through writing demanding forms for larger songs, madrigal, monody, dance suite, ensembles (in the first place Nadia Bou- chamber music, multimedia works, Ro- langer, then Amy Beach, Germaine Taille- manticism, jazz and blues, etc. This choice ferre, Florence Price, Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, of subjects and their explanations make it Chen Yi, Thea Musgrave). The twelfth obvious that the book is aimed at music chapter (“Old Genres, New Sounds: Con- lovers whose basic field of expertise is not temporary Music and Experimental musical. Sections “Questions for Critical Voices”) presents female composers of Thinking and Discussion” and “Ideas for contemporary chamber music, predomi- Further Research” are included at the end nantly “experimental” music, exemplifying of each chapter, where the subjects offered, women with superior achievements in this mostly from the domain of contemporary domain (Elisabeth Lutyens, Ruth Crawford popular music, occur in specific social con- Seeger, Joan Tower, Barbara Kolb, Shulamit Ran, Meredith Monk). texts, implying that the readers who are not The fifth part speaks about contempo- music specialists will find it accessible and rary musical styles which synthesize artis- relevant. tic and popular practice, where women are Apart from the main body of the text, fully emancipated. The thirteenth chapter the most important musicological terms are (“Instrumental to Jazz: The Forgotten Role summed up and briefly explained in the of Women”) is oriented towards women in “Glossary” (327–336). The criteria for their the history of jazz, who had a specific posi- selection were varied, and so they include tion first within the racial discourse, and notions from the domain of theory and his- then in the gender context, thus presenting tory of music, general and popular culture. their function as players and singers in en- The book also includes an “Index” (365– sembles. The fourteenth chapter (“Music 379) in which various already mentioned Technology in the Hands of Women”) dem- names are listed, as well as the concepts onstrates the influence of women in the which the author deemed the most impor- areas of electroacoustic music, digital tant.

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It is apparent that in the “Bibliogra- spersed with the author’s comments as to phy” (351–364) the author consulted nu- how they should be listened to. merous current sources whose subject is The book is written in an easy-to-read the relation between woman and music, as manner, and so it is recommended for be- well as general and specific (ethno)musico- ginners in the areas of feminism and gender logical literature. Dunbar’s priority was to studies in musicology. It deals with the is- examine the status of woman in the usual sues that intrigue contemporary scholarship binary opposition of gender, and so she did and presents appropriate information on not rely too heavily on contemporary ap- the main subject. Nevertheless, a reader of proaches which perceive gender as a per- (ethno)musicological provenance will be formative construction. deprived of a very important discussion The textbook contains numerous pho- about the relationship between gender and tographs and just a handful of sheet music musical text. Although scholarly ambitions examples, which implies that students who are not the primary quality of this work, a would use it do not have to have extensive renowned publisher rightfully stands be- prior knowledge of music. The text refers hind this read, which is clearly written, to the accompanying web-presentation well laid-out and impeccably produced. which includes interactive quizzes for stu- Therefore, the book is recommended pri- dents, links to acoustic examples, as well marily to experts in various humanities inas material for teachers. The book is sup- terested in music and gender, and to a broad plemented with a disc with musical illus- (ethno)musicological audience in our trations which are not readily available midst, who follow literature dealing with (e.g. field recordings), and the text is inter- contemporary theoretical issues.

204 Reviews

CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS ISSUE

Milena Medić, Ph.D., musicologist, assistant professor at the Department for Music Theory, Faculty of Music, University of Arts in Belgrade.

Miško Šuvaković, Miško Šuvakovič, (PhD), esthetician and art theorist, a full-time professor in the Department of Musicology at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade.

François Nicolas, composer. Researcher at the ENS-Ulm. Associated composition with theoretical reflection on music.

Dario Martinelli, PhD., musicologist and semiotician, director of the International Semi- otics Institute, full professor at the department of Audiovisual Arts and the department of Philosophy and Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Kaunas University of Technology. Adjunct professor at the University of Helsinki and at the Uni- versity of Lapland.

Tyrus Miller, Ph.D., scholar of modernist and avant-garde studies, Professor of Litera- ture at the University of California

Erik M. Vogt, Ph.D., philosopher, Gwendolyn Miles Smith Professor in the Department of Philosophy at Trinity College in Hartford and Head of the Department.

Dragana Jeremić Molnar, Ph.D., musicologist, an associate professor in the Department od Musicology at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade.

Andrija Filipović, M.. Phil., Ph.D. candidate of Theory of Arts and Media, Interdisciplin- ary Studies at the University of Arts in Belgrade.

Dr Vesna Mikić, Ph.D., musciologist, associate professor at the Department of Musicol- ogy of the Faculty of Music, Univeristy of Arts in Belgrade. Deputy Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Music New Sound, and founder of the Centre for Research of Popular Music, Belgrade.

Radoš Mitrović, M.A., musicologist, Ph.D. candidate at the Department of Musicology, Faculty of Music, University of Arts in Belgrade..

Branka Radović, Ph.D., musicologist, professor at the Music Department of the FILUM, Univeristy of Kragujevac, and artistic director of Theatre and Opera Madlenianum.

Paolo Susanni, studied piano at the New England Conservatory of Music at Baylor Uni- versity and at the University of Texas at Austin where he received his D.M.A in 2001. From 2002 – 2008 he taught music theory, history and aural skills at Texas State Univer-

205 New Sound 42, II/2014 sity (San Marcos). In 2010 he was nominated Assistant Professor at Yasar University where he continues to teach music theory, history and piano.

Milica Gajić, M.A., musicologist, Librarian adviser of the Library of the Faculty of Music, University of Arts, Belgrade.

Bojan Miljević, was born on 05. 01. 1993 in Sombor. He is currently the second year student at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade. In the course of the first year of studying, under the mentorship of Phd Tijana Popovic Mladjenovic, associate professor, he wrote the research paper entitled “The World of Music of Hildegard of Bingen” which was ex- hibited at the annual presentations of students work for the school year 2012/2013.

Ivana Petković, M.A., musicologist, Ph.D. candidate; Assistant teacher for the field of musicology at the Department of Musicology of the Faculty of Music of the University of Arts in Belgrade.

Ivana Miladinović Prica, M.A., musicologist, Ph.D. candidate. Assistant lecturer at the Department of Musicology, Faculty of Music, Univeristy of Arts, Belgrade and Secretary of the same Department.

Selena Rakocević, Ph.D., ethnochoreologist and ethnomusicologist, assistant professor in the Department of Ethnomusicologz at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade.

Selena Rakočević, Ph.D., ethnomusicologist/ethnochoreologist, assistant professor in the Department of Etnomusicology at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade. Liason for dance within the board of the ICTMs Study Group on Music and Dance of Southeastern Eu- rope.

Tatjana Marković, Ph.D., musicologist, adjunct professor at the Institute of Analysis, Theory and History of Music at the University of Music and Performing Arts in Vienna; associate professor in the Department of Musicology at the Faculty of Music, University of Arts in Belgrade, and associate member of the Institute of Art History and Musicology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna.

Ivana Medić, Ph.D., Research Associate with the Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts; Visiting Fellow with the Centre for Russian Music, Gold- smiths College, University of London; Board Member of the Serbian Musicological So- ciety; Convener of the REEM Study Group for Russian and Eastern European Music with the British Association for Slavonic and East European Studies (BASEES)

Marija Dumnić, M.A., ethnomusicologist, Research Assistant at the Institute of Musicol- ogy of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Belgrade, Ph.D. student at the De- partment of Ethnomusicology at the Faculty of Music of the University of Arts in Belgrade.

206 Language editor: Tamara Rodwell-Jovanović

Proofreader: Agencija Kapetanović

Prepress: Dušan Ćasić

Printed by: TON plus, Belgrade

Circulation: 400 copies

Publication of this issue was sponsored by: The Ministry of Culture – Republic of Serbia The Ministry of Education and Science – Republic of Serbia Sokoj – Serbian Music Authors' Organization

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CIP – Katalogizacija u publikaciji Narodna biblioteka Srbije, Beograd 78 NEW Sound : international Journal of Music / editor-in-chief Mirjana Veselinović-Hofman. – 1993, no. 1– . – Belgrade : Department of Musicology Faculty of Music, 1993– (Belgrade : Ton plus). – 24 cm Dostupno i na: http://www.newsound.org.rs. – Polugodišnje. – Ima izdanje na drugom jeziku: Нови звук = ISSN 0354-4362 ISSN 0354-818X = New Sound COBISS.SR-ID 102800647

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