SUSTAINING THE GOLDEN GOOSE AND GANDER: AN INVESTIGATION INTO AFL SEASON TICKET HOLDERS MOTIVATION AND ATTACHMENT AND THEIR SATISFACTION WITH THE SERVICE EXPERIENCE

David Fouvy

B. Economics (Monash), Grad Dip Marketing (CIT),

Masters of Business Marketing (Monash)

Grad Cert TT&L (RMIT)

a thesis submitted to the

Faculty of Business and Enterprise

Swinburne University of Technology

In partial fulfilment of the Requirements for the

Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

2016

David Louis Fouvy

2016 ABSTRACT

Club members or season ticket holders (STH) are strategically and financially important to professional sport clubs. The challenge facing most, if not all, sporting clubs in sports industry is the difficulty in identifying those members most at risk of non-renewal or ‘churning’. An alternative framing of the same problem is to identify what are the key impacts on a club member’s purchase intentions. This thesis seeks to examine the relationships between nine motives, nine points of attachment and three stadium factors and their impact on satisfaction, basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) and purchase intention for (SKFC) season ticket holders (STHs).

A single structured on-line survey was developed using two previously validated scales, the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) and the Points of Attachment Index (PAI). Data was collected from over 700 STH’s of one based Australian Football League (AFL) club immediately after the pre-season competition and just prior to the start of the 2010 official AFL home and away season.

Correlation analysis and ANOVA were utilised to test forty-seven hypotheses. Structural equation modelling was used to build a sports fan response model. Fifty propositions were developed to examine relationships within and between the key constructs in the new model. The new sports fan response model showed that basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) and satisfaction acted as mediators between fan motives and purchase intention. The relationships between fan motives and BIRGing and fan motives and satisfaction were significant and the strongest in the model but best described as medium using Cohen’s (2013) rules for examining path coefficients. Stadium facilities had a significant, direct and positive medium relationship with purchase intention. The relationships between (1) fan motives and attachment and (2) attachment to BIRGing were considered not significant. The relationships between attachment and purchase intention and attachment and satisfaction were significant and small and for the latter mentioned relationship, negative. The relationships between satisfaction and BIRGing and satisfaction and purchase intention were significant, small and positive. The relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention was also considered significant, positive and small. Additionally, the new sports fan response model identified some important differences between males and females, younger and older fans and frequent past match attendees versus low past match attendees.

ii For the SKFC membership and event managers, stadium facilities and especially the provision of a safe and secure stadium environment were an important positive contributor to a member’s purchase intentions. Additionally, the new model also suggested that the motives of ‘excitement’, ‘vicarious achievement’ and ‘knowledge acquisition’ were important and positively contributed to satisfaction and BIRGing. The role of attachment warrants further examination and especially its negative relationship with satisfaction. The model also illustrated that while satisfaction was a significant factor in purchase intention, its impact on purchase intention was small and marginally less than BIRGing. Further, the SKFC membership manager needs to be aware of differences in the construct relationships based on gender, age and member’s past match attendance.

Limitations of this study included that the data was collected from just one AFL club which limits the ability to generalise the findings to all AFL clubs and other professional clubs in Australia and overseas. Second, the use of an on-line questionnaire restricted the sample to St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) members with access to a computer and computer literacy. Third, the two scales used for this study focussed on motivation and attachment. By contrast, the literature has noted that many other factors can impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention.

The first recommendation concerning future research was to replicate this study with other AFL clubs including AFL clubs based outside . A second suggestion was to explore the drivers of purchase intention for a range of sporting codes beyond AFL football and outside Australia. A third direction was for future research to investigate elite professional sport featuring female athletes noting the creation of three new female competitions in Australia over the next 12 months. Qualitative research could be used to provide fresh insights into sports fans and spectator motivations and attachment points. Additionally, there is also an opportunity to compare and contrast the drivers of purchase intention for committed fans such as season ticket holders to those of the less involved spectator. A further extension would to be to investigate the drivers of membership renewal for non-sport club members and compare them with sport club members. Five specific areas for future research were identified; the role of satisfaction in member renewal, the role of attachment with fan motives and satisfaction, the potential impact on a fans attachment for a high profile AFL coach and/or club president, the relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing and the impact of duration of club membership on fan response.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

This journey would not have been possible without the support of many people in my life and all have contributed to this project. First and foremost I would like to express my utmost thanks to my supervisory team, Professor Alex Maritz, Dr Aron Perenyi and Professor Linda Brennan. Linda and Alex have encouraged, cajoled and supported me from day one and I appreciate their strong commitment to see the project through to its end. This commitment even extended to a trip to Vietnam with an overnight ‘couch stay’ with Alex in the Hong Kong airport. Linda has been my rock throughout the journey and made her Phillip Island house available to me on multiple occasions as a quiet and distraction free environment for writing. I would like to thank Aron for his patience and guidance and for assisting me to refresh my limited SPSS skills and direction in building the new sports fan response model using AMOS. Additionally, I would like to thank Monica Bognar, Lauren Rowe, Tom Cross and Judy Gregory for their editorial assistance, which was invaluable in transforming my working documents into a professionally finished thesis.

Further, I would like to acknowledge the St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) for providing access to their membership and to the financial members of this club who took the time and effort to complete my survey.

The School of Media and Communication at RMIT University has been very supportive through the provision of time and printing resources. I would especially like to mention three of my colleagues, Dr Brad Wilson, Dr Julie Bilby and Dr Michelle Aung Thin. Brad, Julie and Michelle have all provided encouragement and relevant insights about their own PhD journey.

I would also like to thank my friends, Marcus and Bill from Caulfield Grad Dip days and my riding buddies, Pappy, Dave (x2), Glen, RC, Tantric, Dick and Robin who made me laugh and helped me to see that life does need balance which included the occasional meal at O’Connells or weekly coffee at Brown Cow respectively.

Additionally, I would like to express my grateful appreciation to my own family including my late Dad, sister Fiona and brother Patrick and their families who balanced discreet enquiries about my writing progress with food and encouragement over many Wednesday night family dinners.

Finally and most importantly, I would like to thank all three members of my immediate family, my wife Fiona, Matt and Hannah. Firstly to Matt who provided superb cups of coffee

iv and the occasional meal at the right times. Second to Hannah, who has been a loving and positive influence throughout the odyssey and shown wisdom way beyond her years. I would especially like to single out my wife Fiona, who has been most supportive and patient and gave up the use of our dining room for a substantial period of time so that I could write up my thesis.

v

In loving memory of my father Louis Fouvy (1928-2015) who taught me that you are never too old to learn.

vi STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP AND ORIGINALITY

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award to the candidate of any other degree or diploma, except where due reference is made in the text of the examinable outcome; and to the best of my knowledge contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text of the examinable outcome; and where the work is based on joint research or publications, discloses the relative contributions of the respective workers or authors.

Signed …………………………………………………..

15th December 2016

vii PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO THIS THESIS

Fouvy D, Brennan L and Brady E. (2011) Towards a theory of sports fan loyalty. ANZMAC Convention Centre: ANZMAC.

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION ...... 21 1.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...... 21 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH ...... 22 1.2.1 The AFL and the importance of club membership ...... 23 1.2.2 Sports fans motivation and the Sports Interest Inventory (SII) ...... 23 1.2.3 Team attachment and Point of Attachment Index (PAI) ...... 24 1.2.4 The importance of stadium factors ...... 25 1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM, RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND CONTRIBUTION ...... 26 1.4 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH ...... 27 1.5 METHODOLOGY ...... 28 1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ...... 28 1.7 CHAPTER ONE: CONCLUSION ...... 30 2 CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW AND BACKGROUND ...... 31 2.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...... 31 2.2 THE GLOBAL SPORTS INDUSTRY ...... 33 2.2.1 Introduction to sports consumption ...... 33 2.2.2 Global sports consumption ...... 34 2.2.2.1 Introduction to global sport consumption ...... 34 2.2.2.2 Global sport revenue ...... 35 2.2.2.3 Global sports code ranking ...... 37 2.2.2.4 Global sport by region ...... 38 2.2.2.5 Sports fan culture differences. USA v. Europe ...... 40 2.2.3 Australian sports consumption ...... 41 2.2.3.1 Introduction to sports consumption in Australia ...... 41 2.2.3.2 Australian sport - participation ...... 41 2.2.3.3 Australian sport - spectating ...... 44 2.2.3.4 Australian sport - AFL v. other major sports for revenue & attendance ...... 45 2.2.3.5 Australian sport - AFL and media coverage ...... 46 2.2.3.6 Australian sport - AFL and club membership ...... 48 2.2.3.7 Australian sport - AFL club membership analysis ...... 50 2.2.3.8 Australian sport - AFL membership and admission costs ...... 52 2.2.4 Summary: Sports consumption ...... 54 2.3 FANS, FANATICS AND FANDOM ...... 56 2.3.1 Sports fans ...... 56 2.3.2 Fanatics ...... 59 2.3.3 Fandom ...... 61 2.3.4 Tribalism ...... 62 2.3.5 Sports fan typologies ...... 64 2.3.6 Summary: Fans and fan typology ...... 65 2.4 LOYALTY ...... 66 2.4.1 Attitudinal and behavioural loyalty ...... 66 2.4.2 Loyalty and sports fans ...... 70 2.4.3 The psychological continuum model (Funk & James, 2001) ...... 71 2.4.4 Summary: Loyalty ...... 73 2.5 SPORTS FAN MOTIVATION (SFM) AND ATTACHMENT ...... 74 2.5.1 Sports fan motivation and motivation scales ...... 74 2.5.2 Team identification and social identity theory ...... 79 2.5.3 Attachment and the Point of Attachment Index (PAI) ...... 82 2.5.4 Combining motives and points of attachment ...... 83 9 2.5.5 Summary: Fan motives and points of attachment ...... 85 2.6 SPORT AS A SERVICE EXPERIENCE ...... 85 2.6.1 Macro factors that impact on sport event attendance ...... 85 2.6.2 The ‘sportscape’ and stadium experience ...... 86 2.6.3 Season ticket holders (STHs) and the impact of service on renewal ...... 88 2.6.4 Summary: Service experience ...... 90 2.7 SPORTS FAN OUTCOMES ...... 90 2.7.1 Satisfaction ...... 90 2.7.2 Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) ...... 95 2.7.3 Future behavioural intentions ...... 96 2.7.4 Summary: Sports fan outcomes ...... 97 2.8 SPORTS FANS AND THEIR DIFFERENCES: THE IMPACT OF GENDER, AGE, LENGTH OF CLUB MEMBERSHIP AND PAST MATCH ATTENDANCE ...... 98 2.8.1 Gender and sport consumption behaviour ...... 98 2.8.1.1 Female audiences in sport ...... 99 2.8.1.2 Gender and sports fans initiation ...... 100 2.8.1.3 Gender and motivation ...... 101 2.8.1.4 Gender and committed sports fans ...... 103 2.8.1.5 Gender and attachment, stadium factors and fan response ...... 104 2.8.2 Length of club membership and fan response ...... 105 2.8.3 Age and fan response ...... 106 2.8.4 Past match attendance and fan response ...... 108 2.8.5 Summary: Sports fans and their differences ...... 108 2.9 CHAPTER TWO: CONCLUSION ...... 110 3 CHAPTER THREE – RESEARCH QUESTIONS, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & HYPOTHESES ...... 111 3.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...... 111 3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 112 3.2.1 First research question ...... 112 3.2.2 Second research question ...... 113 3.2.3 Third research question ...... 114 3.2.4 Fourth group of research questions ...... 115 3.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES ...... 116 3.3.1 Sports fan motives ...... 116 3.3.2 Points of attachment ...... 118 3.3.3 Stadium factors ...... 119 3.3.4 Sports fan outcomes ...... 120 3.3.4.1 Satisfaction ...... 120 3.3.4.2 BIRGing ...... 121 3.3.4.3 Purchase intention ...... 122 3.3.5 Sports fan segments ...... 123 3.3.5.1 Impact of gender on motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response ...... 123 3.3.5.2 Age and sports fan response...... 126 3.3.5.3 Past match attendance and sports fan response ...... 127 3.3.5.4 Length of club membership and sports fan response ...... 127 3.4 CHAPTER THREE: CONCLUSION ...... 128 4 CHAPTER FOUR – RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 131 4.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...... 131 4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 132 4.2.1 Introduction to research design ...... 132 10 4.2.2 Research paradigm ...... 133 4.2.2.1 The positivism paradigm ...... 133 4.2.2.2 Alternative paradigms ...... 134 4.2.2.3 Justification of paradigm choice for this research project ...... 138 4.2.3 Unit of analysis ...... 138 4.2.4 Statistical packages ...... 138 4.3 SURVEY DESIGN - DEVELOPMENT OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT ...... 139 4.3.1 Introduction to survey design ...... 139 4.3.2 Multi-item measures ...... 140 4.3.3 Scaling and measurement ...... 140 4.3.4 The on-line survey ...... 140 4.3.5 Established measures ...... 141 4.3.5.1 Sports fan motivation scale – Sport Interest Inventory (SII) ...... 141 4.3.5.2 Attachment scale - The Point of Attachment Index (PAI) ...... 142 4.3.6 Response bias issues ...... 144 4.3.6.1 Common method bias ...... 144 4.3.6.2 Order effects ...... 144 4.3.7 Questionnaire structure and sequencing ...... 145 4.3.8 Pilot activity ...... 145 4.3.9 Ethics approval ...... 146 4.4 DATA COLLECTION ...... 146 4.4.1 Sampling ...... 147 4.4.2 Sample size ...... 147 4.4.3 The St Kilda Football Club ...... 148 4.4.4 Procedure - invitation and response rate ...... 148 4.5 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 149 4.5.1 Data preparation ...... 150 4.5.2 Data screening ...... 150 4.5.2.1 Missing values ...... 150 4.5.2.2 Outliers ...... 150 4.5.2.3 Multivariate analysis assumptions ...... 151 4.5.2.4 Multicollinearity ...... 152 4.5.3 Factor analysis ...... 152 4.5.4 Validity ...... 153 4.5.4.1 Content validity ...... 153 4.5.4.2 Construct validity ...... 153 4.5.5 Reliability ...... 154 4.5.6 Specification of formative and reflective measurement ...... 154 4.5.7 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) ...... 155 4.5.7.1 Measurement model assessment ...... 155 4.5.7.2 Goodness of fit measures ...... 156 4.5.8 Model testing ...... 157 4.6 CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION ...... 158 5 CHAPTER 5 – FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 159 5.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...... 159 5.2 PARTICIPANT PROFILE ...... 163 5.3 RESPONSE RATE ...... 165 5.4 DATA SCREENING AND RELIABILITY ...... 165 5.4.1 Data reliability ...... 165 5.5 ANSWERING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS – CORRELATIONS AND ANOVA ANALYSIS ...... 167 5.5.1 RQ1: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? ...... 167

11 5.5.1.1 RQ1 Fan motives and attachment - findings ...... 169 5.5.1.2 RQ1 Fan motives and attachment - discussion of findings ...... 169 5.5.1.3 RQ1 Fan motives and attachment - implications of findings ...... 170 5.5.2 RQ2: What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors? 172 5.5.2.1 RQ2 Fan motives and stadium factors correlation analysis ...... 173 5.5.2.2 RQ2 Fan attachment and stadium factors correlation analysis ...... 174 5.5.2.3 RQ2 Discussion & implications for the AFL and AFL clubs ...... 174 5.5.3 RQ3: How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response? 177 5.5.3.1 RQ3 Fan motives and fan response ...... 178 5.5.3.2 RQ3 Fan attachment and fan response ...... 180 5.5.3.3 RQ3 Stadium factors and fan response ...... 182 5.5.3.4 RQ3 Fan response relationships ...... 184 5.5.4 RQ4: The impact of demographic and behavioural variables on fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response ...... 186 5.5.4.1 RQ4.1: Gender - fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response ...... 187 5.5.4.2 RQ4.2: Age and fan response ...... 200 5.5.4.3 RQ4.3: Past match attendance and fan response ...... 203 5.5.4.4 RQ4.4: Length of club membership and fan response ...... 206 5.5.5 Summary: All research questions and hypotheses findings ...... 210 5.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND PROPOSITIONS ...... 213 5.6.1 Conceptual sports fan response framework ...... 213 5.6.2 Conceptual sports fan response model ...... 214 5.6.3 Fifty propositions to test the new sports fan response model ...... 215 5.7 ANSWERING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS USING THE NEW SPORTS FAN RESPONSE MODEL ...... 218 5.7.1 The new sports fan response model ...... 218 5.7.2 The new sports fan response model - goodness of fit ...... 219 5.7.3 RQ1-RQ3: The new sports fan response model and findings ...... 219 5.7.3.1 New sports fan response model - discussion ...... 220 5.7.3.2 RQ1 What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? ...... 221 5.7.3.3 RQ2 What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors? ...... 222 5.7.3.4 RQ3 How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response? ...... 222 5.7.4 RQ4.1: New sports fan response model – gender findings ...... 227 5.7.4.1 RQ4.1 Gender versions of the new sports fan response model - discussion ...... 229 5.7.4.2 RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response? ...... 230 5.7.5 RQ4.2: New sports fan response model – age and fan response ...... 241 5.7.5.1 RQ4.2 Discussion of findings – age and fan response ...... 243 5.7.5.2 RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response? ...... 243 5.7.6 RQ4.3: New sports fan response model –past match attendance and fan response .... 247 5.7.6.1 RQ4.3 Past match attendance and fan response - discussion of findings ...... 250 5.7.6.2 RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response? ...... 250 5.7.7 Summary: All propositions and findings ...... 255 5.8 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ...... 258 6 CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ...... 259 6.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...... 259 6.2 CONCLUSIONS AND KEY FINDINGS ...... 260 6.2.1 RQ1: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? ...... 260 6.2.2 RQ2: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment with stadium factors? ...... 261 6.2.3 RQ3: How do fan motives, points of attachment and stadium factors influence fan response? ...... 262 6.2.3.1 Fan motives and fan response ...... 262

12 6.2.3.2 Fan attachment and fan response ...... 262 6.2.3.3 Stadium factors and fan response ...... 263 6.2.3.4 Satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention ...... 263 6.2.4 RQ4.1: To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response? ...... 264 6.2.4.1 Gender and fan motives ...... 264 6.2.4.2 Gender and attachment ...... 265 6.2.4.3 Gender and stadium factors ...... 265 6.2.4.4 Gender and fan response ...... 266 6.2.5 RQ4.2: To what degree does age explain difference in fan response? ...... 268 6.2.6 RQ4.3: To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response? 269 6.2.7 RQ4.4: To what degree does length of club membership explain difference in fan response? ...... 270 6.3 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 271 6.3.1 Academic contributions and implications for theory ...... 271 6.3.2 Managerial implications and implications for policy or practice ...... 275 6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 278 6.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH...... 279 6.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS ...... 281 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 282 8 APPENDICES ...... 317

13 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Breakdown of global sporting revenues (2006 – 2014) ...... 36 Table 2-2 Sports code ranking based on global revenue (2012) ...... 37 Table 2-3 Global ranking of sports – fans, participants, national federations (2011/12) ...... 38 Table 2-4 Global sport revenue by region (2006 to 2014) ...... 39 Table 2-5 Australian sport – participation (2012/13) ...... 43 Table 2-6 Sports comparison in Australia – attendance and annual revenue (2013) ...... 46 Table 2-7 Sports comparison in Australia – media ratings and rights comparison (2013) ...... 48 Table 2-8 AFL clubs – membership and revenue (CFC, GFC, SKFC, 2013) ...... 49 Table 2-9 AFL clubs membership - annual revenue and on-field success (2013/14) ...... 52 Table 2-10 Season ticket options (CFC and SKFC, 2014) ...... 53 Table 2-11 Tribe differences – archaic and post-modern ...... 63 Table 2-12 PCM allegiance – loyalty to a sports object ...... 71 Table 2-13 Scales - sports fans motives ...... 77 Table 2-14 SII motives defined (Funk et al., 2003, pp. 26-27) ...... 78 Table 2-15 Sports fan motives not included in SII (2003 version) ...... 79 Table 2-16 Sports fans motives defined ...... 101 Table 3-1 Summary of research questions and hypotheses to be examined ...... 129 Table 4-1 Foundational stances of the five inquiry paradigms ...... 136 Table 4-2 Paradigm positions on selected issues ...... 137 Table 4-3 Modifications made to SII (Funk et al., 2003) ...... 142 Table 4-4 New and revised ‘attachment’ constructs with supporting rationale...... 143 Table 4-5 Criterion for goodness of fit indices (N>250 and 12

15 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Map for Chapter One: Introduction...... 22 Figure 1-2 Thesis structure ...... 28 Figure 2-1 Map for Chapter Two: Literature review ...... 32 Figure 2-2 Map for section 2.2 - Sports consumption ...... 33 Figure 3-1 Map for Chapter Three: Research questions, conceptual framework and hypotheses ...... 111 Figure 3-2 Conceptual framework for sports fan response ...... 116 Figure 4-1 Map for Chapter Four: Research design and methodology ...... 131 Figure 4-2 Map for section 4.2 - Research design ...... 133 Figure 4-3 Map for section 4.3 - Survey design development ...... 139 Figure 4-4 Map for section 4.4 - Data collection ...... 146 Figure 4-5 Map for section 4.5 - Data analysis ...... 149 Figure 5-1 Map for Chapter Five: Findings, analysis & discussion ...... 159 Figure 5-2 Conceptual framework for sports fan response– key constructs and propositions ...... 213 Figure 5-3 Conceptual sports fan response model - key constructs and all items ...... 214 Figure 5-4 New sports fan response model (standardised values) ...... 226 Figure 5-5 New sports fan response model - male version (standardised values) ...... 239 Figure 5-6 New sports fan response model - female version (standardised values) ...... 240 Figure 5-7 New sports fan response model - younger fans (standardised values) ...... 246 Figure 5-8 New sports fan response model - older fans (standardised values) ...... 247 Figure 5-9 New sports fan response model - frequent past match attendance version (standardised values) ...... 253 Figure 5-10 New sports fan response model - low past match attendance version (standardised values) ..... 254 Figure 6-1 Map for Chapter Six: Conclusions and implications ...... 259 Figure 6-2 The new sports fan response model (SFRM) ...... 274

16

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Definition of key terms ...... 318 Appendix B: Examples of fan typology …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 335 Appendix C: Motivation scales developed to understand sports fan consumption (1975-2012) ...... 324 Appendix D: Summary of articles for gender differences (1987 to 2013) ...... 327 Appendix E: Full list of original SII variables, item measures and Cronbach’s alphas ...... 333 Appendix F: Sport Interest Inventory (SII) - contextualised for AFL/Aussie rules ...... 336 Appendix G: Point of Attachment (PAI) - contextualised and extended for AFL/Aussie rules ...... 338 Appendix H: Copy of sports fans questionnaire ...... 340 Appendix I: Ethics Approval (SUHREC Project 2009/146) ...... 347 Appendix J: Frequency tables …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...363 Appendix K: Histograms ...... 389 Appendix L: Factor description and alpha co-efficient comparison …………….....……………………………………….402

17 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

AAMI: Australian Associated Motor Insurers

AAMI Park: Venue in the sports precinct of Melbourne, Victoria Australia sponsored by AAMI (refer above)

ABS: Australian Bureau of Statistics

ACMA: Australian Communications Media Authority

AFL: Australian Football League

AGFI: Adjusted Goodness of Fit

AMOS: Analysis of Moment Structures - Modelling software of SPSS

ANOVA: Analysis of Variance

ASADA: Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority

AVE: Average Variance extracted

BCCI: Board of Control for in India

BIRGing: Basking in Reflected Glory

BBL: Big Bash League (T20 Cricket competition in Australia)

BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India and China

CAGR: Compound average growth rate

CEO: Chief Executive officer

CFA: Confirmatory Factor Analysis

CFC: Collingwood Football Club

CFI: Comparative Fit Index

CORFing: Cutting Off Reflected Failure

DEM: Disconfirmation of Expectations Model

EFA: Exploratory Factor Analysis

EFC:

EMEA: Europe, the Middle East and Africa

FFA: Federation of Football Australia

FFC: (Dockers)

FIFA: Fédération Internationale de Football Association (Global body for soccer) 18 FPMA: Frequent past match attendees (7 or more matches per season). Also refer LPMA

FTA TV: Free to air television

GA: General (or ground) Admission (lowest category of ticket to sport event in Australia and does not guarantee a seat)

GCFC: Gold Coast Football Club

GFI: Goodness of Fit

GFC:

LPMA: Low past match attendees (6 or fewer matches attended per season). Also refer FPMA.

MCG:

MLE: Maximum likelihood estimation

MSC: Motivation of the sports consumer (Milne & McDonald 1999)

MSSC: Motivation scale for sports consumption (Trail & James 2001)

MVA: Multivariate analysis

NBA: National Association (USA)

NBL: National Basketball League (Australia)

NFI: Normed Fit Index

NFL: National Football League (USA)

NHL: National Hockey League (Ice Hockey in USA and Canada)

NRL: National (Australia)

OzTAM: TV rating system in Australia

PAI: Point of Attachment Index (Robinson & Trail, 2005)

PCM: Psychological continuum model (Funk & James, 2001)

PwC: PricewaterhouseCoopers

RMIT: Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University

RMSEA: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation

SEM: Structural equation modelling

SFC: Sydney Football Club (Australia)

SFM: Sports Fan Motivation (SFM) And Attachment

19 SFMS: Sport Fan Motivation Scale (Wann, 1995)

SFRM: Sports Fan Response Model (Fouvy 2016)

SII: Sport Interest Inventory (Funk et al., 2003)

SKFC: St Kilda Football Club

SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

SRMR: Standardised root-mean-square residual

SSSM: Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model (Van Leeuwen et al., 2002)

STH: Season Ticket Holder or Club Financial Member

T20: a shortened version of cricket with 20 overs a side.

TLI: Tucker-Lewis index

UEFA: Union of European Football Associations

USD: United States Dollar ($)

VFL: Victorian Football League

WBFC: Football Club (formerly known as Footscray Football Club)

WNBA: Women’s national basketball association (USA)

20 1 CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

1.1 Chapter introduction

Sport as described by Hoye, Smith, Nicholson and Stewart (2015, p. 3) is “played or watched by the majority of the world’s population and at the elite level has moved from being an amateur pastime to a significant industry”. This description of sport not only highlights the global appeal of sport but also its two distinct roles: participation and spectating. This thesis focuses on the spectating aspects of sport.

Sport spectatorship is similar to many services and has a complexity that makes it challenging for sport organisations to deliver a sport event at a consistent and satisfying level. Sport events are largely intangible and perishable and thus cannot be stored: they are inseparable in that they are simultaneously produced and consumed and importantly they are heterogeneous in that eac\h time the service is delivered, it is different and each customer’s experience of it is different (Robinson, Chelladurai, Bodet & Downward, 2013). Hoye et al., (2015) suggested that sport events like many services, can be of variable quality but different to most services because the attractiveness of the event is usually diminished when one team dominates.

Sport, unlike most packaged supermarket products, has a finite limit to its availability due to a fixed season length and the number of scheduled games (Hoye et al., 2015). Further, sport spectatorship is a discretionary activity. This means that sport organisations are competing for consumer’s discretionary income and time. Therefore, sport events are competing in a highly competitive market that includes not only sport events but also a vast array of entertainment activities. It is the coupling of a unique spectating experience and the diverse and competitive nature of the entertainment industry that makes the study of sports fans and especially the retention of the most committed of fans, club members or season ticket holders, so intriguing for both researchers as well as vital for financial sustainability for professional sport organisations.

Figure 1.1 presents an outline of the chapter and its structure.

21

Figure 1-1 Map for Chapter One: Introduction.

1.2 Background to the research

The global sport market was valued in excess of USD146 Billion in 2014 by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) making it a significant industry. Season ticket membership, is an important revenue stream for sporting clubs around the globe (Price Waterhouse Coopers industry report, 2011). Notwithstanding that Football (Soccer) is the number one global sport by most measures, in Australia the largest sport is Australian Rules football also known as ‘Aussie Rules’.

This thesis explores the committed sports fans connections of one Melbourne based AFL club with a view to establishing strategies to enhance financial member retention. Through an understanding of sports fans’ various motives, attachments to their club and their communities and touch points at sports events such as the service provided by stadium staff and the actual stadium facilities, this thesis will enable the St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) to develop strategies to better manage their membership base.

22 1.2.1 The AFL and the importance of club membership

The peak body for ‘Aussie Rules’ is the Australian Football League (AFL). The AFL claims is has the highest match attendance per round for the 2014 season compared to all other sports in Australia (AFL, 2015) (20 May, 2015) reported that AFL attendance for the 2014 home and away season was the fourth largest in the world for all sports codes. Additionally, the AFL claims the largest television weekly audience for all sports in Australia (AFL, 2015). Most significantly, the AFL boasts a membership base exceeding 836,000 (AFL, 2015). This means that approximately one in thirty of all Australians is a member of an AFL club.

Club membership is an important source of revenue for the 18 clubs that make up the AFL. This is not only because it is provides up to 25% of a club’s revenue (refer table 2-8) but also because it is a revenue source that the clubs directly control. Membership fees are collected at the start of the season and have a direct impact on other club revenue such as sponsorship, catering, signage and merchandise (McDonald, 2010). Yet, like most membership bases, membership non-renewal or ‘churn’ is a problem with an average non-renewal of 17% across all AFL clubs and ‘churn’ can be as high as 24% (McDonald, 2010). ‘Churn’ affects all clubs and even the , winner of the AFL premiership in 2013 and 2014, was concerned that approx. 12% of its 2014 members had not renewed their membership two weeks into the 2015 season (Lane, 2015a). An improved understanding of AFL fans and especially the ones who make an annual financial commitment to their club will enable AFL clubs to develop strategies to better manage their membership base. The dimensions of sports fans’ motivation, attachment and stadium factors will be briefly outlined in the following sections.

1.2.2 Sports fans motivation and the Sports Interest Inventory (SII)

Foxall, Goldsmith and Brown (1998) suggested that understanding sports fans and what motivates them to consume a sport product involves two fundamental problems. “The first is understanding the interrelationship between motives and specific behaviour and the second is to develop a typology or list of consumer motives comprehensive enough to capture the wide variety of motivating forces that stimulate and shape behaviour” (Foxall, et al., 1998, p. 134). While the measurement and identification of sports fans motives is still a work in progress, researchers have taken significant steps over the past twenty years towards developing a reliable scale. There are four sports fans motivation scales that are most frequently referred to in sport research: Wann’s (1995) Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS), Milne and McDonald’s (1999) Motivation of the Sports Consumer (MSC), Trail and James (2001) Motivation Scale

23 for Sports Consumption (MSSC) and Funk, Ridinger and Moorman (2003) Sport Interest Inventory (SII).

Funk and James (2001) used a number of prior studies on spectator motivation (Kahle, Kambara & Rose 1996; Sloan, 1989; Trail, Anderson & Fink, 2000; Wann, 1995) to develop the SII that initially measured 10 specific motivation factors. The SII was refined and the 2003 version of the scale explained 48% of the variance in the level of consumer support for a Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) team (Funk et al., 2003). Neale and Funk (2006) were the first and appear to be the only researchers to have used the SII to study the attitudes and behaviour of spectators attending an AFL match in Western Australia. Neale and Funk (2006) identified five factors - vicarious achievement, player interest, entertainment value, drama and socialisation – that predicted game day attendance.

1.2.3 Team attachment and Point of Attachment Index (PAI)

Motivation scales such as the SII (Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa & Hirakawa, 2001) included ‘interest in the team’ as team identification has been shown to predict cognitive (Trail, Anderson & Fink, 2005; Trail, Fink & Anderson, 2003a), affective (Madrigal, 1995; Matsuoka, Chelladurai & Haraka, 2003), conative (Melnick & Wann, 2004; Wann, 2002; Wann & Branscombe, 1993), and behavioural (Laverie & Arnett, 2000) dimensions of sport spectatorship. Furthermore, many studies (Mahony, Madrigal & Howard, 2000; Trail & James, 2001; Trail, Robinson, Gillentine & Dick, 2003b) have examined the construct of team identification and developed scales that attempt to measure the team construct.

Social identity theory (Tajfel, 2010) suggested that sports teams served as important targets of identification. Tajfel (1978, p.63) defined social identity as “that part of an individual’s self concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership”. A person assumes a social identity when that person realises that they belonged to a social group and attached emotional significance to that membership (Heere & James, 2007).

Typically, researchers (Mahony et al., 2000; Trail & James, 2001; Trail et al., 2003b) treated team identification as one-dimensional. Research (Funk, Haugtvedt & Howard, 2000, Funk et al.,2001; Funk, Mahony & Ridinger 2002; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Robinson, Trail, Dick & Gillentine, 2005a; Robinson, Trail & Kwon,, 2004; Trail et al., 2003b) suggested that there may be additional points of attachment, rather than just attachment to the team. Even though Funk and his colleagues termed these concepts ‘motives’, their ideas regarding these

24 constructs represented an attachment to a specific entity. Trail and colleagues framed these points of attachment within the identity theory of Stryker (1994), under the guise of different role identities.

The Point of Attachment Index (PAI; Robinson & Trail, 2005b; Trail et al., 2003b) was introduced as a comprehensive measure of a sport fan’s different role identities within sport. The underpinning logic of the PAI is that sport consumers have multiple identities regarding different aspects of a sports team. For example: the team, the players, the coach, the community, the sport, the university, and the level of sport. This multi-dimensional approach has advantages over the one-dimensional approach in that it covers a wider gamut of the sport consumers’ psychological constructs of identification.

A number of researchers have examined relationships among motives and points of attachment (Fink, Trail & Anderson 2002a; Robinson & Trail, 2005b; Robinson et al., 2004; Trail et al., 2003b). “These researchers claimed that certain spectators’ motives may lead to strengthening certain points of attachment” Woo, Trail, Kwon & Anderson (2009, p. 39). Nonetheless, very little has been published concerning relationships between sport fan motives and points of attachment (Woo et al., 2009). Additionally, most of the studies concerning the relationship among motives and attachment, with the exceptions of Trail et al., (2003b) and Woo et al. (2009), do not distinguish between spectators and fans. Trail et al., (2003b) suggested that spectators and fans may have different motives and these motives may lead to different points of attachment. Sloan (1989) suggested that spectators did not have a strong attachment to the team, players or coach while fans are more likely to be attached to one or more of these potential connections.

1.2.4 The importance of stadium factors

To establish a complete picture of the factors that contribute to sports events attendance and the purchase and renewal of club membership, the venue and specifically size, seating comfort and access as well as the aesthetic qualities of the stadium all impact on the potential attendees decision to attend an event (Buttle, Morres & Tomlinson, 1995; Hall, O’Mahony & Vieceli, 2010; Robertson & Pope, 1999; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1996). The facilities available at the event including ticket prices, the quality and cost of food and beverages, pre/post game entertainment and child facilities are core to the service experience at sports events and were described by Robertson and Pope (1999) as the ‘sportscape’. These factors become the touch points by which the service experience is enhanced or degraded. Robertson and Pope (1999, p. 8) contended that “the sportscape or physical environment of the stadium can influence

25 whether or not a spectator attends, how long they will stay and if they will return for a future event”. Continued negative experiences may impact on member retention. Hall et al., (2010) pinpointed that the most significant predictors of attendance at a sports event were the emotion generated by the event and the standard of the stadium facilities. Therefore, it is important to include stadium factors when exploring purchase intent.

1.3 Research problem, research questions and contribution

The problem at the heart of this thesis is how can an AFL club reduce financial member non- renewal or ‘churn’. An alternative way of looking at the same problem is to identify what are the key impacts on an AFL club member’s purchase intentions. McDonald (2010) undertook a comprehensive study of over 4500 financial members of two AFL clubs to determine which variables best explain and predict churn. The results of McDonalds 2010 study indicated fundamental differences between new low attending financial members and long-term members that attended matches frequently. However many questions remained regarding the factors impacting member retention including differences by gender and age and most importantly quantification regarding the role of satisfaction and other factors such as BIRGing (Basking in reflected glory) in the membership renewal decision. To address these questions, this thesis identifies and explores the impact of nine motives, nine points of attachment, three stadium factors, satisfaction and basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) on an AFL club member’s purchase intentions. The specific research questions that are addressed in this thesis include:

RQ1. What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment?

RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors?

RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

RQ4.1. To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.2. To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.3. To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.4. To what degree does length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

26 This research contributes to the current body of knowledge in providing an understanding of a range of factors that impact on SKFC financial members’ purchase intentions. The findings of this study showed that the fan motives of excitement, vicarious achievement and knowledge acquisition are key drivers of satisfaction but satisfaction itself had a relatively small impact on purchase intention. The stronger contributors to purchase intention were stadium factors and BIRGing respectively. Additionally, the study confirmed that gender does impact on fan motives yet gender has a minimal impact on attachment and stadium factors. The new sports fan response model developed as part of this project showed that satisfaction and BIRGing had a stronger influence on purchase intention for males. Additionally, the new model revealed that stadium factors were a strong influence on purchase intention for younger fans; although satisfaction and BIRGing were stronger influences on purchase intention for older fans. For low past match attendees, BIRGing and stadium factors were slightly stronger influences on purchase intention.

1.4 Justification for the research

This research is important for the St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) as it identifies and quantifies the major contributors to satisfaction in addition to identifying and quantifying the drivers of purchase intention for SKFC financial members. Purchase intention in this study focused on buying team merchandise and attending sports events and renewal of club membership. These findings will assist the SKFC membership and event managers to develop strategies with the objective of increasing member retention.

Even though sports fans and spectators have been extensively researched, the impact and quantification of satisfaction and the identification and quantification of other factors that impact on purchase intention is a neglected area (McDonald et al., 2013b). The development of a model that shows the impact of fan motives, attachment and stadium factors on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention is a valuable addition to existing theory as well as industry practice. The new sports fan response model displayed that stadium factors and BIRGing were stronger drivers of purchase intention than satisfaction. The impact of BIRGing on purchase intention has been largely neglected until now.

Chapters Five and Six outline the implications for all findings for the SKFC. Numerous recommendations are made regarding strategies to build excitement and knowledge acquisition. Additional suggestions are outlined for all three stadium factors and take into account the role played by ground trusts. All the proposals note the work already in place by the AFL and AFL Clubs. 27 1.5 Methodology

A single structured on-line survey was developed using two previously validated scales, the Sport Interest Inventory (SII, Funk et al., 2003) and the Points of Attachment Index (PAI, Kwon, Trail & Anderson, 2005). Three Melbourne based clubs, Collingwood Football Club (CFC), (MFC) and St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) were approached to participate in this study. Despite initial strong interest from all three clubs to be involved in the study, only the SKFC was prepared to commit to a specific time frame and provide access to their membership. Although a single case study limits the generalisability of the findings to all AFL clubs and especially AFL clubs based outside Victoria, the study provides valuable information regarding season ticket holders for one of the founding VFL/AFL clubs. Data was collected from over 700 members of the St Kilda Football club immediately after the completion of the 2010 pre-season competition and just prior to the start of the official 2010 AFL home and away premiership season. Data analysis was delayed for up to two years in the hope that the other two AFL clubs would commit to the study however eventually the decision was taken to run with a single club case study. This study examined St Kilda football club members’ motives, attachments plus three stadium factors’ impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. Analysis of the collected data provided responses to the studies’ research questions and associated hypotheses and propositions.

1.6 Outline of the thesis

An outline of the thesis is presented as a structural diagram in

Figure 1-2 Thesis structure

28 Chapter One provides an introduction and background to the thesis. It summarises the literature, the research problem and the approach to the research and provides an outline of the thesis.

Chapter Two presents an examination of relevant literature with a focus on four key theoretical domains: fan motivation, points of attachment, stadium factors and fan response. Fan response includes satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. The impact of gender, age, past match attendance and length of club membership on fan response are investigated.

Chapter Three presents the four research questions and a conceptual framework that was developed from the literature review. The proposed relationships between and within the constructs were developed into a series of hypotheses to be tested empirically.

Chapter Four details the research methods employed in this study. The chapter begins with a discussion of research design and the research paradigm employed. Details regarding the development of the questionnaire, ethics approval, data collection and data preparation, screening and analysis techniques are also presented.

Chapter Five reports the results of the on-line survey conducted with St Kilda Football Club members and exploration of the hypotheses associated with the research questions that underpin this thesis. The chapter begins by reporting the participant profile. It then provides an evaluation of the validity and reliability of each construct in the conceptual model using coefficient alphas, confirmatory factor analysis and correlation analysis. Hypotheses’ testing is conducted and the results reported and the findings discussed. Structural equation modelling is used to examine proposed relationships between constructs and to determine the mediating effects of satisfaction and BIRGing on purchase intention. The chapter concludes by reporting and discussing the key findings of the proposition testing.

Chapter Six presents conclusions for each research question and the related hypotheses and propositions. The academic and managerial implications arising from this study are identified and discussed along with limitations and the opportunities for future research.

29 1.7 Chapter One: conclusion

This chapter has provided the background for this research thesis. It introduced the research problem, specific questions to be addressed by the research and justified the research. Definitions have been provided for key terms, refer Appendix A. An outline of the methodology, scope, structure and limitations of the thesis were presented. The thesis now proceeds with a detailed description of prior research.

30 2 CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW AND BACKGROUND

2.1 Chapter introduction

This chapter reviews sports consumption globally and within Australia and then explores six key areas. The first area to be examined is sports fans including a review of sports fans typology. The second area to be examined is sports fans loyalty. This includes a review of both attitudinal and behavioural loyalty. The third area to be explored is the main sports fan motivation and attachment theories. The fourth area to be examined is sports fans behaviour from a service experience including the impact of stadium factors and the impact of service on season ticket holders. The fifth area explored is the impact of motivation, attachment and stadium factors on sports fans satisfaction and future purchase intentions toward sport events and team merchandise. The final area to be examined in this literature review is the impact of selected demographic and behavioural variables on sports fans motivation, attachment and stadium factors and how these factors impact on satisfaction, how a fan promotes their team or club association to others (i.e. through basking in reflected glory or BIRGing) and future purchase intentions. The selected demographic and behavioural variables are gender, age, and length of club membership and past match attendance.

In order to understand sport fans, we first need to comprehend the importance of sport globally and as well as the place of sport within Australian society. Sport in 2016 is a big and growing business with the global sports industry estimated to exceed USD146 billion and a growth rate of 35% since 2006 (PwC, 2011). Notwithstanding that there is much debate over the role and meaning of sport in our society, there is no argument that competition for sporting events attendance can be extensive (Al-Thibiti, 2004; Fink, Trail & Anderson, 2002b; Hall et al., 2010; Kwon and Trail, 2001; McDonald, Karg & Leckie, 2014c; Neal and Funk, 2006; Shank, 2001; Woo et al., 2009). Not only do sports events compete with all other forms of leisure activities including watching a movie or ‘ the net’, but also watching a sporting event on television competes with on-site attendance with some people choosing to watch a sports event in comfort and safety at home (Shank and Lyberger, 2014). For that reason, developing loyalty in existing fans and creating new sports fans to expand the fan base are important goals for sport marketers (Park, Mahony & Kim, 2011). To fulfil their goals and survive in this industry, practitioners need to identify factors that impact on sports fan behaviours and generate loyal sports fans.

31 This thesis explores how St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) season ticket holders’ motives, attachments and stadium factors impact on their satisfaction and future purchase intentions and their willingness to tell others of their association with their team. A fan’s preparedness to tell others about their association is known as ‘Basking in Reflected Glory’ (BIRGing). Season ticket holders were chosen, as they are strategically and financially important to professional sport clubs (McDonald et al., 2014c). Figure 2.1 provides a roadmap for chapter 2.

Figure 2-1 Map for Chapter Two: Literature review

32 2.2 The global sports industry

This section covers the concept of sports consumption in order to provide a contextual background for the theoretical sections that follow. The first section is an overview of global sports consumption, followed by an introduction to sports consumption in Australia. Refer to Figure 2.2 for a roadmap for this section.

Figure 2-2 Map for section 2.2 - Sports consumption

2.2.1 Introduction to sports consumption

Sport as described by Hoye et al., (2015, p. 3) is “played or watched by the majority of the world’s population and at the elite level has moved from being an amateur pastime to a significant industry”. The term sport is from the French word ‘desport’ meaning leisure with the oldest definition of sport in the English language dates from around 1300 and means anything humans find amusing or entertaining (Baofu, 2014). Both definitions of sport are useful as they highlight the two main aspects of sport, participation and spectating. This thesis will focus on the spectator aspects of sport.

33 Sport helps us to escape from our everyday lives and entertains in a way that is far more involving and social than other leisure pursuits like watching a movie or television. There is also evidence that sport has performed an enlightening function in human nature (Markovits, 2011). Markovits (2011) suggested that sport, due to its inherently competitive and agnostic nature, fosters a meritocracy and cosmopolitanism that few other avenues in social life possess. Sport is not work for the vast majority of us; the exceptions are professional athletes (Morgan & Summers, 2005).

The omnipresence and pervasive power of sport in modern society is hard to ignore. A review of TV ratings or print media coverage will confirm the high profile of sport globally. Witness the estimated global TV audience of 900 million that watched the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics (Reuters, 2012). Also, the record US TV audience of 114.4 million that watched the Patriots last-second over the Seattle Seahawks’ 28-24 last second win in the 2015 Super Bowl on NBC television (Pallotta, 2015). This picture is especially true of sport within Australia. Australians appear to be obsessed with sport (Stewart, Nicholson, Smith & Westerbeek, 2004). Even a former prime minister described himself, on multiple occasions, as a ‘sporting tragic’ (Howard, 2013). If further confirmation is required, review the television ratings for any Australian Football League (AFL) Grand final since 2000 or visit any major stadium that hosts AFL football matches such as the MCG in Melbourne or Paterson stadium in Subiaco, Perth, any weekend over the March to September period and you would experience thousands of people coming together to view, cheer and discuss their favourite AFL team.

2.2.2 Global sports consumption

Globally, we are witnessing a convergence between the sport and entertainment industries as both sectors rise to the challenges posed by new digital technologies. Digital technology is re- shaping the way we spend our leisure time (PwC 2011). People buy tickets to sports events and subscribe to Pay TV services carrying exclusive sport content to be entertained. If they are not entertained, they will vote with their feet and wallets. Media partners and sponsors will quickly follow them as the audience creates part of the spectacle.

2.2.2.1 Introduction to global sport consumption

Sports and entertainment events are increasingly being staged together, as a way to enhance the overall experience and extend the length of events and therefore the time that supporters and viewers stay. For example, the 2011 NFL Super Bowl, with an average US audience of 111 million viewers, was at the time the most watched programme of any kind in the history

34 of American television (PwC 2011). The 2011 Super Bowl entertainment line up included Keith Urban and Maroon 5 as the pre-game entertainment, Christina Aguilera sang the national anthem and the Black Eyed Peas performed at the half-time break. Glee was the lead out programme attracting 27 million viewers, almost double its usual audience (PwC 2011).

This trend towards blending more entertainment content isn’t always welcomed by ‘purist’ sports fans. These fans may feel that their sport is being hi-jacked. Fans will be discussed in Section 2.3. The shift towards entertainment can also pose a dilemma for governing sport bodies that don’t wish to trivialise their core offering of sporting excellence and achievement. One can only wonder if the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) was concerned at the launch of the (T20) in 2008 when media attention was equally divided between the sporting contest and the cheerleaders for each team (Kohli, 2009).

2.2.2.2 Global sport revenue

In 2011, PricewaterhouseCoopers projected that revenues for the global sports market were likely to exceed USD146 billion in 2014. It is also worth noting that the economy of sports has a cyclical nature with many of the world’s premier sporting events occurring every two to four years. The FIFA World Cup and the summer Olympics, for example, take place every four years. The 2014 revenue estimate is inflated by three special non-annual events, the in Sochi, FIFA’s World Cup in Brazil and the in Glasgow. According to A.T. Kearney (2012), in quieter years, such as 2007, major events accounted for less than 1% of worldwide sports revenues. By contrast, in 2008, major events accounted for 8% of global sports revenues due largely to the Beijing Summer Olympics and UEFA Euro 2008 football tournament in Austria and Switzerland (A.T. Kearney, 2012). What this highlights is that over 90% of global sports revenue is generated by weekly sports fixtures rather than special events that are held every two or four years.

For the purposes of this research, the global sports market will be defined as consisting of four major revenue components:

1. Gate revenues for live sporting events. 2. Media rights fees paid to show sports on all media platforms including all forms of television, radio, internet and mobile devices. 3. Sponsorships, which are defined as payments to have a product or service, associated with a team, league or event.

35 4. Merchandising, which includes the sale of licensed product with intellectual property such as team, and league logos or player likeness.

The composition of global revenue is changing with the traditional dominance of gate revenues being challenged by the industry’s twin growth engines of media rights and sponsorship. Table 2-1 shows the historical importance of gate revenues and the increasing importance of media rights and sponsorship. PwC (2011) projected that sponsorship would surpass gate revenues as the largest revenue source in 2014. In spite of this, the historical and on-going importance of gate revenues reinforces the need to examine the drivers of this revenue source.

Table 2-1 Breakdown of global sporting revenues (2006 – 2014)

Billion 2006 2009 2011 2014 2014 %

Gate revenues 37.1 38.8 39.0 43.5 29.7

Sponsorship 26.7 31.5 35.1 45.6 31.1

Media rights 24.3 24.6 26.9 37.8 25.8

Licensing 19.4 17.6 17.6 19.6 13.3

Total 107.5 112.5 118.7 146.7 100.0

Source: PwC outlook for Global Sports (December 2011, p. 29)

A study by A.T. Kearney (2012) valued the global sports industry, which included food and memorabilia stands at the stadium, at a much larger USD480 to 620 billion. In the same study, A.T. Kearney also valued the worldwide sports events market in 2009, without food and memorabilia, for the major sports, rather than all sports at USD64 billion. This is more in line with the PwC study findings that valued the global sports market in 2009 for all sports at USD112.5 billion (2011). By way of comparison, the related global markets of sports nutrition and on-line sports gaming were valued in 2013 at USD30.0 billion (TMR, 2016) and 23.7 billion pounds respectively (Stocks, 2015). By any measure, the global sports market is a large and growing market and a market that also supports related smaller markets such as sports betting/wagering.

36 2.2.2.3 Global sports code ranking

The number one global sport is football, called soccer in Australia and the USA, from a revenue generation perspective, with global annual revenues exceeding USD28 billion (A.T. Kearney, 2012). This places football (soccer) as the globally dominant sport with revenue almost the equal of the combined revenues for all USA sports, F1 racing, and . Table 2-2 illustrates the global dominance of football, (soccer) in revenue terms versus all other sports.

Table 2-2 Sports code ranking based on global revenue (2012)

Sport Billions (Euro) Share of Global market %

Football (Soccer) 19.5 43%

US Football (NFL) 5.8 13%

Baseball 5.5 12%

Formula 1 (Motor Racing) 3.0 7%

Basketball 2.7 6%

Hockey 2.0 4%

Tennis 1.9 4%

Golf 1.4 3%

Other 3.6 8%

Source: The Sports Market (2012) A.T. Kearney, p. 2

The ranking of sports, as shown in Table 2-2, is interesting for a number of reasons including the sports that are not listed. For example, cricket is the second most viewed sport despite not being played in many parts of the world, due to its huge popularity on the subcontinent (TES, 2016). Field hockey is the third most viewed sport even though it has only a small presence in the USA (TES, 2016). ‘Viewed’ is defined as those who physically attend the sporting event as well as the television and on-line audiences.

There are many ways to identify the top ten global sports. Table 2-3 ranks individual sports on the number of fans, number of participants and the number of countries that have an official sports federation. This table presents a strong case that football (soccer), basketball, volleyball, tennis, table tennis and golf can be considered global sports based on participation rates, fan following and the number of countries with national federations. By comparison rugby, league and union, does not have a global following yet rugby is played in more countries than Australian Rules Football. The elite level version of Aussie Rules is played in 37 Australia with an occasional game in New Zealand. What Aussie Rules shares with soccer, basketball and rugby is the need for the professional sports clubs, that make up these sporting leagues, to build event attendance and manage their membership base.

Table 2-3 Global ranking of sports – fans, participants, national federations (2011/12)

Sport No of Ranking No of Ranking by No of countries Ranking by Fans1 by fan participant with National countries 2 numbers Participants numbers Federations3 with Nat Fed’s

Soccer 3.5 B 1 242M 4 205 4

Cricket 2.5 B 2 n/a Outside top 10 n/a Outside top30

Field Hockey 2.0B 3 3M 10 117 25

Tennis 1B 4 60M 6 203 5

Volleyball 900M 5 998M 1 218 1

Table Tennis 850M 6 300M 3 197 6

Baseball 500M 7 60M 7 112 28 Golf 450M 8 n/a Outside top 85 32 10 Basketball 400M 9 400M 2 212 2 Football 400M 9 n/a Outside top n/a Outside (NFL) 10 top 30

2.2.2.4 Global sport by region On a regional basis, North America accounted for the largest percentage of global sports revenue at just over 40% (PwC 2011). This region was predicted to have the second fastest growth rate at 4.0% compound average growth rate (CAGR) over the period 2011-2015 (PwC 2011). Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) was the second largest region for global sport revenue accounting for 35% but was forecast to have the slowest CAGR of 2.9% (PwC 2011). The Asia Pacific region, which includes Australia, was the third largest region for global sports revenue at 18.6% with a predicted CAGR of 3.9% (PwC 2011). Latin America

1 Fan data was sourced from http://www.topendsports.com/world/lists/popular-sport/fans.htm 2 The data were provided by each of the international sports federations and so the counting method may vary. Dragon boat racing came in at no. 8. This raises serious questions about the accuracy of the data set. 3 Data was sourced from http://www.askaboutsports.com/about/national-federations-by-country.htm. A limitation of this data is that a country may have a national federation but only a small number of people in that country play the sport. 38 was the smallest region accounting for just over 5% of the global sports revenue but was envisaged to have the fastest CAGR for the period 2011-2015 of 4.9% (PwC 2011). Table 2-4 illustrates the importance of the North American region as a sports revenue generator.

Table 2-4 Global sport revenue by region (2006 to 2014)

2006 2009 2011 2014 2014

$USB $USB $USB $USB %

North America 46.4 48.3 49.7 59.8 40.8

EMEA 37.7 38.2 40.7 51.4 35.2

Asia Pacific 18.0 20.4 22.4 27.3 18.6

Latin America 5.4 5.6 5.9 7.9 5.4

Total 107.5 112.5 118.7 146.7 100.0

Source: PwC outlook for Global Sports (December 2011, p.30)

Spending on sport in the rapidly developing nations, Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRIC), exceeded GDP growth over the period 2000 to 2008 (A.T. Kearney 2012). Since 2000, Russia’s spending on sports rose more than 53% per annum, China’s rose by 20% largely driven by the 2008 Summer Olympics, India by 17% and Brazil by 7% (A.T. Kearney, 2012). A.T. Kearney (2012) predicted further growth in sports spending with Brazil hosting the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics and Russia hosting the and the 2018 Football (Soccer) World Cup. By contrast, Australia mostly relies on its regular sports events to drive revenue with just the Asian Cup in 2015 as a recent special event although Australia did host the Olympic games in Sydney in 2000 and the Commonwealth games in Melbourne in 2006 (Anderson, 2015). What this means is that sport events in Australia are a regular feature of the Australian entertainment industry.

39 2.2.2.5 Sports fan culture differences. USA v. Europe

Despite the two largest regions, North America and EMEA being similar in revenue generation, there is a large difference between USA and European Sports fan culture. Markovits (2011) argues that the big three American spectator sports of baseball, football and basketball were part of the change that started back in the 1960’s. According to Markovits, the big three USA sports redefined what constituted acceptable language and behaviour toward the disempowered in general and racial minorities in particular. Racist taunts accompanied by violent acts against players and spectators have all but disappeared and lack any kind of legitimacy in US contemporary sport (Markovits, 2011). By contrast, this was not the case for Europe’s most popular sport, , but better known in the USA and Australia as soccer. Markovits argued that football (soccer) grounds in Europe, became “the last bastion for the worst kind of racist, sexist, anti-Semitic, xenophile language and behaviour” (2011, p18). What most concerned Markovits was that not only was this fan behaviour tolerated, but it was also extolled. Markovits suggested that it’s not just the activities of a committed minority that separated European fans from USA fans; it was what the majority on each continent tolerated as acceptable discourse and behaviour. Markovits (2011) attributed the difference in culture to six factors:

1. The large distances in the USA inhibited fans accompanying their team for ‘away’ games. 2. USA sports had virtually no national dimension to them. 3. The multiplicity of USA hegemonic sports culture tended to spread a fan’s emotional involvement over three and possibly four codes/teams thus easing the pain and frustration that accompanies a lost game or season. 4. The constant modernisation of stadiums in the USA made them a more pleasant experience for the general public to visit. 5. USA sports played a leading role in the progress towards racial equality and inclusion, even if it can be argued that the motivation for the inclusion of African Americans into US sports was the desire to win rather than enlightened and egalitarian inclinations of its practitioners. 6. The USA led Europe in terms of the presence of women and families as spectators at major sporting events with the attendance of women hovering around 40% for professional US sport and up to 50% for college sport.

40 Markovits suggested that the role of women as civilising agents and curtailing men from behaving badly should not be underestimated as significant contributions to the reduction of violence at sports events in the USA. This point is particularly significant as the role of women in sport is not well understood. For this reason, this thesis will examine the impact of gender on the sports experience. Gender difference in a sports context is discussed in Section 2.8.1

2.2.3 Australian sports consumption

Australians appear to be obsessed with sport (Stewart et al., 2004). Even a former prime minister described himself, on multiple occasions, as a ‘sporting tragic’ (Howard, 2013). Australians love of sport includes celebrating sporting team success such as the consecutive World Cup victories by the Australian Cricket team in 1999, 2003 and 2007, or the Wallabies achievement to be the first international rugby team to win two World Cups, as well as individual sporting success. An example of the latter includes Lleyton Hewitt winning Wimbledon in 2002 or Samantha Stosur’s US Open tennis crown in 2011 (Anderson, 2015).

2.2.3.1 Introduction to sports consumption in Australia

In Australia, sporting contests are also important at a state level and there is no better example than the annual ‘state of origin’ rugby league games played between Queensland and NSW each year. To win this series is a matter of state pride, quite akin to national pride for many spectators (Morgan & Summers, 2005). Similarly, it is a significant achievement for both players and fans to win an Australian Football League (AFL) premiership. For some AFL clubs and their fans, a premiership is a relatively frequent achievement. The Essendon Football Club and with 16 premierships each, win on average a premiership every seven or eight years (Tendler, 2016). For at least one AFL club, the St Kilda Football Club, premierships are less frequent than the sighting of Halley’s comet4 with just one premiership (1966) in one hundred and eighteen years (Tendler, 2016).

2.2.3.2 Australian sport - participation

Even though the focus of this thesis is sport spectatorship or watching sport, it is worth noting the high participation levels in Australia for a wide range of sporting and recreation activities. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2012), the most popular activity for Australian men and women was walking with over 4 million participants. Jogging/running was second with nearly 1.4 million participants. Soccer led the football codes with a total of

4 Halley’s comet is a ‘periodic comet’ and returns to earth’s vicinity every 75 years, making it possible for a human to see it twice in his or her lifetime. The comet was last seen in 1986 and it is due to return in 2061. 41 nearly 700,000 participants for both the outdoor and indoor versions. AFL football was the second largest football code with over 240,000 participants (ABS, 2012). Participation is the one dimension where soccer is more successful than AFL football.

The ABS reported participant rates are significantly lower than the participant claims made by each major football code in their 2012/13/14 annual reports – refer Table 2-5. The difference between ABS data and the peak sport published figures may be explained by a difference in question focus. The ABS question concerned sport participation while the sport body figures were based on program participation. In the latter, it is possible, for example, for a junior rugby union player to be counted three times through participation at their local suburban club, locals sevens team and also school rugby (Korolishin, 2013).

42 Table 2-5 Australian sport – participation (2012/13)

Ranking Sport Participation ‘000 Participation ‘000 Source: ABS 2012 Source: refer footnotes 1 Walking 4258.8 2 Fitness Gym 3089.3 3 1401.0 4 Cycling 1366.1 5 Jogging/Running 1360.7 6 Golf 860.5 400.1 5 7 Tennis 750.3 605.0 (Hotshots) 17.4 (Cardio tennis) 317.0 (registered >18)6 939.4 Total 8 Soccer (Outdoor) 489.1 960.0 registered players Futsal (Indoor soccer) 194.2 1000.07 schools/informal 1960.0 Total 9 450.2 10 Bushwalking 436.5 11 Basketball 354.8 1015.0 8 12 Yoga 349.1 13 Cricket Outdoor 281.2 1106.0 (combined total 9 Cricket indoor 78.5 outdoor/indoor/school) 14 Dancing Ballet 259.2 15 Martial Arts 250.4 16 Fishing 247.2 17 Lawn Bowls 245.0 494.610 18 AFL 241.5 844.811 19 Surfing 226.1 20 Squash 226.1 21 Pilates 190.6 22 Horse-riding 148.8 23 Canoeing/Kayaking 141.0 24 Snow sports 138.7 25 Hockey (Indoor and 112.6 Outdoor) 26 Boxing 109.6 27 Rugby League 104.1 1300.012 28 Rugby Union 101.0 323.113

5 Source, Golf Australia 2013 participation plan 6 Source, Tennis Australia 2012/13 annual report 7 Source, Lynch M, 12/11/13, SMH 8 Source, Basketball Australia media release 20th March 2014 9 Source, Cricket Australia – Australian cricket census 2013/14 10 Source, (Lawn) Bowls Australia 2012/13 Annual report 11 Source, AFL Annual report consolidated participation 2012 12 Source, NRL 2014 Annual Report 13 Source, ARU 2012 Annual report 43 2.2.3.3 Australian sport - spectating

Australians are spoilt for choice for sport spectating with a large range of professional sports on offer throughout the year (Swayne & Dodds, 2011). The range of sports include: four football codes, AFL, rugby union, rugby league and soccer, traditional summer sports such as cricket, tennis and golf plus netball, basketball, swimming, cycling, hockey, motor racing and . This is not a complete list of all sports played in Australia but it is indicative of the most popular sports (Swayne & Dodds, 2016).

Free to air television (FTA-TV), partly as a consequence of Australian federal government’s anti-siphoning legislation introduced as the broadcasting services act in 1992 (ACMA, 2016), covers almost every match of all four football codes, international cricket, the Big Bash (T20 cricket – eight city based teams), the Australian Open (tennis), the including the (horse racing), the NBL (basketball), netball Tests and the trans-Tasman Trophy (city based teams from Australia and New Zealand), V8 Supercars, F1, Superbikes and a limited range of PGA golf events (Henry and Ko, 2014). FTA TV coverage of Australian and overseas sport increased with the arrival of digital television January 1, 2001 (ACMA, 2016). Multi channel digital television has meant that secondary sporting events, not usually shown on FTA TV, are now being broadcast. For example, the showed the highly condensed one-day domestic cricket competition in 2013 & 2014 on its Gem Channel (CA news online, 2014). The range of televised sports is even larger when the number of matches, games or events played overseas and beamed back to Australia is taken into account (Global Media & Sports, 2016). For soccer fans, English Premier league and the European Champions league matches are televised live on (Pay TV). Motor racing fans view every Formula 1 racing and Nascar races from the USA. Cricket fans viewed the Indian Premier League on YouTube and International cricket matches, not involving the Australian Cricket team, on Pay TV. Sports fans also watch global annual events such as the NFL Super Bowl or four yearly events like the recent 2014 Winter Olympics from Sochi, Russia on FTA TV. This access to a vast range of sports has meant that many fans support multiple teams simultaneously (McDonald, Karg & Lock, 2010). This phenomenon will be discussed under the heading of Tribalism in Section 2.3.4.

The Australian sports calendar is so comprehensive, that a number of sports such as soccer and the ‘A-league’ switched in 2005 from their traditional winter season to summer/autumn to try and improve their media profile and television match coverage as well as build match attendance and their television audience (A-league, 2016). Basketball is another example of a

44 sport that moved from its traditional winter position to scheduling its national league (NBL) over the summer/autumn period.

2.2.3.4 Australian sport - AFL v. other major sports for revenue & attendance

In Australia, the AFL is the dominant sports league in terms of revenue generation, match attendance and television audience (McDonald, 2010). At the elite level, the AFL had 18 clubs in 2015 competing for the annual premiership cup (AFL, 2015). Despite the three other football codes, rugby league, rugby union and soccer all having professional leagues in Australia, the AFL stands head and shoulders above all other sport organisations in Australia on almost every dimension except participation. But, there were some signs that soccer was closing the gap between it and the AFL for match attendance (Connolly, 2014a). In late March 2014 and with only one AFL game scheduled in Melbourne, just 19,640 fans turned up to watch St Kilda play . A few hours later on the other side of Melbourne, 20,447 fans watched Melbourne Victory go head to head with Sydney FC at AAMI Park (Connolly, 2014a). Nonetheless, the reality of this comparison was that the AFL match involved a club with a relatively small membership base (SKFC) and an expansion team GWS) in just its second season playing away from its relatively small fan base. The soccer match involved two of the power clubs in the A-League. Table 2-6 illustrates the sizeable gap in match attendance between FFA (soccer) and the AFL.

The AFL’s success is all the more remarkable given that its genesis was in 1897 as the Victorian Football League (VFL) (Museum Victoria, 2008). The VFL was a state based competition with seven suburban teams based in Melbourne and one team in Geelong (Museum Victoria, 2008). The AFL was formed in 1990 and is now a truly national competition with at least two teams per mainland state and ten teams based in Victoria (AFL, 2016). Even though no team is permanently based in , the ACT or the Northern Territory, the AFL does schedule home and away games in all three regions on a regular basis (AFL, 2015).

In 2015, the AFL season consisted of 198 regular season games played between April and early September with a knockout final series played during the remainder of September and early October (AFL, 2015) Attendances at AFL games in 2015, including the final series, exceeded 6.3 million or just over 32,000 patrons per game (AFL, 2015). Besides, over 98,600 people attend the AFL Grand Final. Attendance at the Grand Final is limited by the capacity of the stadium. The Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), the venue for the AFL Grand Final,

45 boasts a total capacity of approx. 100,000 (MCG, 2016) with the completion of the recent redevelopment of the northern side of the stadium.

Not only do these figures place the AFL far ahead of the other Australian football codes in terms of average and cumulative attendance rates, but also in front of all the other major sports played in Australia (refer table 2-6 p. 47). This high level of attendance has led the AFL to claim that it’s among the top four attended global sports leagues. (AFL, 2013). AFL annual revenue is also larger than all other sports codes in Australia and is over 40% larger than the next largest sport, Rugby League (refer table 2-6 p. 47). Table 2-6 sets out attendance and annual revenue for each of the major sports in Australia. The AFL has twice the attendance of the No. 2 sport, and 50% more revenue than its nearest competitor.

Table 2-6 Sports comparison in Australia – attendance and annual revenue (2013)

Sport League Matches Total attend Attendance Annual average per Revenue ‘000 match $M ‘000

AFL (2013)14 198 plus 9 6,923.0 33.1 446.0 finals

Rugby: Super 15’s 120 plus finals 2359.5 18.9 96.5 (ARU) (2013)15

Rugby League: NRL 192 plus 9 3,345.0 16.6 314.3 (2013)16 finals

Soccer: FFA A League 140 1,772.0 12.7 95.2 (FFA (2012/3)17 2012)

Cricket: T20 BBL 35 657.2 18.8 164.3 (CA) (2013/14)18

Tennis: Australian Open 254 matches 684.5 48.9 per day 204.1 (TA) (2013)19 over 14 days or 24.4 per session

2.2.3.5 Australian sport - AFL and media coverage The AFL also enjoyed a large television audience in comparison to other sporting codes with the AFL claiming in its 2013 annual report that each game drew over 550,000 viewers or an aggregated audience exceeding 4.4 million viewers per round (based on nine matches per

14 Source, AFL 2013 Annual Report, http://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/Annual%20Report/2013%20AFL%20Annual%20Report.pdf 15 Source, Rugby Super 15s 2013 Annual Report, http://www.sanzarrugby.com/superrugby/ 16 Source, NRL 2013 Annual Report, http://footyindustry.com/files/2013Reports/NRL%202013%20Annual%20Report.pdf 17 Source, FAA 2013 Annual Report, http://www.footballaustralia.com.au/about/financial- reports/1501wnyya6qsr125xfjm43azsj 18 Source, CA 2014 Annual Report, http://www.cricketaustralia.com.au/about/annual-report 19 Source, TA 2013 Annual Report, http://www.tennis.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Tennis-Australia-Annual-Report- 2013-2014.pdf 46 round). The AFL Grand Final was consistently the most watched sports event in Australia and the television audience for 2013 grand final was stated as over 3.633 million viewers (AFL, 2013). OzTAM TV ratings for 2013 and 2014, support the AFL claim that it was the most watched sport on Australian TV even if the number of viewers was slightly less than those published by the AFL. This is an impressive feat given that the direct competition included televised international matches involving Australian teams. Yet, it is worth noting that the Rugby League State of Origin series was challenging the AFL as the most watched sporting event with an audience of over 2.6 million for the third match of the 2013 series (OzTAM, 2013).

The AFL also had the most valuable media rights at AUD1.253 billion for the five year period 2012-2016 (7West, 2011), but Rugby League was again a close second with a 5 year deal for the same period valued at just over AUD1 billion (Brady, 2012). Table 2-7 Sports comparison in Australia – media ratings and rights comparison (2013) outlines the audience size and media rights valuations for each of the major Australian sports. The AFL had the largest media audience and also the most valuable media rights in Australian sport. In 2015 both the AFL and NRL announced new broadcast rights deals. The AFL continued with Channel Seven, Foxtel and as the League’s broadcasters under a new deal for the period 2017 to 2022 with a 67% increase in rights fee to $2.508 billion (AFL News, 2015). The NRL signed a broadcast rights deal with Nine Network, , and Telstra for a five year period starting in 2018 for $1.8 billion an increase of 70% over the previous broadcast rights contract (NRL News, 2015).

47 Table 2-7 Sports comparison in Australia – media ratings and rights comparison (2013)

Sport League Peak TV ratings Peak TV ratings Media rights value For one H&A match Final 2013 or Est. $B/$M 2013 International Term (yrs) match ‘ 000 viewers Network (OzTAM) ‘000 viewers (OzTAM) AFL (2013) 871.0 2718.0 $1.253B 5years (2012-16) Seven/Foxtel20 Rugby: Super 15’s (2013) n/a 885.0 N/A (Lions tour 2013 First Test) Rugby League: NRL 625.0 2246.0 $1.025B (2013) Friday night live (2607.0 State of 5 years (2012-16) 2013 Origin M3 2013) Nine/Foxtel21 Soccer: FFA A League 178.0 1159.0 $160M soccer (2013) (Ade Vs. Melb V (WCQ Aust Vs. 4 years 2013/4-2016/7 2013) Iraq 2013) Foxsport/SBS22 Cricket: BBL3 (2013/4) 810.0 1129.0 (BBL3 GF $100M BBL (952.0 super over 2014) 5 years (2013/4- M20 2014) 1543.0 (3rd Ashes 2017/8) Test Adelaide Ten Network23 2013) $350M International cricket 5 years 2013/4-2017/8 Nine network)24 Tennis: Australian Open 1599.0 1687.0 $150M 2014 (2014 Australian (men’s singles 5 years (2015-19) Open Night session final Jan 2014) Seven network25 12)

2.2.3.6 Australian sport - AFL and club membership

The AFL, like most major sport leagues around the world, relies on the sale of club and league memberships. Along with the sale of media rights, sponsorship and licensed merchandise revenue, the direct revenue from club financial members hereafter referred to as season ticket holders (STH), contributed approx. 20 to 30% of club revenue (McDonald, 2010). It is important to note that club memberships are a revenue source that AFL clubs manage and control themselves. Table 2-8 shows the revenue breakdown for three AFL clubs including the revenue generated through the sale of club memberships.

20 Source, AFL, 7West, 2011 21 Source, NRL, Brady, 2012 22 Source, A League (FFA) ABC news 19 November 2012 23 Source, BBL Stenshott, (2016) Financial Review 20 January 2016 24 Source, International cricket, Davidson (2016) The Australian 25 January 2016 25 Source, Tennis, Stenshott/White, (2013) Financial Review, 12 June 2013 48 In 2013, each club played 11 home and 11 away games with club members entitled to attend at least some of the club’s home games depending on the type of club membership they purchased. Customarily, a season ticket provides the holder access to all 11 home games. In addition, season ticket holders are given preference for finals tickets and preferential treatment regarding access to scarce grand final tickets. For the 2010 season, AFL clubs offered ‘sampler’ memberships that provided access to just three home games as part of the drive to grow club membership (AFL, 2010).

AFL clubs sell STH packages that are very different to what is available for the casual ticket purchaser. While the number of home games varies according to the membership ticket purchased, club members enjoy regular communication with the club and social opportunities with the club and other club members. Contact with like-minded members is considered important and will be discussed in fandom and tribalism (sections 2.3.3 & 2.3.4).

Moreover, club members often receive gifts or merchandise, the ability to access premium or exclusive finals tickets and the opportunity to vote in board elections. This provides members some degree of influence over the management of the club. This model of club membership is in line with subscription or membership schemes used by clubs globally, which normally involve a higher level of communications, involvement and social events for those patrons moving from transaction to relational customers (McDonald, 2010).

Table 2-8 AFL clubs – membership and revenue (CFC, GFC, SKFC, 2013)

AFL Club Collingwood Geelong St Kilda

Ladder position 2013 8 3 16

Members 2013 78,427 42,884 32,707

Social club & gaming revenue $M 22.2 13.7 2.2

Marketing Licensing & Sponsorship revenue; $M 19.7 18.9 7.5

Membership revenue; $M; 16.8; 12.1; 6.9;

% of Rev 22.3% 21.6% 23.0%

AFL distributions and match returns 14.4 8.2 13.2

Other: $M 2.2 3.1 0.1

Total Revenue 2013: $M 75.2 56.1 30.0

Profit (loss): 2013; $M 16.375 1.226 (2.615)

Source: CFC, GFC, SKFC, 2013 Annual Reports

49 Table 2-8 shows the revenue breakdown for three AFL clubs including the revenue generated through the sale of club memberships for 2013. Collingwood FC had the largest number of members with nearly 2.5 times more members and 2.5 times the revenue than St Kilda FC. Membership revenue fell into the range of 21-23% of total revenue for the three selected AFL clubs. This fits within the estimated range (20 to 30%) for membership revenue as a percentage of total revenue provided by McDonald (2010).

2.2.3.7 Australian sport - AFL club membership analysis A total of 756,717 season tickets were sold across the 18 AFL clubs in 2013, the thirteenth consecutive year of membership growth. (AFL, 2013). To put these figures in context, Australia had a total population of just over 23.1 million at June 2013 (ABS, 2014). This translates to approx. one in every 30 Australians being a member of an AFL club. Furthermore, AFL is not a global game and is played professionally in just one country, Australia, and it is not the dominant football code in NSW or Queensland where Rugby League is the leading football code.

The St Kilda Football club was one of the smaller AFL clubs with annual revenue of $30M in 2013 and approx. 31,000 financial members (Cherny, 2014). As recently as 2012, the Saints had close to 40,000 members (Cherny, 2014), boosted by an influx of new members following consecutive grand final appearances in 2009 and 2010. The Saints finished the 2014 season on the bottom of the AFL ladder and were in 2014 the lowest placed Victorian club in terms of financial members with a net loss of 8000 members since 2012. The St Kilda Football club provides a compelling case for the positive relationship between on-field success and demand for club membership. In contrast to St Kilda, power club Collingwood missed the AFL finals in 2014 but managed to increase its membership to just under 80,000 (Cherny, 2014).

The Western Bulldogs, traditionally considered a lower tier AFL club, demonstrated to their fans and the Australian public at large that anything is possible by winning the 2016 AFL premiership. The Western Bulldogs, formerly known as the Footscray Football Club, joined the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1925 (WBFC, 2016). Prior to their premiership success in 2016, the Bulldogs had won one premiership (1954), and played in just one other grand final in 1961 (WBFC, 2016). The Western Bulldogs in 2014 were fifth bottom for financial members with only the two newest AFL clubs, Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney, the struggling and St Kilda below them (refer table 2-9 AFL club table).

50 For many fans and especially those who are members of clubs with relatively little recent on- field success, the weeks before the start of a new season represent a golden sliver of hope, when their footballing world really can be seen in a beautiful shimmering light. Rob Clancy (2014), a long time bulldogs supporter echoed many fans thoughts with the following just prior to the start of the 2014 AFL season, “We haven’t played against anyone else yet and we can forget the dark times of the season just gone and dream happily of glory days not too far ahead”. Clancy’s words, penned in March 2014, proved to be prophetic rather than an act of blind faith as the bulldogs swept aside all other finalists to clinch the 2016 AFL premiership.

Three AFL clubs, Fremantle, Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney, are yet to win a premiership. Fremantle is a relatively new club to the AFL having joined in 1995 (FFC, 2015). Fremantle did play in the 2013 Grand final and did appear close to breaking its premiership drought by finishing on top of the ladder at the end of the 2015 home and away season (WAFC, 2015). Regardless of this success, Fremantle was knocked out of the finals by Hawthorn in the first preliminary final (Connolly, 2015). The other two are expansion clubs and joined the AFL in 2011 and 2012 respectively (AFL, 2012; AFL, 2013). The spent much of the 2014 season in the top eight teams on the AFL ladder, but it did not play in the 2014 AFL final series. This ‘failure’ was costly for their inaugural coach, Guy McKenna. McKenna was sacked at the end of the 2014 season and replaced by a seasoned coach with finals experience (ABC, 2014). The Gold Coast Suns performance in 2015 under its new coach, , was worse than 2014 with just 4 wins and a draw for the 2015 season compared to 10 wins in 2014 (GCFC, 2015; GCFC, 2014).

Table 2-9 illustrates the AFL power clubs both off-field (membership and annual revenue) and on-field. Collingwood in 2013 was the largest club within the AFL with annual revenue exceeding $75M and over 78,000 financial members (CFC, 2013). Collingwood announced in 2014 that it had extended its lucrative uniform sponsorship with Emirates and will earn an estimated $10 million from the airline over the next five years in a deal that highlights the gap between the AFL haves and have-nots (Hawthorne, 2014). The Emirates deal enabled Collingwood to top $20 million in combined sponsorship and merchandise revenue for the 2014 season (Hawthorne, 2014). Such is the divergence in revenue that some of the AFL’s richest clubs earn more from sponsorship and merchandise than St Kilda, Melbourne and North Melbourne combined (Hawthorne, 2014). Collingwood is also one of the most successful clubs on-field with 15 premierships, albeit with just two premierships in the last 55 years (CFC, 2016).

51 Table 2-9 AFL clubs membership - annual revenue and on-field success (2013/14)

Club Members Members Rev’ Ladder Premierships Recent on-field August 201426 201327 2013 position 1897 to 2013 success $M 201329 (inclusive)30 Flags, Finals 1990 28 to 2013 (AFL)31 Collingwood 79,347 78,427 75.2 8 15 5 Hawthorn 68,650 63,353 64.8 1 11 3 Richmond 66,122 60,321 44.8 7 10 16 Essendon 60,646 56,173 63.7 932 16 6 West Coast 58,529 58,501 55.9 13 3 2 Adelaide 54,249 46,405 34.4 11 2 9 Port Adelaide 48,968 39,838 41.6 5 1 12 Fremantle 48,777 43,880 46.6 2 0 15 Carlton 47,485 50,564 57.1 6 16 10 Geelong 43,803 42,884 56.1 3 9 1 Sydney 40,126 36,358 43.0 4 5 4 North 39,060 34,607 32.0 10 4 8 Melbourne Melbourne 35,911 33,177 39.4 17 12 13 Western 31,538 30,209 34.1 15 1 14 Bulldogs St Kilda 30,739 32,707 30.0 16 1 11

Brisbane Lions 24,012 24,130 43.5 12 3 7 Gold Coast 33 13,478 12,501 31.9 14 0 17 GWS34 13,040 12,681 32.0 18 0 18 Total members 804,480 726,507

2.2.3.8 Australian sport - AFL membership and admission costs

Collingwood’s 2014 adult memberships range in price from $95 for 3 home games to $725 for reserved seating for all home and away games played in Melbourne (CFC, 2014). The St Kilda Football club offers a general admission (GA) adult ticket to three home matches for $84, adult GA to 11 home matches is $199 and $513 for reserved seating at all home and away games played in Victoria (SKFC, 2014). Club members at both clubs also have the option of purchasing hospitality (food and drink) at extra cost.

26 Source, AFL club members August 2014, Cherny 23/08/14 The Melbourne Age. 27 Source, AFL club membership 2013, http://www.afl.com.au/news/2013-08-22/membership-up-in-2013 28 Source, AFL clubs 2013 financial report., http://www.talkingfooty.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=4792 & http://www.worldofwookie.com/aflbusiness/?page_id=1625 29 Source, http://afltables.com/afl/seas/2013.html#fin 30 Source, http://www.topendsports.com/sport/afl/grand-finalists.htm 31 Source, R Connolly Melbourne Age Sept 26 2014 32 AFL penalty due to drug supplement scandal – i.e. no finals in 2013 despite finishing in the top eight teams 33 Gold Coast - Recent expansion team - first AFL season 2011 34 GWS or Greater Western Sydney – Recent expansion team - first AFL season 2012. 52 Table 2-10 Season ticket options (CFC and SKFC, 2014)

Collingwood Level of NO Three Home $ per Home $ per Football access game Games games match and away match Club access (11) (Vic 17) General $55 $95 $195 $17.73 $350 $20.59 Admission (GA) Reserved $155 $395 $35.91 $725 $42.65 seat Social club $415 $37.73 $555 $32.65 plus GA access St Kilda Level of NO Three Home Cost per Home & Cost per Football club access game Games games match Away match access (11) (Vic 15) General $50 $84 $199 $18.09 $295 $19.67 Admission (GA) Reserved $417 $37.91 $513 $34.20 seat Social club $339 $30.82 $435 $29.00 plus GA access Source: CFC Memberships 2014 & SKFC Memberships 2014

By comparison, an adult season ticket to the Anaheim Mighty Ducks (USA National Hockey League) costs a minimum of USD720 or USD10125 if you want the best seats in the house right next to the glass. Typically, a NHL fan will pay approx. USD4000 for a season pass for a well-located reserved seat to 41 home games or just under USD100 per game (AMD, 2014)

Mostly, AFL season ticket holders pay a significantly lower match entry fee by international standards. Yet, according to a number of 2014 articles in the Melbourne Age, (Brodie, 2014; Connolly, 2014a) a growing number of fans strongly disagreed that AFL ticket prices were reasonable (Brodie, 2014). The AFL 2014 season brought price rises for junior and concession tickets as well as a number of surprising surcharges including a charge for printing your own ticket after purchasing on line. Flexible or variable match pricing, where tickets to ‘blockbuster’ games were sold at a premium, was dropped for the 2015 season. At the time, Connolly (2014a) wrote that variable pricing was a monumental slap in the face to fans. “It stinks and goes against much of what our game (AFL) has always been about; namely, ease of access for all, the committed and casual fan, and both the high and low income earner” (Connolly, 2014a. p33).

Food and beverage prices at AFL venues have long been a sore point for fans with $7.20 the going rate for a mid-strength glass of beer, a 100% premium over the usual bar price (Brodie,

53 2014). AFL CEO, Gill McLachlan, stated that fans were the priority for the 2015 AFL season and encouraged all AFL clubs to improve the game experience (ABC, 2015). The AFL simplified the match ticketing system for the 2015 season and worked with the main stadium caterers to lower food prices (Cherny, 2015). AFL Fans Association President, Gerry Eeman, praised clubs for prioritising the match experience during the 2015 season and suggested that the general consensus was that there were more hits than misses (Cherny, 2015). Even though the year of the fan has passed, one of the most popular initiatives from 2015 season, a post- match kick-to-kick, was expanded for the 2016 season with almost half of all of the home and away matches allowing spectators access to the playing surface for a social kick (King, 2016). The AFL Manager for clubs and operations, Travis Auld, stated just prior to the commencement of the 2016 AFL season, that one of the AFL’s major objectives over the past 18 months has been to improve the accessibility and affordability of attending matches (King, 2016). Stadium factors, including pricing, will be discussed in Section 2.6.

What is particularly concerning for all AFL clubs is the non-renewal or ‘churn rate’ for STH’s. The average churn rate in 2007 was 17%, but this fluctuated among the clubs with a range between 3% and 24% depending on ground capacity, club popularity and products offered (McDonald, 2010). The St Kilda Football club lost more than 8000 members over the 2012-2014 period (Cherny, 2014), which represents at least a 20% attrition rate in total. The actual non-renewal or churn rate for the St Kilda FC was considerably higher over this period as new members signed over the three-year period, partially offset non-renewal by former members. Even the Hawthorn Football club, winner of back-to-back AFL premierships in 2013 and 2014, was not immune to potential member non renewal with 8500 members or approx. 12% of its 2014 membership base still to sign on for the 2015 season in April 2015 (Lane S, 2015a). Most clubs have experimented with loyalty or induction programs aimed at reducing STH defections or churn, but usually the programs have been ineffective given the costs involved in running them (McDonald, 2010).

2.2.4 Summary: Sports consumption

This section defined the global sport market and established that it was a large, vibrant and growing industry. Also a number of global events, the and FIFA’s World Cup, are played once every four years, which adds a cyclical element to global sports revenues. Traditionally, gate receipts have been the largest source of revenue although sponsorship revenues were forecast to exceed gate revenues by 2014 (PwC, 2011). Yet, gate revenues, which include club membership and match attendance, remain a crucial revenue

54 stream for all sports. Therefore, an understanding of the drivers of club membership and attendance is important as it will enable sports clubs to develop strategies to maximise this revenue stream. Match attendance also impacts on the television spectacle and hence the value of media rights and sponsorship.

Association Football, better known as soccer in Australia and the USA, was the largest global sport at least in revenue generated, although other sports, basketball, volleyball, tennis, golf and table tennis could also claim to be global sports based on participation rates, fan following and the number of countries with national federations. By comparison rugby, both league and union, did not appear to have a global following, despite the fact that it was played in more countries than Australian Rules Football (Aussie Rules). Aussie Rules was played at a professional level in just one country in 2016.

The largest region from a revenue perspective for sport was North America even though the European region, was not far behind. What was also apparent is the contrast in fan culture between North American and European fans and specifically the role of gender on sport spectators. Section 2.8.1 will examine gender differences for sport consumption.

Sport remains an important part of the Australian landscape and culture. Australians have access to a wide range of sports to play, attend and follow through a variety of media platforms. AFL was not only the dominant football code but also the dominant sport in Australia by most measures. Club membership and match attendance are crucial and controllable revenue streams for the 18 AFL clubs. Hence, it is worth exploring the motivators and drivers for club membership and match attendance. St Kilda FC was a lower tier AFL club with relatively small membership and limited on-field success with just one premiership in 118 years of its VFL/AFL membership. All AFL clubs experienced some degree of non-renewal by STH’s (McDonald, 2010). McDonald et al., (2014c) reinforced the importance of STHs by concluding that maintaining higher percentages of STHs in audiences, brings numerous benefits to professional sports clubs.

The problem at the heart of this thesis is how can an AFL club reduce financial member non- renewal or ‘churn’. An alternative way of looking at the same problem is to identify what are the key impacts on an AFL club member’s purchase intentions. McDonald (2010) undertook a comprehensive study of over 4500 financial members of two AFL clubs to determine which variables best explain and predict churn. The results of McDonalds 2010 study indicated fundamental differences between new low attending financial members and long-term members that attended matches frequently. However many questions remained regarding the

55 factors impacting member retention including differences by gender and age and most importantly quantification regarding the role of satisfaction and other factors such as BIRGing (Basking in reflected glory) in the membership renewal decision. This thesis will explore how St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) season ticket holders’ motives, attachments and stadium factors impact on their satisfaction and future purchase intentions as well as their desire to tell and show others of their involvement with their club/team (BIRGing).

2.3 Fans, fanatics and fandom

The previous section analysed the global sports market and then evaluated the Australian sports market. Hall, O’Mahony and Vieceli, (2009) identified that “attendance at sports events represents a significant revenue stream for sports venues and sporting organisations with subsequent economic benefits for cities and regions” (p. 1). The following section will discuss the various types of sport consumers. It is the support of these consumers and specifically fan interest that underpins the sports industry globally. Taylor (1992, p.188) identified the importance of sport event attendees through the statement, “the crowd is the supreme authority without which the golden core of the game has no currency”.

Terms that are used to describe these consumers include; observers, spectators, supporters, followers, fans and fanatics. Sometimes these terms, and especially fans and fanatics, are used interchangeably. It therefore makes sense to define fans and fanatics in a sporting context as well as to explore the various groups or communities or ‘tribes’ of sports fans. A better understanding of sports fans, and especially the ones who make an annual financial commitment to their club, will enable sports clubs to develop strategies to better administer their membership base.

2.3.1 Sports fans

The key question for professional sport organisations is, how do observers or spectators at sports events become devoted sports fans? Being a loyal or die-hard fan is part of the sporting landscape, yet not all sports consumers fit this description and cannot be really be categorised as fans. Loyalty in the sporting context is more than repeat attendance at games or purchasing of merchandise or products. People, who are not particularly loyal to a team or even the sport, can undertake these activities. Sports consumption differs strongly from sports loyalty and fandom even though it may contain the same overt characteristics and appear indistinguishable from customer loyalty.

56 Kwon et al., (2005, p. 263) suggested that “sports fans are highly involved and watch sports events because they have a strong social psychological connection with a team, coach, player, university, community, level of sport, and/or type of sport”. Hunt, Bristol and Bashaw defined sports fans as “enthusiastic devotees of some particular sports consumptive object” (1999, p440). By comparison, Woo et al., (2009, p. 39) reported that “those who attend sports events as observers do not have a strong social psychological attachment to team entities such as the team, players or the coach”. This thesis will focus on committed sport fans rather than sport spectators or observers.

It is worth noting the importance of communities in sport and that sport tribes share the three core components of community identified by Anderson (1983). The first element of community is the connection that members feel toward one another and the collective sense of difference from others not in the community (Muniz & O Guinn, 2001). Muniz and Hamer (2001) suggested that this sense of difference from others could include explicit expressions of opposition to competing brands and/or entities. In sport, support for one team may include playfully opposing a traditional rival team or teams. This opposition element of communities has been characterised as ‘us versus them’ (Muniz & Hamer, 2001). In an AFL context, part of supporting the Collingwood football club may include vocal opposition to long time foes, teams and supporters of the Carlton and/or Richmond football clubs.

The second indicator of community is the presence of shared rituals and traditions (Muniz & O’Gunn, 2001). Marshall (1994, p537) defined traditions as sets of “social practices, which seek to celebrate and inculcate certain behaviour norms and values”. Chung, Beverland, Farrelly, and Quester (2005) suggested that socialisation agents driven by identification can promote behaviour usually associated with fans. Socialisation agents can include fans rituals such as singing or chanting the team song and may have the dual effect of developing their commitment to the club or team as well as forging fandom (Pimentel & Reynolds, 2004).

The third maker of community is the felt sense of duty or obligation to the community as a whole and to its individual members (Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001). This sense of moral responsibility is what produces collective action. For some fans, duty can include being visibly vocal (i.e. participation in ritualised singing and chanting) in their support for the team. All of these activities increased the shared sense of group identity (Belk, 1988).

Pimentel and Reynolds’ (2004) research was the first to address the phenomenon of consumer devotion as a distinct concept. Their conceptualisation of devotion locates the devoted consumer within the larger community of committed consumers. This group of consumers’

57 extremely high level of emotional bonding with the brand justifies the distinction of devotees from the rest of loyal and committed consumers. Pimentel and Reynolds (2004) showed how football fans use special objectives such as team jerseys and scarfs to demonstrate a relationship with the brand. Pimentel and Reynolds (2004) further contend that the need for distinction, the need to belong, or a felt void, serve as antecedents to engaging in a consumer- brand relationship. Consumption of sport can relieve these states of emotional discomfort; it effectively leads to affective commitment towards objects. Once fans are devoted, they engage in proactive sustaining behaviours such as pilgrimage, rituals, sacrifices, or displaying behaviour, which prevent the object of devotion from re-secularisation.

Ritual behaviours connected to sporting events are a commonplace example of ‘co- production’ or ‘co-creation’ (McDonald, Funk & Karg, 2014a). Rituals can be formed individually or collectively at sporting events and include, tailgating, organised activities pre and post game, wearing team colours, decorating bodies, using musical instruments, creating signs and banners, cheering and singing team songs or chants (Chun, Gentry & McGinnis, 2005; Eastman & Riggs, 1994). McDonald et al., (2014a) cited the use of rituals within sport to gain or share knowledge. In addition to knowledge sharing, sports fans undertake ritual behaviours to socialise with other like-minded fans, enhance pleasure and reduce some of the anxiety of watching their team play (Karg & McDonald, 2009). Fans may also initiate rituals as an attempt to standardise the quality of their experience given the unpredictability of sport events, i.e. game results (McDonald et al., 2014a). McDonald et al., (2014a) suggested that outcomes such as merchandise expenditure and game attendance were positively related to ritual behaviour. Pimentel and Reynolds’ (2004) approach to devotion, which focuses on groups and their social experiences and behaviours, is similar to what has been defined as fandom in the literature (Hunt et al., 1999; Kozinets, 2001). Fandom and the related concept of tribalism are discussed in Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4.

Richardson and Turley (2008) found that fans appeared to be divided on the question of whether acts of co-creation or co-production including cheering, chanting and donning team colours as face paint, were required to be considered a real fan. Richardson and Turley (2008, p. 35) did note that “some fans were tolerant of supporters who did not contribute while others were not and that many fans used ritual participation as a differentiating factor to distinguish themselves from less authentic fans”. The hard core less tolerant fans are often portrayed as fanatics. Fanatics will be discussed in the following section.

58 2.3.2 Fanatics

For the purposes of this thesis, fanatics are regular consumers of sport who are often at the extreme end of passion and enthusiasm and may be intolerant of other fans who may not appear as committed (Chung, Beverland, Farrelly & Quester, 2008). Their passion for the sport, team or club makes them a valuable asset; yet, their intolerance presents challenges to sport managers. Therefore, it makes sense to explore both the positives and negatives associated with fanatics.

Holbrook defines fanatic behaviour as, “the pursuit of consumption activities with a passion grossly out of proportion to that experienced by other more temperate consumers of the same product category” (1987, p145). Lehmann, in contrast to Holbrook, applies a rational cost/benefit approach and defined fanatic consumer behaviour as, “repeated behaviour that conflicts with the observer’s utility function and any utility function the observer accepts as valid or reasonable” (1987, p129). Scammon (1987) defined fanatic consumption behaviours as a deep commitment to an activity that involves an ongoing investment of resources over time. This dedication may result in highly focussed behaviour that includes a re-organisation of other previously unrelated activities around this important consumption experience. One common theme across all of the above definitions is the characterisation that fanatic consumer behaviour is engrossing. Scammon views this behaviour as “a forgetting of oneself and becoming totally involved in the activity at hand” (1987, p126). Lehmann (1987) points to a strong similarity between an avid bodybuilder and a religious fanatic with regular exercise taking on the characteristics of a consumption ritual. Holbrook (1987) believes that fanatic consumers display an intense devotion, which leans towards the ‘excessive’ or ‘uncritical’.

Hill and Robinson (1991) used a random sample of triathletes to explore the effects of fanatic consumer behaviour on activities and the resulting feeling states of consumers. They established that the extreme involvement with their sport affected many aspects of a triathlete’s life and resulted in both positive and negative feelings. Hill and Robinson (1991) determined that only diet and spending on the pursuit of the sport contributed to positive feelings associated with being a triathlete. Surprisingly, training did not impact positive feelings but contributed to negative feelings through its intrusion into daily schedules and injuries resulting from overtraining. Hill and Robinson (1991) concluded that the triathletes met the three criteria advanced by Krych (1989) for negative addiction. Hill and Robinson

59 (1991) singled out that for triathletes engaged in addictive behaviour, problems were caused by their behaviour and they continued this despite the destructive consequences.

Redden and Steiner suggest that “fanatics are enthusiastic consumers with extreme consumption drives which potentially make them a marketer’s dream providing we have a consistent conceptual framework to measure their fanaticism and interpret their consumption behaviour” (2000, p322). Redden and Steiner (2000) identified a third feature of fanatics, incoherent thinking, in addition to the two familiar features, intensity and intolerance. Smith, Fisher and Cole (2007) surprisingly used the terms ‘fans’ and ‘fanatics’ interchangeably. Smith et al. defined fans and fanatics as “someone extreme who lies outside the normal range of behaviour in his or her devotion to a cause, religion, a team or even a brand” (2007, p78). Chung et al.,(2008) offered a more balanced view of fanatics with their research showing that fanaticism involved managing a fine line between extreme levels of enthusiasm that is positive and fulfilling versus non-sustainable borderline dysfunctional levels of enthusiasm that may turn into something darker or problematic (2008, p.333).

Rudin (1969, p. 19) suggested “fanatical intensity manifests in three characteristics which overlap to a degree; excitement, passion and rage of will”. Redden and Steiner (2000) proffered that fanatics demonstrated extremes of each trait and will have little or no interest or tolerance in the values and beliefs of other fans that demonstrated a lower level of commitment. Redden and Steiner (2000, p. 332) identified that “fanatics’ passion, their focus, their disdain, their rage of will, their personalised view of the world, their certainty and their resistance to change makes it impossible to sustain even the semblance of coherence that characterises normal consumption” It is reasonable to conclude that fanatics are at best challenging to understand and that membership and event managers will need to take into account their intensity and intolerance when developing communication strategies.

Smith, Fisher & Cole (2007) suggested the fans should be the centre of research as they are the most enthusiastic, creative and loyal customers and that both companies and academics need to develop a better appreciation of the fan experience and the lived meanings from the perspective of the fanatic. Smith et al.,(2007) spotted that fanatics reworked consumption into an intensely pleasurable and significant practice that was both similar but yet significantly different to consumers considered more normal. Smith et al.,(2007) reported that their informants, even with their passion and energy, had a sense of being settled and at home in the ever-changing modern or post-modern world. A second theme that emerged from the Smith et al.,(2007) study was that their informants had little difficulty pointing to someone more deeply involved in a specific interest which showed that from an insider’s perspective, 60 fanaticism is relative, and can disappear. A final theme to emerge from the study was that a number of respondents, instead of feeling stigmatised by society for their passion, expressed pity for those not as deeply involved in some endeavour as they were. Smith et al., (2007) concluded that passion and emotion needed to be front and centre to consumer decision- making and models of behaviour, instead of peripheral.

Chung et al., (2008) suggested that fanatics were aware of their behaviour and its consequences and consciously attempted to control their behaviour. Chung et al. (2008) did note that self-control was an ongoing struggle for some fanatics. This same research also addressed the related issues of addiction and obsessive-compulsive behaviours and construed that fanaticism does not always involve acquisition of more products. Chung et al., (2008) did provide some explanations for the stigma often associated with fanaticism and countered the claim that fanaticism is a disorder.

A more balanced view of fanatics is provided by Smith et al.,(2007) and Chung et al (2008), yet there remain significant negative connotations to the word ‘fanatic’ (Bird, 1999; Jindra, 1994). Even though Smith et al., (2007) use the terms ‘fan’ and ‘fanatic’ interchangeably, the term ‘fan’ does not appear to carry any stigma. Thorne and Bruner (2006) provided a key insight to the negativity surrounding fanatics when they identified that a key difference between a fan and a fanatic is that the fanatic is more likely to overstep accepted social standards. Neale (2010, p. 207), neatly illustrated the difference between a fan and a fanatic in a sports context through the following statement, “a fan might paint their face in team colours on match day before attending the game, while a fanatic might paint their face in team colours every day”. Even though it is interesting to note differences in the literature between fans and fanatics, it may be more helpful for sports administrators to explore the various fan communities and to then identify which group or groups of fans will provide the best avenue to building a loyal fan base and a sustainable and profitable revenue stream for the sports club.

2.3.3 Fandom

Hirt, Zillman, Erickson and Kennedy, (1992, p. 725) defined fandom as “an affiliation of like- minded fans in which a great deal of emotional significance and value are derived from group membership”. Branscombe and Wann (1992) suggested fandom was accessible to all sport consumers as no special skills were required to become a fan. Zillman, Bryant and Sapolsky, (1989) opined that fandom provided a range of benefits including a sense of community as well as a boost to self esteem and prestige. Funk et al., (2003) captured fandom as a shared

61 experience with like minded others through the motivation construct of socialisation. Motivation research is discussed in Section 2.5 Sports Fan Motivation (SFM) And Attachment.

Research on fandom has tended to draw on either psychological or sociological perspectives but according to Richardson and Turley (2008) the role played by group dynamics has not been fully addressed. Belk (1988) noted that loyalty towards an object increased when the group becomes part of the individual’s sense of extended self. Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) found that the community aspect of fandom not only shaped the consumption experience but also developed team and/or club loyalty. According to Richardson and Turley (2008), hard- core fans’ definition of real fandom includes attending every match including away matches which often leads to frugality in choice of travel, accommodation and eating to ensure that the budget stretches to cover the entire season.

Richardson and Turley (2008) conceptualised sports fandom as a type of virtual hunt where tribes of supporters see it as part of their responsibility to provide a supportive atmosphere, including intimidating or attempting to intimidate the rival tribe comprising the opposing team and their supporters, so their team can achieve a win. This picture identifies both the internal community bonds of fandom as well as the oppositional element (us vs. them) directed at rival communities. The related concept of tribalism is discussed in the following section (2.3.5).

2.3.4 Tribalism

McGee-Cooper (2005) suggested that the impulse to join others is universal and natural because we want to belong. Meir (2007, p. 46) established that “tribes in the modern context are not new and have been cited in sports such as soccer, American college football and Australian Rules football”.

Cova and Cova (2001, p.69) defined a tribe as a “network of heterogeneous persons, in terms of age, sex, income etc., who are interlinked by a shared passion or emotion”. The Oxford Dictionary (2016) defines tribalism as “the behaviour and attitudes that stem from strong loyalty to one’s own tribe or social group”. Armstrong (1998) used the term post-tribe to describe committed football fans. Maffesoli (1996) used the term neo-tribe to describe current social groupings. Cova and Cova (2002) articulated the characteristics of modern tribes, which are very different from archaic tribes. Table 2-11 sets out the differences between

62 archaic and post-modern tribes as identified by Meir and Scott (2007) and adapted from Cova and Cova (2002).

Table 2-11 Tribe differences – archaic and post-modern

TRIBE DIMENSIONS ARCHAIC TRIBES POST-MODERN TRIBES

Duration Permanent and totalizing Ephemeral and non totalising groupings Membership A person could only belong to one A member can belong to several post- tribe modern tribes Boundaries Boundaries of archaic tribes were Boundaries of a post-modern tribe are physical conceptual Connections Members were related by kinship and Members are related by shared feelings dialect and (re)appropriated signs Source: Meir & Scott (2007, p. 335) adapted from Cova & Cova (2002)

Cova and Cova (2002) identified shared passion and emotion as the basis for post-modern tribes and that these tribes are in a constant state of flux and persist no longer than the power of attraction. Armstrong’s (1998) research is consistent with Cova and Cova’s (2002) discovery that post-modern tribes will dissolve if the original reason for being wanes.

Socialisation or sharing the experience with family, friends or like-minded others is part of the sports experience. Doyle, Filo, Lock, Funk and McDonald (2016) identified that stadium managers therefore have a responsibility to provide spaces within the stadium that are conducive for like-minded sports fans to socialise. Schoulten and McAlexander (1995) recognised that the most effective drivers in modern society are the relationships and activities consumers take on to give meaning and purpose to their identity. Meir and Scott (2007, p. 336) noted “two forms of identity: self-identity and social identity”. Self-identity, was defined by Green (2001, p.5) as “the degree to which a member of a subculture incorporates the subculture’s activity into their self concept”. Self-identity is often cited within sport spectator literature as a motivator for sport spectators (Shipway & Kirkup, 2011). Social identity, was described by Abrams and Hogg (1990) as valued membership of a group that provided emotional and esteem significance to the individual. Two key aspects of social identity are the common values and beliefs that bring people together as well as separating them from other groups (Maguire, Jarvie, Mansfield & Bradley, 2002). This is the oppositional element of communities, ‘us versus them’ previously discussed in section 2.3. Brown and Shipway (2014) highlighted the unique role played by sport in the consolidation of collective identity among international students following the 2010 FIFA World Cup away from their home country. According to Trail et al., (2000, p. 166), “identification is an extremely important concept in regard to consumer behaviour, specifically with regard to

63 leisure and sport consumption”. Social identity theory is explored in Section 2.5.2. Team identification and social identity theory.

2.3.5 Sports fan typologies

In the past, sports fans have been differentiated on the basis of event attendees or members or season ticket holders (Quick, 2000). Smith (1988) identified two distinct groups of people; sports fans were defined as those where the result of the sporting contest mattered and non- fans were considered to be indifferent to the result. Smith (1988) also noted graduations within the broad group of sports fans, from those with minimal interest to sports fans he considered ‘addicted’. In recent years the identification of sports consumers has been widened to include fans who follow their sport through the media, and through purchase of team merchandise or sponsor’s goods and services. Numerous studies (DeSarbo & Madrigal, 2012; Hunt et al., 1999; Quick, 2000; Ross, 2007a; Tapp & Clowes, 2002; Wann, Schinner & Keenan, 2001) subsequent to Smiths work, have uncovered different categories of sports fans based on their level of loyalty or identification with a team or club, match attendance, interest in on- field performance, financial value to the club and degree of socialisation.

Most of these studies have focussed on the serious and committed sports fans. Stewart and Smith (1997) devised a typology based on five quite separate types of sports spectators, from ‘aficionados’ to ‘reclusive partisans’. Real and Mechikoff (1992) uncovered ‘deep’ fans while Hunt et al.,(1999) developed a fan typology based on five groups; temporary, local, devoted, fanatical and dysfunctional fans. Giulianotti (2002) advanced a fan typology with four types of football (soccer) spectators: supporters, followers, fans and flâneurs. Tapp (2002) also examined football fans in the UK and segmented them according to their differing levels of loyalty, from fanatics, regular fans to casual (carefree or committed) fans and professional wanderers. Fillis and Mackay (2014) identified four groups of Scottish football fans including, social devotees, committed supporters, casual followers and fans. Refer to Appendix C: Motivation scales developed to understand sports fan consumption (1975-2012) A summary of 14 different fan studies undertaken over the period 1988 to 2013. All the studies listed in appendix C indicate that loyalty is one of the most important variables in understanding sports consumption. Loyalty and specifically sports fan loyalty will be discussed in Section 2.4 Loyalty.

Who fans are, their likes and dislikes, what they watch and read and how well they identify sports sponsors are all facets of the modern sports environment but it is merely a starting point for a successful marketing campaign. The needs and expectations of each fan group

64 must be accommodated if future sports consumption is to be ensured in an increasingly competitive market.

Season ticket holders (STHs) are considered to be the most valuable of all fans groups often equating to more than 20% to 30% of total club income (McDonald, 2010). Club membership revenue is typically received before the start of the season allowing clubs to invest and plan. STHs also generate indirect revenues such as merchandise, food and beverage sales. In addition, McDonald (2010) recognised that STHs increase the attraction of corporate sponsorship as they provide a quantifiable audience exposed to targeted promotional communications including ground signage, team magazines and member only websites. A further consideration is that data is more accurately and easily collected from STHs than casual match attendees, as attendance and merchandise consumption is often tracked through membership smart cards at the point of entry and ground merchandise stands (McDonald, 2010).

Given that sports club customers rarely if ever switch to other providers (McDonald & Stavros, 2007) the way energy or credit card users can and do, the high churn rate of 17% of AFL STHs in 2007 (McDonald, 2010) is concerning. The question then is why do AFL STHs, and other sports STHs, supposedly high in loyalty and involvement, churn in large numbers?

2.3.6 Summary: Fans and fan typology

Fans, fanatics and fandom were defined and explored and it was concluded that the term fanatics carries many negative connotations. 14 different fan typologies were uncovered and the link to loyalty identified. Loyalty and specifically sports fan loyalty will be discussed in section 2.4. This section concluded by suggesting that season ticket holders (STHs) are an important group of fans and worthy of further investigation not only because of the direct and indirect revenue they contribute but also because of their commitment to the team or club. Season ticket holders are “vital to professional sports club revenue and they are purported to be the most loyal and involved of fans”(McDonald, 2010. p.676).

This thesis explores how St Kilda Football Club season ticket holders’ motives, attachments and stadium factors impact on their satisfaction and future purchase of club memberships and merchandise as well as their likelihood to tell others of their association with the team.

65 2.4 Loyalty

Loyalty theories abound in the marketing literature, but they vary widely in regard to the concepts they cover. For example, they range from brand loyalty (Jacoby & Chestnut, 1978) and product loyalty (Bloemer, deRuyter & Wetzels, 1999) to service loyalty (Javalgi & Moberg, 1997) and customer satisfaction (Bowen & Chen, 2001; Keiningham, Perkins-Munn & Evans, 2003; Martinez-Tur, Peiro & Ramos, 2005; Ranaweera & Prabhu, 2003; Shankar, Smith & Rangaswamy, 2003; Szymanski & Henard, 2001).

A better understanding of loyalty will enable sports clubs to develop strategies to operate more effectively their membership base. One definition of loyalty that appears to have widespread acceptance (Mellens, Dekimpe, & Steenkamp, 1996) and has stood the test of time is the one provided by Jacoby and Chestnut (1978). Jacoby & Chestnut define loyalty as “the biased behavioural response expressed over time by some decision-making unit with respect to one or more alternative brands out of a set of such brands and is a function of psychological decision-making evaluative processes” (1978, p.165).

It could be argued that loyalty is very much an interpretative term. In most instances, loyalty is interpreted as an on-going commitment. Indeed, Jacoby and Chestnut included the words “expressed over time” (1978, p. 165), in their definition of loyalty. Macken (1998) argued that loyalty tends to be a ‘now’ rather than a forever concept. Macken saw the dismembering of loyalty as a broad societal trend. She described the breakdown of loyalty as “the dismantling of bonds between employer and worker, between political party and true believer, between brand and consumer and between sport and fan” (1998, p.4).

According to Macken (1998) this occurred without much discussion and seemingly without regret. Macken’s views on loyalty were published over 15 years ago. It would be interesting to hear her current thoughts regarding loyalty and specifically the impact on sports fan loyalty of measures introduced by the AFL in 2012 regarding free agency and restricted agency, which allows players to move more freely between clubs.

2.4.1 Attitudinal and behavioural loyalty

Notwithstanding that the definition of loyalty provided by Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) is helpful, it is useful to consider different types of loyalty starting with attitudinal and behavioural loyalty. Attitudinal loyalty assumes a deeply held disposition to reuse or rebuy (Oliver, 1999), but it may not lead to actual purchase behaviour. On the other hand,

66 behavioural loyalty is characterised by purchase or consumption behaviour (Bandyopadhyay & Martell, 2007).

Behavioural loyalty is related to familiarity (Mechinda,Serirat & Gulid, 2009). As such, it is not clear if behavioural loyalty is not simply spurious (Dick & Basu, 1994). That is, loyalty could be the lack of available alternatives as well as a lack of seeking alternatives; lazy customers do exist! This may be why Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) suggested a composite approach. Typically, a composite approach integrates both the attitudinal and behavioural components into a loyalty index score for each individual (Day, 1969; Jacoby & Kyner, 1973). The composite approach has been widely supported as the more holistic method to define brand loyalty due to measurement and operational constraints in attitudinal and behavioural definitions (Baldringer & Rubinson, 1996).

The behavioural / attitudinal dichotomy owes its conceptual foundations to the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and the subsequent widespread acceptance of the idea that intention (attitude) leads to behaviour.

Dick and Basu (1994) posited the affective component is also important when considering loyalty. Dick and Basu’s (1994) widely used two dimensional model of customer loyalty builds on Day’s (1969) conceptualisation of loyalty and uses both attitudinal and behavioural components and proposes four specific conditions related to loyalty. Refer to Figure 2.3.

Figure 2-3 Relative attitude/repeat purchase classification. Source: Dick and Basu (1994, p. 101)

Dick and Basu (1994, p.100) proposed that “both a favourable attitude that is high compared to potential alternatives and repeated patronage are required for loyalty”. This makes sense when considering fast moving consumer goods such as breakfast cereals as consumers tend to have a repertoire of favoured brands but this is less common when considering sporting

67 brands. It is not uncommon for sports fans to follow multiple teams across different sporting codes and even several teams across different leagues of the same sport, but brand switching between teams from the one league is rarely reported (McDonald & Stavros, 2007; McDonald et al., 2010; McDonald, Funk & Karg, 2014b).

To increase the predictive capability of their loyalty model, Dick and Basu (1994, p. 101) suggested that, “relative attitude was more likely to provide a stronger indication of repeat purchase than attitude towards a brand determined in isolation”.

Dick and Basu (1994) identified four types of loyalty:

1. No Loyalty. A low relative attitude combined with low repeat patronage signifies an absence of loyalty. Low relative attitude may indicate a recent introduction and/or the inability to communicate distinct advantages. Alternatively, low relative attitude may be due to a market place where most brands are seen to be similar. The fresh milk market may be an example of this situation where most consumers perceive milk as a commodity item. Dick and Basu’s (1994) recommended strategy for this scenario was that efforts be directed to generate spurious loyalty through aggressive sales promotions and for typical supermarket products, increased shelf space. In a sports context, consumers’ game attendance may be incidental; consumers may join friends at a sport event and have no attachment to the teams playing. 2. Spurious Loyalty. A low relative attitude accompanied by high repeat patronage and is conceptually similar to the notion of inertia (Assael, 1992). Consumers perceive little differentiation among brands in a low involvement category and repeat purchase is prompted by situation cues such as shelf position or promotions. Social influence can also lead to spurious loyalty. In a sports context, a spuriously loyal fan is someone consuming relatively large amounts of team product but has a low level of psychological commitment to that team (McDonald et al., 2014b). Mahony et al., (2000) posited a number of explanations resulting in spuriously loyal fans including geographical separation, i.e. a fan moves interstate. However, this explanation does not match with someone who is consuming large amounts of team product. Gladden and Funk (2001) suggested that a consistently winning team may also contribute to spurious loyalty. The spuriously loyal customer only maintains their association with the team while the team is winning all the time. These fans are typically described as ‘fair weather fans’. Although Mahony et al. (2000) and Gladden and Funk’s (2001) explanations are plausible, the presence of large numbers of insincere fans seems 68 unlikely given that sport is a highly engaging product. Doyle, Filo, McDonald and Funk (2013) identified that few repeat customers remain impartial about the sports contest. McDonald et al., (2010) diagnosed that individuals adopt new teams very quickly and can form strong attachments to multiple teams across leagues and sometimes within leagues. McDonald et al., (2014b) examined six large data sets and suggested less than 2% of fans were observed to fit a spurious loyalty profile. McDonald et al., (2014b) rejected the notion of pretentious sports fans in all but extreme circumstances. 3. Latent Loyalty. High relative attitude with low repeat patronage is a serious concern for marketers. This can occur where non-attitudinal influences such as subjective norms and situational effects are equal or more influential in determining consumer behaviour. A lack of stadium capacity is a plausible explanation for latent loyalty in a sports event situation. For example, Manchester United FC in the English Premier league, has a long waiting list for season tickets (Mitten, 2015). This situation has improved but still remains as an issue (Mitten, 2015) as MUFC continue to update their home stadium and increase seating capacity allowing some of their latently loyal fans to become active loyal fans. 4. Loyalty. The “most preferred of the four conditions, signifies a favourable correspondence between relative attitude and repeat purchase” (Dick & Basu, 1994, p. 102). This group of customers are likely to act as brand ambassadors but unlikely to defect to competitors or search for information about competing brands (Neale & Funk, 2006). In a sporting context, long-term season ticket holders best fit this highly loyal group of consumers.

The Dick and Basu loyalty model is not without its critics. Garland and Gendell (2004) concerns included a lack of testing and an inability to operationalize the model. East, Gendall, Hammond and Lomax, (2005) reported that an attitudinal and behavioural measure was unsatisfactory in predicting results. As a consequence of these shortcomings, Gladden and Funk (2001) focussed on behavioural loyalty. A behavioural approach provides a stronger link with past research on fan motivation. Sports fan motivation will be discussed in Section 2.5 Sports Fan Motivation (SFM) And Attachment.

69 2.4.2 Loyalty and sports fans

Customer loyalty and sports loyalty share many similarities and Baker, McDonald and Funk, (2016) argued that two key law-like patterns – double jeopardy and duplication of purchase laws - have been developed to explain and predict sports fan behaviour and concluded that sports brands should be managed in fundamentally the same way as most consumer markets. The law of double jeopardy contends that small brands face a double disadvantage; fewer and less loyal buyers (Ehrenberg, Goodhardt & Barwoick, 1990). The duplication of purchase law flows from double jeopardy, in that single brands have been identified as sharing customers in line with other brands’ market share (Ehrenberg et al., 1990). Sharp (2010) suggested that sports brands may be immune to the law of double jeopardy because fans are typically loyal to just one team per competition and are highly involved with their team. Contrary to Sharp’s (2010) conjecture, Doyle et al., (2013) reported that double jeopardy did apply to fans of dominant sports teams whose fans displayed stronger loyalty to their team than fans of less dominant teams. Baker et al., (2016) study supported Doyle’s (2013) research as well as finding that sports consumers, like consumers of many other product categories, consumed a variety of teams without evident partitioning between rivals.

These findings certainly diminish the arguments run by many researchers (Mahony et al, 2000; McDonald, 2010; McDonald & Stavros, 2007; Neale & Funk, 2006; Oliver, 1999; Porat, 2010) that there are important differences between customer loyalty and sports fan loyalty. The arguments presented by the above researchers include: fans of a particular club or team rarely switch teams, fans usually resist the temptation to swap their allegiance to a more successful team or club during a season with poor on-field performance, and they don’t look for a new ‘favourite’ player when their usual favourite is injured or down on form.

This research study will explore the work of Kwon et al., (2005). Kwon et al., (2005, p. 263) suggested that “sports fans are highly involved and watch sports events because they have a strong social psychological connection with a team, coach, player, university, community, level of sport, and/or type of sport”. Kwon et al., (2005) termed these connections, points of attachment. Points of attachment will be discussed in Section 2.5.3 Attachment and the Point of Attachment Index (PAI).

Feelings of euphoria following a team win or melancholy after a team loss are examples of a typical loyal sports fan’s emotional response. (Porat, 2010). The conscious decision by a sports fan to continue to support their team, irrespective of the team’s on-field performance is a manifestation of a sports fans behavioural loyalty (Honsel, Klaus & Wagner, 2011).

70 Behavioural loyalty in sports fans can also be displayed through the purchase of club membership or season tickets, the purchase of team or club merchandise and attending matches (Funk & James, 2001).

2.4.3 The psychological continuum model (Funk & James, 2001)

Funk and James (2001) explored the relationship between customer loyalty and sport consumption through the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM). The PCM presents a “cognitive approach that places existing fan behaviour theory and research under one conceptual umbrella” (Funk & James, 2001 p.121). The four features of attitudinal loyalty that the PCM focussed on are:

1. Persistence, 2. Resistance to change, 3. Biases in cognitive processing and 4. Guides to behaviour.

The symptoms for each dimension are set out in

Table 2-12.

Table 2-12 PCM allegiance – loyalty to a sports object

Dimension of Allegiance Symptoms

Persistence (attitude persists over • Frequency an individual thinks about the team time) (daily, weekly etc.) • Consistent evaluative responses elicited by the sports object over extended time periods

Resistance to change • Increased tendency to resist change in response to conflicting information or experience • Increased resistance to counter persuasion • Greater emphasis on maintaining balance between prior attitudes and new information

Biases in cognitive processing • Increased information complexity • Information is processed based on one’s attitude towards a team – positive information is accepted, negative information is rejected or re-interpreted • Increased likelihood that certain information will come to mind • More selective perception used to protect and or reduce discrepancies

Guides to behaviour • Increased likelihood that individual will engage in some form of behaviour related to the team. • Greater correspondence with behavioural intent • Longer duration of related behaviour

Source: Funk and James (2001, p. 136)

71 Fans of the Essendon Football Club (EFC) provide a recent example of sports fans persistence and resistance to change. Throughout the period 2013 to 2015, the EFC was under investigation by the Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) in relation to the alleged use of banned stimulants and performance substances (i.e. peptides) by the majority of its listed players during 2012.

Despite the fact that the ASADA investigation into the Essendon Bombers had not been concluded by the start of 2014 season, and that the EFC was fined AUD2M by the AFL in 2013 for bringing the game into disrepute, the club was removed from the 2013 AFL finals, lost a club President, lost its CEO (chief executive officer), draft picks were removed by the AFL and its club icon turned coach, , was suspended for most of the 2014 season; the EFC signed 5000 new members in the first six weeks of 2014 and re-signed more than 1000 former financial members who had let their club membership lapse (Lane, 2014a).

The off-field turmoil throughout the three seasons (2013 – 2015) did little to deter fans from supporting the club financially. The Essendon FC exceeded 60,000 members for the first time in 2014 meaning that it acquired nearly 13,000 additional members in two seasons (Cherny, 2014; Lane, 2016). By comparison St Kilda FC had 30,739 members at the end of the 2014 season and was ranked in the bottom four AFL clubs for members (Cherny, 2014). The typical signed up EFC member for 2014 was middle aged, middle class, educated and lived in Melbourne with their family (Lane, 2014a). Lane (2014a) noted that the EFC employed an “us against them” media approach in 2013. Feedback from EFC supporters was reported as positive to this approach, even though it was not well received by the AFL or rival teams (Lane, 2014a). Essendon financial members showed amazing resilience in their support of the EFC throughout the drawn-out drug scandal by achieving another record membership of 60,819 in 2015 and just under 50,000 members had signed for the 2016 season, two weeks prior to the start of the season (Lane, 2016). The 2016 membership figures seem to defy logic with more than a quarter of the 2016 playing list serving a one year drug ban and the replacement of a club hero turned coach, James Hird, towards the end of the 2015 season.

This demonstration of unwavering support by the EFC members is a great example of the link between resistance to change and what Funk and James (2001) referred to as the next dimension, biases in cognitive processing. Information regarding a club or team is processed differently depending on the relationship that individuals feel they have with it (Funk & James, 2001). An increased positive relationship leads to more bias cognitive processing when considering information about the club. This includes positive information being accepted and negative information being discarded or distorted to avoid damage to fans’ 72 perceptions of the team or club (Pons, Mourali & Nyeck, 2006). Overall, this bias guides an individual’s current and future behaviour in relation to the team and club. This behaviour includes game attendance, membership purchase intention and reading or hearing information related to the team or club (Funk & James, 2001).

2.4.4 Summary: Loyalty

In this section, the concept of loyalty has been defined and behavioural loyalty and attitudinal loyalty have been discussed. Customers who are emotionally attached to a specific product or service are far more likely to engage in repeat purchase behaviour and value the experience more positively and are more likely to tell others about their experience (Day, 1969; Park & Kim, 2000; Peck, Christopher, Clark & Payne,, 2013). Attendance rates at sporting events, season ticket/membership and club merchandise purchases are all indicators of behavioural loyalty in a sport context. These indicators can be used to measure the present and future financial viability of a club. (Pons et al., 2006).

The Dick and Basu (1994) loyalty typology was discussed and it has been suggested that this approach, where behaviour and attitude is coupled, does a poor job of predicting loyalty outcomes. The concept of loyalty has also been discussed in a sports fan context. It was proposed that sports fans’ loyalty has similarities to loyalty between consumers and brands, yet there are also important differences.

The Psychological Continuum model (PCM) (Funk & James, 2001) was used to explore the relationship between customer loyalty and sports consumption. Additionally, the PCM was also used to explain Essendon FC members’ unwavering support for the club in the face of a three-year ASADA investigation into the alleged use of performance enhancing drugs at the club during 2012.

73 2.5 Sports Fan Motivation (SFM) And Attachment

The previous section defined and explored the concept of loyalty, behavioural and attitudinal loyalty. A key insight from the previous section was that behavioural loyalty as demonstrated through repeat purchase does not necessarily equate to attitudinal loyalty. In a sports context it is important to be able to separate the motives of spectators, who may simply enjoy the spectacle, and avid or hard core fans for whom sport adds an critical dimension to their existence (Trail & James, 2001).

As shown in Section 2.3.6, spectators of sport can be classified in many ways including their level of commitment from casual followers to hard-core fans (Fillis & Mackay, 2014). It follows that the motives of casual spectators may be different to committed season ticket holders. Woo et al., (2009) identified that spectators may be motivated differently to dedicated sports fans. Woo et al., (2009) posited that a spectator may be motivated to attend for reasons of the skill displayed by the players or the drama inherent in the sport event, while a dedicated sports fan may be motivated to attend the match to share the vicarious achievement associated with their team winning with like minded other fans (i.e. the motive of socialisation) and bask in the reflected glory (BIRGing). BIRGing will be explored in Section 2.7.2 Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing)

2.5.1 Sports fan motivation and motivation scales

Motivation refers to an internal force that stimulates a person to behave in a particular manner. The tension caused by unfulfilled needs, urges, wishes and desires leads to goal directed behaviour (Moriarty, Mitchell, Wells, Crawford, Brennan & Spence-Stone, 2015). Decoding the motivations that bring people to games is crucial to the long-term financial success of professional sport (Kwon et al.,, 2003; Wann, 1995). Refer to Figure 2.6 for a map outlining the section structure.

Understanding sports fans and what motivates him or her to consume a sport product is essential in order to successfully create, promote and deliver the sport product. Foxall et al., (1998) suggest that the study of motivation involves two fundamental problems. “The first is understanding the interrelationship between motives and specific behaviour and the second is to develop a typology or list of consumer motives comprehensive enough to capture the wide variety of motivating forces that stimulate and shape behaviour” (Foxall et al., 1998, p. 134).

Several approaches have been used to gain a better understanding of consumer motives as they relate to sport products and specifically spectator sports. Sport consumers' motivations

74 have been examined from the perspective of peripheral factors not directly related to the consumer (Zhang & Smith, 1997) such as stadium factors (i.e. stadium capacity, ease of parking, seat accessibility) and psychological perspectives (Trail, Anderson & Fink, 2005). Trail et al., (2005) examined factors related to individual fan perceptions and expectations. Researchers from both camps agree that fan motivation is complex (Kahle, Duncan, Dalakas & Aiken, 2001). Stadium factors will be explored in Section 2.6.2.

While the measurement and identification of sports fans motives is still a work in progress, sports researchers have taken significant steps over the past twenty years towards developing a reliable scale. Refer to Appendix C: Motivation scales developed to understand sports fan consumption (1975-2012) A summary of the motivation scale development studies for the period 1975 to 2012. Grove, Dorsch and Hopkins (2012a) suggest that the first attempt to measure sports fans motives was by Spreitzer, Snyder & Larson in 1979. Nonetheless, it is the early work of Wann & Branscombe (1993) and Wann (1995) that set the direction for sports fan motive research.

There are four sports fan motivation scales that are most frequently referred to in sport research: Wann’s (1995) the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS), Milne and McDonald’s (1999) Motivation of the Sport Consumer (MSC), Trail and James (2001) Motivation Scale for Sports Consumption (MSSC) and Funk et al., (2001) Sport Interest Inventory (SII). Table 2-13 outlines the number of motives and the motives that were measured by each of the four main scales including five separates studies that used variations of the SII.

According to Trail and James (2001), Wann’s SFMS provides a good starting point for those interested in developing fan motivation scales but Trail and James identified several limitations relating to content validity, discriminant validity and criterion validity. Trail and James (2001) also evaluated the psychometric properties of the MSC scale developed by Milne and McDonald (1999). The MSC was designed to measure both participant and spectator motives based on 12 constructs. Notwithstanding that some motives may be the same for both participants and spectators, others such as skill mastery may only apply to sport participants.

The attempt to measure both participants’ and spectators’ motives was questioned by Trail and James (2001) who also noted the scale’s lack of convergent validity and criterion validity. Trail and James (2001) developed the MSSC after examining and finding various weaknesses associated with existing scales. The MSSC comprised nine factors hypothesised to drive

75 spectator consumption behaviour. The MSSC was classified to be a psychometrically sound scale.

Funk et al. (2001) used a number of prior studies on spectator motivation (Kahle et al., 1996; Sloan, 1989; Trail et al., 2000; Wann, 1995) to develop a 30-item Sport Interest Inventory (SII) that measured 10 specific motivation factors. Results indicated that 35% of the variance in motivation for attending the event emerged from six factors: interest in the sport, interest in a specific team, the excitement of the event, a desire to support women’s opportunity in sport, aesthetic qualities of play and vicarious achievement. Funk et al., (2002) used an expanded SII of 14 different factors and identified that five motivational factors - sport interest, team interest, vicarious achievement, role modelling and entertainment values - explained 54% of the variance in the level of spectator support for women’s professional soccer in the USA. Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James & Gladden, (2002) used a 7 factor SII for their study of Japanese soccer league (J League) spectators and established that the seven factors accounted for 57% of the variance in the level of consumer support. Sport attachment predicted the most variance in length of time as a fan, while team attachment was the strongest predictor of frequency of attendance (Mahony et al., 2002).

Funk et al., (2003) used a further variation of the SII, with 18 factors, and concluded that 10 of the motivational factors explained 48% of the variance in the level of consumer support for a WNBA team. Table 2-14 identifies and defines all 18 factors in the 2003 version of the SII. Table 2-15 identifies and defines the factors used by other researchers such as Wann (1995) that were excluded by Funk et al., (2003) in their 18-factor version of the SII. Neale and Funk (2006) were the first to use the SII in Australia to study the attitudes and behaviour of spectators attending an AFL match in Western Australia. Neale and Funk (2006) stated that four factors, team interest, vicarious achievement, excitement and player interest, were successful in predicting levels of loyalty. Neale and Funk (2006) also determined that five factors, vicarious achievement, player interest, entertainment value, drama and socialisation, predicted game day attendance.

The SFMS and MSC appear to be more general in nature as respondents were asked to answer questions based on their favourite sport. Also, the respondents were not sport specific but a mix of students and recreational softball players for the Wann studies (1993 and 1995) and purchasers of mail order sporting goods for Milne and McDonald’s study (1999). In contrast, the Trail and James (2001), Mahony et al. (2002), Funk (2001, 2002 & 2003) and Neale and Funk (2006) studies were based on sport specific samples. The Neale and Funk study (2006) appears to be the only time that the SII has been used in Australia. 76 Table 2-13 Scales - sports fans motives

Authors Year Sample Scale Motives/ Motives measured developed Items

Wann. D 1995 College Sport Fan 8/23 Eustress, self-esteem, escape, students and Motivation entertainment, economic recreational so Scale (SFMS) (gambling), aesthetic, group recreational affiliation, family softball players

Milne & 1999 Men and Motivation of 12/37 Risk-taking, stress reduction, McDonald women who the Sport aggression, affiliation, social had purchased Consumer facilitation, self-esteem, mail order (MSC) competition, achievement, skill sporting goods mastery, aesthetics, value or had development, self-actualisation indicated an interest in sport

Trail & 2001 STH’s of one Motivation 9/27 Achievement, acquisition of James MLB franchise Scale of Sport knowledge, aesthetics, drama, Consumption escape, family, physical (MSSC) attraction, physical skills of players, social interaction

Funk, 2001 1303 Sport Interest 10/30 Drama, vicarious achievement, Mahony, Spectators at 5 Inventory aesthetics, interest in team, Nakazawa different WWC (SII) interest in players, interest in & venues – USA the sport, national pride, Hirakawa excitement, social opportunities, support for women’s opportunities

Mahony, 2002 1201 spectators J league SII 7/28 Interest in sport, vicarious Nakazawa, attending JPSL achievement, interest in team, Funk, matches aesthetics, community support, James & interest in players, drama Gladden

Funk, 2002 504 match SII 14/42 2001 SII plus: players as role Mahony & spectators at models, entertainment value, Ridinger Nike Cup, bonding with family and women’s stadium (wholesome) soccer USA environment

Funk, 2003 623 – mix of SII 18/54 2002 SII plus: bonding with Ridinger & STH and single friends, knowledge of the Moorman game attendees sport, escape and customer WNBA USA service

Neale & 2006 651 match SII 11/33 Vicarious achievement, interest Funk attendees AFL in team, player interest, Fremantle excitement, escape, drama, socialisation, family bonding, friends bonding, entertainment value, role model

77 Table 2-14 SII motives defined (Funk et al., 2003, pp. 26-27)

Motive Definition

1 Community An individual’s interest in the team stems from their pride in the community Support (COM) (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; Funk et al., 2001; Rooney, 1975, 1980)

2. Escape (ESC) Interest in the team derived from a desire to ‘get away’ or be part of something different from the normal routine. (Gladden & Funk, 2001; Wann, 1995).

3. Interest in sport Support for the team derived from an interest in the sport (Funk et al., 2001; Funk et al., (BAS) 2002).

4. Support Interest in the team is a reflection of support for women’s sport in general (Armstrong, women’s 1999; Funk et al., 2001). opportunity (SWO)

5. Entertainment Affordability of the entertainment contributes to one’s attendance at games (Funk et al., value (ENT) 2002; Wann, 1995)

6. Aesthetics The excellence, beauty, creativity of athletic performance and style of play (Mahoney et (AES) al., 2002; Smith 1988).

7. Bonding with The opportunity to spend quality time with one’s family (Gantz & Wenner, 1995; Family (FAM) Wann, 1995)

8. Vicarious Interest in the team because of a heightened sense of personal or collective esteem achievement. based on a psychological association with the team (Kahle et al., 1996; Cialdini et al., (VIC) 1976)

9. Drama (DRA) Interest in the team because of the excitement associated with a close game versus a one-sided game and the element of uncertainty about the outcome of the game (Funk et al., 2001; Mahony et al., 2002).

10. Bonding with The opportunity to spend quality time with one’s friends (Wann, 1995) Friends (BON)

11. Customer The impact of customer service on an individual’s interest in attending games Service (MGT) (Fournier, 1998; Garbarino & Johnson, 1999).

12. Interest in The extent to which an individual attends games to watch a favourite player (Gladden players (PLA) & Milne, 1999; Mahony & Moorman, 2000).

13. Role Models Interest in the team and its relationship to the positive role model image of the players (ROL) (Armstrong, 1999; Funk et al., 2002).

14. Socialisation The opportunity to interact with other fans (Gantyz & Wenner, 1991, 1995; Wann, (SOC) 1995)

15. Interest in the The interest in the team as a whole, rather than individual players (Wann & team (TEM) Branscombe, 1993).

16. Sport A fan’s understanding of the game (i.e. rules, strategy and related technical aspects) and Knowledge the contribution to the enjoyment of the event (Sloan, 1989; Wann 1995). (KNW)

17. Excitement The extent to which the excitement surrounding the game adds to the enjoyment of the (EXC) event (Sloan, 1989; Wann 1995).

18. Stadium The extent to which a family friendly atmosphere contributes to the enjoyment of the (Wholesome) event (Funk et al., 2002) environment (WHO)

Source: Funk et al., (2003, p. 26-27)

78 Table 2-14 (immediately above) identifies and defines all 18 factors in the 2003 version of the SII. Table 2-15 (immediately below) identifies and defines the factors used by other researchers such as Wann, Schrader and Wilson (1999) and Trail and James (2001) and were excluded by Funk et al., (2003) in their 18-factor version of the SII.

Table 2-15 Sports fan motives not included in SII (2003 version)

Motive Definition

Physical skill of The appreciation of the physical skill of the athletes or the well executed the participants performance of the team. (Trail and James, 2001, p. 120)

Economic Gaming opportunities associated with watching sport (Wann et al., 1999, p. 135)

Physical Watching sport because of the physical attractiveness or “sex appeal” of an attractiveness individual athlete or group of athletes (Trail and James, 2001, p. 120)

Entertainment The intrinsic entertainment associated with a contest which makes sport a substitute for other entertainment options like going to a movie. (Wann et al., 1999, p. 135)

Eustress The pleasurable combination of euphoria and stress a fan feels during a game. (Wann et al., 1999, p. 135)

Source: Wann, Schrader & Wilson (1999, p. 135); Trail and James, (2001, p. 120)

2.5.2 Team identification and social identity theory

Motivation scales such as the SII (Funk et al., 2001) included ‘interest in the team’ as team identification has been shown to predict cognitive (Trail et al., 2005; Trail, Fink & Anderson, 2003a), affective (Madrigal, 1995; Matsuoka et al.,2003), conative (Melnick & Wann, 2004; Wann, 2002; Wann & Branscombe, 1993), and behavioural (Laverie & Arnett, 2000) dimensions of sport spectatorship. Furthermore, many studies have examined the construct of team identification and developed scales that attempt to measure the team construct (Mahony, et al., 2000; Trail and James, 2001; Trail et al., 2003b).

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 2010, 1978) suggests that sports teams serve as important targets of identification. Tajfel defined social identity as “that part of an individual’s self concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (1978, p.63). A person assumes a social identity when that person realises that they belong to a social group and attach emotional significance to that membership (Heere & James, 2007). Membership of the community could involve explicit opposition to rival communities as an expression of ‘us

79 versus them’ (Muniz & Hamer, 2001). In a sport context, identification with one team may include explicit opposition to rival teams.

Ashforth and Mael (1989) identified four principles that underpin social identification:

1. Identification is viewed as a perceptual cognitive construct. To identify, an individual need not expend effort towards the group’s goals; rather, an individual need only to perceive themselves as psychologically intertwined with the group. 2. Social identification is all about an individual participating in the wins and losses of the group (Foote, 1951).Frequently, identification is maintained in situations involving loss or suffering (Brown, 1986), missed potential benefits (Tajfel, 1982), task failure (Turner, 1981), and even unexpected failure (Gammons, 1986). 3. Social identification is distinguishable from internalisation. Hogg and Turner (1987) noted that internalisation is the use of group norms and values by an individual as behavioural guide-lines whereas identification refers to an individuals attachment to a group or entity. 4. Identification with an individual is similar to identification with a group noting that identification with a group can be predicated on the desire for self definition whereas, identification with an individual could be based on the need to imitate or mimic or vicariously acquire the qualities of the other party (Ket de Vries & Miller, 1984).

Sports teams can be regarded as hybrid identity organisations (Heere & James, 2007). Albert and Whetten (1985, p. 265) defined a hybrid identity organisation as “an organisation whose identity is composed of two or more types that would not normally go together”. Albert and Whetten (1985) considered a hybrid organisation to be two different types of organisations and not just an organisation with numerous parts. In a sports context a team might represent not only a collection of on-field (i.e. players) and off-field (i.e. president, club board of directors, coach, etc.) personnel, but also the suburb, city or state in which they operate or other groups (ethnic, racial, gender, political, religious etc.).

Within the proposed framework, fans no longer perceive the team and their surrounding community as different entities; they are perceived as being linked together (Heere & James, 2007). Figure 2.4 illustrates that external group identities can be separated into two different types: demographic categories and membership organisations. An individual’s team identity is influenced by how that individual identifies with demographic categories or other

80 membership organisations in their environment. The extent to which the team identity is representative of the external identities is moderated by the perceived fit between the external group identities and the team identity. The presence of external group identities that are perceived to be represented by the team is expected to enhance team identity and consequently strengthen team loyalty (Heere & James, 2007).

Figure 2-4: External group identities, team identity and team loyalty relationships. Source: Heere and James (2007, p. 322)

Wann and Branscombe (1990, p. 111) stated that “team identification provides fans with a sense of belonging and attachment to a larger social structure”. But Wann and Branscombe (1990) did not clarify what is meant by a larger social structure. A team is often equated to a collection of players and it is often assumed that people identify with the team because of the players. Shipton and Kirkup (2011) reported that team identification and the need to attach to a successful identity is also a driver for sports fans tourism experiences.

81 It is also acknowledged that other members of the organisation such as the coach can also influence team identification (Wann et al., 2001). The increased mobility of players (and coaches) between clubs with no visible evidence that team identification has diminished, suggests that the notion of team identification should be broadened (Heere & James, 2007).

2.5.3 Attachment and the Point of Attachment Index (PAI)

Typically, researchers including Mahony et al., 2000; Trail and James, 2001; Trail et al., 2003b, treated team identification as uni-dimensional. Even so, research (Funk et al. 2001; Funk et al., 2002; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Robinson & Trail 2005b) has suggested that there may be additional points of attachment, rather than just attachment to the team (Funk et al., 2001; Funk et al., 2002; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Robinson et al., 2005a; Robinson et al., 2004; Trail et al., 2003b). Although Funk and his colleagues have termed these concepts ‘motives’, their ideas regarding these constructs represent an attachment to a specific entity. Trail and colleagues framed these points of attachment within the identity theory of Stryker (1994), under the guise of different role identities.

The Point of Attachment Index (PAI; Robinson & Trail, 2005b and Trail et al., 2003b) was introduced as a comprehensive measure of a sports fan’s different role identities within sport. The underpinning logic of the PAI is that sports consumers have multiple identities regarding different aspects of a sport team. Kwon et al., (2005, p.263), suggested that “an individual may develop a strong social psychological connection with a team, coach, player, university, community, level of sport, and/or type of sport”. This multi-dimensional approach has advantages over the uni-dimensional approach in that it covers a wider spectrum of the sport consumers’ psychological constructs of identification. Kwon et al., (2005) reduced the number of attachment dimensions to four (player, university, team, and sport) due to high residuals and poor discriminant validity. Robinson and Trail (2005b) established that attachment to team, sport and university were of primary importance and typically subsumed the remaining points of attachment (player, sport and coach). Kwon et al., (2005) determined that the attachment to team subscale explained a significant and meaningful amount of variance in BIRGing, satisfaction, conative loyalty, and attendance behaviour. Kwon et al., (2005) also concluded that the addition of attachment to the university and attachment to the sport contributed significant but small amounts of variance to BIRGing, satisfaction and conative loyalty but not to attendance behaviour. Three of the other subscales, player, sport level and coach, explained only a minimal amount of additional variance. Kwon et al., (2005)

82 concluded that there may be instances in which some or all of the attachment subscales might be applicable.

2.5.4 Combining motives and points of attachment

A number of researchers (Fink et al., 2002a; Robinson & Trail, 2005b; Robinson et al., 2004; Trail et al., 2003b) have examined relationships between motives and points of attachment. These researchers claimed that certain spectators’ motives could lead to strengthening certain points of attachment (Woo et al., 2009). Sadly, studies on the relationships on this topic are limited. Furthermore, most studies with the exceptions of those by Trail et al., (2003b) and Woo et al., (2009) do not distinguish between spectators and fans. Trail et al., (2003b, p. 225) indicated that “motives can be segmented into three categories based on fans, spectators and motives that apply to both spectators and fans and that the three types of motives associated differently with different points of attachment”. Sloan (1989) identified that spectators did not have a strong attachment to the team, players or the coach. Woo et al., (2009) suggested that fans were more likely to be connected in some way to one or more points of attachment.

The Woo et al., (2009) study used the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) and the Points of Attachment Index (PAI). The MSSC scale used seven of the nine motives proposed by Trail and James (2001). Physical attraction of the athletes was removed following a request from the University’s Athletics department. The motive of family was also omitted from the 2009 study as it was felt that this motive was less applicable to college students given their geographic separation from their families.

Four models were developed with all four models showing reasonable fit. Model C was the authors’ preferred model and has the following goodness of fit statistics: RMSEA = 0.72; CI=.069 -.075, x2/df=3.56, ECVI = 5.631. The difference between the four models is the location of the social interaction motive and the paths between Organisation Identification and Sport Identification. In models A and B, the social interaction motive was included in overarching motives while it was included in fan motives for Models C and D. The results show that the social motive loaded equally well on either overarching motives or fan motives. Ultimately, Model C was preferred because the path from sport identification to organisation identification was not significant while the path from organisation identification to sport identification was both statistically and practically significant explaining 6.8% of the variance. (Woo et al., 2009).

83 Woo et al., (2009, p.49) reported that “social interaction and vicarious achievement were more likely to be motives for fans of teams, whereas skills, aesthetics, drama and knowledge were more likely to be motives for spectators of the sport”. Escape was the only motive that seemed to be connected to both groups (Woo et al., 2009). This finding contrasts to research by Trail, Robinson, et al., (2003b), which suggested that the social interaction as well as escape were motives that applied to fans and spectators. Woo et al., (2009, p. 49) also recorded that “the fan motives variable was correlated with the organisation identification variable, whereas the spectator motives variable was associated with sport identification”. This finding was consistent with previous research by Trail et al (2003b) and Robinson et al., (2004 & 2005b) that different motives are related to different points of attachment. Woo et al., (2009) preferred model, Model C, is set out in Figure 2.5. Notwithstanding, there is a number of limitations of this study including the sampling of college students who followed a specific college football team. Therefore, generalisability of this study is limited.

Figure 2-5 Motives and points of attachment (Model C). Source: Woo et al., (2009, p. 43)

84 2.5.5 Summary: Fan motives and points of attachment

In this section, four of the better-known motivational scales were identified and discussed. It was noted that the study of motivation involved two fundamental challenges. The first being to understand the relationship between motives and specific behaviour and the second being to find a balance between developing a list of motives comprehensive enough to capture the variety of motivating factors and parsimony. Social identity theory suggested that sport teams can serve as important targets of identification and a number of the motivation scales investigated, including the SII (Funk et al., 2001), contained a team identification construct. Even though Funk et al., (2003) treated team identification as uni-dimensional, other researchers including Robinson and Trail (2005b) developed the PAI as a comprehensive measure of a sport fan’s different attachments or role identities within sport. Woo et al., (2009) developed a model that showed sports fans, in comparison to spectators, might have different motives and points of attachment. Two potential limitations of the Woo et al., (2009) study were the absence of any discussion concerning the relationship to specific behaviour outcomes such as satisfaction or future purchase intentions and the sample which was comprised of college students.

2.6 Sport as a service experience

While the focus of this chapter to date has been on sport fans loyalty and the range of motivations and attachments of sports fans, this section will explore other factors that impact on sporting event attendance. Specifically, this section will review the impact of stadium facilities and club service standards on season ticket holders’ overall satisfaction and membership renewal intentions.

2.6.1 Macro factors that impact on sport event attendance

A range of factors impact sport event attendance. These include uncontrollable factors such as competing entertainment options and controllable factors such as stadium access and ease of parking. Zhang and Smith (1997) suggested that fans are more likely to attend a sporting event if there are few competing alternatives. Zhang did not explain what these alternatives might be. Robertson and Pope (1999) suggested that the alternatives include all entertainment options and not just other sporting events. Kwon and Trail (2001) reported that the sporting events usually face extensive competition. Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, End & Jacquemotte (2000) noted that watching a sport event on television also competes with on-site attendance with some people preferring to watch an event in the safety and comfort of their own home..

85 In addition to rival events, financial and economic considerations also impact on sporting event attendance. Ross (2006) identified controllable and uncontrollable factors. Controllable factors include various forms of advertising that promote the event including discounts and promotional inducements, and the price of tickets or the perceived value of the sport event. Uncontrollable factors include the average income of the population or the economic health of a country or region. Hence, these factors may be pertinent to the service experience, even though they fall outside the controllable domain for the service provider.

2.6.2 The ‘sportscape’ and stadium experience

The ability of a sporting event to generate atmosphere, defined by Brooks (1994) as the subjective excitement level created, may also be considered by potential attendees. Wakefield and Sloan (1995) and Wakefield and Blodgett (1996) identified customer service, the standard and range of food and beverages, venue cleanliness and car parking as controllable contributors to the atmosphere as a sporting event. Robertson and Pope (1999) focussed on stadium qualities including the aesthetics of the stadium, its size, seating comfort and stadium access as factors that may impact on the potential attendees’ decision to attend an event. Brown, Lee, King and Shipway (2015) also highlighted the critical importance of the fans that attend sport events as their behaviour or performance can impact on the event’s atmosphere. All of the above listed items become the touch points by which the service experience is enhanced or degraded.

Greenwell, Lee and Naeger (2007) using the critical incident technique identified which aspects of the spectator experience were satisfiers (i.e. most relevant to customer satisfaction) or dis-satisfiers (i.e. contributed to customer dissatisfaction. Greenwell et al., (2007) reported that sport appreciation and team quality were the largest contributors to spectator satisfaction. Parking, weather conditions, food prices and facility comfort generated substantially more negative responses than positive suggesting that theses factors can represent barriers to future attendance (Greenwell et al., 2007). These findings are important for the AFL and AFL clubs as satisfiers represent an opportunity to develop or reinforce motives for fans to attend sports events, while dis-satisfiers represent barriers to future attendance that can be rectified.

These factors can be categorised further according to Buttle et al., (1995). Buttle et al., (1995) divided stadium attributes into three categories: front room factors that directly impact on the event experience such as smoke free zones, back room factors that contribute to the overall event experience (i.e. car-parking and seat accessibility) and circumstantial or facility factors (i.e. ticket prices, the quality and cost of food and beverages, pre/post game entertainment and

86 child facilities). All three factors are controllable by the stadium management and fundamental to the attendees experience at sports events. Robertson and Pope (1999) bundled all three factors together as the sportscape. Robertson and Pope (1999, p. 8) concluded that “the sportscape or physical environment of the stadium can influence whether or not a spectator attends, how long they will stay and if they will return for a future event”. Thai (2015) reported that when customers are satisfied with the service performance, there is a high probability of their repurchase intention.

Given that the ‘sportscape’ experience is critical to event attendance and therefore member retention, it is important to assess stadium factors when looking at fan motives and attachment to their club. Funk et al., (2003) 18 factor Sport Interest Inventory (SII) included three factors that directly related to the sportscape. The construct entertainment captured the affordability of event attendance. Customer service specifically addressed the stadium staff’s helpfulness and courteousness. The stadium environment considered the safety and security of the stadium.

Funk et al., (2003, p. 17) reported that “entertainment value and stadium environment were not among the ten most influential factors explaining level of consumer support”. Even though the reason for this result is not clear, Funk et al., (2003) suggested that WNBA fans may maintain high levels of support for their teams and be willing to pay more for merchandise and concession items as long as the other more influential factors such as escape, interest in the team and support for women’s opportunities in sport were perceived positively.

The three factors, ‘entertainment’, ‘customer service’ and ‘stadium environment’ are largely controllable by the club and may positively impact on member retention. Hall et al.,(2010) also propounded that stadium facilities were the most significant predictor of event attendance. It is worth noting that the Hall et al., (2010) study reported that back room factors contributed to spectator comfort and were important to the perceived willingness of spectators to attend future sporting events.

Hall et al., (2010) also included a ‘true fan’ factor that considered the competitive nature of the event (similar to the SII drama motive) as well as the performance of the team and individuals (two potential points of attachment). Refer to Figure 2.6 for the Hall et al., (2010) model of attendance motivations at major sporting events.

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Figure 2-6 Model of attendance motivations at major sporting events. Source: Hall et al., (2010, p. 332) Hall et al., (2010) finding’s are consistent with an earlier study completed by Thiry (2005). Thiry (2005) concluded that the ‘sportscape’, family, friends and special events/entertainment are highly important in motivating females to attend sporting events. The impact of gender in sport consumption behaviour will be discussed in Section 2.8.2.

2.6.3 Season ticket holders (STHs) and the impact of service on renewal

In Australia, a large membership base is considered a critical ingredient of a successful sporting club (McDonald, Karg & Vocino, 2013b). In addition, professional sport teams are vulnerable to non-renewal of their season ticket holders given that they have a limited market from which to draw, the acquisition of new fans from competitors is rare and the time between repurchase opportunities is typically annual (McDonald et al., 2014c). In a study of satisfaction for STHs, McDonald and Stavros (2007) sought to better fathom member motivations to join, the determinants of overall satisfaction with membership and the reasons for non-renewal of memberships. This study focussed on four AFL clubs and one NRL club. McDonald and Stavros proposed that the strongest reasons for joining were to support the club and to feel financially more involved with, or part of the club. The primary reason given for non-renewal was non-attendance at games due to lifestyle changes in either family

88 structure or at work. McDonald and Stavros identified five significant predictors of overall satisfaction in the subscription membership (STHs). The five predictors of satisfaction were:

1. The way contributions that members make are recognized by the club 2. The service provided to members by staff of the club 3. The savings on game entry fees gained by being a member 4. The way members are valued by the club 5. The number of games won during the year of membership.

A comparison of non-renewing members to renewing members by the same authors revealed that non-renewing members were older, attended fewer games, had fewer children who supported the club and had been a member for fewer years. McDonald and Stavros concluded that member defection was more strongly related to uncontrollable factors. Differences in sport fan’s behaviour by segments based on age, length of membership, the number of matches attended and gender will be discussed in Section 2.7. In a later study, McDonald et al., (2013b) identified five service factors that are both controllable and important to member retention. The five factors are:

1. Personal Involvement; especially recognition of member contributions and opportunities to become more closely associated with the club. 2. Club administration categorising administrative, board and financial performance of the club. 3. Service; helpfulness of the staff, complaint handling and speed of service. 4. Home ground facilities; standard of facilities, feeling of a ‘home’ ground. 5. On-field performance; games won, player effort and entertainment.

When it comes to on-field performance, many sport organisations tend to focus on winning games as a principle method of member retention despite the relationship between retention and performance being judged to be weak (McDonald & Shaw, 2005). McDonald et al., (2013b) suggested that on-field performance is just one contributor to satisfaction and not a strong one at that. McDonald et al., (2013b) concluded that a more holistic approach to managing STH’s perceptions requires all levels of the organisation to recognise the important part that facilities, staff, boards, players and service providers play in shaping the STH’s experience. Thus, to enhance the club's chances of retaining their financial members, all controllable factors need to be managed.

89 2.6.4 Summary: Service experience

This section has illustrated that there is a range of factors which impact on a consumer’s decision to attend a sporting event. These factors can be broken down into those that are controllable, such as access to the sport venue, seating comfort, stadium staff service and uncontrollable factors such as the state of the economy. Research by Hall et al., (2010) highlighted the importance of stadium facilities in a fan’s decision to attend future sports events. Also, McDonald (2010) and McDonald et al., (2013b) identified that the STH’s product was multifaceted and suggested that proper resourcing and attention be paid to customer service and efforts to be inclusive of fans are very important, even when the team is winning.

2.7 Sports fan outcomes

The purpose of the following discussion is to define the role of satisfaction as well as to consider a range of possible outcomes or responses for sports fans such as basking in reflected glory (BIRGing), future attendance at games/sports events, the intention to purchase team merchandise, team endorsement and encouraging friends to attend sports events. This section will also investigate the importance of satisfaction and the possible relationship between satisfaction and future behavioural intentions.

2.7.1 Satisfaction

Babin and Harris define consumer satisfaction as “a mild, positive emotional state resulting from a favourable appraisal of a consumption outcome” (2011, p252). Crosby and Stevens (1987) referred to relationship satisfaction as a multidimensional construct with three distinct levels all contributing to overall satisfaction.

1. Satisfactory interaction with the personnel 2. Satisfaction with the core service and 3. Satisfaction with the organisation.

Despite the age of the work by Crosby and Stevens, it may be helpful when considering the relatively complex drivers of consumer satisfaction for sports events. The research by Greenwell et al., (2007) that identified satisfiers and dis-satisfiers for sports spectators (refer to section 2.6.3) could be used to fill out Crosby and Stevens’ three level satisfaction framework.

90 Babin and Harris (2011) stated that consumer satisfaction differs from other consumer behaviour concepts in three ways.

1. Consumer satisfaction is a reaction to an outcome and is therefore a post-consumption phenomenon 2. Satisfaction results from a cognitive appraisal 3. Satisfaction is a relatively mild emotion that does not create strong behavioural reactions.

Yet, in an apparent contradiction to the third point above, Babin and Harris (2011) also state that consumer satisfaction is considered to be important because a consumer’s word of mouth endorsement, future or repeat purchase and consumer loyalty correlate with consumer satisfaction scores.

Not all researchers agree with Babin and Harris. Oliver, Rust and Varki (1997) defined satisfaction as the customer’s fulfilment response, which is both a cognitive evaluation and an emotion based response. This finding contrasts with Babin and Harris’ second point. Pantouvakis and Lymperopoulos (2008) in a study involving ferry services in Greece attacked the traditional intuitive assumption that increased satisfaction leads to loyalty. Pantouvakis and Lymperopoulos (2008) concluded that there is no guarantee that satisfied customers will remain loyal. The same authors also discovered that the service-scape is of greater importance in determining customer evaluations on overall satisfaction than the interactive features of service. Notwithstanding that the latter finding may not be generalisable from a service factory environment (i.e. airlines, hotels and coastal shipping) to sports events, McDonald (2010) observed that many satisfied STHs did not renew their memberships. McDonald (2010) concluded that the relationship between satisfaction and repeat purchase intention is complex. McDonald et al., (2013b) concluded that the impact and quantification of satisfaction on purchase intention was a neglected area for sports fans and warranted further research.

Grace and O’Cass (2005) explored the re-patronage intentions of retail store consumers and noticed that store service provision, perceived value for money and consumptions feelings all had a significant positive effect on customer satisfaction. Grace and O’Cass also confirmed that customer satisfaction had a significant positive effect on re-patronage intentions – refer Figure 2.7. It is worth noting that perceived value for money and consumption feelings in addition to satisfaction had a direct relationship with re-patronage intentions. Although it can be argued that a sport event and retail store environments are quite distinct, the Grace and

91 O’Cass study does add weight to the inclusion of service factors, perceived value for money and motives for future studies regarding satisfaction and purchase intention.

Figure 2-7 Retail satisfaction theoretical framework. Source: Grace and O'Cass (2005, p. 229)

Van Leeuwen, Quick and Daniel (2002) developed the Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model (SSSM) as an extension of the Disconfirmation of Expectations Model (DEM) and based it on Social Identity Theory. Refer to Figure 2.8. This model is helpful as a step forward from the Grace and O’Cass study (2005) as it included the unique aspects of the sport product as well as the core and peripheral dimensions of the spectator service. In the context of spectator sport, Van Leeuwen et al., (2002, p. 118) identified “the core service dimension as the game itself while the peripheral service dimension included all the non-game supplementals such as parking, concessions and half-time entertainment”. Even though the model depicted both the core and peripheral dimensions of a sports event that may contribute to customer satisfaction, the big questions that were not addressed by this model included the relative importance of each set of dimensions and the role of satisfaction in future purchase intent. These are important questions that need to be addressed and represent an opportunity for further research into sports fans.

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Figure 2-8 SSSM model. Source: Van Leeuwin et al., (2002, p. 119)

Beccarini and Ferrand (2006) explored the influence of club image and a range of motives on season ticket holder’s satisfaction for the members of the Olympique Lyonnais football club, a professional soccer club that plays in France’s elite football division. Beccarini and Ferrand learnt that two factors (i.e. a good financial deal and club image) exerted a direct influence on STH’s satisfaction. Three factors positively influenced the club image; team performance, efficient management of the club and pleasure from the event. Disappointment about match results negatively influenced the club’s image. Image of the club and pleasure from the event positively influenced the good financial deal factor. Refer to Figure 2.9. This study highlighted the importance, both positive and negative, of on field success and other sport specific factors that influenced satisfaction. Unfortunately, the authors did not examine the relationship between satisfaction and future purchase intent. This omission presents an opportunity for future research.

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Figure 2-9 Impacts on STH’s satisfaction. Source: Beccarini & Ferrand model (2006, p. 12)

McDonald et al., (2013b) developed a 19 item scale using five general dimensions; personal involvement with the club/players, club administration, service to club members, on-field performance and home ground facilities, that contributed to STH’s satisfaction. McDonald et al., (2013b) stated that their short scale was a reliable and valid measure of the many areas that drive STH’s satisfaction. McDonald et al., (2013b) concluded that they would expect satisfaction to correlate with positive behaviours such as membership renewal and advocacy but they did not seek to examine these links quantitatively. While the contribution of a reliable and valid scale to measure STH satisfaction is valuable, McDonald et al., (2013b) highlighted that the impact and quantification of satisfaction on purchase intention is a neglected area and one worthy of future research.

Theodorakis, Alexandris, Tsigilis and Karvounis (2013) interviewed 350 spectators of a professional football game in Greece and identified that game quality and team performance had a stronger influence on spectator satisfaction levels than traditional stadium service factors. Theodorakis et al., (2013) also became aware that satisfaction partly mediated spectator behavioural intentions – refer Figure 2.10. The study is important for three reasons; first, for proposing two clearly defined dimensions for the measurement of outcome quality;

94 second, for clarifying the relationship between service quality and spectators’ satisfaction; and third, for providing empirical support regarding the relationship between outcome quality on spectator satisfaction and the influence on behavioural intentions. The questions for future research raised by this study are, do these findings apply to sports fans of other codes and do they apply to regions outside Greece?

Figure 2-10 The partial mediation model. Source: Theodorakis et al., (2013, p. 90)

2.7.2 Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing)

Sport researchers have identified several unique attitudes and behaviours of sport consumers that are typically not present in consumers of traditional fast moving consumer products. For example, achieving vicariously (Fink et al., 2002a); Basking in Reflecting Glory (BIRGing), which was first discussed by Cialdini, Borden, Thirnes, Walker, Freeman and Sloan (1976); Cutting off Reflected Failure (CORFing), which was first discussed by Snyder, Lassegard and Ford (1986) and then investigated by Wann and Branscombe (1990).

Trail et al., (2000, p. 156) defined vicarious achievement as “the need for achievement that might be fulfilled by association with a successful other”. A related outcome of vicarious

95 achievement is basking in reflected glory (BIRGing). BIRGing was originally conceived by Cialdini et al., (1976, p.366) as “the public trumpeting of the association with a successful other”. The flip side of BIRGing is cutting off reflected failure (CORFing) which was defined by Snyder et al., (1986, p. 383) as “the severing of associations with others who have failed in the interest of avoiding a negative evaluation by others”. The interest in BIRGing and CORFing is because both behaviours may be determinants of intention to attend future games (Trail et al.,2003a). Trail, Anderson and Lee, 2006 reported that intention to attend future sports events is a good predictor of actual attendance.

Kwon, Trail and Lee (2008, p. 209) established that “vicarious achievement explained none of the variance in BIRGing, but team identification explained 41% of the variance in BIRGing”. Data were collected from 246 students at a large mid-western university in the USA. In a later study, Trail, Kim, Kwon, Harrolle and Braunstein-Minkove (2012, p.351) found no support for the hypothesis that team “identification moderated the relationship between vicarious achievement and BIRGing”. This second study also used students from a mid-western university. These findings support the need for future research outside of the USA with data collected from sports fans rather than student populations to investigate the relationships between team identification, vicarious achievement and BIRGing.

Spinda (2011) suggested that the three-item measure developed by Trail et al., (2005) may not be capable of fully exploring the BIRGing and CORFing constructs. Spinda also warned that fans self-reported BIRGing and CORFing behaviours may not produce reliable measures of the two constructs. Additionally, Spinda set out to address the question whether BIRGing and CORFing behaviours were parallel or differential constructs. Spinda (2011) concluded that it might be more appropriate to consider BIRGing and CORFing behaviours to be a collection of behaviours rather than a universal concept related to a sporting event outcome. Spinda additionally reported differences between genders in BIRGing and CORFing behaviours. Spinda (2011) also suggested the participants age was linked to BIRGing behaviour. These differences will be explored in Section 2.8.1.4 and Section 2.8.3 respectively.

2.7.3 Future behavioural intentions

The four main sports fan motivation scales explored in Section 2.5.2 Sports fan motivation: Wann’s (1995) the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS), Milne and McDonald’s (1999) Motivation of the Sport Consumer (MSC), Trail and James’ (2001) Motivation Scale for Sports Consumption (MSSC) and Funk et al., (2001) Sport Interest Inventory (SII), all focussed on identifying the key motives underpinning sport spectatorship (and participation)

96 with the aim of promoting and encouraging future sports consumption. Hall et al., (2010) went further and developed a model with motivation and stadium factor constructs that specifically included attendance at future events as an outcome. Satisfying was included as a possible motive to attend a sporting event.

Kwon et al., (2005) investigated the relationship between points of attachment with the dependent constructs of BIRGing, satisfaction and future intention to attend games and purchase team merchandise. Kwon et al., (2005) established that attachment to the team explained a large and significant amount of variance in participants’ responses ranging from 24% in attendance to 43% in BIRGing.

McDonald (2010) and McDonald et al., (2013b) focussed on the elements of the season ticket holders’ package that were most influential on buyer satisfaction. Neither of these two studies explored the link between satisfaction and future behaviour, but McDonald (2010) did report that many non-renewing STHs were satisfied and suggested that the relationship between satisfaction and repeat purchase was complex. McDonald et al., (2014c) stated that satisfaction did not add to STH renewal predictions but the length of membership tenure and match attendance did improve STH renewal predictions.

Theodorakis et al., (2013) investigated the relationship between service quality aspects of a professional soccer match, satisfaction and future behaviour intentions. The construct of future behaviour intentions included four dimensions; positive endorsement of the team, likelihood to attend future games, encouragement to friends to attend future games and adoption of the team as a first choice. Theodorakis et al., (2013) diagnosed that the relationship between service quality dimensions and behavioural intentions was partially mediated by satisfaction and accounted for 43% of the variance associated with behavioural intentions.

2.7.4 Summary: Sports fan outcomes

A considerable amount of research has been undertaken concerning sports spectators and fans to identify what motives, attachments and experiences drive their attitudes and behaviour with the aim of predicting and directing future behaviour. The research undertaken by McDonald (2010) and McDonaldet al., (2013b) identified and quantified the factors that impact on season ticket holder’s satisfaction. McDonald also noted that satisfaction might not lead directly to repeat purchase behaviour, as satisfied members did not always renew their membership, which suggested that the relationship between satisfaction and future behaviour

97 might be complex. McDonald et al., (2014c) submitted that predicting STH renewal using the Juster scale was helpful but the addition of satisfaction did not assist with explaining variance. McDonald et al., (2014c) did find that tenure and match attendance in conjunction with the Juster scale gave better predictive power to STH renewal. The research by Kwon et al., (2005) and Theodorakis et al., (2013) is very helpful as it explored the relationship between independent constructs such as potential points of attachment and service quality, satisfaction and future behaviour intentions. Nonetheless, there is an opportunity to further explore the relationship between motives, attachments, stadium factors and satisfaction as well as the relationship between satisfaction and future behaviour intentions for committed AFL sport fans.

2.8 Sports Fans and their differences: The impact of gender, age, length of club membership and past match attendance

Even though it would be simpler for professional membership based clubs to treat all members exactly the same, it is highly unlikely that all members will respond in exactly the same way to a club’s service offering. Therefore, it makes sense to consider if demographic and behavioural variables can be used to segment the club’s membership base into relevant and viable clusters. This section considers the impact of gender, age of member, length of club membership and past match attendance as potential variables to segment a club’s membership base.

2.8.1 Gender and sport consumption behaviour

Women are typically under-represented in the fan bases of most professional sports and particularly as season ticket holders (Davis, McDonald & Karg, 2010). Traditionally, participation in sport as a spectator has been a male dominated activity (Wann & Waddell, 2003). Indeed, empirical studies have reported that not only are men perceived to be more interested in this pastime than women (Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Wann et al., 2001) but also that men report greater interest (James & Ridinger 2002; Wann et al., 2001). For many feminists, sport has been identified as a powerful institution through which male hegemony is constructed and reconstructed (Bryson, 1990). Bryson (1990) identified three conditions relevant to Australian sport in the 1980’s to support her contention; firstly, the increasing sport participation gap for boys versus girls over the age of 15 years; secondly, the small number of females in positions of power in sport including sports with a largely female following such as basketball and ice skating and finally, the very limited media coverage for women’s sport.

98 Nonetheless, there is some evidence to suggest that this situation has changed both inside and outside Australia during the past 25 years. More than a decade ago, Cere (2002) reported that women were attending Italian soccer matches in increasing numbers and that females accounted for 40% of the attendees for soccer matches in Parma. Cere (2002) also reported on the acceptance of women as authentic team supporters and that the all-girls Ultra supporters group organised match related activities such as the choreography in conjunction with their male counterparts. This enlightened picture suggests quick progress from the description provided by Cannizzaro in 1995 that for away matches, the women fans within the Ultra mixed gender groups were treated as subordinates by the male members.

2.8.1.1 Female audiences in sport

Gaffney (2002) reported that the number of women in the USA who claimed to be avid sports fans increased from 29% in 1998 to 58% in 2002. Gaffney (2002) also suggested females had strong interest in male sports and that 31% of female fans closely followed the National Football League (NFL), 28% followed and 19% followed the National Basketball Association. A slightly more recent survey (Bush, Bush, Clark & Bush, 2005) indicated that women comprised 44% of the NFL’s fan base, bought 70% of the league’s licensed products and 40 million women watched NFL games weekly and nearly half a million attended games weekly.

Here in Australia, Cullen (1995) reported that women were turning to televised sport in increasing numbers and the Nine Network’s football show was something of a catalyst for the number of females watching male-oriented sports. Women made up 49% of the audience watching the 1994 AFL Grand Final telecast, 45% of the audience watching the footy show, 40% of the audience for Test Cricket and 42% of the World Cup soccer audience (Cullen, 1995). Australian Bureau of Statistics (2009/10) show that 1.2 million women and 1.7 million men went to AFL games, making it the most watched live sport by women nationally. In 2014, the AFL claimed that 44% of its fan base was female (Lane, 2014b).

Despite the fact that women make up a sizable proportion of AFL followers, especially when TV audiences and club memberships are taken into account, the sport is male-dominated in almost every other respect (Lane, 2014b). Australian Rules football at the elite level is played and coached by men with just one female assistant coach, its administration is overwhelmingly male with women holding 22 of the 148, or less than 15% of club board positions and there is just one female representative on the AFL’s 10 member executive (Toffoletti & Mewitt, 2012; Lane, 2014b). A report into gender equity at the AFL by Dr Pippa

99 Grange and Paul Oliver, in 2014 concluded that while things have never been better for females working in the industry, it highlighted enduring barriers and that change was glacially slow (Lane, 2014c). In contrast, the NFL in America has been working hard on gender equity in senior management roles and in 2015, females held over 30% of all senior management positions, an all time high (Lapchick, 2015). Notwithstanding, the 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card gave the NFL a B rating suggesting that the NFL also has some way to go to achieve gender equity (Lapchick, 2015).

Consequently, even with this growth, female fans still represent a relatively under-developed market for most sporting organisations. Hundley (2014) argued that the historical divide between genders still exists in contemporary society. Females as a significant demographic group will remain largely unattainable to most sporting clubs due to a host of existing gender barriers. These barriers include: a threatened male perspective, a lack of male involvement, an antiquated definition of sports fandom and inadequate research on gender differences in sports consumption. Therefore, professional sports seeking to grow their fan base need to examine the motives and behaviours of male and female sports fans so that these barriers can be overcome.

2.8.1.2 Gender and sports fans initiation

Mewett and Toffoletti (2008) addressed the issue of how females become sports fans using single-person and focus group interviews with female AFL supporters in Victoria and NSW. Mewett and Toffoletti (2008) identified four distinctive ways females became AFL fans. Female fans whose following of football came through their family and usually at an early age were designated in-the-bloods. The second category,, ‘learners’ were those women whose appreciation of the sport developed progressively through friends or media coverage of the game. The third and fourth groups were termed ‘converts’ and sexually-transmitted fans (STFs). ‘Converts’ refers to those who underwent a sudden switch from being indifferent or even opposed to football to become instant fans after attending a game with a friend. STFs are those who were introduced to AFL by their partners. Typically, these fans had little or no interest in the sport before meeting their partners. Through their partners, these fans attended games and developed knowledge of the game, sometimes quickly (as with converts) or more gradually (as with learners) and became avid supporters (Mewett &Toffoletti, 2008). Mewett and Toffoletti (2008) argued that women became fans because of strong social ties that they have with people who are existing fans. Pope and Williams’ (2011) description of the typical English male’s introduction to sport makes for an interesting contrast with three of the four categories of female fans as described by Mewett and Toffoletti (2008) and especially the

100 converts and STF’s sport experiences. “Many boys are recruited as sports fans in England via the reflexive processes of fathering which ensure the early participation of (heterosexual) sons in contact team sport” (Pope & Williams, 2011. p299).

2.8.1.3 Gender and motivation Wann and Waddill (2003) noted that male and females reported differing patterns of sport fan motivation. Sport fan motivation is defined as “the various factors that underlie an individual’s decision to participate in sport as a spectator” (Wann & Waddill, 2003. p486). Even though there are a large number of potential fan motives, the ones that are set out in Table 2-16 are the most frequently researched motives as suggested by Wann and Waddill (2003) and Fink et al., (2002b).

Table 2-16 Sports fans motives defined

Motive Definition

Vicarious The need for social prestige, self-esteem and sense of empowerment that an achievement. individual can receive from their association with a successful team. Sometimes referred to as self-esteem (Fink et al., (2002, p. 198).

Acquisition of The need to learn about the team or players through interaction and media Knowledge consumption Fink et al., (2002, p. 198).

Aesthetics The artistic appreciation of the sport due to its inherent beauty (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198). Different to physical attractiveness.

Physical Watching sport because of the physical attractiveness or “sex appeal” of an attractiveness of the individual athlete or group of athletes (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198). participants

Physical skill of the The appreciation of the physical skill of the athletes or the well executed participants performance of the team (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198).

Social Interaction The need to interact and socialise with others of like interests to achieve feelings that one is part of a group (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198). Also called group affiliation.

Family The opportunity to spend time with one’s family doing something everyone enjoys (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198).

Drama The need to experience pleasurable stress or stimulation gained from the drama of the event (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198). Also known as eustress - seeking the positive physiological arousal that often accompanies following sport (Wann & Waddill, 2003, p. 488).

Escape The need to find a diversion from work and the normal unexciting activity of everyday life (Fink et al., 2002, p. 198).

Entertainment Engaging in the activity because it is fun and enjoyable (Wann & Waddill, 2003, p. 488).

Economic Gambling on sport outcomes (Wann & Waddill, 2003, p. 489).

Sources: Fink Trail and Anderson (2002a, p.198); Wann & Waddill (2003, pp. 488-489).

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James & Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) reported no significant difference between genders on the three highest ranked motives; excitement, escape and drama. Both studies (James & Ridinger, 2002; Robinson & Trail, 2005b) also identified that social interaction was not an important motive for males and females.

Notwithstanding a range of studies by (Wann et al., 1999; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Fink & Parker, 2009a; Aiken & Koch, 2009; Clarke, Apostolpoulou & Gladden, 2009; Davis et al., 2010) which suggested that women scored consistently higher than men on the family motive, two studies (Aiken & Koch, 2009; Appelbaum, Cain, Darling, Stanton & Mitroff, 2012) concluded that family was as an important motive for both genders while James and Ridinger (2002) reported that men scored higher than women on the family motive.

Crawford and Gosling (2004) spotted no difference between men and women on the motive of physical attractiveness. Fink and Parker (2009a) established that women scored higher than men for this motive but the result was a relatively low score. Fink and Parker (2009a) recommended further investigation into this motive with a focus on sports where the athlete is more visible than NFL. NFL players are to a degree hidden by long pants, socks, a padded jersey and a helmet. Toffoletti and Mewitt (2012) suggested that some female AFL sport fans do candidly acknowledge the pleasure they gain from sexually objectifying footballers. But even for these fans, the dominant view is that the love for and of the game must always come before the perceived inauthentic behaviour of voyeuristic looking. Toffoletti and Mewitt (2012) noted that some respondents perceived voyeuristic looking to be inconsistent with ‘authentic’ fandom. “For these respondents, any pleasure derived from the female gaze is subsumed under the shroud of the serious supporter (Toffoletti & Mewitt, 2012. p112). On the related motive of aesthetics, James and Ridinger (2002) proposed that women scored higher than males while Fink and Parker (2009a) reported that men scored this motive higher than females.

Crawford and Gosling (2004) advised that women were as committed to sport as male fans both in terms of traits and knowledge exhibited, rather than the ‘puck bunnies’ or ‘groupies’ they were asserted to be by some male followers. Yet, numerous studies (Clarke et al., 2009; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Farrell, Fink & Fields, 2011; Fink & Parker, 2009a; Fink et al., 2002b; James & Ridinger, 2002) reported that males spend more time discussing and watching sport and are more motivated by the acquisition of sport knowledge than females.

102 Tobar (2006) and Clark et al. (2009) advocated that males were significantly different from females when watching televised sport. Males valued the competitiveness of the contest while females valued the pageantry of the event and held more favourable attitudes towards the half-time show than males. Males viewed the ancillary elements of the telecast as ‘fluff’ and a distraction from the core elements of the game (Clark et al., 2009). Sargent, Zillman and Weaver (1998) suggested that the type of sport enjoyed by women, compared to men, differ significantly. Sargent et al., (2008, p. 49) reported that males “enjoyed sports like football, boxing and ice hockey that involved combative competition that entailed risk, attack, strength and speed”. Females, by contrast, expressed greater enjoyment of gymnastics, skiing, diving and figure skating (2008, p.46). Sargent et al., (2008, p.46) concluded that “the enjoyment differentiation by gender suggests that men extract gratification mostly from seeing athletic confrontations that emphasise combative co-ordination, whereas women are more gratified when seeing competition that avoids overt aggressiveness and highlights the stylish movement of individual bodies in terms of beauty”. The authors indicated negligible or no significant difference between genders for the dimensions of excitement, boring, violent, active and dangerous.

Numerous studies (Aiken, Campbell & Sukhdial, 2010; Aiken & Koch, 2009; Greenwell, Fink & Pastore, 2002b; James & Ridinger, 2002; Kim, Greenwell, Andrew, Lee & Mahony, 2008; Robinson & Trail, 2005b) reported that males consistently scored higher than females on the motive of vicarious achievement.

2.8.1.4 Gender and committed sports fans

The vast majority of the studies mentioned in the prior section (gender differences) are limited to student samples and general attendants of (collegiate) games. Refer to Appendix D: Summary of articles for gender differences (1987 to 2013), for a summary of sport fan research by gender. Very little research, with the notable exception of Davis et al., (2010), has focussed on the highly involved and committed female fans such as season ticket holders (STHs) of professional teams.

Davis et al., (2010) identified significant differences exist between male and female STHs on a large number of motivational, attitudinal and behavioural variables. The research by Davis et al., (2010) was based on 2,586 STHs of a professional football (soccer) club in Australia. According to Davis et al., (2010), women were more likely to join a club due to the influence of family and friends. Also, women were more likely to become a STH for family and friend interaction. Significantly, Davis et al., (2010) advised that 64.5% of women attended soccer

103 matches with family, as opposed to 45.3% of males. Davis et al., (2010) also examined the typical elements of an annual sports club subscriber offering using the scale developed by McDonald and Shaw (2007). Davis et al., (2010, p. 5) established that “women rated 27 out of 40 items significantly higher than men and that attitudes towards the administration and board of the club were the only broad area where men and women agreed”.

Davis et al., (2010, p. 5) also reported that women “placed significantly more importance on customer service and club administration when determining overall satisfaction”. Davis et al., (2010, p. 5) also noted that “men were more focussed on on-field performance and facilities at the home ground and women attended as many home games as men”. Both genders were equally likely to renew their club membership and recommend the club to others (Davis et al., 2010).

2.8.1.5 Gender and attachment, stadium factors and fan response

Dietz-Uhler et al., (2000) pinpointed that both males and females equally considered themselves to be sports fans and they spent an equal amount of time attending sports events but there were significant gender differences. James and Ridinger (2002) reported that men have a greater interest in sport while women have a greater interest in teams. Fink et al, (2002b) construed that females have a stronger interest in team merchandise and future loyalty to the team. Greenwell, Fink and Pastore (2002b) reported that women placed more importance on elements of the physical facility (i.e. cleanliness, restrooms and audio experience) and service personnel than men.

Spinda (2011) determined significant gender differences in both the BIRGing and CORFing constructs. Spinda (2011, p. 411) reported that “female NFL fans employed a large cluster of basking in communication activities including seeking out mediated enjoyment (i.e. highlights and news stories), contacting others on-line or by phone or by spending time with family or close others and displaying team merchandise as well as talking trash to other fans who supported teams that had experienced less success”. Male NFL fans isolated their celebratory behaviour into just four areas; displaying team merchandise, mediated enjoyment, communication dis-inhibition and on-line support (Spinda, 2011). Conversely, Spinda (2011) spotted that male NFL fans demonstrated CORFing through the same four factors that paralleled male BIRGing, whereas for female NFL fans CORFing was only evident in three factors versus seven factors for female BIRGing.

104 2.8.2 Length of club membership and fan response

Many organisations face the prospect of having to acquire large numbers of customers to replace lost customers. Page, Pitt and Berthon (1996) noted that the largest proportion of customer defections come from recent customers. ‘Churn’ or customer defections is not only a problem for the lack of customer involvement or engagement it implies, but it is also a problem in practical terms given the high cost of customer acquisition versus retention (Reichheld & Sasser, 1990). For season ticket based organisations such as sports clubs, there is usually only a limited pool of supporters from which they can attract members, and thus the retention of members is an issue of particular importance (McDonald et al., 2014c; McDonald, 2010). Nonetheless, sport is different from consumer goods in at least two respects. For consumer goods, customers typically buy from a small range of brands, referred to as ‘repertoires’ (Ehrenberg et al., 1990). In sport, sole club or team loyalty is more common. Furthermore, in consumer goods markets where consumer dissatisfaction explains some brand switching, McDonald and Stavros (2007) identified that an inability to go to games due to changes in work or family structure was the main reason for non-renewal rather than customer dissatisfaction. Instead of switching, what typically occurred was that fans moved back and forth from casual ticket buyer to season ticket buyer as their circumstances altered and supply allowed (McDonald, 2010). The alterations in behavioural loyalty may occur without a corresponding change in attitudinal loyalty meaning that true allegiance to the team is difficult to determine from examining behaviours alone (Funk & James, 2006).

Funk and James (2006) suggested that a fan making the transition from being an occasional single ticket holder to a season ticket holder has made a substantial increase in commitment not only behaviourally but most likely attitudinally. Yet, first year STHs cannot be considered fully absorbed into the organisation, given that they are new to the STHs’ experience. McDonald (2010) suggested that new STHs must learn new behaviours and develop stronger attitudinal links such as mutual trust and commitment. This process takes time. In practice, McDonald (2010) submitted that few organisations communicate differently to both new STHs and other STHs, with, for example, one brochure covering both member renewal and joining and a common website for all STHs. Page et al., (1996) suggested that new and existing customers should be treated with different marketing mix strategies including all communication activity.

McDonald’s (2010) survey of two AFL clubs using a sample exceeding 4500 STHs revealed that years of membership appeared to be strongly related to renewal with the average renewer

105 having been a member for over seven years and the average non-renewer a member for less than three years. McDonald (2010) reported a ‘churn’ rate of 33.3% for first year members that reduced each subsequent year until the fifth year of membership where the churn rate stabilized to around 6%. McDonald’s findings are important as they suggest that the transition from casual attendee to STH is the beginning of a different type of relationship rather than evidence of long-term loyalty as suggested by Garbarino and Johnson (1999). McDonald (2010) suggested that a new STH must be considered a significant risk of churning at least until they begin their fourth membership year. A more recent study by McDonald et al., (2014c) reconfirmed the earlier finding that length of membership tenure in combination with ticket utilisation provides highly useful flags for potential non-renewal or churn.

2.8.3 Age and fan response

Prior studies into spectator sports reported age to be correlated with satisfaction with accessibility and parking (Zhang, Smith, Pease & Lam, 1998) and stadium size (Nakazawa, Mahony, Funk & Hirakawa, (1999). Wann et al., (1999, p. 134) concluded that “age and sport fan motivation are unrelated, except with the possibility of a small inverse relationship involving age and group affiliation”. Westerbeek (2000) suggested that facility characteristics which made customers feel at home, facilitated social interactions and created ambiance through the sounds and scents of the stadium, varied with age.

Westerbeek (2000) also explored the relationship between factors of service quality and frequency of attendance and age at AFL matches using a random sample of 419 spectators. Westerbeek (2000) suggested that older spectators (30 years and over) at AFL matches rated stadium facilities and especially comfort and safety (home factor) more important than young spectators (less than 30 years old). Westerbeek (2000) suggested that older spectators scored significantly higher than younger spectators the opportunities to relate to and communicate with each other (social facilitation). Westerbeek (2000) exposed little difference between older and younger spectators regarding belonging to a sport organisation, or how passionately they follow a team (religious factor). ”It seems that the passion with which older spectators follow their team does not change over time, although other factors like home and social facilitation do become more important” (Westerbeek, 2000. p8). Westerbeek (2000) also reported no significant difference between older and younger spectators in relation to frequency of attendance. Westerbeek (2000) noted that the sounds and scents of the stadium seemed to be more important to younger spectators but was unable to provide a clear theoretical explanation for this finding.

106 Greenwell et al., (2002b), using a sample of spectators of a minor league hockey team, established that age was not correlated with perceptions of the core product but with differences in perceptions of the physical facility and service personnel. In this study, younger customers (up to 49 years) were more critical of the facility and the service personnel than older customers (50 years and over). This finding is consistent with Zhang et al., (1998) and Westerbeek (2000) and supports the idea that demographics can provide valuable guidance on how front line employees should deal with customers (Bettencourt & Gwinner, 1996; Oliver, 1980 & 1993).

Tobar (2006), in a study involving students and their parents who watched the Super Bowl television coverage, reported higher sport fandom scores for the student compared to their parents and significantly higher scores for sports fandom than those reported by Wann et al., (2004). Tobar’s (2006) explanation for the first finding, which is contrary to Westerbeek’s (2000) finding, was that older individuals may have less time to be a sports fan or that interests change as individuals become older. Tobar’s (2006) explanation for the higher scores of sport fandom for college students in his study compared to Wann, Bayens and Driver (2004) may be related to their field of academic study (i.e. sport management/kinesiology) where they may have a greater affinity for sports than college students from other academic areas.

As mentioned in the previous Section 2.8.1, Gender and sport consumption behaviour, McDonald (2010) diagnosed that years of membership appeared strongly related to renewal with the average renewer having been a member for over seven years and the average non- renewer a member for less than three years. McDonald (2010) also stated that the non- renewal figures were somewhat distorted by the underlying relationship between length of membership and the member’s age. “At the extreme end of the membership scale, i.e., where members have been with the club for over 25 years, churn rates jump as members die or become too elderly to attend games” (McDonald, 2010. p689). Regrettably, McDonald does not expand beyond this point on the impact of age on sport attendance.

Spinda (2011) reported that younger female fans with less formal education were more prone to self-report disinhibited bragging (i.e. a factor in BIRGing) about team superiority. Bernache-Assollant, Lacassagne and Braddock (2007) reported a similar phenomenon with younger soccer fans more likely to seek confrontation with groups of supporters of rival teams in order to defend their in-group of fans. Spinda (2011) concluded that age, gender and educational level remained significant predictors of nearly all self-reported BIRGing behaviours and some CORFing behaviours. Spinda (2011, p. 414) also suggested that 107 “relationships between demographic variables and BIRGing/CORFing have not been explored in most of the extant research because of a reliance on student samples or simply neglecting to measure these variables”. There is an opportunity to address this limitation or oversight in future research.

2.8.4 Past match attendance and fan response

Prior research by McDonald et al., (2014c) and McDonald (2010) suggested that games attended related to renewal behaviour. To understand the experience of STHs more thoroughly, McDonald (2010) segmented the membership based on years of membership and the number of games attended in a season. Albeit there was little difference in overall satisfaction ratings of the membership package across the four segments, McDonald (2010) identified massive variation in churn between the segments. “While the overall non-renewal rate was 11.1%, 27% of newer members who attended fewer games did not renew the following year” (McDonald, 2010. p691).

McDonald et al., (2014c) and McDonald’s (2010) finding that years of membership and games attended are strongly related to renewal behaviour may be frustrating for club membership managers who are aware that both factors are difficult to influence by managerial action. Members often cannot attend more games due to family and work commitments and years of membership cannot be accelerated. AFL club membership managers may find McDonald’s (2010) analysis of what each segment values the most highly within the membership package very helpful. For example, for newer members attending fewer games, ticketing issues are the main factor influencing ratings of overall satisfaction. For newer members attending more games, service issues are their primary focus. For established members who attend few games, service, ticketing and personal involvement are all strong influences on overall satisfaction. On-field performance, often believed to be the main driver of satisfaction among less committed and new sport fans (Funk & James, 2006) is not a significant factor for these three segments. Finally, established members who attend more games focus on ticket and personal involvement. McDonald (2010) diagnosed this to be the only segment where on-field performance is an overall driver of satisfaction but its influence is not strong.

2.8.5 Summary: Sports fans and their differences

Historically, sport has been a male domain but there is a wealth of evidence to suggest that this situation is changing and that females are now following sport in increasing numbers.

108 Despite some of the research presenting contrary findings, it does appear that males are more motivated by vicarious achievement and the acquisition of sport knowledge whereas the general consensus is that females are more motivated than their male counterparts by spending time with family members at sporting events. There appears to be no difference between genders for the three highest ranked motives of action, escape and drama.

Davis et al., (2010), in one of the few studies involving committed male and female sport fans, reported important differences between the genders including women. He placed significantly more importance on customer service and club administration when determining overall satisfaction. In spite of the work by Davis et al., (2010), there is an opportunity for further research exploring gender differences for the serious or committed sport fans.

Most of the research reviewed for gender differences used student samples or attendees at intercollege matches in the USA. As a consequence, these results need to be tested in the real world and with general population samples.

Funk and James (2006) suggested that a fan transferring from occasional ticket purchaser to season ticket holder reflects both a substantial increase in commitment both attitudinally and behaviourally and yet McDonald’s (2010) findings indicate that new season ticket holders are far more likely not to renew their membership than established ticket holders. McDonald’s findings are important as they imply that the transition to STH from casual ticket purchaser is the beginning of a different type of relationship rather than evidence of long-term loyalty as proposed by Garbarino and Johnson (1999).

Numerous studies (Wann et al., 1999; Zhang et al., 1998; Nakazawa et al.,1999; Westerbeek, 2000) have examined the impact of age on sports attendance. Westerbeek (2000) stated that older spectators rated stadium facilities and social factors more highly than younger spectators. Westerbeek (2000) indicated no difference between older and younger spectators in relation to frequency of attendance and their passion for their team. Greenwell et al., (2002b) and Tobar (2006) also established differences in perceptions of the physical facility and service personnel between sport followers based on their age.

McDonald (2010) established that games attended, in addition to years of membership are also closely related to renewal behaviour and that the non-renewal rate for newer members who attended fewer games was approximately 2.5 times greater than the overall non-renewal rate. McDonald (2010) was also able to identify the main factors influencing overall satisfaction for each of the four segments based on length of membership and games attended.

109 All of these findings advocate that gender, length of membership, age of member and number of matches attended can provide valuable clues to club membership managers regarding the drivers of overall satisfaction. But, these sometimes contrary findings also suggest that further research may be helpful in providing guidance to sports administrators identifying and developing specific retention strategies for distinct consumer segments contained within their membership base.

2.9 Chapter Two: conclusion

This chapter provides the foundations for this thesis and introduces four key areas of theory that informs and justifies the following research project. Furthermore, this chapter considers four variables that may assist membership managers to identify relevant and viable segments within their membership base. Definitions of key concepts were provided, along with limitations and gaps within existing knowledge. These gaps will be examined in the chapters that follow.

In the next chapter, a conceptual framework is presented that explores the relationships between sports fan motives, points of attachment/identification, stadium facilities, satisfaction and future purchase intentions.

110 3 CHAPTER THREE – RESEARCH QUESTIONS, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & HYPOTHESES

3.1 Chapter introduction

Chapter Two reviewed sports consumption globally and within Australia and then explored five key areas. The first area considered was sports fans including a review of sports fans typology. The second area scrutinized was sports fans’ loyalty. This included a review of both attitudinal and behavioural loyalty. The third area studied was the main sports fans motivation and attachment theories. The fourth area appraised was sports fans behaviour from a service experience including the impact of front and back stage stadium factors and the impact of service factors on season ticket holders. The fifth area pondered was the impact of motivation, attachment and stadium factors on sports fans satisfaction, BIRGing and their purchase intentions to club membership and team merchandise. The final area reviewed in chapter two was the impact of selected demographic and behavioural variables on sports fans motivation, attachment and stadium factors and how these factors impact on fans response and specifically satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intentions. The selected demographic and behavioural variables investigated were gender, age, past match attendance and length of club membership.

Chapter Three presents the research questions that arise from the literature review and specifically the relationship between fan motivation and attachment as well as the impact of stadium factors on fan response. A conceptual framework is proposed to test the relationships between fan motivation, attachment, stadium factors and satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. Figure 3.1 presents an outline of the chapter and its’ structure.

Figure 3-1 Map for Chapter Three: Research questions, conceptual framework and hypotheses

111 3.2 Research questions

A review of the literature presented in Chapter Two led to the identification of a series of research questions. The starting point for these questions was Social Identity Theory. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 2010, 1982) suggests that sports teams serve as important targets of identification. A person assumes a social identity when that person realises that they belong to a social group and attach emotional significance to that membership (Heere & James, 2007). Wann and Branscombe (1993) suggested that team identification provided fans with a sense of belonging and attachment to a larger social structure. Motivation scales such as the Sport Interest Inventory (Funk et al., 2003) included interest in the team as team identification has been shown to predict cognitive (Trail et al.,, 2005; Trail et al., 2003a), affective (Madrigal, 1995; Matsuoka et al., 2003), conative (Melnick & Wann, 2004; Wann, 2002; Wann & Branscombe, 1993), and behavioural (Laverie & Arnett, 2000) dimensions of sport spectatorship.

3.2.1 First research question

Researchers, such as Mahony et al., (2000); Trail and James, (2001); Trail et al., (2003b), treated team identification as one dimensional. Nonetheless, research (Funk et al. , 2001; Funk et al. , 2002; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Robinson & Trail 2005b), has indicated that there may be additional points of attachment, rather than just attachment to the team. Although Funk and his colleagues have termed these concepts ‘motives’, their ideas regarding the player, team and sport items represents an attachment to a specific entity. Trail et al., (2005) framed these points of attachment within the identity theory of Stryker (1968, 1980, 1994), under the guise of different role identities.

The Point of Attachment Index (PAI; Robinson & Trail, 2005b and Trail et al., 2003b) was introduced as a comprehensive measure of a sport fan’s different role identities within sport. The underpinning logic of the PAI is that sport consumers have multiple potential points of attachment or identification in addition to the sports team itself. For example, fans may identify with the team, the players, the coach, the sport itself or a level within the sport such as a local school team. This multi-dimensional approach has advantages over the uni- dimensional approach in that it covers a wider scope of the sport consumers’ psychological constructs of attachment.

112 A number of researchers (Fink et al., 2002a; Robinson & Trail, 2005b; Robinson et al. , 2004; Trail et al, 2003b; Woo et al., 2009) have examined relationships between motives and points of attachment. The Woo et al., (2009) study used the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC) and the Points of Attachment Index (PAI). Fink et al., (2002a); Robinson & Trail, (2005b); Robinson, (2004); Trail et al., (2003b); Woo et al., (2009) demonstrated a relationship between spectators’ motives and selected points of attachment. Trail et al., (2003), in a study of football spectators reported that spectators and fans had different motives which resulted in different points of attachment. Alas, studies exploring the relationship between motives and points of attachment are limited. Additionally, the studies by Kwon et al., (2005) and Woo et al., (2009) were undertaken in the USA and used student samples. This presents a clear opportunity for further research and specifically to examine the relationship between motives and attachment in the Australian market for committed sports fans. This leads to the first research question. RQ1: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment?

3.2.2 Second research question

Although the Woo et al., (2009) study indicated that motives can be divided into fan and spectator motives and that these motives were related to different sets of points of attachment, there was no attempt in this study to consider the impact of stadium factors on either fan motives or points of attachment. Brooks (1994) suggested that the ability of a sporting event to generate atmosphere is considered to be important by potential sport event attendees in their decision to attend. . Wakefield and Sloan (1995) and Wakefield and Blodgett (1996) identified customer service, the standard and range of food and beverages, venue cleanliness and car parking as controllable contributors to the atmosphere as a sporting event. Robertson and Pope (1999) focussed on stadium attributes including the aesthetics of the stadium, its size, seating comfort and stadium access as factors that may impact on the potential attendees’ decision to attend an event.

Buttle et al., (1995) divided stadium attributes into three categories: front room factors that directly impact on the event experience such as smoke free zones, back room factors that contribute to the overall event experience (i.e. car-parking and seat accessibility) and circumstantial or facility factors (i.e. ticket prices, the quality and cost of food and beverages, pre/post game entertainment and child facilities). All three factors are controllable by the stadium management and fundamental to the attendees experience at sports events.

113 Robertson and Pope (1999, p. 8) labelled all stadium attributes as the sportscape and stated that “the sportscape can influence whether or not a spectator attends, how long they will stay and if they will return for a future event”. Hall et al., (2010) reported that emotion and stadium facilities were the most significant predictors of event attendance. The Hall et al., (2010) study also established that back room factors were important to the perceived willingness of spectators to attend future sporting events.

Given that the stadium experience is critical to event attendance, it is reasonable to assume it is also an important factor for club member retention. Therefore, it makes sense to investigate stadium factors as well as fan motives and points of attachment and explore what, if any, relationship exists between the three constructs. This leads to the second research question. RQ2: What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors?

3.2.3 Third research question

Customer satisfaction is associated with numerous positive long-term business benefits and is recognised as an important field of study (Palmatier, Dant, Grewal & Evans, 2006; Nikzat, Rezazadeh & Khodapaparasti, 2014; Van Leeuwen et al., 2002). Despite it being widely accepted that the stadium experience and satisfaction are related, Theodorakis et al., (2013) and Yoshida and James (2010) concluded that the stadium experience influences but does not fully predict customer satisfaction, as game satisfaction is also very important. Theodorakis et al., (2013) proposed that game quality and team performance had a stronger influence on spectator satisfaction levels than traditional stadium service factors. Theodorakis et al., (2013) also determined that satisfaction partly mediated spectator behavioural intentions. Only a small number of studies (Leeuwen et al., 2002; McDonald et al., 2013b) appear to have addressed the concept of satisfaction and the determinants of satisfaction for committed sports fans in Australia. An understanding of how sports fans arrive at satisfaction or dissatisfaction, and the link to future behaviour would add to the theoretical understanding of satisfaction and its role in influencing purchase intention and provide extremely useful insights for directing club marketing and stadium operation efforts.

Previous studies (Kwon et al., 2008; Trail et al., 2005 & 2012) investigating BIRGing (Basking in Reflecting Glory) and CORFing (Cut Off Reflected Failure) have regularly investigated the link to on-field performance and team identification. Trail et al., (2005) advocated that BIRGing behaviour is a prime determinant of fans intention to attend games. Also, Mahony et al., (2000) noted that BIRGing behaviour led to increased merchandise and media consumption. This leads to the third research question.

114 RQ3: How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

3.2.4 Fourth group of research questions

It would be simpler to treat all club members or season ticket holders (STHs) as one homogeneous group, but research by Davis et al., (2010), McDonald (2010) and Westerbeek (2000) suggests that club membership managers need to develop different strategies for different segments within their membership base to maximise member renewal rates.

McDonald (2010) suggested that relatively new and low match attending season ticket holders (STHs) are five times more likely not to renew their membership than long term frequent match attendees. McDonald’s (2010) findings are important as they suggest that the transition from casual ticket purchaser to STH is the beginning of a different type of relationship rather than evidence of long-term loyalty. Westerbeek (2000) diagnosed that older spectators (i.e. 30 years and older) rated stadium and social factors as more important than did spectators under 30 years old.

Davis et al., (2010), in one of the few studies involving Australian male and female season ticket holders, reported important differences between the genders when purchasing season tickets and determining overall satisfaction. Much of the research (Aiken & Koch, 2009; Appelbaum et al., 2012; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Fink et al., 2002b; Fink & Parker, 2009a; James & Ridinger, 2002; Robinson & Trail 2005b; Sargent et al., 1998; Tobar, 2006; Wann et al., 1999; Wann et al., 2001; Wann & Waddill, 2003) concerning gender differences in sport consumption used student samples or attendees at inter-college matches in the USA. This presents an opportunity for further research and specifically to examine the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention in the Australian market for selected sub-groups located within a club’s membership base. This leads to the final group of research questions.

RQ4.1: To what degree does gender explain differences in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response? RQ4.2: To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.3: To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.4: To what degree does length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

115 3.3 Conceptual framework and hypotheses

In order to fully respond to the research questions and examine the relationships of fan motivation, attachment and stadium factors on STH’s satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention, a new conceptual framework is proposed. This conceptual framework is based on the research of Woo et al., (Model C of the relationships among motives and points of attachment, 2009), Hall et al., (Model of attendance motivations at major sporting events, 2010) and Theodorakis et al., (The partial mediation model, 2013). The conceptual framework is illustrated in figure 3.2. The key constructs, fan motives, attachment, stadium factors, and their proposed relationships with each other and impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention are discussed in the following sections of this chapter.

Figure 3-2 Conceptual framework for sports fan response

3.3.1 Sports fan motives

In order to measure motivation, this study used the Sport Interest Inventory (SII). This scale has been used extensively in previous research in the USA (Funk,et al., 2001; Funk et al., 2003; Funk et al. , 2004), Japan (Mahony et al., 2002) and Australia (Neale & Funk, 2006), and while there are at least three other well known motivation scales, the SII is the most comprehensive with up to 18 items (Funk et al., 2003). The three other well-known motivation scales are: the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS; Wann 1995), the Motivation of

116 the Sport Consumer (MSC; Milne & McDonald, 1999) and the Motivation Scale of Sport Consumption (MSSC; Trail & James, 2001). The SFMS (Wann, 1995) explores just eight motives compared to 18 motives for the more comprehensive SII (Funk et al., 2003). The four scales share the common objective of explaining consumption of sports products as well as a number of common constructs. These constructs can be grouped under two broad headings; social motives and sports event related motives.

Funk et al., (2003) defined social motives as the extent to which a sports event provides the opportunity to spend quality time with others, specifically family, friends or other like- minded fans. The motivation item of spending time with family is consistent across three of the four motivation scales, the SFMS, MSSC and SII. All four scales share a common motive called group affiliation or social interaction or social opportunities. This item links directly to Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 2010). The Funk et al., 2003 version of the SII was more comprehensive and expanded social motives to include friends and other like-minded fans in addition to family.

All four motivation scales shared the common event related motive items of escape and aesthetics. Escape was defined by Gladden and Funk (2001) as the desire to get away or be part of something different from the normal routine. Aesthetics was characterised as excellence, beauty, creativity of athletic performance, and the style of play (Mahoney et al., 2002). In addition, the MSSC and SII shared the event related constructs of drama, vicarious achievement and knowledge acquisition. Drama was determined as the excitement associated with a close game combined with the uncertainty of the game outcome (Funk et al., 2001). Trail et al., (2000, p. 156) defined vicarious achievement as “the need for achievement that might be fulfilled by association with a successful other”. Knowledge acquisition was construed as the extent to which understanding the game’s rules and strategy contributed to the enjoyment of the sport (Funk & Pastore, 2000). The SII also included excitement, which was characterized by the extent to which the excitement of the sport event adds to the enjoyment of the event (Funk et al., 2003).

The conceptual model developed for this thesis includes nine motives under the broad construct of fan motives: three social motivation items; family, friends and other fans, and six event related motivation items: escape, drama, vicarious achievement, knowledge acquisition, excitement and aesthetics. Chapter Four and specifically Section 4.2.4.1 outlines the justification for the nine motives selected.

117 3.3.2 Points of attachment

In order to measure fan attachment, Kwon et al., (2005) used points of attachment scale. Funk and his colleagues (2001, 2002 & 2003) treated the items of ‘interest in the sport’, ‘interest in the team’ and ‘interest in players’ as motives; yet, the definition of all three items suggested that they actually represented an attachment or identification with a specific entity. Trail et al., (2003b & 2005) framed these points of attachment within the identity theory of Stryker (1994), under the guise of different role identities. The Point of Attachment Index (PAI; Robinson & Trail, 2005b and Trail et al., 2003b) was introduced as a comprehensive measure of a sport fan’s different role identities or possible attachments within a sport. The underpinning logic of the PAI was that sport consumers have multiple points of attachment or identification in addition to the sports team itself. For example, fans may identify with the team, the players, the coach, the sport itself or a level within the sport.

Woo et al., (2009) established that fans were more likely to attach to the players, team, the coach or the university, while spectators were more likely to identify with the sport itself or a specific level within the sport, for example, the sport played at college level. Even though this study used season ticket holders exclusively rather than a mix of fans and spectators, it is expected that a significant relationship between motives and attachment will be identified in this study. This leads us to the first hypothesis.

HI. There is a relationship between fan motives and attachment

In the context of the Australian sports market and specifically the AFL, it is possible to identify three distinct groups of potential points of attachment, on-field leaders, off-field leaders and levels within the sport. The SII (Funk et al., 2003) and PAI (Robinson & Trail, 2005b) identified ‘players’ as motives or potential points of attachment or identification. In an AFL context, on-field leaders may include the captain of the team and the team’s best or star player in addition to the more general construct of ‘players’. Robinson and Trail (2005b) identified the coach as a potential point of attachment. In an AFL context, the club president is also considered an off-field leader in addition to the coach.

Robinson and Trail (2005b) also suggested that sports fans and spectators could attach to a variety of entities in addition to on-field and off-field leaders, such as the organisation that is responsible for the team, which was a university in the case of college sport in the USA. Different levels of competition within a sport may also represent a potential point of attachment. Local and school grade teams as well as teams playing within feeder competitions

118 to the top tier competition are examples of different levels of competition. In an AFL context, the different sport levels that offer potential points of attachment include the team playing for the AFL premiership, the club, affiliated teams (i.e. Sandringham Zebra’s in the VFL), the amateur local club or school teams as well as the sport itself, i.e. Aussie Rules.

The conceptual model developed for this thesis comprises nine potential items of attachment or identification under the broad construct of attachment. Three attachment items relate to on- field leaders; captain, star player and players. Two items relate to off-field leaders; coach and president. The remaining four items relate to entities within the sport; team, club, level within the sport and the sport itself. Thus, this research aims to extend previous attachment models in an Australian context.

3.3.3 Stadium factors

Stadium factors have been identified as being important to STH and fan loyalty in previous studies (Brokaw, 2000; Buttle et al., 1995; Hall et al., 2010; Robertson & Pope, 1999; Shank, 2001; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). The above listed researchers suggested that the stadium service experience and facilities at sport venues can impact on attendance and future attendance intentions. Stadium facilities may be separated into front room factors, backroom factors and facility factors (Buttle et al. 1995). Robertson and Pope (1999) grouped all these stadium factors under the general heading of ‘sportscape’. Funk et al., (2003) captured three key dimensions of the ‘sportscape’ and its impact within the SII; the overall affordability of the sports event (entertainment value), service levels provided by stadium staff (customer service) and the event atmosphere (stadium environment).

Hall et al., (2010) established that emotion and facilities were the most significant predictors of attendance at sporting events. The construct of emotion was based on a range of motives including fun, exciting, enjoyable, stimulating and stirring. Specifically, Hall et al., (2010) pinpointed that sport event attendees were interested in having fun, being entertained and being comfortable. Initially, Hall et al., (2010) proposed that the construct ‘emotion’ mediated the relationship between facilities and attendance but this relationship was determined to be non-significant when a direct path between ‘facilities’ and ‘attend’ was specified. It is expected in this study that stadium factors will have a positive relationship with motives and attachment. This leads us to the following two hypotheses.

H2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. H2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and stadium factors.

119 3.3.4 Sports fan outcomes

Though the potential confirmation of relationships between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors is valuable, it is the response of fans and specifically the impact of motives, attachment and stadium factors on fans’ satisfaction, and what they tell others (BIRGing) and purchase intention, that is important for both theory development and practitioners.

3.3.4.1 Satisfaction

Fans’ satisfaction with the experience has been measured using three items; the decision to attend, the spectating experience and the game experience. Kwon et al., (2005) included the construct of satisfaction in their PAI. Van Leeuwen et al., (2002) developed a conceptual framework that depicted club identification and on-field performance as exerting considerable influences on spectator satisfaction. McDonald et al., (2013b) developed a two-item construct for season ticket holders’ satisfaction based on five factors: personal involvement, club administration, club service, on-field performance and home ground (stadium) facilities. Theodorakis et al., (2013) measured satisfaction using four items referencing the last game attended based on service quality and on-field performance.

The conceptual framework of Van Leeuwen et al., (2002) for sports spectator satisfaction (SSSM) proposed that on-field performance had a considerable influence on satisfaction. Theodorakis et al., (2013) suggested that game quality and team performance had a stronger influence on spectator satisfaction. On-field performance is directly related to the sport event motive of vicarious achievement. Game quality captured the motives of excitement and drama. It is expected that a similar relationship will be established in this study.

Kwon et al., (2005) stated that attachment to the team explained a significant and meaningful amount of variance in satisfaction. Furthermore, both Madrigal (1995) and Matsuoka et al., (2003) have shown that team identification is related to satisfaction. It is expected that a similar relationship will be confirmed in this project. McDonald et al., (2013b) identified that stadium factors played a role in STH satisfaction. Despite the fact that McDonald’s (2013b) study used Australian STHs from another football code (soccer), it is expected that a similar relationship will be verified in this research. Therefore the following hypotheses were developed.

H3.1.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and satisfaction.

H3.1.2. There is a relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction.

H3.1.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction.

120 3.3.4.2 BIRGing

BIRGing is added to the conceptual model because previous research (Trail et al., 2012) has advocated an important relationship exists between fan motives and BIRGing. The relationship between the need for vicarious achievement (motive) and BIRGing can be derived from achievement motivation theory and self-esteem theory (Trail et al., 2012). Sloan (1989) indicated that some people would not be able to satisfy their desire for achievement through their own endeavours and would have to fulfil this need vicariously through an association with a successful other. Thus some people may be motivated to be sports fans because of their need for achievement, which allows them to build self-esteem through the connection with a successful sporting club or team. Trail et al., (2012) discovered a direct and positive relationship between vicarious achievement and BIRGing. It is expected that a similar relationship between the construct of fan motives’ and BIRGing will be established in this study.

Previous research (Kwon et al., 2005, 2008) has also uncovered an important relationship between team attachment and BIRGing. Kwon et al., (2008) reported that team identification explained 41% of the variance in BIRGing and that vicarious achievement explained none of the variance in BIRGing. This result mirrors the findings of an earlier study by Kwon et al., (2005). For both studies, data were collected from students at a large Mid-Western university in the USA. It is expected that a similar relationship between attachment and BIRGing will be detected in this investigation.

Previous research studies on BIRGing (Kwon et al., 2005; Spinda, 2011; Trail et al., 2012; Wann & Branscombe, 1990) did not include stadium factors, yet it is conceivable that stadium factors may impact on BIRGing especially if the stadium provides an advantage to the home team, which leads to a stronger winning record.

H3.2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and BIRGing H3.2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing. H3.2.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing

121 3.3.4.3 Purchase intention

Prior research (Melnick & Wann, 2004; Wann, 2002; Wann & Branscombe, 1993) has shown positive relationships between team attachment and various aspects of conative loyalty. Matsuoka et al., (2003) published similar findings. Trail and James (2001) proposed that team identification explained a significant variance in future attendance consumption and future merchandise consumption. Kwon et al., (2005) suggested that identification with the team, with the university and with the particular sport were significant determinants of purchasing and wearing behaviour of licensed sport apparel. Even though all of the above mentioned studies referred to the American sports market and mostly employed student participants, it is anticipated that a similar relationship between attachment and purchase intention will be established in this project.

Previous research (Hall et al., 2010) pinpointed an important relationship between fan motives such as astonishing, exciting and fun, stadium factors and attendance at future sport events. Hall et al., (2010) diagnosed a direct path between fans motives, stadium facilities and purchase intention and concluded that spectators are more likely to attend future sporting events “if they perceive that the event will be fun, challenging and stimulating and they are satisfied with the facilities associated with the stadium such as access, parking and seating” (Hall et al., 2010 p333). Hall et al., (2010) sampled recent sport event attendees from Melbourne, Australia so it is predicted that a similar relationship between motives, stadium facilities and purchase intention will be uncovered in this research.

H3.3.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and purchase intention. H3.3.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention. H3.3.3 There is a relationship between stadium facilities and purchase intention. The relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention is important (Babin & Harris, 2011) and has been described as complex (McDonald, 2010). Babin and Harris (2011) consider satisfaction to be important because consumer’s word of mouth endorsement, future or repeat purchase and customer loyalty correlated with consumer satisfaction scores. Theodorakis et al., (2013) established that spectator satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between service quality dimensions (stadium factors) and behavioural intentions as the game outcome also had a direct effect on spectators’ behavioural intention. Therefore, it is foreseen that a similar relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention will be identified in this research inquiry.

122 Previous research (Trail et al., 2005 & 2006) has established a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention. Trail et al., (2005) stated that BIRGing behaviour is a prime determinant of fans’ intention to attend games. Trail et al., (2006) advised that intention to attend was an accurate predictor of actual sport event attendance. Additionally, Mahony et al., (2000) noted that BIRGing behaviour led to increased merchandise and media consumption. All the above-mentioned studies were undertaken in America, but it is suggested that a similar relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention will be established through this project. H3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention.

H3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention.

3.3.5 Sports fan segments

Committed sports fans such as season ticket holders are likely to share similarities but they are also likely to have important differences. This study investigates the impact of gender, age, match attendance and length of club membership on fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response. The findings from this study may assist club membership managers with their aim of maximising member retention. Research by Davis et al., (2010), McDonald (2010) and Westerbeek (2000) suggests that club membership managers need to develop different strategies for different segments within their membership base to maximise member renewal rates. For example, McDonald (2010) diagnosed that relatively new and low match attending season ticket holders (STHs) are five times more likely not to renew their membership than long term members who are frequent match attendees. Therefore, it makes sense to consider what demographic and behavioural variables can be used to segment the club’s membership base into relevant and viable clusters. The following sections consider potential differences in committed sports fans based on gender, age, and past match attendance and length of club membership.

3.3.5.1 Impact of gender on motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response

The impact of gender has been widely researched as demonstrated by appendix D but there is not universal agreement regarding impact of gender on fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response. Hence the inclusion of the impact of gender in this research study.

Sports fans’ motivation is defined as the various factors that underlie an individual’s decision to watch sport as a spectator (Wann & Waddill, 2003). Wann and Waddill (2003) noted that males and females reported differing patterns of motivation when it comes to sport. Numerous

123 researchers (Clarke et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2010; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Fink & Parker, 2009a; Wann et al., 1999) have reported that females are more likely to join a club or attend a sports event for social reasons including interacting with family members and friends. This finding is not universally supported as James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) found social interaction was not an important motive for either males or females. Aiken and Koch (2009) and Appelbaum et al., (2012) concluded that family was an important motive for both genders. Davis et al., (2010) reported that males were more focussed on on- field performance and the social prestige and self-esteem that an individual can receive from their association with a successful team.

Crawford and Gosling (2004) discovered no difference between men and women on the motive of physical attractiveness. Fink and Parker (2009a) suggested that women scored higher than men for this motive but the result was a relatively low score. Toffoletti and Mewitt (2012) proposed that some female AFL sports fans do candidly acknowledge the pleasure they gain from sexually objectifying footballers. On the related motive of aesthetics, James and Ridinger (2002) spotted that women scored higher than males while Fink and Parker (2009a) reported that men scored this motive higher than females.

There appears to be consistency among researchers for the motives of acquisition of sports knowledge and escape, drama and excitement. Dietz-Uhler et al., (2000); Fink et al., (2002a); James and Ridinger, (2002); Clarke et al., (2009); Farrell et al., (2011); Fink and Parker, (2009a) concluded that males spent more time discussing and watching sport and were more motivated by the acquisition of sport knowledge than females. James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) reported no significant difference between genders on the highest ranked motives of escape and drama. Sargent et al., (1998) advised no significant difference between the genders for the dimension of excitement.

Based on the conflicting research findings concerning the impact of gender on fan motives, the following hypotheses were developed to assist with the study parameters:

H4.1.1.1 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with family. H4.1.1.2 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with friends. H4.1.1.3 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with other fans. H4.1.1.4 Gender explains difference in the motive of excitement. H4.1.1.5 Gender explains difference in the motive of drama. H4.1.1.6 Gender explains difference in the motive of sport knowledge. H4.1.1.7 Gender explains difference in the motive of escape. H4.1.1.8 Gender explains difference in the motive of vicarious achievement. H4.1.1.9 Gender explains difference in the motive of aesthetics. 124

Research regarding the impact of gender on attachment suggests male and female sports fans form different attachments, making it a worthwhile inclusion in this conceptual framework. For example, James and Ridinger (2002) advocated that males have a greater interest in the overall sport as distinct from components or levels within a sport, whereas females have a greater interest in teams. Toffoletti and Mewitt (2012) construed that females acknowledged the pleasure they gain from watching AFL players which suggests that females have a greater interest in players than males have. The Point of Attachment Index (PAI) was introduced as a comprehensive measure of sports fans’ different points of attachment within sport (Kwon et al., 2005). The PAI used for this study was based on nine potential points of attachment. Based on the research findings concerning the impact of gender on fan attachment, the following hypotheses were developed to assist with the study parameters:

H4.1.2.1 Gender explains difference in attachment to the star player. H4.1.2.2 Gender explains difference in attachment to the players. H4.1.2.3 Gender explains difference in attachment to the team. H4.1.2.4 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport. H4.1.2.5 Gender explains difference in attachment to the captain. H4.1.2.6 Gender explains difference in attachment to the coach. H4.1.2.7 Gender explains difference in attachment to the president. H4.1.2.8 Gender explains difference in attachment to the club. H4.1.2.9 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport level.

Previous research (Robertson and Pope, 1999) has identified that the physical environment of the stadium is crucial to current and future attendance decisions. Further, Hall et al., (2010) discovered that stadium facilities were the most significant predictor of future event attendance. Nonetheless, studies investigating gender differences in stadium factors have produced contradictory findings. For example, Davis et al., (2010) suggested that males were very focussed on stadium facilities while Greenwell et al., (2002b) proposed that females were more interested in stadium facilities than males. Davis et al., (2010) and Greenwell et al., (2002b) agreed that females place more significance and interest in customer service provided by the stadium staff than males. Accordingly, it is justifiable to explore the potentially different gender preferences across three stadium factors in this study.

In this study, three factors were included that are specific to stadium facilities: environment, staff and value. Stadium environment is defined as the extent to which a family friendly atmosphere contributed to the overall enjoyment of the event. Staff refers to the stadium staff’s helpfulness and courteousness. Value represents the affordability of the event in comparison to other entertainment options.

125 Based on the inconsistent research findings concerning stadium factors and the gender preferences, the following hypotheses were developed to assist with the study parameters:

H4.1.3.1 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium value (entertainment value). H4.1.3.2 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium staff (customer service). H4.1.3.3 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium environment.

This study considered three fan responses or outcomes; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. The latter outcome includes both future match attendance and future purchase of team merchandise. Fink et al., (2002b) reported that females have a stronger interest in purchasing team merchandise, which is supported by the finding of Bush et al., (2005) that females purchased 70% of the NFL’s licensed merchandise. Spinda (2011) discovered that female NFL fans exhibited much higher levels of BIRGing behaviours than male fans. Based on the above research summary, the following hypotheses were developed:

H4.1.4.1. Gender explains difference in BIRGing. H4.1.4.2. Gender explains difference in satisfaction. H4.1.4.3. Gender explains difference in purchase intention.

3.3.5.2 Age and sports fan response.

The age of sports fans has been established to impact on fan response and specifically BIRGing (Spinda, 2011). Westerbeek (2000) reported that older sports fans, defined as 30 years and over, rated the opportunity to socialise with other like-minded fans more highly than younger sport fans. Westerbeek (2000) also suggested reported that older sports fans considered the stadium environment to be more important than younger sports fans. Greenwell et al., (2002b) noted that younger fans, defined as less than 30 years, were more critical of the stadium staff and the level of service provided. Spinda (2011) proposed that younger female fans were more prone to BIRGing. Based on the above research summary, it is expected that the following will be identified in this project:

H4.2.1. Age explains difference in BIRGing. H4.2.2.Age explains difference in satisfaction. H4.2.3. Age explains difference in purchase intention.

126 3.3.5.3 Past match attendance and sports fan response

Past match attendance can impact on fan response and specifically purchase intention (McDonald, 2010). Yet, McDonald (2010) discovered no significant difference in satisfaction between low match attendees (defined as less than five matches per season) and frequent match attendees (defined as five or more matches per season). Even though very little research was uncovered linking match attendance with participation in BIRGing, McDonald (2010) did report that on-field achievement was more important for established members (defined as five years or more of club membership) who attended five or more matches per season. Research (Kwon et al., 2008; Trail et al., 2012) has proposed that as the need for vicarious achievement increased, BIRGing behaviour increased. Based on the above research summary, it is expected that the following will be confirmed in this research study:

H4.3.1. Past Match attendance explains difference in BIRGing. H4.3.2. Past Match attendance explains difference in satisfaction. H4.3.3. Past Match attendance explains difference in purchase intention.

3.3.5.4 Length of club membership and sports fan response

The length of club membership may impact on fan response and specifically purchase intention (McDonald, 2010; Page et al., 1996). Further, there is a consistency within these studies regarding the impact of length (years) of club membership. McDonald (2010) and Page et al., (1996) identified new or recent members, defined as four years or less as members, as the group most likely not to renew their membership. McDonald (2010) uncovered little difference in satisfaction between recent (defined as zero to four years of club membership) and established club members (defined as five or more years of club membership). It would appear that very little research has been published on the impact of length of membership on BIRGing. Based on the above research summary, it is anticipated that the following will be found in this project.

H4.4.1. Length of membership explains difference in BIRGing. H4.4.2. Length of membership explains difference in satisfaction. H4.4.3. Length of membership explains difference in purchase intentions

127 3.4 Chapter Three: conclusion

This chapter presented four research questions derived from the literature review and a conceptual framework aimed at explaining the relationship between fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response. Additionally, the conceptual framework considers the possible mediating effects of satisfaction and BIRGing on purchase intention. The hypothesised relationship between fan motives and sport attachment is based on the research of Woo et al., (2009). The potential impact of stadium factors is based on the model developed by Hall et al., (2010). The conceptual framework also uses the study of Thedorakis et al., (2013) and specifically the role of satisfaction in influencing sports fans’ purchase intentions.

The forty-seven hypotheses presented throughout this chapter provide a systematic means to test the proposed relationships between the conceptual framework’s constructs as well as to examine differences between STH segments and therefore provide a response to each of the research questions posed at the start of this chapter. The hypotheses are summarised in Table 3-1.

128 Table 3-1 Summary of research questions and hypotheses to be examined

Research Question Hypotheses Authorities

RQ1. What is the H1. There is a relationship between fan motives and Funk et al., (2000, 2001, relationship between attachment. 2003); Kwon& Armstrong fan motives and (2004); Neal & Funk (2006); attachment? Robinson et al., (2005a); Woo et al., (2009)

RQ2. What is the H2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and Doyle et al., (2016); Hall et relationship between stadium factors. al., (2010); McDonald et al., fan motives, attachment (2013b) and stadium factors? H2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and stadium factors.

RQ3. How do fan H3.1.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and Hall et al., (2010); Kwon et motives, attachment satisfaction al., (2008); Madrigal (1995); and stadium factors Matsuoka et al., (2003); H3.1.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and Theodorakis et al., (2013); influence fan response? satisfaction. Trail et al., (2012) 3.1 Satisfaction H3.1.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction

3.2 BIRGing H3.2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and Hall et al., (2010); Kwon, BIRGing Trail & Anderson (2005); Kwon, Trail & Lee (2008) H3.2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing

H3.2.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing

3.3 Purchase Intention H3.3.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and Hall et al., (2010); Kwon et purchase intention. al., (2003); Mahony, Howard & Madrigal (2000); H3.3.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and Matsuka et al., (2003); purchase intention. Melnick & Wann (2004); Trail et al., (2005); Trail, H3.3.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and Anderson & Lee (2006); purchase intention. Trail & James (2001); Wann (2002); Wann & H3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and Branscombe (1993) purchase intention.

H3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention.

RQ4.1 To what degree H4.1.1.1 Gender explains difference in the motive of Aiken & Koch (2009); does gender explain spending time with family. Appelbaum et al., (2012); difference in fan H4.1.1.2 Gender explains difference in the motive of Clarke et al., (2009); Davis spending with friends. et al., (2010); Dietz, Uhler et motives, attachment, H4.1.1.3 Gender explains difference in the motive of al., (2000); Farrell, Fink & stadium factors or fan spending time with other fans Fields (2011); Fink & Parker response? H4.1.1.4 Gender explains difference in the motive of (2009); Fink, Trail & excitement. Anderson (2002a); H4.1.1.5 Gender explains difference in the motive of drama Greenwell Fink & Pastore H4.1.1.6 Gender explains difference in the motive of sport (2002b); James & Ridinger knowledge (2002); Robinson & Trail H4.1.1.7 Gender explains difference in the motive of escape (2005b); Sargent, Zillman & H4.1.1.8 Gender explains difference in the motive of Weaver (1998); Spinda vicarious achievement. (2011); Toffoletti & Mewitt H4.1.1.9 Gender explains difference in the motive of 129 Research Question Hypotheses Authorities

aesthetics (2012); Wann et al., (1999)

RQ4.1.2 Attachment H4.1.2.1 Gender explains difference in attachment to the star James & Ridinger (2002); player Kwon et al., (2005); Kwon H4.1.2.2 Gender explains difference in attachment to the et al., (2008); Ridinger & players. Funk (2006); Trail et al., H4.1.2.3 Gender explains difference in attachment to the (2012) team H4.1.2.4 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport H4.1.2.5 Gender explains difference in attachment to the captain H4.1.2.6 Gender explains difference in attachment to the coach H4.1.2.7 Gender explains difference in attachment to the president H4.1.2.8 Gender explains difference in attachment to the club H4.1.2.9 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport level. RQ4.1.3 H4.1.3.1 Gender explains difference in perceptions of Davis et al., (2010); Funk et Stadium Factors stadium value. al., (2003); Greenwell et al., H4.1.3.2 Gender explains difference in perceptions of (2002b); Hall et al., (2010); stadium staff (customer service) McDonald (2010); H4.1.3.3 Gender explains difference in perceptions of McDonald et al., (2013b) stadium environment. RQ4.1.4 Fan response H4.1.4.1. Gender explains difference in BIRGing. Bush et al., (2005); Fink et H4.1.4.2. Gender explains difference in satisfaction. al., (2002b); Spinda (2011) H4.1.4.3. Gender explains difference in purchase intention. RQ4.2 To what degree H4.2.1. Age explains difference in BIRGing. Greenwell, Fink & Pastore does age explain H4.2.2.Age explains difference in satisfaction. (2002b); Spinda (2011); difference in fan H4.2.3. Age explains difference in purchase intention. Westerbeek (2000) response? RQ4.3 To what degree H4.3.1. Past Match attendance explains difference in Kwon et al., (2008); does past match BIRGing. McDonald (2010); Trail et attendance explain H4.3.2. Past Match attendance explains difference in al., (2012) satisfaction. difference in fan H4.3.3. Past Match attendance explains difference in response? purchase intention. RQ4.4 To what degree H4.4.1. Length of membership explains difference in McDonald (2010); does the length of club BIRGing. McDonald et al., (2014c); membership explain H4.4.2. Length of membership explains difference in Page et al., (1996) satisfaction. difference in fan H4.4.3. Length of membership explains difference in response? purchase intention

130 4 CHAPTER FOUR – RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Chapter Two presented an extensive examination of the relevant sports fan literature with a specific focus on motivation, attachment, stadium facilities and their impact on sports fans’ satisfaction, basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) and future purchase intentions. In addition, literature focussing on differences based on gender, age, past match attendance and length of club membership was examined.

Chapter Three presented the research questions that came from the literature review and included a conceptual framework that illustrated the possible relationships between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors and their impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intentions.

4.1 Chapter introduction

Chapter Four outlines the research method used for this project and specifically the research paradigm, research design and data collection. This chapter also outlines data preparation including missing value analysis as well as the rationale for using factor analysis. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the rules for assessing model fit. Figure 4.1 presents an outline of the chapter and its structure.

Figure 4-1 Map for Chapter Four: Research design and methodology

131 4.2 Research design

The original aim of this study was to explore season ticket holders (STH’s) of three Melbourne based AFL clubs, Collingwood Football Club (CFC), Melbourne Football Club (MFC) and St Kilda Football Club (SKFC). Season ticket holders were chosen as they are considered, “vital to professional sport club revenues and they are purported to be the most loyal and involved of fans” (McDonald, 2010 p.676). The fans of the Collingwood and Melbourne football clubs are characterised as extremely passionate and limited commitment respectively. St Kilda members were chosen because of the clubs limited ultimate success with just one premiership (1966) during its 118-year history in the VFL and AFL.

Although all three AFL clubs, CFC, MFC and SKFC, showed strong initial interest to participate in this study, gaining all three clubs commitment to running the survey within a reasonable time period proved to be difficult. The membership manager at CFC was concerned about member survey fatigue as the club was committed to the AFL funded members survey run by Deakin University. The Melbourne Football club priorities at the time were survival focussed and a member survey did not appear to be considered important by their senior management team. By contrast, the St Kilda Football Club was able to confirm access to its membership prior to the commencement of the 2010 AFL Premiership season.

The initial thought was to delay data analysis until all three AFL clubs were able to provide access to their membership. However, the decision to proceed with just the data collected from SKFC STH’s was taken when it became clear that the two other AFL clubs were unable or unwilling to provide a solid commitment to running the survey. Consequently the study became a single club case study rather than delay data collection and analysis for an indefinite period. This does limit the generalizability of the findings to all AFL Clubs and especially AFL clubs based outside Victoria. However the study does provide insights regarding St Kilda Football Club member’s motives, attachments and stadium factors and how these factors impact on their satisfaction, basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) and their intention to attend future AFL matches, their likely purchase of club merchandise and club membership renewal.

4.2.1 Introduction to research design

The project used two USA developed scales; the Sport Interest inventory (SII) and the Point of Attachment index (PAI). Three models developed by Woo et al., (2009); Hall et al., (2010) and Theodorakis et al., (2013) were used as a starting point to develop a new conceptual model. Figure 4.2 provides a section ‘road’ map.

132

Figure 4-2 Map for section 4.2 - Research design

4.2.2 Research paradigm

There are at least five major paradigms that structure research efforts (Brennan, Voros & Brady 2011). Often the research traditions are categorised along an interpretivist-positivist continuum (see Table 4-1 and Table 4-2). All five paradigms are typically considered for a social science quantitative study where new knowledge is constructed based on previous studies. The lens through which this research is conducted is one of positivism. The main differences between paradigms are presented in Table 4-1 and Table 4-2.

4.2.2.1 The positivism paradigm

The ontological assumptions underpinning positivism are that the social world exists externally, and that its properties should be measured through objective methods (Easterby- Smith, Thorpe & Lowe, 2002). The epistemological assumption for this paradigm is that reality is only significant if it is based on observations of external reality. This tradition is founded on the belief that the study of human behaviour should be conducted in the same way as studies in the natural sciences. It is based on the assumption that social reality is independent of the researcher and exists regardless of whether or not the researcher is aware of it (Hunt, 2003). It assumes that observations can be made that lead towards some objective

133 ‘truth’. This paradigm is usually associated with quantitative research that typically incorporates tools to measure numbers indicating cause and effect relationships.

This approach seeks to produce general laws as the basis of scientific explanation to discover, anticipate, predict, document and control the behaviour or phenomena (Hussey & Hussey, 1997). This paradigm consists of establishing relationships between variables by establishing causal laws and linking them to deductive or integrated theory. The positivism paradigm is typified by data collection methods using quantitative techniques such as surveys, experiments and statistics.

The paradigm aims at rigorous exact measures and objective research, and tests hypotheses by carefully analysing numbers from measures (Neumann, 2001). Therefore, concepts need to be operationalised in a way that allows for quantitative measurement. Problems are better understood if reduced to the simplest possible elements. The sample needs to be sufficiently large so that inferences or generalisations can be drawn about the wider population and finally that regularities can most easily be identified through cross sectional analysis (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002).

4.2.2.2 Alternative paradigms

The post-positivist paradigm is in some aspects similar to the positivist paradigm including its axiology that knowledge of the world is invaluable, the research aim is to explain, predict and control and that research is conducted by a ‘dis-interested scientist’. The major differences between the positivism and the post-positivism paradigms include acceptance that in the post positivism paradigm, research is unlikely to capture a ‘perfect’ reality and that research findings are probably true rather than ‘absolute truth’. A post-positivism approach may also include qualitative as well as quantitative research methods.

The criticalist paradigm applies a subjective, historical lens and recognises that reality is shaped by social, political cultural, economic, ethnic and gender values over time. The aim of enquiries under this approach is to remove ignorance and misapprehensions for the purpose of restitution and emancipation.

Constuctivism was initially developed in the 1960’s as a response to the dominance of positivism. In contrast to positivism, its ontological assumption is that reality is not objective but it is constructed and given meaning by people (Easterby Smith et al., 2002). The epistemological assumption for this paradigm is that the researcher and the research subjects, through a process of interaction, create knowledge. Easterby-Smith et al., (2002) identified six

134 main differences between this paradigm and the positivism approach. These differences are set out below.

1. The researcher is an active participant and part of what is being observed rather than independent. 2. Human interest rather than objective criteria are the main drivers of research. Explanations focus on understanding the situation rather than causality. 3. Concepts are about a range of stakeholder perspectives rather than measurement. 4. Complexity replaces reductionism. 5. Theoretical abstraction replaces statistical probability. 6. Small samples chosen for specific reasons replace large random samples.

The participatory paradigm shares some similarities with the constructivist paradigm. The differences between the two paradigms include the role of the researcher. In the participatory paradigm the inquirer is the primary voice rather than a facilitator of multiple voices. Methodology for this paradigm includes collaborative action inquiry with the aim of humans flourishing rather than understanding (constructivism) or explanation (positivism).

135 Table 4-1 Foundational stances of the five inquiry paradigms

Positivism Post-positivism Criticalism Constructivism Participatory Ontology naïve realism – ‘real’ critical realism – ‘real’ historical realism – virtual relativism – local and participatory reality – subjective-objective reality but reality but only reality shaped by social, specific co- reality, co-created by mind and given cosmos apprehendable imperfectly and political, cultural, economic, constructed realities probabilistically ethnic and gender values; apprehendable crystallised over time

Epistemology dualist / objectivist; modified dualist / transactional / subjectivist; transactional / critical subjectivity in participatory findings ‘true’ objectivist; critical value-mediated findings subjectivist; co- transaction with cosmos; extended tradition / community; created findings epistemology of experiential, presentational, findings ‘probably true’ propositional, and practical knowing; co- created findings

Methodology experimental / modified experimental / dialogic / dialectical hermeneutical / political participation in collaborative action manipulative; manipulative; critical dialectical inquiry; primacy of the practical; use of verification of multiplism; falsification of language grounded in shared experiential hypotheses; chiefly hypotheses; may include context quantitative methods qualitative methods

Axiology propositional knowing about the world is an end in propositional, transactional knowing is instrumentally practical knowing how to flourish with a itself, is intrinsically valuable valuable as a means to social emancipation, which is an balance of autonomy, cooperation, and end in itself, is intrinsically valuable hierarchy in a culture is an end in itself, is intrinsically valuable

(Source: Brennan, et al., 2011, pp. 118-119)

136 Table 4-2 Paradigm positions on selected issues

Positivism Post-positivism Criticalism Constructivism Participatory Inquiry aim explanation: prediction and control critique and understanding; human flourishing transformation; restitution reconstruction and emancipation

Inquirer ‘disinterested scientist’ as informer of decision ‘transformative ‘passionate participant’ as primary voice manifest through aware self- posture makers and change agents intellectual’ as advocate facilitator of multivoice reflective action; secondary voices in and activist reconstruction illuminating theory, narrative, movement, song, dance, and other presentational forms

Nature of verified hypotheses non-falsified structural / historical individual or collective extended epistemology; primacy of practical knowledge established as facts or hypotheses that are insights reconstructions sometimes knowing; critical subjectivity; living laws probable facts or laws coalescing around knowledge consensus

Knowledge accretion – ‘building blocks’ adding to ‘edifice historical revisionism; more informed and in communities of inquiry embedded in accumulation of knowledge’; generalisations and cause-and- generalisation by sophisticated communities of practice effect linkages similarity reconstructions; vicarious experience

Values excluded – influence denied; considered extrinsic included – formative; considered intrinsic to inquiry to inquiry

Goodness or conventional benchmarks of ‘rigour’; internal historical situatedness; trustworthiness and congruence of experiential, presentational, quality criteria and external validity, reliability and objectivity erosion of ignorance and authenticity including propositional and practical knowing; leads to misapprehensions; action catalyst for action action to transform the world in the service of stimulus human flourishing

(Source: Brennan, et al., 2011, pp. 118-119)

137 4.2.2.3 Justification of paradigm choice for this research project

As this research aims to explore correlations between season ticket holders’ (STH’s) motives, attachments and stadium factors and how these factors impact on their satisfaction, basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) and future purchase intention, it can be argued that a positivist approach is appropriate. Furthermore, this research aims to replicate and extend previous research that was conducted within a positivist paradigm.

In summary, a positivistic approach was adopted for this research project because:

1. This approach allowed the researcher to search for truths through the collection of empirical evidence. 2. Numerous studies using the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) and Points of Attachment Index (PAI) had been conducted so the extant literature is well developed. 3. This approach is in line with the requirements of replication and previous studies on sport fans’ motivation and attachment.

4.2.3 Unit of analysis

The unit of analysis is the level at which the investigation is to be based and must be clearly articulated prior to the commencement of research as the data collection methods, sample size, and variables included in the conceptual framework are all influenced by this assessment (Zikmond & Babin, 2007). This ensures an appropriate framework is established and data is captured from appropriate respondents to address the research propositions. (Sekaran, 2003).

Given this research is focussed on the consumer behaviour of sports fans, the appropriate unit of analysis is the individual club member.

4.2.4 Statistical packages

This analysis used the statistical packages of SPSS Ver. 22.0 and AMOS Ver. 22 to analyse the data and conduct structural equation modelling (SEM) to test the relationships between the dependent and independent variables, using the new conceptual model developed by the author (Chapter Three). SEM allows for both exploratory and confirmatory modelling and is recognised as a more powerful extension of the linear model (Garson, 2008).

In this chapter, the methodology used to identify and collect the data needed to explore the hypotheses set out in Chapter Three, and to test the new conceptual model, is described. The statistical methods used to analyse that data are discussed and the benchmarks used to assess model fit are presented. 138 4.3 Survey Design - Development of the survey instrument

4.3.1 Introduction to survey design

A single structured instrument was developed that included two previously validated scales, the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) and the Points of Attachment Index (PAI) as well as demographic and behavioural variables. Also, a number of new items were created and added after discussion with the senior management team at the St Kilda Football club who provided expert advice on the adaption of the instrument to Australian Rules Football. The survey was administered on-line. Figure 4.3 outlines the structure for this section.

Figure 4-3 Map for section 4.3 - Survey design development

139 4.3.2 Multi-item measures

In line with the principles of scale development, both scales (SII & PAI) employ multi-item measures. Peter (1979) links single item scales with a lack of reliability. Churchill (1979) recommends using multi-item scales to average out specificity and provide finer points of distinction within concepts and thereby enhancing reliability. In keeping with these recommendations, each construct in this study was represented by a minimum of three measurement items.

4.3.3 Scaling and measurement

All items in this study were measured on a seven-point Likert type scale. The odd number of response options provided a neutral midpoint for participants and therefore potential apprehension caused by mandatory choice (Brown & Maydeu-Olivares, 2012). Nunally and Bernstein (1978) suggest that seven point scales have been shown to offer greater reliability and accuracy by providing a wider array of choice than five-point scales.

Malhotra (2009) indicated that respondents readily understand Likert scales which suggests they are appropriate for on-line surveys. Malhotra, Hall, Shaw and Oppenheim, (2008) reported that the largest negative concerning Likert scales was the time taken to read each question . For this survey, all questions used a consistent response format where one equalled ‘strongly disagree’ and seven equalled ‘strongly agree’. Further, reverse scaling was not used in this study in order to reduce the possibility of common methods bias. Refer to Section 4.3.6 for further discussion regarding method bias issues.

4.3.4 The on-line survey

Opinio Software was used to create and publish the survey and maintain the data as it was collected. Opinio is a web-based software tool that is platform independent and allows export of the data into SPSS for further analysis. The screen in the Opinio survey was linked to each discrete measure of the survey. All the 85 SII and PAI Likert scale questions in section two required a completed answer before the participant could move to the next screen. Missed questions resulted in a message on the screen prompting the participant to complete the skipped question.

Opinio records the number of incomplete and completed surveys. In spite of this, the number of incomplete surveys is not a true indication of how many respondents attempted the survey. An individual could open the survey any number of times and in doing so generate a new

140 respondent ID each time, provided they had successfully completed a question. Once a question in the survey was answered, a survey ticket was issued if the participant leaves the survey before completing all questions. That individual could then only re-open the survey using the survey return ticket. Once data was entered into the survey, opening a new record was not possible if the attempt was made from the same IP address (i.e. the same computer). Accordingly, the record for the completed number of surveys is an accurate reflection of participant numbers but the record for the incomplete number of surveys may reflect both the respondents who attempted the survey but did not complete it and the respondents who opened the survey more than once without completing any questions.

The Opinio Software generated a total of 1122 unique respondent ID’s. As indicated above, this figure does not necessarily represent the number of individuals who opened the survey. This figure indicates the number of times the survey was opened. The response rate is discussed in Section 5.3.

4.3.5 Established measures

Two existing scales, the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) and the Point of Attachment Index (PAI) were used in the survey with minor modifications. An explanation of scale modifications is located in the following section. Refer to appendix E for a table of SII and PAI variables, their item measures and Cronbach’s alpha as recorded by Funk et al., (2003) and Kwon et al., (2005).

4.3.5.1 Sports fan motivation scale – Sport Interest Inventory (SII)

The Sports Interest Inventory (SII) was developed by Funk and others to measure a range of event and contextual motives and quantify individual difference among sport consumers (Funk et al., 2003). Season ticket holders (STHs) of the St Kilda Football club were invited to answer to a set of questions on the factors that motivated them to attend AFL matches. All of the core questions used a Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree.

Even though the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) has been tested across a range of sports and internationally, the scale has been used just once on Australian sports fans for a professional Australian team sport by Neale and Funk (2006). Table 2-13 sets out five studies that used the SII.

Despite there being no reason to suspect that the SII model would not fit data gathered in Australia, cultural and sport differences between countries requires adjustment and

141 replication. This study is the first time that the SII has been used for a sample consisting solely of season ticket holders of an AFL club in Australia.

The SII was contextualised for AFL and Australian Rules Football for this research. The SII as modified for this research examined the relationships between 48 observed variables and 16 first order variables. Appendix F: Sport Interest Inventory (SII) - presents the factor descriptions and the corresponding contextualised scale items. The major modifications to the SII used for this research are set out in Table 4-3 Modifications made to SII (Funk et al., 2003)

Table 4-3 Modifications made to SII (Funk et al., 2003)

Inventory Factor and Modification and rationale description

Community support: pride in Deleted at the questionnaire development stage because the local the community community is no longer the only support base for the club at the elite level of the AFL.

Support women’s opportunity: Deleted from research at questionnaire development stage, as AFL support for women’s sport is a men’s only competition at the elite level.

Source: Adapted from Funk et al., (2003)

4.3.5.2 Attachment scale - The Point of Attachment Index (PAI) The Point of Attachment Index (PAI) as described in Chapter Two is a comprehensive measure of a sport fan’s different points of attachment within a sport. The PAI as used in this research was modified to suit the AFL/Aussie Rules Football context. Also, three additional points of attachment were introduced following discussions with the senior managers at the St Kilda Football club. The additional points of attachment are club president, team captain and star player. Kwon et al., (2005) raised the possibility of adding a star player subscale and the circumstance that may warrant the addition. The reasons for the additional points of attachment are set out in Table 4-4 New and revised ‘attachment’ constructs with supporting rationale.

Further, attachment to the ‘university’ was revised to become attachment to the ‘club’. This change was made, as university is not a relevant factor in the AFL context, but the ‘club’ is an appropriate entity for potential attachment.

142 Table 4-4 New and revised ‘attachment’ constructs with supporting rationale.

New Inventory Factor Rationale

President The club president in some AFL clubs has a high media profile and is often a prominent spokesperson for the club (i.e. Eddie McGuire, Collingwood FC and James Brayshaw, Nth Melbourne FC). The media, for a point of view for sport wide issues, also often contacts the club president. Accordingly, the club president was considered to be a potential point of attachment for fans and a possible reason for joining and remaining a club member. At the time of data collection, Greg Westaway was the SKFC club president. Greg Westaway served as club president for the maximum allowed term of six years, from Jan 2008 to December 2013.

Team captain The team captain is required to provide leadership on and off the field and is often the face of an AFL club. Accordingly, the team captain was considered to be a potential point of attachment for fans and a possible reason for joining and remaining a club member. The St Kilda team captain at the time of data collection was , who has held the position of team captain since the start of the 2007 football season.

Star player The Woo et al. (2005) PAI includes attachment to ‘players’. Woo et al. (2005) even discussed the possible addition of a ‘star player’ subscale and the circumstances that would warrant it. With changes effective from 2010, increasing AFL player’s’ freedom to change clubs (restricted free agent after 7 years of service to one AFL club and a free agent after 10 years to one AFL club), the St Kilda FC requested the addition of a specific item concerning the potential movement of a ‘star’ player between clubs.

Revised construct Rationale

Attachment to the Changed from ‘university’ to ‘club’ attachment: The relevant community University in the context of the AFL is the club.

The complete scale as used for this research is set out in Appendix G: Point of Attachment (PAI) - contextualised and extended The PAI does include similar questions with the SII regarding the sport, team and player items.

143 4.3.6 Response bias issues

This section outlines two response bias issues that can arise and the steps taken in this study to reduce the potential for common method bias and order effects.

4.3.6.1 Common method bias Common methods bias refers to variance caused by the measurement method (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee & Padsakoff, 2003). Method biases could lead to measurement error, which may reduce the validity of the research.

This research addresses the potential for common method bias in the following ways.

• By making the survey voluntary and clearly stating that all answers are confidential. • By not asking the respondent to provide their name to preserve the respondents anonymity. • By re-assuring respondents there is no right or wrong answer to eliminate the effect of social desirability. • The use of an on-line survey also reduces the potential influence of social desirability and potential acquiescence bias that is associated with face to face interviews (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Smyth, Dillman & Christian 2007). • Ensuring that all scale items were clear, unambiguous and relevant to Aussie Rules Football and the AFL. This was checked during the pilot phase. • Designing a questionnaire that could be completed by the majority of respondents within 30 minutes to minimise respondent fatigue and boredom.

4.3.6.2 Order effects Order effects can occur when the position of an item in a survey impacts how a respondent may answer the following questions (Smyth et al., , 2007). The recommended solution to reduce the potential for order effects is to rotate the sequence of questions. (McBurney & White, 2009). Unfortunately, randomising the order of the questions was not possible using Opinio at the time of the survey design. A visual examination of all responses was undertaken to eliminate response patterns such as ‘straight lining’.

144 4.3.7 Questionnaire structure and sequencing

A sample of the final version of the questionnaire is included in Appendix H: Copy of sports fans questionnaire. The questionnaire opens with a short introduction, then asks participants to nominate the name of the AFL club they follow. The main section of the questionnaire contains 85 questions based on the SII and PAI. All questions in section two used a seven point Likert scale. Sections three through to nine explored the participant’s relationship with the club including matches attended in the 2009 AFL season as well as their identification and purchases from club sponsors. Sections 10 to 15 asked participants to share other sport and exercise interests beyond Aussie Rules Football. Sections 16 to 20 contained demographic questions including gender, age, household composition and state or territory of residence. Participants were thanked for their assistance at the start of the survey.

4.3.8 Pilot activity

The survey was piloted by a hand-picked sample of twenty AFL fans from the researcher’s social network. All participants in the pilot phase were chosen as they had a strong interest in Aussie Rules Football and could readily identify their favourite AFL team. The pilot participants comprised a mix of 12 males and 8 females.

The key objectives of the pilot were:

• To check that the questions were readily understood and were considered relevant to Aussie Rules Football and the AFL. • To determine the length of time to complete the survey. • To check the mechanics of Opinio including access for participants from a web address and that all questions in Section 2 were answered before the respondent could move to the next section of the questionnaire. The feedback from the pilot participants confirmed that:

• All questions were clear and understood and considered to be relevant to Aussie Rules Football and the AFL. • The average time to complete the pilot survey was 27 minutes with individual results ranging 22 minutes to 32 minutes. The time was considered acceptable as the survey concerned a high interest topic to participants.

145 • All pilot participants were able to access the survey through the web address link. A number of participants confirmed that the survey highlighted any missed question(s) in Section 2. The pilot phase data were destroyed in line with the conditions of ethics approval.

4.3.9 Ethics approval

Ethics approval was received prior to the commencement of the pilot study (SUHREC Project 2009/146). Refer Appendix I for Ethics approval letter.

The introduction section of the survey instrument contained details of the project’s research scope and justification, university affiliation, contact details for any concerns or further information and the research team. It also outlined the process for assuring confidentiality and that participation was voluntary and that participants were free to stop answering questions at any time.

4.4 Data collection

The following section outlines the sampling process the sample size, the history of the club involved in this single club case study, the St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) and the procedure used for the survey. Response rates are also discussed in this section. Figure 4.4 outlines the structure for this section.

Figure 4-4 Map for section 4.4 - Data collection

146 4.4.1 Sampling

Notwithstanding that student samples can sometimes suffice, Trail and James (2001) suggested that to get a true test of the motivation and attachment, real fans are needed. Funk et al., (2003) validated the SII using a mixed sample of sports fans and spectators consisting of season ticket holders and single-game attendees. In comparison, Kwon et al., (2005) collected data from a student sample for the PAI. It has previously been stated that the initial plan was to survey season ticket holders or financial members from three AFL clubs; St Kilda Football Club (SKFC), Collingwood Football Club (CFC) and Melbourne Football Club (MFC). For reasons of timing outlined in section 4.2, the decision was taken to proceed with one Melbourne based club, the St Kilda Football club.

4.4.2 Sample size

It is preferable to collect a relatively large sample to perform exploratory and confirmatory analyses (Churchill, 1979; Nunnally, 1978). Yet, it is difficult to find agreement on how the sample size should be determined (Tanaka, 1987; Lenth, 2001). Many factors influence this decision including the nature of the research and the type of analysis that is required. A sample that is too large can be just as problematic as a sample that is too small. Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson (2014) determined that researchers note that sample size can affect the statistical tests either by making it insensitive for small samples or extremely sensitive for very large samples.

Sawyer and Ball (1981) suggested a sample size of at least 100 to ensure statistical power and specifically the probability that a null hypothesis will be correctly rejected. Malhotra et al., (2008) recommended a sample size between 50 and 300. Lei and Wu (2007) proposed for structural equation modelling (SEM) a minimum of 200 respondents or five to 20 times the number of estimated variables. Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) considered the minimum sample size to be 300 for SEM.

This research project used SEM and the conceptual sports fan response model contains 24 items which results in a minimum sample size of 300 using the mid-point of 12.5 suggested by Lei and Wu (2007). The actual sample size for this project exceeds 700 and is therefore considered adequate in size to address the research questions.

A further benefit of the actual sample size of 700 plus for this project is the statistical power will assist in the prevention of Type I (rejecting a true null hypothesis) and Type II (failing to reject a false null hypothesis) errors.

147 4.4.3 The St Kilda Football Club

The St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) was a foundation club of the Victorian Football league (VFL) formed in 1897. The VFL was the predecessor to the Australian Football League (AFL). The AFL was formed in 1990. The SKFC in 2014 was one of the smaller Victorian based AFL clubs with annual revenue of $30M in 2013 and just under 31,000 financial members (Cherny, 2014). By comparison in 2012, the Saints had close to 40,000 members (Cherny, 2014), boosted by an influx of new members following consecutive grand final appearances in 2009 and 2010. The Saints lost close to 8000 members or 20% of their members in two years and by 2014 were the lowest placed Victorian AFL club in terms of financial members. Perhaps coincidentally, the Saints finished the 2014 season on the bottom of the AFL ladder with just three wins. St Kilda has won just one premiership in one hundred and eighteen years of competing in the VFL/AFL and is ranked number 11 out of 18 clubs in terms of premierships, AFL Grand Final and finals appearances since the formation of the AFL in 1990 (Connolly, 2014b).

Historically St Kilda was the perennial easy beat team of the VFL; the team didn’t win a match in its first three seasons. The 1940’s, 1950’s and 1980’s were also very lean times for on- field success for the St Kilda FC (Holmesby, 2013). The St Kilda Football club have won 26 wooden spoons (for finishing last) with four in a row during the 1980’s (Baum, 2016). At the very least St Kilda fans are resilient, their commitment is fierce and they appear to share a strong commitment of the sort that only long standing adversity can forge (Baum, 2016).

The management team of the SKFC generously agreed to provide access to its financial members in February 2010 to the author for data collection. At the time of data collection, the 2010 premiership season had not commenced but St Kilda had played in the 2009 Grand Final losing by 12 points to Geelong in a closely contested match (Mortell, 2013). St Kilda also performed well in the 2010 pre-season competition losing to Footscray in that competition’s Grand Final played on Saturday March 13th 2010 (AFL, 2010).

4.4.4 Procedure - invitation and response rate

The SKFC sent an email to all its financial members on Friday 5th March 2010 inviting them to participate in the author’s on-line survey accessed through a link embedded in the email. At the time, SKFC had 14,000 e-mail addresses or approximately 50% of financial members over the age of 18 years. Respondents were given three weeks to complete the on-line survey. The link to the survey was closed at 5pm on Friday 26th March 2010.

148 4.5 Data analysis

The process was designed to answer the four research questions, 47 hypotheses and 50 propositions. Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson (2010) suggested multivariate data analysis the best approach to uncover relationships among constructs and items found in this study.

After checking that the data were free of errors and all underlying assumptions were met for multivariate analysis, data analysis was conducted in two stages. The first stage employed confirmatory factor analysis to produce a model with good fit. SEM was then used in the second phase to assess the strength and direction of proposed relationships between and within constructs and variables of the new model.

Findings are presented in Chapter Five. Figure 4-5 sets out the section structure.

Figure 4-5 Map for section 4.5 - Data analysis

149 4.5.1 Data preparation

The collected data was statistically checked. Additionally a manual check was undertaking of the data including a visual check for flat lining, i.e. the respondent repeating the same response for multiple Likert scale questions. Responses were discarded if authenticity could not be verified. Responses were downloaded onto an Excel file and then uploaded to SPSS thus removing manual data entry and the potential for transcription error.

4.5.2 Data screening

Hair et al., (2014) recommends a series of tests including investigating for outliers as well as checking that the distribution between variables is normal, linear and homoscedastic. Additionally Hair et al., (2014) suggests checking no correlation between errors and minimal correlation between independent variables. All of these checks were completed using SPSS (V.22). The findings are set out in Chapter 5.

4.5.2.1 Missing values

All of the surveys were checked to ensure that the Likert scale questions and key demographic and behavioural questions had been completed. Additionally, the data were visually examined for missing values. This process identified twenty-three surveys with incomplete Likert scale questions. These surveys were not included in the subsequent data analysis.

4.5.2.2 Outliers

Outliers or extreme scores can create distortions in statistical analysis. Hair et al., (2014) suggest that outliers should be identified from a univariate, bivariate and multivariate perspective. SPSS can assist the detection of univariate outliers (extreme value on a single variable) through graphical methods such as box plots, stem and leaf diagrams and histograms.

When univariate outliers are detected, Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) suggest they are checked to determine if they are a legitimate part of the sample population. If they are a legitimate part of the population, they can be transformed to reduce their impact. If they are not part of the sample population, they can be deleted without loss of generalisability (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).

Two tests, Mahalanobis distance and Cook’s distance and leverage scores, can assist the detection of Multivariate outliers. Tabachnick & Fidell (2007) advise that Mahalanobis

150 distance is one of the easiest ways to detect multivariate outliers, but caution is recommended as the test can be unreliable. When detected, multivariate outliers are complex to deal with and transformation, the process recommended for univariate outliers, is unlikely to produce much effect. Hair et al., (2014) recommend that multivariate outliers be deleted from the analysis if the case is determined to be exerting undue influence on the results.

4.5.2.3 Multivariate analysis assumptions

Hair et al., (2010) recommends four tests to ensure the data provides a solid foundation as a final phase in data screening. The four tests suggested by Hair et al., (2010) are for: normality, linearity, homoscedasticity and independence of error. SPSS was used to test each of the assumptions listed below. The findings and analysis are reported in chapter five.

• Normality. Hair et al., (2010, p.71) states normality “is the most fundamental assumption in multivariate analysis and refers to the shape of the data distribution for an individual variable and its correspondence to the normal distribution”. Any statistical test is rendered invalid if there is a sufficiently large variation from a normal distribution. The shape of any distribution can be described by two measures: kurtosis (i.e. peaked or flatness) and skewness (i.e. symmetry). A zero value for both measures indicates a normal distribution (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Values above or below zero indicate a departure from normality. • Linearity. Linearity is “an implicit assumption of all multivariate techniques including factor analysis and structural equation modelling” (Hair et al., 2010, p. 76) . Linearity refers to a straight-line association between two variables. Scatterplots of the variables are commonly used to identify any non-linear patterns. • Homoscedasticity. “Homoscedasticity refers to the assumption that the dependent variables exhibit equal variance across the range of predictor variables” (Hair et al., 2010, p. 74). The non-preferred alternative is heteroscedasticity (i.e. where dispersion is uneven across values of the independent variable). Boxplots are suggested to highlight the degree of variation between groups formed by a categorical variable. “Substantial differences in the length of the boxes and whiskers between groups suggests heteroscedasticity” (Hair et al., 2010 p. 75). The most commonly used statistical test for homoscedasticity is the Levene test (Hair et al., 2010). • Independence of Error. The Durbin-Watson test is used to assess the absence of correlation between errors and scores close to 2.00 indicate the independence of errors (Field, 2009; Hair et al., 2010).

151 4.5.2.4 Multicollinearity

Hair et al., (2010, p. 93) defined multicollinearity as “the extent to which a variable can be explained by the other variables in the analysis”. Hair et al., (2010) warns that some degree of multicollinearity is unavoidable particularly in situations involving consumer response data. However, it can be a significant concern when variables are highly correlated (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) and in cases of extreme multicollinearity, (i.e. when two or more variables are perfectly correlated) it is not possible to estimate coefficients. Hair et al., (2010) recommends that a correlation matrix is used to assess multicollinearity. Correlations of 9.0 or more suggest some degree of collinearity (Hair et al., 2010).

4.5.3 Factor analysis

Hair et al., (2010, p. 94) outlined that the primary purpose of factor analysis “is to define the underlying structure among the variables in the analysis”. The two main approaches to factor analysis are exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). EFA can be useful in searching for structure among a set of variables or used as a data reduction method (Hair et al., 2010). CFA may be used when the researcher has pre-conceived ideas on the data structure based on theory or past research (Hair et al., 2010). As this study used two existing scales (SII & PAI) factor analysis was used to confirm that the key constructs provided an accurate representation of the interrelationships between variables (Harrington, 2009).

Confirmatory factor analysis using principal components extraction and Promax rotation, was conducted to check that the observed variables loaded together as expected, were adequately correlated and met reliability and validity criteria (Gaskin & Happell, 2014). Promax rotation, as an oblique rotation method, was selected as a more flexible approach for groups of factors that may have theoretically based correlations between them (Hair et al., 2010).

The correlation matrix was examined to ensure that at least some correlations scored r= 0.3 or more and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (Bartlett, 1954), and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) index (Kaiser, 1970, 1974) applied to confirm that factors loaded together as expected. Findings are reported in chapter five.

152 4.5.4 Validity

Validity is the ability of a measure to assess what it is supposed to (Brennan et al., 2011). By contrast, reliability shows that a given measure will reproduce the same results under different circumstances. A measured variable must be both conceptually valid as well as being reliable. Two types of validity will be discussed in the following sections:

• Content validity (including face validity) • Construct validity (including convergent and discriminant validity)

4.5.4.1 Content validity

Brennan et al., (2011) suggested that content validity is formative and needs to occur before data is collected. Diamantopoulos (2011) advised that crucial items may be omitted and constructs mis-specified if content validity is not established.

Content validity was established in this study through four distinct processes:

1. face validation, i.e. a subjective examination of the scale items to check that they would measure what was intended; 2. the use of two established scales (SII and PAI); 3. consultation with academics and industry experts in the field 4. the pilot activity.

It was concluded after completion of the four steps outlined above content validity was established.

4.5.4.2 Construct validity

Hair et al., (2010) recommends that all scales, including previously validated scales, are examined for construct validity. This step is usually completed during CFA (refer section 4.5.7) with standardised loading estimates registering a minimum of 0.5, but preferably 0.7 or higher. Construct validity assesses the relationships between constructs and requires testing a construct in relation to theory. Construct validity is established by testing for convergent and discriminant validity.

• Convergent Validity. Hair et al., (2010, p. 669) defined convergent validity as “the extent to which indicators of a specific construct converge or share a high proportion of variance in common”. Convergent validity is confirmed through average variance extracted (AVE). AVE values greater than or equal to 0.5 indicate adequate convergent validity (Hair et al., 2010). 153

• Discriminant Validity. Hair et al., (2010, p. 669) defines discriminant validity as “the extent to which a construct is truly distinct from other constructs in terms of how much it correlates with other constructs and how distinctly measured variables represent only this single construct”. The recommended and more rigorous test to establish discriminant validity is by comparing the average variance extracted (AVE) for any two constructs with the square of the correlation between these two constructs (Hair et al., 2010). The variance extracted should be greater than the squared correlation estimate. The logic is that the latent construct should explain more of the variance in its item measures that is shares with another construct. Passing this test provides strong evidence of discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2010).

4.5.5 Reliability

The most common test of reliability is internal consistency. Internal consistency is usually assessed by means of Cronbach’s (1951) alpha (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1978; Peter, 1979). Cronbach’s alpha is a widely used measure that assesses the consistency of the entire scale. Convention suggests that the lower limit for this test is 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010), although Nunally & Bernstein (1978) suggest 0.6 might be acceptable. This test is sensitive to the number of items in the scale (Hair et al., 2010). For a score below 0.7, Hair et al., (2010) recommends reporting the inter-item mean correlation before making a judgement regarding the scale reliability. Low alpha scores can occur for scales with a low number of items (Nunally & Bernstein, 1978).

4.5.6 Specification of formative and reflective measurement

Hair et al., (2010) advises that the issue of causality affects measurement theory. This means that the validity of the underlying constructs and their relationship to each other must be established prior to analysis of data or development and testing of theory and is a prerequisite for any correlation analysis including structural equation modelling as used in this project (Bagozzi, 1981).

To avoid misspecification of the model, it is necessary to determine the direction of effect between each construct and its items (Diamantopolous & Siguaw, 2006). For reflective measures, the direction of the relationship is from the construct to the item measured. The direction of the relationship is reversed for formative measures (i.e. from the item being measured to the construct (Diamantopolous, Riefler & Roth, 2008). The assessment process

154 for reflective and formative models is different. After consideration these factors, it was determined that all of the constructs used in this research project were reflective.

A comprehensive framework for identifying and validating reflective measurement models as suggested by Coltman, Devinney, Midgley and Venaik (2008) was used. The framework is based on:

• Theoretical considerations such as the nature of the construct, direction of causality between items and the latent construct, and the characteristics of items used to measure the construct • Empirical considerations such as item intercorrelation, item relationships with construct antecedents, consequences and measurement error and collinearity.

4.5.7 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) requires both the number of factors, and the factors each variable will load onto, to be pre-determined before an analysis is run. CFA differs from EFA as theory, as opposed to statistical techniques, determines how variables are assigned to factors. CFA tests hypothesised relationships to confirm how well the measurement theory matches the actual data using goodness of fit measures to identify and describe outcomes (Hair et al., 2010). CFA has the ability to depict the pattern of observed variables that form latent constructs in the hypothesised framework, and to test the reliability of those observed variables (Schreiber, Nora, Stage, Barlow & King, 2006). In summary, CFA provides a visual representation of the framework constructs and indicators whilst assessing the reliability and validity of the constructs (Hair & Babin, 2013).

4.5.7.1 Measurement model assessment The measurement model examines the relationship between each construct and its measures. In contrast, the structural model analyses the relationship between the constructs (Jarvis, McKenzie & Podsakoff, 2003). Until the measurement model is properly specified, any analysis of the structural model is meaningless (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Measurement models define the relationships between observed and unobserved (latent) constructs (Byrne, 2010). CFA provides a graphical and metric representation of the measurement model. This is used to examine interrelationships between latent constructs. At the same time, factor loadings, unique variances and modification indexes are examined. This allows the researcher to develop the best indicators of latent variables in anticipation of structural model analysis (Schreiber et al., 2006). For this study, CFA was performed using AMOS (V22).

155 4.5.7.2 Goodness of fit measures

Goodness of fit measures were used to determine the degree of fit between the hypothesised framework and the observed data (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In this study, model fit was estimated using the maximum likelihood estimation method (MLE), which, assuming normality of multivariate distribution, allows for the analysis of the chi-squared (χ2) statistic (Hair et al., 2010).

A non-significant χ2 suggests there is no statistical difference between the observed and estimated correlation or covariance matrices (Schumacker & Lomax, 1996). Yet, many extraneous factors may impact the chi-square significance test. For example, a small sample with few variables will generally produce a non-significant χ2, regardless of whether it meets other validity and appropriate requirements. Accordingly Hair et al., (2010) strongly recomends, the chi-square test should always be used in conjunction with other goodness of fit indices.

Additional statistic tests to confirm model fit include the:

• Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), (Tucker & Lewis, 1973) • Comparative fit index (CFI), (Bentler, 1990; McDonald & Marsh, 1990) • Normed Fit Index (NFI) • Root-mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), (Steiger & Lind, 1980; Mavondo, Gabbott & Tsarenko, 2003).

Hair et al., (2010) recommends a combination of index values, as there is no single set of index values guaranteed to identify acceptable fit. Hair et al., (2010) suggests that at least one incremental index (such as CFI or TLI) and one absolute index (i.e. RMSEA) should be reported in addition to the χ 2 result and the model degrees of freedom. Sample size and model complexity determine the acceptable range of values for each of these indices.

156 Table 4-5 Criterion for goodness of fit indices (N>250 and 12

Goodness of Fit Criterion Acceptable level Interpretation

Chi-Square (χ2) Significant p values Values > 0.05 reflect acceptable fit. expected Values 0.05 and 0.20 indicates a good fit.

Comparative Fit Index Value close to 1 Values > 0.92 reflects good fit. (CFI) Values >0.90 and <0.92 reflects acceptable fit.

Standardised Root mean Values < 0.08 Sometimes known as ‘badness of fit’ measure. residual (SRMR) SRMA > 0.1 suggest a problem with fit.

Root mean square error of Values < 0.07 Values <0.05 reflect a good fit. Values between approximation (RMSEA) 0.05 and 0.07 reflect a reasonable fit

Goodness of Fit (GFI) Values > 0.90 In the past GFI >.90 were consider good. Some argue that 0.95 should be used. In decline as a fit indicator

Adjusted goodness of fit Value close to 1 The AGFI penalises more complex models and (AGFI) favours those with a minimum number of free paths. Declining usage.

Source: Hair et al., (2010) pages 649-654.

4.5.8 Model testing

The conceptual framework presented in Chapter Three was extended to a full conceptual model with items and then explored using fifty propositions. The propositions were developed based on theory outlined in Chapter Two. A neutral proposition was developed where no specific theory was identified. The model was tested using regression analysis (SPSS) and structural equation modelling (AMOS). The findings and discussion are presented in Chapter Five.

SEM was used to determine the strength of the relationships between and within constructs as set out in the new model. SEM enabled a comprehensive examination of the construct relationships. Analysis of the new sports fan response model was conducted using AMOS (V22). All of the constructs established in the conceptual framework as set out in Chapter Three were analysed; fan motives, attachment, stadium factors, satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. The outcomes and results of both the hypotheses and proposition testing are summarised and presented in Chapter Five. Pearson coefficients were used to reflect on the respective hypotheses for the first three research questions. Pearson coefficients and ANOVA were used to test the hypotheses associated with RQ4. Path coefficients were used to establish the overall significance of the propositions established to explore the new sports fan response model.

157 4.6 Chapter Four: conclusion

This chapter described the research method used for this project and in particular, the research paradigm, research design and data collection approach. This chapter also outlined data preparation including missing value analysis as well as the rationale for using confirmatory factor analysis. This was followed by a discussion of the rules for assessing model fit. This chapter lays the groundwork for Chapter Five where the results of this research project are presented, analysed and discussed.

158 5 CHAPTER 5 – FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Chapter introduction

A review of the literature presented in Chapter Two led to the identification of a series of research questions. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationships between St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) Season Ticket Holder’s (STH’s) motivation, attachment, stadium factors and their response (satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention).

This chapter is framed around answering the following research questions.

RQ1. What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment?

RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors?

RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.4 To what degree does length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

Figure 5-1 Map for Chapter Five: Findings, analysis & discussion

159 Table 5.1 provides a full summary of the research questions and associated hypotheses. The first fourteen hypotheses are associated with RQ1 to RQ3, and the hypotheses are addressed using Pearson correlations. Pearson correlations in conjunction with ANOVA were used for the remaining 33 hypotheses associated with RQ4. The majority of the hypotheses were supported. This support provided permission to explore the strength and direction of the relationships between constructs using propositions to explore the new sports fan response model, which was based on the conceptual framework outlined in Chapter Three.

CFA was applied to each construct that makes up the conceptual framework to produce a final model with ‘good fit’. The new model was used to provide responses to propositions regarding the strength and direction of proposed relationships between constructs and variables. This model was also used to explore differences based on gender, age and past match attendance.

160 Table 5-1 Research questions and hypotheses

Research Q Hypotheses

RQ1. What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? HI. There is a relationship between fan motives and attachment RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors? H2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. H2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and stadium factors. RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

RQ3.1 H3.1.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and satisfaction Satisfaction H3.1.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction

H3.1.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction

RQ3.2 H3.2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and BIRGing BIRGing H3.2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing

H3.2.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing

RQ3.3 H3.3.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and purchase intention Purchase intention H3.3.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention

H3.3.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention

H3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention.

H3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.1.1 H4.1.1.1 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with family Motives H4.1.1.2 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with friends

H4.1.1.3 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with other fans

H4.1.1.4 Gender explains difference in the motive of excitement

H4.1.1.5 Gender explains difference in the motive of drama

H4.1.1.6 Gender explains difference in the motive of acquisition of sport knowledge.

H4.1.1.7 Gender explains difference in the motive of escape

H4.1.1.8 Gender explains difference in the motive of vicarious achievement

H4.1.1.9 Gender explains difference in the motive of aesthetics

RQ4.1.2 H4.1.2.1 Gender explains difference in attachment to the star player Attachment H4.1.2.2 Gender explains difference in attachment to the players

H4.1.2.3 Gender explains difference in attachment to the team

161 Research Q Hypotheses

H4.1.2.4 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport

H4.1.2.5 Gender explains difference in attachment to the captain

H4.1.2.6 Gender explains difference in attachment to the coach

H4.1.2.7 Gender explains difference in attachment to the president

H4.1.2.8 Gender explains difference in attachment to the club

H4.1.2.9 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport level

RQ4.1.3 H4.1.3.1 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium value Stadium factors H4.1.3.2 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium staff (service)

H4.1.3.3 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium environment

RQ4.1.4 Fan H4.1.4.1 Gender explains difference in BIRGing response H4.1.4.2 Gender explains difference in satisfaction

H4.1.4.3 Gender explains difference in purchase intention.

RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

H4.2.1 Age explains difference in BIRGing

H4.2.2 Age explains difference in satisfaction

H4.2.3 Age explains difference in purchase intention.

RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

H4.3.1 Past match attendance explains difference in BIRGing

H4.3.2 Past match attendance explains difference in satisfaction

H4.3.3 Past match attendance explains difference in purchase intention.

RQ4.4 To what degree does the length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

H4.4.1 Length of membership explains difference in BIRGing

H4.4.2 Length of membership explains difference in satisfaction

H4.4.3 Length of membership explains difference in purchase intention.

162 5.2 Participant profile

All participants were financial members (season ticket holders) of the St Kilda Football Club. The participant profile is summarised in Table 5.2. The participant response was 60% male, with 38% of the sample under 40 years of age. The gender split of the participants compares with the AFL memberships profile where 44% of its fan base is female (Lane, 2014b).

Over 74% of the participants had followed St Kilda for more than 20 years but fewer than 20% of the participants had been financial members of the club for more than 20 years. Twenty-five per cent of the participants had been a financial member for three years or less, 59% for less than ten years and 82% less than 20 years. 56% of the sample attended ten or more AFL matches in 2009 and more than 60% of the sample intended to attend 10 or more AFL matches in 2010. About 21% of the sample attended no more than three matches in 2009 with approximately 16% planning to attend no more than three matches during the 2010 season. According to McDonald (2010) the members most likely not to renew their membership are those who are relatively new (i.e. less than three years since joining) and members that attend a small number of matches. This result means (assuming that the sample is representative of the SKFC membership base) that approximately 16% of the SKFC members have high non-renewal potential.

Approximately 70% of the sample described their household as a couple with an almost equal split between couples with children at home and couples with no children at home. More than 75% of the sample lived in the state of Victoria. This is not surprising, as the St Kilda Football Club is based in Melbourne even though it played up to three home matches per season during the period 2001 to 2006 in Tasmania (Niall, 2013) and during the three-year period, 2013-2015, played one home match per season in Wellington, New Zealand (AAP, 2016).

163 Table 5-2 Participants’ profile

Demographic variables Responses Survey %

Gender

Males 418 60.1

Female 277 39.9

Total 695 100.0

Age Two groups: Younger % (<40yrs) older fans (>40)

Under 18 31 4.4

18-29 116 16.5

30-39 118 16.8 265 37.6

40-49 165 23.4

50-59 182 25.9

60 plus 92 13.0 439 62.4

Total 704 100.0 704 100.0

Behavioural variables

No. matches attended Two groups: Low past match attendees (6 matches and under) Frequent past match attendees (7 and over matches)

Zero 23 3.3

1-3 128 18.2

4-6 94 13.4 245 34.9

7-9 63 9.0

10-12 67 9.5

13-15 137 19.5

More than 15 190 27.1 457 65.1

Total 702 100.0 702 100.0

Years of club membership Two groups: New members (<6 years of membership) Established members (>7years of membership)

Less than 1 year 65 9.2

1-3 years 112 15.9

4-6 years 136 19.3 313 44.5

7-10 years 101 14.4

11-15 years 115 16.4

16-20 years 57 8.1

More than 20 years 117 16.7 390 55.5

Total 703 100.0 703 100.0

164 5.3 Response rate

A total of 704 completed and viable surveys were received for an overall response rate of 5%. SKFC had 14,000 email addresses for its financial members at the time of data collection. Even though this response rate is well below the 27% to 30% recorded by McDonald (2010) and 32% by McDonald et al., (2013b), it is still considered a good response given that members were advised of the survey just once via a club email, the survey was available before the regular AFL season had commenced, and no tangible incentive was provided to members to complete the survey. Weimiao and Zheng (2010) conducted a systematic review of factors that affect response rates of on-line surveys and noted that on-line surveys usually receive a 10% lower response rate than mail and telephone surveys.

5.4 Data screening and reliability

Prior to conducting multivariate analyses (MVA) the data were screened for suitability for MVA and CFA modelling using AMOS. The results of screening showed that the data were suitable (refer Chapter Four). Frequencies for item-level responses are contained in Appendix J and Appendix K contains the histograms for the items. This background data is provided as support for the sections that follow but it is not reported in depth here because the main findings are about the relationships between the key constructs of fan motives, attachment, stadium factors, satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention.

5.4.1 Data reliability

Subsequent to the tests of normality and central tendency, the scales and items were tested for internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha. Internal consistency is usually assessed by means of Cronbach’s (1951) alpha (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1978; Peter, 1979). Cronbach’s alpha is a widely used measure that assesses the consistency of the entire scale. Convention suggests that the lower limit for this test is 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010), although Nunally and Bernstein (1978) suggested 0.6 might be acceptable. This test is sensitive to the number of items in the scale (Hair et al., 2010). Low alpha scores can occur for scales with a low number of items (Nunally & Bernstein, 1978).

165 Table 5-3 Cronbach’s alpha values for all factors

Scale Factor Alpha coefficients

SII Escape 0.96

SII/PAI Sport 0.82 (6 items)

SII Value 0.93

SII Family 0.90

SII Friends 0.84

SII Drama: 0.88

SII Vicarious achievement: 0.90

SII Stadium staff (customer service) 0.84

SII/PAI Interest in players: 0.88 (6 items)

SII Role model 0.88

SII Other fans (socialisation) 0.84

SII/PAI Interest in team: 0.85 (6 items)

SII Sport knowledge (acquisition) 0.88

SII Excitement 0.94

SII Stadium environment: 0.79

SII Aesthetics 0.80

PAI/SII Team 0.85 (6 items)

PAI/SII Sport 0.82 (6 items)

PAI Club 0.86

PAI/SII Players 0.88 (6 items)

PAI Sport level 0.64

PAI Coach 0.62

NEW President 0.71

NEW Captain 0.91

NEW Star player 0.55

PAI BIRGing 0.94

PAI Satisfaction 0.92

PAI Purchase intention (future) 0.74 (4 items)

NOTE: All scales except for those nominated above were based on three items.

166 Table 5-3 showed Cronbach’s Alpha values for each construct from the two scales used, Sport Interest Inventory (SII) and Points of Attachment Index (PAI). All SII items exceeded 0.7 for Cronbach’s Alpha. All PAI items, except sport level, coach and star player also scored 0.7 or higher. As all PAI items, except star player, achieved a score exceeding 0.6, which is considered acceptable (Nunally & Bernstein, 1978). All items were retained noting that the Cronbach Alpha of 0.55 for the item star player is considered poor (Nunally & Bernstein, 1978). Composite variables were created using the method outlined in Chapter Four. Refer to Appendix L for Factor descriptions and Cronbach’s alpha comparisons for SII (Funk et al., 2003) and PAI (Kwon et al., 2005).

5.5 Answering the research questions – correlations and ANOVA analysis

In order to examine the relationship between fan motives and attachment to sport, the data were analysed using Pearson correlations. In order to complete the analysis, the data were collapsed to a single index factor using the procedure outlined in Chapter Four.

5.5.1 RQ1: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment?

The first question investigated the relationship between fan motives and potential points of attachment. As usual, researchers including Mahony et al., (2000) Trail and James (2001) and Fink et al., (2002a) treated team identification as uni-dimensional. Nonetheless, Funk et al., (2000, 2001, 2002); Kwon and Armstrong (2004) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) suggested that there may be additional points of attachment for sports fans and spectators including players, coach, sport levels and the sport itself. In order to examine this question, the following hypothesis was developed.

H.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and attachment

Table 5-4 presents the results for the motivation scale for sports consumption and points of attachment correlations.

167

Table 5-4 RQ1 Fan motives and points of attachment correlation analysis.

Scale Dimension Sub-scale PAI PAI PAI PAI PAI PAI PAI PAI PAI / Factor Star Players Team Sport Captain Coach President Club Sport player level

SII Fan Family 0.164** 0.070 0.157** 0.201** 0.001 0.102** 0.053 0.169** 0.053 motives

SII Fan Friends 0.193** 0.169** 0.109** 0.173** 0.125** 0.198** 0.212** 0.210** 0.099** motives

SII Fan Other fans 0.218** 0.184** 0.201** 0.236** 0.159** 0.192** 0.207** 0.294** 0.143** motives

SII Fan Excitement 0.206** -0.122** 0.583** 0.461** -0.126** 0.018 -0.049 0.406** 0.055 motives

SII Fan Drama 0.047 0.073 0.082* 0.209** 0.074* 0.069 0.024 0.146** 0.215** motives

SII Fan Knowledge 0.222** -0.046 0.447** 0.475** -0.049 0.074 0.043 0.413** 0.143** motives acquisition

SII Fan Escape 0.180** 0.126** 0.239** 0.247** 0.087* 0.112** 0.143** 0.282** 0.011 motives

SII Fan Vicarious 0.255** 0.020 0.491** 0.400** 0.018 0.075* 0.054 0.447** 0.035 motives achievement

SII Fan Aesthetics 0.196** 0.080* 0.317** 0.488** 0.056 0.099** 0.065 0.351** 0.154** motives

* Significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level.

168 5.5.1.1 RQ1 Fan motives and attachment - findings

Table 5-4 outlined the results of the correlation analysis for fan motives and attachment. The results showed that there were significant correlations between most but not all fan motives and points of attachment. Therefore hypothesis 1 was partially supported.

The correlations rated as strong (above 0.350) were between the motives excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement and three points of attachment, team, sport and club. All of these correlations were positive. The motive aesthetics showed strong positive correlations with the attachment points of sport and club and a moderate correlation with the point of attachment, team.

It is interesting that correlations between six out of nine fan motives and attachment to on- field individuals such as star player, players and captain, and off-field individuals such as the coach and club president were not significant.

5.5.1.2 RQ1 Fan motives and attachment - discussion of findings These findings supported previous research (Funk et al., 2000; Funk et al., 2001, Funk et al., 2003; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Neale & Funk, 2006; Robinson et al., 2005a) that committed fans such as season ticket holders may have additional points of attachment, rather than just an attachment to the team. The findings were also consistent with Robinson and Trail’s (2005b) finding that attachment to the team, sport and university (changed to club for this study) were of primary importance.

The findings of this study partially supported the work of Woo et al., (2009). The Woo et al., (2009) study suggested that the fan motives of escape, an overarching motive shared with spectators, vicarious achievement and other fans were related to four points of attachment; team, coach, university (replaced by club in this study) and players. The Woo et al., (2009) study was based on the work of Trail et al., (2003b) and specifically stated that spectators and fans may have different motives and these motives may lead to different points of attachment.

Therefore, the common ground between this study and Woo et al., (2009) was the significant strong positive relationships between the fan motive, vicarious achievement and two points of attachment; team, and club.

169 The differences pinpointed in this study compared to Woo et al., (2009) study included:

1. No significant relationship between the motive, vicarious achievement and the players’ point of attachment. 2. The spectator motive of aesthetics had strong positive correlations with two fan points of attachment; team, and club and a moderate correlation with a third fan point of attachment, players. 3. The spectator motive of knowledge acquisition had a strong correlation with two fan points of attachment; team and club.

Accordingly, this study concluded that the two motives previously suggested by Woo et al., (2009) as spectator motives—that is to say, aesthetics, and knowledge acquisition— could be considered fan motives rather than purely spectator motives, based on their relationship with points of attachment, team and club.

5.5.1.3 RQ1 Fan motives and attachment - implications of findings

These relationships are important for the SKFC to consider because multiple points of attachment may assist the club to predict more accurately the cognitive, affective, conative and behavioural dimensions of sports fans (Kwon et al., 2005). AFL clubs are directly responsible for the presentation of home games and so they can have a direct impact on the excitement associated with AFL games. McDonald et al., (2013b) identified the match day experience and the entertainment value of matches as key areas of club performance that impacted on club members’ satisfaction. For that reason it is not surprising that the AFL has publicised its work with its clubs in 2015 and 2016 to make games more thrilling and engrossing for match attendees. The AFL appears to be concerned about the long-term decline in match attendance in its home state of Victoria. The initiatives trialled in 2015 included stadium lighting in club colours, crowd participation in singing club related songs prior to the start of the game, the increased use of club banners and club messages and the re-introduction of reserve grade matches prior to the main game, as well as allowing match attendees on the playing surface at the conclusion of the match (King, 2016). The trial of these initiatives followed the success in 2014 of both South Australian clubs, the Adelaide Crows and Port Power in presenting matches at the refurbished . (Cherny, 2015)

It can also be argued that AFL clubs need to embrace fully the range of equalisation measures that the AFL has in place. The aim of these measures is to create an even competition where the outcome of every match is uncertain. The potential of every club to win a match directly impacts on excitement and drama. The equalisation measures the AFL already has in place 170 include salary caps and player draft rules and more recently a cap and tax on football department spending. (Smith, 2015)

AFL clubs do assist fans and spectators to build their knowledge of the game through their websites and match program. The SKFC could also run competitions based on knowledge about the sport, the club, competing teams and players during games using the large video screens as well as on-line so the contests can be accessed by fans using portable devices such as smart phones. The SKFC could also review the information provided to potential club members and children during school visits to ensure its relevancy in building appropriate knowledge about the club team and sport. The AFL and its media partners are also influential in building knowledge of the game through media coverage of all AFL matches as well as match previews and match post-mortems.

The finding concerning the power of vicarious achievement or the sense of accomplishment felt by a fan when their team wins is consistent with McDonald et al., (2013b) conclusions that on-field performance and especially winning is one of four factors important to club members’ overall satisfaction. The other aspects were the effort put in by players and the entertainment value of the match, as well as the coaching performance on match day. Quick, (2000) also identified winning as important. Yet, the importance of victory as a main or sole driver of match attendance is not universally supported. Mashiach (1980) concluded that match attendance is not determined by one single factor but by a myriad of factors.

Aesthetics, which in this study was defined as the strategy and the traditional aspects of the game in comparison to other football codes and especially soccer, is a shared responsibility between the AFL and its clubs. The AFL, as the games rule maker, has a responsibility to keep the game open, fast moving, high scoring and a skilful spectacle. The clubs’ responsibility is to ensure that the coach and team deliver a match performance in line with the rules and spirit of the game.

The finding concerning the secondary importance of on-field individuals such as the captain, players and star player as points of attachment may be reassuring for the SKFC and other AFL clubs, given increased player movement between clubs through the draft process and player free agency. This discovery also has implications for club promotion and communication with the focus on the collective entities of team and club. The conclusion concerning the secondary importance of off-field leaders such as the coach and club president may be in part a reflection of the individuals holding these respective positions at SKFC at the time of data collection. Additionally, it could be a reflection of the relatively short time that

171 an individual holds these positions. This is a limitation of a single club case study and is worthy of further investigation. It would be interesting to see if a high profile and long- serving coach such as Alistair Clarkson at Hawthorn or high profile and long serving president such as Eddie McGuire at Collingwood would significantly change this finding. Section 6.5 Implications for future research recommends that future research include AFL clubs with high profile coaches and club presidents.

In summary, the SKFC and the AFL and its clubs have an important role in building attachment to the sport, the team and club respectively. The key activities that the SKFC needs to undertake are: to build anticipation prior to the match as well during the match itself, undertake sport, club and team knowledge building activities, to create a winning culture within the club and to ensure that the coach and team play within the spirit and rules of the game.

5.5.2 RQ2: What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors?

In order to examine the nature of the relationship between a fan's motives, their attachment to the sport and stadium factors such as entertainment value, customer service provided by stadium staff and the stadium environment, the following two hypotheses were developed as set out in Table 5.5.

Table 5-5 RQ2 Hypotheses - fan motives, attachment & stadium factors

No. Hypotheses

H2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and stadium factors.

H2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and stadium factors.

172 5.5.2.1 RQ2 Fan motives and stadium factors correlation analysis Table 5.6 presents the results for fan motives and stadium factors correlations.

Table 5-6 RQ2 Fan motives and stadium factors correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Subscale Stadium Factor Stadium Factor Stadium Factor Factor Entertainment Staff (customer Environment value service)

SII Fan motives Family 0.158** 0.178** 0.302**

SII Fan motives Friends 0.085* 0.081* 0.229**

SII Fan motives Other fans 0.244** 0.252** 0.423**

SII Fan motives Excitement 0.300** 0.250** 0.435**

SII Fan motives Drama 0.083* 0.137** 0.113**

SII Fan motives Knowledge 0.269** 0.190** 0.365** acquisition

SII Fan motives Escape 0.127** 0.186** 0.279**

SII Fan motives Vicarious 0.223** 0.225** 0.372** achievement

SII Fan motives Aesthetics 0.215** 0.351** 0.401**

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5-6 confirmed significant positive relationships between all fan motives and all three stadium factors. Therefore, hypothesis H2.1 is supported.

Four motives; other fans, excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement all displayed strong positive correlations with stadium environment. Additionally, the motive aesthetics showed a strong positive correlation with both stadium staff and stadium environment. All relationships between fan motives and entertainment value were significant, but none of the correlations were rated as strong.

173 5.5.2.2 RQ2 Fan attachment and stadium factors correlation analysis Table 5.7 presents the results for attachment and stadium factors correlations.

Table 5-7 RQ2 Fan attachment and stadium factors correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Subscale Stadium Factor Stadium Factor Stadium Factor Factor Entertainment Staff (customer Environment value service)

PAI Point of Star player 0.099** 0.213** 0.220** Attachment

PAI Point of Players 0.000 0.127** 0.083* Attachment

PAI Point of Team 0.190** 0.092* 0.347** Attachment

PAI Point of Sport 0.202** 0.274** 0.357** Attachment

PAI Point of Captain 0.024 0.136** 0.080* Attachment

PAI Point of Coach 0.101** 0.167** 0.136** Attachment

PAI Point of President 0.100** 0.200** 0.170** Attachment

PAI Point of Club 0.252** 0.248** 0.340** Attachment

PAI Point of Level 0.136** 0.155** 0.098** Attachment

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5.7 confirmed there are significant relationships between most but not all attachment points and the three stadium factors. Therefore, hypothesis H2.2 is partially supported.

The correlations which were rated as strong (above 0.340) were between the three points of attachment; team, sport, and club and stadium environment. All of these correlations were positive.

5.5.2.3 RQ2 Discussion & implications of findings The importance of stadium facilities concurs with research conducted by Hall et al., (2010) and McDonald et al., (2013b). Hall et al., (2010) discovered that the most significant predictors of attendance were the emotion attached to the event and the perceived quality and availability of stadium facilities. This conclusion highlighted both the social and emotional

174 aspects to attending sporting events with spectators interested in having fun, being entertained and being comfortable at the event. McDonald et al., (2013b) set out to identify the components of a club season ticket package that were most influential on buyer satisfaction. McDonald et al., (2013b) reported that the home ground and specifically, its ambience, as a place to watch football and the standard of facilities was one of four factors that significantly impacted on STH satisfaction. This finding is in contrast to other research, including research by Theodorakis et al., (2013) and Yoshida and James (2010). Theodorakis et al., (2013) identified that game quality and team performance had a stronger influence on spectator satisfaction than functional quality. Functional quality consisted of five dimensions including stadium facilities (access and security, cleanliness, amenities such as bars and restaurants and comfortable seating) and stadium staff’s attentiveness and responsiveness to match patrons. Yoshida and James (2010) studied two types of satisfaction at sporting events: game satisfaction and service satisfaction. Data was collected in both Japan and the USA. Game satisfaction had a significant impact on behavioural intention to attend future sporting events in both USA and Japan, but service satisfaction was determined to have a significant relationship with future attendance intention in Japan only.

The above research reinforces the importance that the SKFC provide a safe and friendly environment for its home matches and sports events as a priority. Affordable entertainment and courteous and available stadium staff is also important but is secondary. The findings of this study also emphasise the fact that the stadium environment is a crucial element in differentiating AFL matches from other football codes (aesthetics) as well as contributing to excitement and a heightened sense of personal or collective esteem (vicarious achievement) associated with AFL games. The venue also needs to be able to facilitate social interaction among like-minded fans (Doyle et al., 2016).

There is no doubt that stadium facilities have improved dramatically since the 1990’s as AFL clubs such as St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) moved from a poorly equipped and serviced suburban ground at Moorabbin in 1992 via AFL Park on the eastern outskirts of Melbourne in a rain belt with virtually no public transport to a brand new purpose-built premium stadium located on the edge of the Melbourne CBD in 2000 in the former docklands area (Holmesby, 2013). Etihad stadium, as the is now known, has excellent access via public transport, is roofed so patrons stay dry on wet weather days, comfortable seats and great sight lines as well as a range of bars and eating areas (Dowling, 2016).

175 However, the SKFC can do more given the importance of stadium factors. SKFC shares Etihad stadium with four other AFL clubs including Essendon, Western Bulldogs, Carlton and North Melbourne. The opportunity to socialise with family, friends and other like-minded spectators is an important motive for those attending matches (Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Fink et al., 2002b; Robertson & Pope, 1999; Wann et al., 2004). Further, Kahle and Riley (2004) reported that socialisation at sport events enhanced the overall experience for match attendees and that the enjoyment of sport is often elevated by group interaction. Therefore, the SKFC should facilitate pre-match and/or post match events for all of its members and not just members who have purchased catering packages. The purpose of these events is to strengthen the sense of shared identity or collective esteem as well as to facilitate member introductions, especially for those who sit in close proximity during matches.

In summary, for the SKFC, stadium factors are important in strengthening two points of attachment; team and club. Additionally, stadium factors including the stadium environment and stadium staff, contribute to the fan motives, socialising with other fans, excitement, knowledge acquisition, vicarious achievement and aesthetics.

For the AFL, as the peak body for the sporting code, stadium factors are important for building attachment to the sport and differentiating Aussie Rules from other football codes. Stadium facility management is challenging for AFL clubs on an individual basis as they hire the venue from a ground trust and are usually one of numerous tenants. The SKFC doesn’t have direct control over many of the service elements that contribute to customer satisfaction. The SKFC, like most other AFL clubs rely on the ground trusts and the third parties they contract for catering, sale of merchandise and hiring and managing stadium staff. Prior to the 2015 season, the AFL took a lead role in negotiating with the main stadium ground trusts in Melbourne on behalf of the Victorian based AFL clubs in an attempt to improve the stadium elements that impact on fan satisfaction (ABC, 2015). This initiative should be considered a ‘work in progress’.

Table 5.8 provides a summary of RQ2 hypotheses testing.

Table 5-8 RQ2 Summary of hypotheses testing – stadium factors

No. Hypotheses Support/Reject

H2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. Supported

H2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and stadium factors. Partially supported

176 5.5.3 RQ3: How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

In order to answer RQ3, fan motives, attachment and stadium factors were examined against the three dependent fan response variables: satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. In all, eleven hypotheses were developed for RQ3. Refer to Table 5.9 for the eleven hypotheses associated with RQ3.

Table 5-9 RQ3 Hypotheses – fan response

No. Hypotheses

3.1 Satisfaction

3.1.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and satisfaction

3.1.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction.

3.1.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction

3.2 BIRGing

3.2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and BIRGing

3.2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing

3.2.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing

3.3 Purchase Intention

3.3.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and purchase intention

3.3.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention

3.3.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention.

3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention

3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention

The sections that follow will explore the relationships between:

• Fan motives and fan response • Attachment and fan response • Stadium factors and fan response. • Intra fan response relationships (satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention)

The results showed that there are significant correlations between all nine fan motives and all three stadium factors with satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. Yet, not all points of attachment are related to satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention.

177 5.5.3.1 RQ3 Fan motives and fan response

This section explores the relationship between fan motives and the three dimensions of fan response - satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention.

Table 5-10 RQ3 Fan motives and fan response correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Subscale Satisfaction BIRGing Purchase Factor intention

SII Fan motives Family 0.223** 0.142** 0.194**

SII Fan motives Friends 0.176** 0.140** 0.122**

SII Fan motives Other fans 0.248** 0.286** 0.232**

SII Fan motives Excitement 0.491** 0354** 0.406**

SII Fan motives Drama 0.76* 0.153** 0.111**

SII Fan motives Knowledge 0.376** 0.292** 0.303** acquisition

SII Fan motives Escape 0.159** 0.140** 0.159**

SII Fan motives Vicarious 0.339** 0.369** 0.336** achievement

SII Fan motives Aesthetics 0.332** 0.246** 0.283**

• significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

5.5.3.1.1 RQ3 Fan motives and satisfaction The results in Table 5.10 showed that all nine fan motives have a significant positive correlation with satisfaction. Therefore, hypothesis 3.1.1 was supported. Excitement and knowledge acquisition demonstrated a strong positive relationship with satisfaction.

5.5.3.1.2 RQ3 Fan motives and BIRGing The results in Table 5.10 showed that all nine fan motives had a significant positive correlation with BIRGing. Therefore, hypothesis H3.2.1 was supported. The motives, excitement and vicarious achievement, showed a strong correlation with BIRGing. The finding of a strong correlation between vicarious achievement and BIRGing was consistent with previous research by Kwon et al., (2008) and Trail et al., (2012).

178 5.5.3.1.3 RQ3 Fan motives and purchase intention The results in Table 5.10 showed that all nine fan motives had a significant positive correlation with purchase intention. Therefore, hypothesis H3.3.1 was supported. The motive excitement displayed a strong correlation with purchase intention.

5.5.3.1.4 RQ3 Implications of findings The item excitement in this study consisted of three dimensions, the excitement associated with AFL games, the excitement surrounding AFL games and the game itself. The SKFC event manager, to a degree, can influence the first two dimensions through their communication and promotion strategies but the game itself is influenced by many stakeholders and is not a controllable factor. The game strategy, the player’s commitment and fitness, the rules of the game, and the evenness of the teams are just a few of the influences on the excitement of the game. The finding that the excitement of the game contributes to satisfaction was consistent with the research of Theodorakis et al., (2013).

Knowledge acquisition is a controllable factor and its strong, positive relationship with satisfaction is surprising based on its relative mid-table ranking of motives in previous research (Funk et al., 2003). Many knowledge building strategies are already in place for the SKFC with televised pre and post match panel discussions, player and match analysis and information supplied on-line through the club and host broadcaster websites as well as through the match program. The Auskick program and schools visitation program are also other valuable strategies for building knowledge about the game. The implication for both the SKFC and the AFL is to continue to develop knowledge building strategies targeted at fans and ‘yet to commit’ potential fans (pre-fans).

The finding of a strong correlation between vicarious achievement and BIRGing was consistent with previous research by Kwon et al., (2008) and Trail et al., (2012). The SKFC junior club membership and club welcome packs include a scarf and/or beanie in club colours. Part of the match event experience often includes face painting in club colours. The implication for the SKFC is to continue to encourage their fans to communicate and display their club connection.

Table 5.11 summarised the results and confirmed that the three hypothesised relationships between fan motives and fan response were supported.

179 Table 5-11 RQ3 Summary of hypotheses testing – fan motives and fan response

No. Hypotheses Support/Reject

3.1 Satisfaction

3.1.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and satisfaction Supported

3.2 BIRGing

3.2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and BIRGing Supported

3.3 Purchase Intention

3.3.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and purchase intention Supported

5.5.3.2 RQ3 Fan attachment and fan response

Table 5-12 RQ3 Attachment and fan response correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Subscale Satisfaction BIRGing Purchase Factor intention

PAI Point of Star player 0.192** 0.193** 0.195** Attachment

PAI Point of Players -0.102** 0.035 0.091* Attachment

PAI Point of Team 0.501** 0.316** 0.341** Attachment

PAI Point of Sport 0.330** 0.249** 0.347** Attachment

PAI Point of Captain -.104** 0.021 0.064 Attachment

PAI Point of Coach 0.069 0.134** 0.142** Attachment

PAI Point of President 0.031 0.109** 0.108** Attachment

PAI Point of Club 0.376** 0.421** 0.408** Attachment

PAI Point of Level of sport 0.040 0.100** 0.122** Attachment

• significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

180 5.5.3.2.1 RQ3 Fan attachment and satisfaction Table 5.12 showed that six of the nine points of attachment had significant correlations with satisfaction. Therefore, hypothesis H3.1.2 is partially supported. The attachment points of team and club showed a strong positive correlation with satisfaction. Nevertheless, it was surprising that two of the significant correlations, player and captain, were negative. There was not a significant relationship between the two off-field leadership roles of coach and president with satisfaction. The non-significant relationship between the coach and president with satisfaction is interesting and possibly a reflection of the relatively low profiles of the jobholders at SKFC at the time of data collection. This is worthy of further investigation involving an AFL club with a high profile coach and/or club president. Refer section 6.5: Implications for future research.

The strong positive correlation between team and club with satisfaction was consistent with the findings of Kwon et al., (2005). The negative correlation between players and satisfaction and captain and satisfaction was surprising and is worthy of further investigation. For the SKFC, the implication is to focus on building and promoting the team and club entity rather than specific players in all of their communication activities.

5.5.3.2.2 RQ3 Fan attachment and BIRGing Table 5.12 showed that seven of the nine points of attachment had a significant positive correlation with BIRGing. Therefore, hypothesis H3.2.2 is partially supported. Players and captain did not show a significant correlation with BIRGing. The attachment club displayed a strong positive attachment with BIRGing. This finding confirmed the importance of the team and club items and was consistent with the prior research of Kwon et al., (2008) and Trail et al., (2012). The inference for the SKFC is to continue to build and develop the club and team entity rather than focus on the relatively more transient entities of individual players or off- field leaders such as the coach or president.

5.5.3.2.3 RQ3 Fan attachment and purchase intention Table 5.12 showed that eight of the nine points of attachment had a significant positive correlation with purchase intention. Therefore, hypothesis 3.3.2 is partially supported. The one point of attachment without a significant correlation with purchase intention was captain. Sport, club and team displayed a strong positive correlation with purchase intention. This finding also reinforced the importance of the team and club and was consistent with the research of Kwon et al., (2008) and Trail et al., (2012). The implication for the SKFC is to continue to build and develop the club and team entity in all communication with members

181 and potential members. Table 5.13 summarised the results and confirmed that the three hypothesised relationships between attachment and fan response were partially supported.

Table 5-13 RQ3 Summary of hypotheses testing – attachment and fan response

No. Hypotheses Support/Reject

3.1 Satisfaction

3.1.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction. Partially supported

3.2 BIRGing

3.2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing Partially supported

3.3 Purchase Intention

3.3.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention Partially supported

5.5.3.3 RQ3 Stadium factors and fan response

Stadium factors have been identified as being important to sports fans and their purchase intentions in previous studies (Davis et al., 2010; Hall et al., 2010; McDonald, 2010; McDonald et al., 2013b). The researchers listed above reported that stadium facilities including the availability, friendliness and level of service provided by stadium staff impacted on sports fans satisfaction and future attendance. This study used three items from Funk et al., (2003) SII; the overall affordability of the sports event (entertainment value), service levels provided by stadium staff (staff service) and the event atmosphere (stadium environment).

Table 5-14 RQ3 Stadium factors and fan response correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Subscale Satisfaction BIRGing Purchase Factor intention

SII Stadium Factors Entertainment 0.312** 0.183** 0.262** value

SII Stadium Factors Staff (customer 0.212** 0.150** 0.207** service)

SII Stadium Factors Environment 0.391** 0.309** 0.348**

• significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

182 5.5.3.3.1 RQ3 Stadium factors and satisfaction Table 5.14 confirmed a positive correlation between all three stadium factors and satisfaction. Therefore, hypothesis H3.1.3 was supported. The item stadium environment showed a strong positive correlation with satisfaction. Additionally there was a moderate correlation between entertainment value and satisfaction. The importance of stadium factors and especially stadium environment (safety and security) was expected and was consistent with the research of Hall et al., (2010). For the SKFC, the implication is that stadium factors are important and need to be a major focus to ensure member satisfaction. The moderate correlation between entertainment value and satisfaction supports the AFL strategy on behalf of its clubs to work with ground trusts and their concessionaires to improve the entertainment value for match attendees.

5.5.3.3.2 RQ3 Stadium factors and BIRGing Table 5.14 showed that all three stadium factors had a significant positive correlation with BIRGing. Therefore, hypothesis H3.2.3 was supported. There was also a moderate correlation between stadium environment and BIRGing. This is a surprise as nothing in the literature has suggested a relationship between the stadium environment and BIRGing. This relationship is very interesting and is worthy of further investigation. Refer section 6.5: Implications for future research.

5.5.3.3.3 RQ3 Stadium factors and purchase intention Table 5.14 confirmed that all three stadium factors had a significant positive correlation with purchase intention. Therefore, hypothesis H3.3.3 was supported. Stadium environment displayed a strong positive correlation with purchase intention. This was consistent with the research of Hall et al., (2010)

5.5.3.3.4 RQ3 Implications of findings The importance of stadium factors and especially stadium environment (safety and security) was expected and was aligned with the findings of Hall et al., (2010). For the SKFC, the implication is that stadium factors are important and need to remain a major focus for both the club and the AFL to ensure member satisfaction and purchase intention.

Table 5.15 summarised the results and confirmed that the three hypothesised relationships between stadium factors and fan response were supported.

183 Table 5-15 RQ3 Summary of hypotheses testing – stadium factors and fan response

No. Hypotheses Support/Reject

3.1 Satisfaction

3.1.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction Supported

3.2 BIRGing

3.2.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing Supported

3.3 Purchase intention

3.3.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention. Supported

The following section will explore the relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention as well as the relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention.

5.5.3.4 RQ3 Fan response relationships The following section explores the relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention and BIRGing and purchase intention. The relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention has been described as both important and complex (Babin & Harris 2011, McDonald, 2010). Theodorakis et al., (2013) reported that satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between stadium factors and future match attendance. Trail et al., (2005) discovered that BIRGing behaviour is a prime determinant of fans intention to attend matches. Two hypotheses were developed to explore the impact of satisfaction and BIRGing on purchase intention. Refer table 5.16.

Table 5-16 RQ3 Hypotheses – purchase intention

No. Hypotheses

3.3 Purchase intention

3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention

3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention

Table 5.17 sets out the relationships between satisfaction and BIRGing with purchase intention.

184 Table 5-17 RQ3 Satisfaction and purchase intention correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Factor Purchase intention

PAI Satisfaction 0.420**

PAI BIRGing 0.409**

*significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

5.5.3.4.1 RQ3 Findings – fan response Table 5.17 showed a strong positive correlation between satisfaction and purchase intention. Therefore, hypothesis H3.3.4 was supported. This finding was consistent with the research of Babin and Harris (2011) and Theodorakis et al., (2013).

Table 5.17 also showed that BIRGing had a strong positive correlation with purchase intention. Therefore, hypothesis H3.3.5 was supported. This discovery was aligned with the work of Trail et al., (2005).

5.5.3.4.2 RQ3 Implications of findings The strong correlation established between satisfaction and purchase intention suggests that the SKFC and the AFL need to identify the main drivers of satisfaction and develop strategies to deliver satisfaction to its fans and members. This study determined that the following items were the key drivers of satisfaction for season ticket holders: the fan motives of excitement and knowledge acquisition, the attachment points of team and club, and the stadium factor of environment.

The strong correlation identified between BIRGing and purchase intention also suggests that the SKFC need to identify the main drivers of BIRGing and develop strategies to encourage BIRGing. This study discovered that the following items were the key drivers of BIRGing for season ticket holders: the motives of excitement and, vicarious achievement, the attachment point of club and the stadium factor of environment.

Table 5.18 summarised the results and confirmed that the two hypothesised relationships between satisfaction and BIRGing and purchase intention were supported.

Table 5-18 RQ3 Summary of hypotheses testing – purchase intention

No. Hypotheses Support/Reject

3.3 Purchase intention

3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention Supported

3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention Supported

185 The following section will explore RQ4 and, specifically, the impact of gender on fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response. The following section will also explore the impact of age, past match attendance and length of club membership on fan response.

5.5.4 RQ4: The impact of demographic and behavioural variables on fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response

Committed sports fans such as SKFC season ticket holders are likely to share similarities but they are also likely to have important differences. Research by Davis et al., (2010) McDonald (2010) and Westerbeek (2000) indicated that AFL club membership managers consider and develop different strategies for different segments within their membership base to maximise member renewal rates.

In order to analyse the impact of demographic and behavioural variables of gender, age, number of matches attended and length of club membership within and between the key constructs of fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response, data was analysed in two stages. Firstly, correlation analysis was initiated to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between factors. Secondly, ANOVA analysis was completed to determine the variances. The procedures used to derive these tables were outlined in Chapter Four. Table 5.19 sets out the four research questions that guided this research study regarding the impact of gender, age, past match attendance and length of club membership.

Table 5-19 RQ4 Group of Questions

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.3To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

RQ4.4To what degree does the length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

186 5.5.4.1 RQ4.1: Gender - fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response

The impact of gender has been widely researched as demonstrated by the number of studies outlined in Appendix D, but there is not universal agreement regarding the impact of gender on fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response. Hence, the inclusion of gender in this research study.

5.5.4.1.1 RQ4.1.1 Fan motives and gender

Nine hypotheses were developed for RQ4.1.1. Refer to Table 5.20 for the nine hypotheses associated with RQ4.1.1.

Table 5-20 RQ4.1.1 Hypotheses – fan motives and gender

RQ4.1 Is gender a factor in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.1.1 Motives H4.1.1.1 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with family

H4.1.1.2 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with friends

H4.1.1.3 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with other fans

H4.1.1.4 Gender explains difference in the motive of excitement

H4.1.1.5 Gender explains difference in the motive of drama

H4.1.1.6 Gender explains difference in the motive of acquisition of sport knowledge.

H4.1.1.7 Gender explains difference in the motive of escape

H4.1.1.8 Gender explains difference in the motive of vicarious achievement

H4.1.1.9 Gender explains difference in the motive of aesthetics

Table 5.21 sets out the correlations between genders for each of the nine motives used in this study.

187 Table 5-21 RQ4.1.1 Fan motives and gender correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Factor Subscale Correlations between gender and fan motives

SII Fan motives Family 0.065

SII Fan motives Friends -0.013

SII Fan motives Other fans 0.136**

SII Fan motives Excitement 0.178**

SII Fan motives Drama -0.076*

SII Fan motives Knowledge acquisition -0.088*

SII Fan motives Escape 0.033

SII Fan motives Vicarious achievement 0.075*

SII Fan motives Aesthetics 0.162**

Table 5.22 sets out variance (ANOVA) by gender for nine fan motives

188 Table 5-22 RQ4.1.1 Fan motives and gender - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Sig. Std. Std. Lower Upper Mini Maxi Fan Motives N Mean Deviation Error Bound Bound mum mum

Family Male 418 4.9458 1.63127 .07979 4.7889 5.1026 1.00 7.00

Female 277 5.1600 1.58814 .09542 4.9722 5.3479 1.00 7.00

Total 695 5.0312 1.61648 .06132 4.9108 5.1516 1.00 7.00 0.087

Friends Male 418 4.3652 1.45472 .07115 4.2254 4.5051 1.00 7.00

Female 277 4.3237 1.60210 .09626 4.1342 4.5132 1.00 7.00

Total 695 4.3487 1.51418 .05744 4.2359 4.4615 1.00 7.00 0.724

Other Fans Male 418 4.1802 1.43533 .07020 4.0422 4.3182 1.00 7.00

Female 277 4.5945 1.54678 .09294 4.4115 4.7774 1.00 7.00

Total 695 4.3453 1.49351 .05665 4.2341 4.4566 1.00 7.00 0.000

Excitement Male 418 6.2887 .95412 .04667 6.1969 6.3804 1.00 7.00

Female 277 6.5969 .60853 .03656 6.5249 6.6688 4.00 7.00

Total 695 6.4115 .84680 .03212 6.3484 6.4746 1.00 7.00 0.000

Drama Male 418 4.8676 1.50601 .07366 4.7228 5.0124 1.00 7.00

Female 277 4.6414 1.37925 .08287 4.4783 4.8045 1.00 7.00

Total 695 4.7775 1.46001 .05538 4.6687 4.8862 1.00 7.00 0.045

Knowledge Male 418 6.1268 1.04093 .05091 6.0267 6.2269 1.00 7.00 Acquisition Female 277 5.9374 1.07718 .06472 5.8100 6.0648 1.67 7.00

Total 695 6.0513 1.05883 .04016 5.9725 6.1302 1.00 7.00 0.021

Escape Male 418 4.8006 1.65781 .08109 4.6412 4.9600 1.00 7.00

Female 277 4.9146 1.77598 .10671 4.7045 5.1246 1.00 7.00

Total 695 4.8460 1.70554 .06469 4.7190 4.9731 1.00 7.00 0.389

Vicarious Male 418 5.8796 1.26256 .06175 5.7582 6.0010 1.00 7.00 Achievement Female 277 6.0698 1.19443 .07177 5.9285 6.2111 1.00 7.00

Total 695 5.9554 1.23850 .04698 5.8632 6.0476 1.00 7.00 0.047

Aesthetics Male 418 5.4904 1.42024 .06947 5.3539 5.6270 1.00 7.00

Female 277 5.9314 1.14442 .06876 5.7960 6.0668 1.67 7.00

Total 695 5.6662 1.33399 .05060 5.5668 5.7655 1.00 7.00 0.000

189 Tables 5.21 and 5.22 identified that six of the nine motives displayed significant differences by gender. The motives were: other fans, excitement, drama, knowledge acquisition, vicarious achievement and aesthetics. Therefore, hypotheses 4.1.1.1, 4.1.1.2, 4.1.1.7 were rejected and hypotheses 4.1.1.3, 4.1.1.4, 4.1.1.5, 4.1.1.6, 4.1.1.8 and 4.1.1.9 were supported. However, all of the correlations were rated as weak. Drama and knowledge acquisition displayed weak negative correlations.

What this means is that gender doesn’t really explain difference in fan motives. This is not really a surprise for fan motives, as there is considerable conflict in research findings concerning the impact of gender. For example, for the social motive of spending time with family, numerous researchers (Clarke et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2010; Fink & Parker, 2009a) reported that females were more likely to join a sports club or attend a sports event for social reasons including interacting with family members. Nevertheless, James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) reported that social interaction was not an important motive for either males or females. In contrast, Aiken and Koch (2009) and Appelbaum et al., (2012) concluded that spending time with family was an important motive for both genders.

For the motives of escape and drama, James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) reported no difference between genders. Even though this research study supports the ‘no difference’ finding for drama between genders, this investigation also discovered that excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement were the top-ranked motives and not escape and drama as reported by James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b).This study’s finding of ‘no real difference’ between genders for the fan motive of excitement was consistent with the research of Sargent et al., (1998). The only surprise regarding motives in comparison to past research is this study’s finding of ‘no real difference’ between genders for the motive of knowledge acquisition. Numerous researchers (Clarke et al., 2009; Fink & Parker, 2009a; Farrell et al., 2011) concluded that males spent more time discussing and watching sport and were more motivated by the acquisition of sport knowledge than females. For the SKFC, this finding means that for season ticket holders, gender does not explain difference in fan motives.

Table 5.23 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that six out of the nine hypothesised relationships were supported regarding the impact of gender explaining difference in fan motives.

190 Table 5-23 RQ4.1.1 Summary of hypotheses testing – fan motives and gender

Research Q’ Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.1.1 Motives

H4.1.1.1 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with family Rejected

H4.1.1.2 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with friends Rejected

H4.1.1.3 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with other Supported fans

H4.1.1.4 Gender explains difference in the motive of excitement Supported

H4.1.1.5 Gender explains difference in the motive of drama Supported

H4.1.1.6. Gender explains difference in the motive of acquisition of sport Supported knowledge

H4.1.1.7 Gender explains difference in the motive of escape Rejected

H4.1.1.8 Gender explains difference in the motive of vicarious achievement Supported

H4.1.1.9 Gender explains difference in the motive of aesthetics Supported

The following section will explore the impact of gender on attachment.

191 5.5.4.1.2 RQ4.1.2 Fan attachment and gender Nine hypotheses were developed for RQ4.1.2 and specifically to assess the impact of gender on points of attachment.

Refer to Table 5.24 for the nine hypotheses associated with RQ4.1.2.

Table 5-24 RQ4.1.2 Hypotheses – attachment and gender

RQ4.1.2 Attachment Hypotheses

H4.1.2.1 Gender explains difference in attachment to the star player

H4.1.2.2 Gender explains difference in attachment to the players

H4.1.2.3 Gender explains difference in attachment to the team

H4.1.2.4 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport

H4.1.2.5 Gender explains difference in attachment to the captain

H4.1.2.6 Gender explains difference in attachment to the coach

H4.1.2.7 Gender explains difference in attachment to the president

H4.1.2.8 Gender explains difference in attachment to the club

H4.1.2.9 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport level

Table 5.25 sets out the correlations between genders for each of the nine points of attachment used in this study.

Table 5-25 RQ4.1.2 Attachment and gender correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Factor Subscale Correlation between gender and PAI

PAI Point of Attachment Star Player -0.023

PAI Point of Attachment Players 0.086*

PAI Point of Attachment Team 0.071

PAI Point of Attachment Sport 0.000

PAI Point of Attachment Captain 0.047

PAI Point of Attachment Coach -0.017

PAI Point of Attachment President -0.049

PAI Point of Attachment Club -0.015

PAI Point of Attachment Sport Level -0.080*

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

192 Table 5.26 sets out variance (ANOVA) by gender for nine points of attachment used for this research study.

Table 5-26 RQ4.1.2 Attachment and gender - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Max Std. Std. Lower Upper Mini imu Sig. Point of Attachment N Mean Deviation Error Bound Bound mum m

Star player Male 418 4.6986 1.21059 .05921 4.5822 4.8150 1.00 7.00

Female 277 4.6426 1.19725 .07194 4.5010 4.7842 1.00 7.00

Total 695 4.6763 1.20474 .04570 4.5865 4.7660 1.00 7.00 0.549

Players Male 418 2.3381 1.09305 .05346 2.2330 2.4432 1.00 7.00

Female 277 2.5361 1.17787 .07077 2.3968 2.6754 1.00 6.50

Total 695 2.4170 1.13095 .04290 2.3328 2.5013 1.00 7.00 0.024

Team Male 418 6.4641 .84143 .04116 6.3832 6.5450 1.00 7.00

Female 277 6.5734 .60578 .03640 6.5018 6.6451 3.50 7.00

Total 695 6.5077 .75778 .02874 6.4512 6.5641 1.00 7.00 0.063

Sport Male 418 5.4199 1.33089 .06510 5.2919 5.5478 1.00 7.00

Female 277 5.4188 1.19122 .07157 5.2779 5.5597 2.00 7.00

Total 695 5.4194 1.27618 .04841 5.3244 5.5145 1.00 7.00 0.991

Captain Male 418 2.2863 1.21241 .05930 2.1697 2.4028 1.00 7.00

Female 277 2.4055 1.28959 .07748 2.2530 2.5581 1.00 7.00

Total 695 2.3338 1.24420 .04720 2.2412 2.4265 1.00 7.00 0.216

Coach Male 418 3.0383 1.10355 .05398 2.9322 3.1444 1.00 7.00

Female 277 2.9988 1.11008 .06670 2.8675 3.1301 1.00 6.33

Total 695 3.0225 1.10553 .04194 2.9402 3.1049 1.00 7.00 0.645

President Male 418 2.5941 1.04612 .05117 2.4935 2.6947 1.00 7.00

Female 277 2.4886 1.06943 .06426 2.3621 2.6151 1.00 6.67

Total 695 2.5520 1.05598 .04006 2.4734 2.6307 1.00 7.00 0.197

Club Male 418 5.3317 1.36980 .06700 5.2000 5.4634 1.00 7.00

Female 277 5.2900 1.37661 .08271 5.1272 5.4528 1.00 7.00

Total 695 5.3151 1.37168 .05203 5.2130 5.4173 1.00 7.00 0.695

Sport level Male 418 3.0311 1.28752 .06297 2.9073 3.1549 1.00 7.00

Female 277 2.8315 1.11085 .06674 2.7001 2.9629 1.00 7.00

Total 695 2.9516 1.22326 .04640 2.8605 3.0427 1.00 7.00 0.035

193 Tables 5.25 and 5.26 identified that two of the nine points of attachment displayed significant differences by gender and these two points of attachment were players and sport level. Therefore, hypotheses 4.1.2.1, 4.1.2.3 through to 4.1.2.8 were rejected and hypotheses 4.1.2.2, and 4.1.2.9 were supported. All the same, both of the correlations were rated as weak. Sport level displayed a weak negative correlation.

What this means is that gender doesn’t really explain the difference in points of attachment. This is not a surprise as there is limited research available that explores the impact of gender on specific potential attachment points. Nevertheless, the findings of this study are not consistent with James and Ridinger (2002). James and Ridinger (2002) advised that males have a greater interest in sport overall whereas females have a greater interest in teams.

This study discovered that the top three points of attachment were team, sport and the club. The three lowest ranking points of attachment were; captain, players and president. For the SKFC, this finding means that for season ticket holders, gender does not explain difference in the points of attachment.

Table 5.27 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that two out of the nine hypothesised relationships were supported regarding the impact of gender explaining difference in the points of attachment.

Table 5-27 RQ4.1.2 Summary of hypotheses testing – attachment and gender

Research Q’ Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.1.2 Attachment

H4.1.2.1 Gender explains difference in attachment to the star player Rejected

H4.1.2.2 Gender explains difference in attachment to the players Supported

H4.1.2.3 Gender explains difference in attachment to the team Rejected

H4.1.2.4 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport Rejected

H4.1.2.5 Gender explains difference in attachment to the captain Rejected

H4.1.2.6 Gender explains difference in attachment to the coach Rejected

H4.1.2.7 Gender explains difference in attachment to the president Rejected

H4.1.2.8 Gender explains difference in attachment to the club Rejected

H4.1.2.9 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport level Supported

The following section will explore the impact of gender on stadium factors.

194 5.5.4.1.3 RQ4.1.3 Stadium factors and gender

Previous research (Hall et al., 2010) established that stadium facilities are an important contributor to sports fans satisfaction and purchase intention. Nevertheless, some of the research studies available to date (Davis et al., 2010; Greenwell et al., 2002b) investigating the impact of gender on stadium factors have produced contradictory findings. This study used three items from Funk et al., (2003) Sport Interest Inventory (SII); the overall affordability of the sports event (entertainment value), service levels provided by stadium staff (customer service) and the event atmosphere (stadium environment).

Three hypotheses were developed for RQ4.1.3 in particular to assess the impact of gender for the above-mentioned three stadium factors

Refer to Table 5.28 for the three hypotheses associated with RQ4.1.3.

Table 5-28 RQ4.1.3 Hypotheses – stadium factors and gender

RQ4.1.3 Hypotheses Stadium factors

H4.1.3.1 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium value

H4.1.3.2 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium staff (customer service)

H4.1.3.3 Gender explains difference in perception of stadium environment

Table 5.29 sets out the correlations between genders for each of the three stadium factors used in this study.

Table 5-29 RQ4.1.3 Stadium factors and gender correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Factor Subscale Correlation Gender

SII Stadium factors Entertainment value 0.062

SII Stadium factors Staff (customer service) 0.109**

SII Stadium factors Environment 0.189**

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5.30 sets out variance (ANOVA) by gender for the three stadium factors used for this research study.

195 Table 5-30 RQ4.1.3 Stadium factors and gender - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Std. Max Deviatio Std. Lower Upper Mini imu Sig. Stadium Factors N Mean n Error Bound Bound mum m

Entertainment Male 418 4.8389 1.50001 .07337 4.6947 4.9831 1.00 7.00 value Female 277 5.0289 1.52091 .09138 4.8490 5.2088 1.00 7.00

Total 695 4.9146 1.51015 .05728 4.8022 5.0271 1.00 7.00 0.104

Staff Male 418 4.1029 1.41809 .06936 3.9665 4.2392 1.00 7.00 (customer Female 277 4.4188 1.39513 .08383 4.2538 4.5838 1.00 7.00 service)

Total 695 4.2288 1.41645 .05373 4.1233 4.3343 1.00 7.00 0.004

Environment Male 418 5.1770 1.17303 .05737 5.0643 5.2898 1.00 7.00

Female 277 5.6197 1.04864 .06301 5.4957 5.7438 1.67 7.00

Total 695 5.3535 1.14506 .04343 5.2682 5.4388 1.00 7.00 0.000

Tables 5.29 and 5.30 identified that two of the three stadium factors displayed significant differences by gender. These two stadium factors were: staff (customer service) and environment. Therefore, hypothesis 4.1.3.1 was rejected and hypotheses 4.1.3.2, and 4.1.3.3 were supported. Thus, the correlation for staff service was rated as weak and the correlation for stadium environment was rated as moderately weak.

What this means is that gender is not a key factor in explaining difference in stadium factors. This is not really a surprise as there is conflicting research concerning the impact of gender on stadium factors. For example, Davis et al., (2010) argued that males were very focussed on stadium facilities whereas Greenwell et al., (2002b) reported that females were more interested in stadium facilities. Nevertheless, this research study does challenge the finding by both Davis et al., (2010) and Greenwell et al., (2002b) that females placed more significance and interest in service provided by stadium staff. This study discovered little real difference between genders for customer service provided by stadium staff.

196 This study concluded that stadium environment was the top ranked stadium factor, followed by entertainment value and stadium staff service. For the SKFC, this finding means that for season ticket holders, gender does not explain difference in stadium factors.

Table 5.31 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that two out of the three hypothesised relationships were supported regarding the impact of gender explaining difference in stadium factors

Table 5-31 RQ4.1.3 Summary of hypotheses testing – stadium factors and gender

Research Q’ Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.1.3 Stadium factors

H4.1.3.1 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium value Rejected

H4.1.3.2 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium staff (customer Supported service)

H4.1.3.3 Gender explains difference in perception of stadium environment Supported

The following section explores the impact of gender on fan response.

5.5.4.1.4 RQ4.1.4 Fan response and gender

The following section explores the impact of gender on three fan response factors; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. Previous research (Bush et al., 2005; Fink et al., 2002b; Spinda, 2011) suggested that females were more likely to engage in BIRGing behaviour and displayed stronger purchase intention. This study used three dependent variables to capture fan response; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention.

Three hypotheses were developed for RQ4.1.4 precisely to assess the impact of gender for the above-mentioned three fan response factors

Refer to Table 5.32 for the three hypotheses associated with RQ4.1.4.

197 Table 5-32 RQ4.1.4 Hypotheses – fan response and gender

RQ4.1.4 Fan response Hypotheses

H4.1.4.1 Gender explains difference in participation in BIRGing

H4.1.4.2 Gender explains difference in satisfaction

H4.1.4.3 Gender explains difference in purchase intention.

Table 5.33 sets out the correlations between genders for each of the three fan response factors used in this study.

Table 5-33 RQ4.1.4 Fan response and gender correlation analysis.

Scale Dimension / Subscale Correlation by Factor Gender

PAI Fan response BIRGing 0.029

PAI Fan response Satisfaction 0.076*

PAI Fan response Purchase intention 0.126**

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5.34 sets out variance (ANOVA) by gender for the three fan response factors used for this research study.

198 Table 5-34 RQ4.1.4 Fan response and gender - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Std. Max Deviatio Std. Lower Upper Mini imu Sig. Fan Response N Mean n Error Bound Bound mum m

BIRGing. Male 418 5.0510 1.60404 .07846 4.8968 5.2053 1.00 7.00

Female 277 5.1456 1.65310 .09933 4.9501 5.3411 1.00 7.00

Total 695 5.0887 1.62325 .06157 4.9678 5.2096 1.00 7.00 0.452

Satisfaction Male 418 6.0431 1.16126 .05680 5.9314 6.1547 1.00 7.00

Female 277 6.2166 1.05620 .06346 6.0917 6.3415 1.00 7.00

Total 695 6.1122 1.12301 .04260 6.0286 6.1959 1.00 7.00 0.046

Purchase Male 418 5.2632 1.26097 .06168 5.1419 5.3844 1.00 7.00 intention Female 277 5.5767 1.14138 .06858 5.4417 5.7117 2.25 7.00

Total 695 5.3881 1.22356 .04641 5.2970 5.4793 1.00 7.00 0.001

Tables 5.33 and 5.34 identified that two of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences by gender and these two fan response factors were satisfaction and purchase intention. Therefore, hypothesis 4.1.4.1 was rejected and hypotheses 4.1.4.2, and 4.1.4.3 were supported. Yet, the correlation for satisfaction was rated as very weak and the correlation for purchase intention was rated as weak.

What this signifies is that gender is not a key factor in explaining difference in fan response. This is a surprise as Spinda (2011) noted that female NFL fans exhibited higher levels of BIRGing behaviours than male NFL fans. Also, two separate studies (Bush et al., 2005; Fink et al., 2002b) suggested that females displayed a stronger interest in purchasing sports related licensed merchandise. Nonetheless, this research study, in contrast to research by Spinda (2011) Bush et al., (2005) and Fink et al., (2002b) did not find any significant difference between genders regarding BIRGing and purchase intention. This study also discovered little real difference between genders for fan response. For the SKFC, this finding means that for season ticket holders, gender does not explain difference in fan response.

199 Table 5.34 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that two out of the three hypothesised relationships were supported regarding the impact of gender explaining difference in fan response.

Table 5-35 RQ4.1.4 Summary of hypotheses testing – fan response and gender

Research Q’ Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.1.4 Fan response

H4.1.4.1 Gender explains difference in BIRGing Rejected

H4.1.4.2 Gender explains difference in satisfaction Supported

H4.1.4.3 Gender explains difference in purchase intention Supported

The following section will explore the impact of age on fan response.

5.5.4.2 RQ4.2: Age and fan response

The following section explores the impact of age on three fan response factors; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. Previous research (Spinda, 2011) identified that younger fans were more likely to engage in BIRGing behaviour. Notwithstanding that Westerbeck (2000) and Greenwell et al., (2002b) investigated the impact of age on fans preference to socialise and stadium factors respectively, there appears to be little research concerning the impact of age on fan response. This study used three dependent variables to capture fan response; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention.

Three hypotheses were developed for RQ4.2 specifically to assess the impact of age for the above-mentioned three fan response factors

Refer to Table 5.36 for the three hypotheses associated with RQ4.2.

Table 5-36 RQ4.2 Hypotheses – Age and fan response

RQ4.2 Is age a factor in fan response?

H4.2.1 Age explains difference in BIRGing.

H4.2.2 Age explains difference in satisfaction.

H4.2.3 Age explains difference in purchase intention.

Table 5.37 sets out the correlations between age for each of the three fan response factors used in this study. 200 Table 5-37 RQ4.2 Age and fan response correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Subscale Correlation by Age and Factor Fan Response

PAI Fan response BIRGing -0.140**

PAI Fan response Satisfaction -0.088*

PAI Fan response Purchase intention -0.262**

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5.38 sets out variance (ANOVA) by age for the three fan response factors used for this research study.

201 Table 5-38 RQ4.2 Age and fan response - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Std. Max Deviatio Std. Lower Upper Mini imu Sig. Fan Response N Mean n Error Bound Bound mum m

BIRGing under 18 31 5.9140 1.31083 .23543 5.4332 6.3948 2.33 7.00 years

18-29 years 116 5.6408 1.50500 .13974 5.3640 5.9176 1.00 7.00

30-39 years 118 4.9322 1.47699 .13597 4.6629 5.2015 1.00 7.00

40-49 years 165 4.8384 1.65917 .12917 4.5833 5.0934 1.00 7.00

50-59 years 182 5.0073 1.61901 .12001 4.7705 5.2441 1.00 7.00

60 years plus 92 4.9493 1.75894 .18338 4.5850 5.3135 1.00 7.00

Total 704 5.0919 1.62107 .06110 4.9719 5.2118 1.00 7.00 0.039

Satisfaction under 18 31 6.4194 1.34155 .24095 5.9273 6.9114 1.00 7.00 years

18-29 years 116 6.3333 1.07407 .09972 6.1358 6.5309 1.00 7.00

30-39 years 118 5.9379 1.27728 .11758 5.7050 6.1707 1.00 7.00

40-49 years 165 6.1758 .97361 .07580 6.0261 6.3254 2.00 7.00

50-59 years 182 6.1007 1.11587 .08271 5.9375 6.2639 1.67 7.00

60 years plus 92 5.9167 1.07318 .11189 5.6944 6.1389 3.00 7.00

Total 704 6.1193 1.11853 .04216 6.0366 6.2021 1.00 7.00 0.479

Purchase under 18 31 6.1048 1.09502 .19667 5.7032 6.5065 2.75 7.00 intention years

18-29 years 116 5.8405 1.22847 .11406 5.6146 6.0664 1.00 7.00

30-39 years 118 5.4301 1.17891 .10853 5.2152 5.6450 1.00 7.00

40-49 years 165 5.3288 1.20270 .09363 5.1439 5.5137 1.00 7.00

50-59 years 182 5.2802 1.04083 .07715 5.1280 5.4325 2.50 7.00

60 years plus 92 4.7745 1.37534 .14339 4.4896 5.0593 1.50 7.00

Total 704 5.3793 1.22488 .04616 5.2886 5.4699 1.00 7.00 0.172

202 Tables 5.37 and 5.38 identified that just one of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences by age and this single response factor was BIRGing. Therefore, hypothesis 4.2.1 was supported and hypotheses 4.2.2 and 4.2.3 were rejected. Still, the correlation for BIRGing was rated as weak and the relationship was negative. This finding was consistent with Spinda’s (2011) research that the younger (and female) fans were more likely to engage in BIRGing behaviours. What this means is that age is not a key factor in explaining difference in fan response. For the SKFC, this finding means that for season ticket holders, age does not explain difference in fan response.

Table 5.39 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that one out of the three hypothesised relationships was supported regarding the impact of age explaining difference in fan response.

Table 5-39 RQ4.2 Summary of hypotheses testing – age and fan response

Research Q Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

H4.2.1 Age explains difference in BIRGing. Supported

H4.2.2 Age explains difference in satisfaction. Rejected

H4.2.3 Age explains difference in purchase intention. Rejected

The following section will explore the impact of past match attendance on fan response.

5.5.4.3 RQ4.3: Past match attendance and fan response The following section explores the impact of past match attendance on three fan response factors; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. Previous research (McDonald, 2010) established no significant difference in satisfaction between frequent match attendees and low match attendees. McDonald (2010) also advised that on-field achievement was more important for established club members who attended five or more matches each season. Trail et al., (2012) reported that as the need for vicarious achievement increased, BIRGing behaviour also increased. Therefore, it is expected that frequent match attendees are more likely to engage in BIRGing behaviour. There appears to be little research concerning the impact of past match attendance on purchase intention. This study used three dependent variables to capture fan response; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention.

Three hypotheses were developed for RQ4.3 specifically to assess the impact of past match attendance for the above-mentioned three fan response factors

203 Refer to Table 5.40 for the three hypotheses associated with RQ4.3.

Table 5-40 RQ4.3 Hypotheses – Past match attendance and fan response

RQ4.3 Is Past Match Attendance a factor for fan response?

H4.3.1 Past match attendance explains difference in BIRGing

H4.3.2 Past match attendance explains difference in satisfaction

H4.3.3 Past match attendance explains difference in purchase intention.

Table 5.41 sets out the correlations between past match attendance for each of the three fan response factors used in this study.

Table 5-41 RQ4.3 Past match attendance and fan response correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Factor Subscale Correlation by Past match attendance and fan response

PAI Fan response BIRGing -0.009

PAI Fan response Satisfaction 0.283**

PAI Fan response Purchase intention 0.080*

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5.42 sets out variance (ANOVA) by past match attendance for the three fan response factors used for this research study.

204 Table 5-42 RQ4.3 Past match attendance and fan response - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Std. Max Deviatio Std. Lower Upper Mini imu Sig. Fan Response N Mean n Error Bound Bound mum m

BIRGing Zero 23 5.1014 1.58412 .33031 4.4164 5.7865 2.00 7.00

1-3 128 5.0573 1.63144 .14420 4.7719 5.3426 1.00 7.00

4-6 94 5.2695 1.54214 .15906 4.9536 5.5854 1.00 7.00

7-9 63 5.1481 1.67394 .21090 4.7266 5.5697 1.00 7.00

10-12 67 5.0796 1.51212 .18473 4.7108 5.4484 1.67 7.00

13-15 137 4.8200 1.71070 .14615 4.5309 5.1090 1.00 7.00

> 15 190 5.2035 1.61620 .11725 4.9722 5.4348 1.00 7.00

Total 702 5.0907 1.62302 .06126 4.9704 5.2110 1.00 7.00 0.423

Satisfaction Zero 23 4.4928 1.58869 .33126 3.8058 5.1798 1.00 7.00

1-3 128 5.6693 1.38704 .12260 5.4267 5.9119 1.00 7.00

4-6 94 6.2234 .99147 .10226 6.0203 6.4265 1.00 7.00

7-9 63 6.1270 .92637 .11671 5.8937 6.3603 2.00 7.00

10-12 67 6.2438 .87729 .10718 6.0298 6.4578 3.67 7.00

13-15 137 6.2117 .99744 .08522 6.0432 6.3802 1.00 7.00

> 15 190 6.4561 .85250 .06185 6.3341 6.5781 1.00 7.00

Total 702 6.1197 1.12011 .04228 6.0367 6.2027 1.00 7.00 0.000

Purchase Zero 23 4.8587 1.35644 .28284 4.2721 5.4453 1.00 7.00

Intention 1-3 128 5.2891 1.20874 .10684 5.0776 5.5005 1.50 7.00

4-6 94 5.4309 1.22002 .12584 5.1810 5.6807 1.00 7.00

7-9 63 5.3175 1.03488 .13038 5.0568 5.5781 2.25 7.00

10-12 67 5.4254 1.03994 .12705 5.1717 5.6790 2.25 7.00

13-15 137 5.2609 1.21301 .10363 5.0560 5.4659 1.00 7.00

> 15 190 5.5789 1.32226 .09593 5.3897 5.7682 1.75 7.00

Total 702 5.3825 1.22398 .04620 5.2918 5.4732 1.00 7.00 0.070

205 Tables 5.41 and 5.42 identified that two of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences based on past match attendance and that these two response factors were satisfaction and purchase intention. Therefore, hypotheses 4.3.2 and 4.3.3were supported and hypothesis 4.3.1 was rejected. The correlation for purchase intention was rated as very weak. The correlation for satisfaction was rated as moderate. The latter finding is a revelation as it contradicts the finding of McDonald (2010) of ‘no significant difference’ in satisfaction between frequent and low match attendees. What this means is that past match attendance is a factor in explaining difference in fan satisfaction.

The SKFC need to identify the main drivers of satisfaction and develop strategies to deliver satisfaction to its fans and members. This study discovered that the following items were the key drivers of satisfaction for SKFC season ticket holders: the motives of excitement and knowledge acquisition, the attachment points of team and club and the stadium factor of environment.

Table 5.43 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that two out of the three hypothesised relationships were supported regarding the impact of past match attendance explaining difference in fan response.

Table 5-43 RQ4.3 Summary of hypotheses testing – past match attendance and fan response

Research Q Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

H4.3.1 Past match attendance explains difference in BIRGing. Rejected

H4.3.2 Past match attendance explains difference in satisfaction. Supported

H4.3.3 Past match attendance explains difference in purchase intention. Supported

The following section will explore the impact of length of club membership on fan response.

5.5.4.4 RQ4.4: Length of club membership and fan response The following section explores the impact of length of club membership on three fan response factors; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. Previous research (McDonald, 2010) discovered little difference in satisfaction between recent and established club members. McDonald (2010) and Page et al., (1996) identified new or recent club members as the group most likely not to renew their membership. It would appear that very little research has been published concerning the impact of length of club membership on BIRGing behaviour.

206 This study used three dependent variables to capture fan response; BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. Three hypotheses were developed for RQ4.4 specifically to assess the impact of length of club membership on the above-mentioned three fan response factors. Refer to Table 5.44 for the three hypotheses associated with RQ4.4.

Table 5-44 RQ4.4 Hypotheses – length of club membership and fan response

RQ4.4 Is the length of club membership a factor for fan response?

H4.4.1 Length of membership explains difference in BIRGing

H4.4.2 Length of membership explains difference in satisfaction

H4.4.3 Length of membership explains difference in purchase intention.

Table 5.45 sets out the correlations between length of club membership for each of the three fan response factors used in this study.

Table 5-45 RQ4.4 Length of club membership and fan response correlation analysis

Scale Dimension / Factor Subscale Correlation by Length of Membership and Fan Response

PAI Fan response BIRGing -0.026

PAI Fan response Satisfaction 0.108**

PAI Fan response Purchase intention -0.085*

* significant at the 0.05 level ** significant at the 0.01 level

Table 5.46 sets out variance (ANOVA) by length of membership for the three fan response factors used for this research study.

207 Table 5-46 RQ4.4 Length of club membership and fan response - analysis of variance

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Std. Max Deviatio Std. Lower Upper Mini imu Sig. Fan Response N Mean n Error Bound Bound mum m

BIRGing Less than 1 year 65 5.3436 1.52408 .18904 4.9659 5.7212 1.33 7.00

1-3 years 112 4.9970 1.57971 .14927 4.7012 5.2928 1.67 7.00

4-6 years 136 5.2181 1.57416 .13498 4.9512 5.4851 1.00 7.00

7-10 years 101 4.9142 1.55539 .15477 4.6071 5.2212 1.00 7.00

11-15 years 115 5.0899 1.63139 .15213 4.7885 5.3912 1.00 7.00

16-20 years 57 5.1111 1.70006 .22518 4.6600 5.5622 1.00 7.00

More than 20 years 117 5.0513 1.78146 .16470 4.7251 5.3775 1.00 7.00

Total 703 5.0934 1.62170 .06116 4.9733 5.2135 1.00 7.00 0.669

Satisfaction Less than 1 year 65 5.9538 1.39552 .17309 5.6081 6.2996 1.00 7.00

1-3 years 112 5.8899 1.25154 .11826 5.6555 6.1242 1.00 7.00

4-6 years 136 6.0417 1.17969 .10116 5.8416 6.2417 1.00 7.00

7-10 years 101 6.2178 .97347 .09686 6.0256 6.4100 2.00 7.00

11-15 years 115 6.3014 .99705 .09298 6.1173 6.4856 1.00 7.00

16-20 years 57 6.2339 .83087 .11005 6.0135 6.4544 4.00 7.00

More than 20 years 117 6.2137 1.05542 .09757 6.0204 6.4069 1.00 7.00

Total 703 6.1214 1.11798 .04217 6.0386 6.2042 1.00 7.00 0.060

Purchase Less than 1 year 65 5.5269 1.16099 .14400 5.2392 5.8146 2.25 7.00 intention 1-3 years 112 5.5491 1.16143 .10974 5.3316 5.7666 1.00 7.00

4-6 years 136 5.3860 1.24196 .10650 5.1754 5.5966 1.00 7.00

7-10 years 101 5.4827 1.18546 .11796 5.2486 5.7167 2.50 7.00

11-15 years 115 5.1761 1.24339 .11595 4.9464 5.4058 1.00 7.00

16-20 years 57 5.4035 1.17902 .15616 5.0907 5.7163 2.50 7.00

More than 20 years 117 5.2329 1.31991 .12203 4.9912 5.4746 1.75 7.00

Total 703 5.3805 1.22530 .04621 5.2898 5.4712 1.00 7.00 0.193

208 Tables 5.45 and 5.46 identified that one of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences based on length of club membership and this sole response factor was satisfaction. Therefore, hypothesis 4.4.2 was supported and hypotheses 4.4.1 and 4.4.3 were rejected. The correlation for satisfaction was rated as weak (0.108) as it falls well below the threshold of 0.350, the threshold for a strong correlation (Hair et al., 2010). In summary, these results showed that length of club membership was not that important in explaining fan response given two non-significant results and a significant but small correlation between length of club membership and fan satisfaction. The latter finding is consistent with McDonald’s (2010) research of little difference in satisfaction between recent and established club members. McDonald (2010) also reported that established club members with four or more years of membership were more likely to renew their membership than new members. In a later study, McDonald et al., (2014c) reconfirmed that length of membership, in combination with match attendance, provided highly useful warning signals for potential member non- renewal.

The immediate implication for this research study is that the model analysis in the following section will focus on the impact on fan response of three factors, gender, age and past match attendance but not length of club membership. For the SKFC, this finding means that for season ticket holders, length of club membership does not explain difference in fan response.

Table 5.47 summarises the above statistical results and confirmed that just one of the three hypothesised relationships was supported regarding the impact of length of club membership explaining difference in fan response.

Table 5-47 RQ4.4 Summary of hypotheses testing – Length of club membership and fan response

Research Q Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ4.4 To what degree does the length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

H4.4.1 Length of membership explains difference in BIRGing. Rejected

H4.4.2 Length of membership explains difference in satisfaction. Supported

H4.4.3 Length of membership explains difference in purchase intention. Rejected

The following section will provide a summary of all research questions and results for all forty-seven hypotheses.

209 5.5.5 Summary: All research questions and hypotheses findings

This section provides a full summary of the four research questions, associated hypotheses and the status of each hypotheses as well as discussing the implications for model development and analysis of path co-efficient. Table 5:48 provides a full summary of the research questions, associated hypotheses and the hypotheses status (i.e. supported or rejected).

The first fourteen hypotheses (RQ1 to RQ3) were supported or partially supported. The results were mixed for the remaining hypotheses concerning the impact of gender, age, past match attendance and length of club membership. Gender does make a difference for fan motives with six out of nine hypotheses supported. Gender also makes a difference for stadium factors and fan response with four out six hypotheses supported. The impact of gender on attachment was weak with just two out of nine hypotheses supported. Past match attendance does make a difference to fan response with two out of three hypotheses supported. The impact of age and length of club membership appears to be weak with just one out of three hypotheses supported for each factor.

Notwithstanding the above results, the overall finding with thirty hypotheses supported or partially supported out of a total of forty-seven hypotheses provides permission to explore the strength and direction of the relationships between fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response. The exploration of these relationships will be driven by a series of propositions in conjunction with a new sports fan response model based on the conceptual model proposed in Chapter Three. This new model is also used to explore relationships between the constructs and differences based on gender, age and past match attendance. The decision not to include the impact of length of club membership on fan response was made following this factor’s limited impact on fan response with just one significant but very weak correlation discovered between length of club membership and satisfaction.

210 Table 5-48 Summary of all research questions and hypotheses findings

Research Q Hypotheses Support/Reject

RQ1. What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? HI. There is a relationship between fan motives and attachment Partially supported RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors? H2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. Supported

H2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and stadium factors. Partially Supported

RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

RQ3.1 Satisfaction

H3.1.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and satisfaction Supported

H3.1.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction Partially Supported

H3.1.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction Supported

RQ3.2 BIRGing

H3.2.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and BIRGing Supported

H3.2.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing Partially Supported

H3.2.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing Supported

RQ3.3 Purchase intention

H3.3.1 There is a relationship between fan motives and purchase intention. Supported

H3.3.2 There is a relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention. Partially Supported

H3.3.3 There is a relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention. Supported

H3.3.4 There is a relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention. Supported

H3.3.5 There is a relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention. Supported

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

RQ4.1.1 Motives

H4.1.1.1 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with family Rejected

H4.1.1.2 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with friends Rejected

H4.1.1.3 Gender explains difference in the motive of spending time with other Supported fans

H4.1.1.4 Gender explains difference in the motive of excitement Supported

H4.1.1.5 Gender explains difference in the motive of drama Supported

H4.1.1.6. Gender explains difference in the motive of acquisition of sport Supported knowledge

H4.1.1.7 Gender explains difference in the motive of escape Rejected

H4.1.1.8 Gender explains difference in the motive of vicarious achievement Supported

211 Research Q Hypotheses Support/Reject

H4.1.1.9 Gender explains difference in the motive of aesthetics Supported

RQ4.1.2 Attachment

H4.1.2.1 Gender explains difference in attachment to the star player Rejected

H4.1.2.2 Gender explains difference in attachment to the players Supported

H4.1.2.3 Gender explains difference in attachment to the team Rejected

H4.1.2.4 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport Rejected

H4.1.2.5 Gender explains difference in attachment to the captain Rejected

H4.1.2.6 Gender explains difference in attachment to the coach Rejected

H4.1.2.7 Gender explains difference in attachment to the president Rejected

H4.1.2.8 Gender explains difference in attachment to the club Rejected

H4.1.2.9 Gender explains difference in attachment to the sport level Supported

RQ4.1.3 Stadium factors

H4.1.3.1 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium value Rejected

H4.1.3.2 Gender explains difference in perceptions of stadium staff (customer Supported service)

H4.1.3.3 Gender explains difference in perception of stadium environment Supported

RQ4.1.4 Fan response

H4.1.4.1 Gender explains difference in BIRGing. Rejected

H4.1.4.2 Gender explains difference in satisfaction. Supported

H4.1.4.3 Gender explains difference in purchase intention. Supported

RQ4.2To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

H4.2.1 Age explains difference in BIRGing. Supported

H4.2.2 Age explains difference in satisfaction. Rejected

H4.2.3 Age explains difference in purchase intention. Rejected

RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

H4.3.1 Past match attendance explains difference in BIRGing. Rejected

H4.3.2 Past match attendance explains difference in satisfaction. Supported

H4.3.3 Past match attendance explains difference in purchase intention. Supported

RQ4.4 To what degree does the length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

H4.4.1 Length of membership explains difference in BIRGing. Rejected

H4.4.2 Length of membership explains difference in satisfaction. Supported

H4.4.3 Length of membership explains difference in purchase intention. Rejected

212 5.6 Conceptual framework, conceptual model and propositions

In order to fully respond to the research questions and examine the relationships of fan motives, attachment and stadium factors and their impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention, a new conceptual framework was proposed in Chapter Three.

5.6.1 Conceptual sports fan response framework

This conceptual framework was based on the research of Woo et al., (2009) model C of the relationships among motives and points of attachment, Hall et al., (2010), model of attendance motivations at major sporting events and Theodorakis et al., (2013), the partial mediation model. The proposed conceptual framework is illustrated in Figure 5.2.

The extension of the conceptual framework to conceptual model and associated propositions is outlined in the following sections.

Figure 5-2 Conceptual framework for sports fan response– key constructs and propositions

213 5.6.2 Conceptual sports fan response model

The conceptual model is an extension of the conceptual framework first introduced in Chapter Three. The conceptual model is the initial untested and un-manipulated sports fan response model with all the variables in place and is illustrated in Figure 5.3. This conceptual model is based on the theory outlined in Chapters Two and Three.

Figure 5-3 Conceptual sports fan response model - key constructs and all items

214 The untested conceptual model included nine motives from the SII; three social motives, family, friends and other fans and six event related motives, excitement, drama, knowledge, escape, vicarious achievement and aesthetics. The SII also provided three stadium factors; entertainment value (value for money), staff (customer service) and environment. The attachment constructs consisted of nine potential points of attachment with six from the PAI; players, coach, team, club, level of sport and sport. The three additional potential points of attachment were; star player, captain and president. Refer to chapter four for justification for their inclusion in this research study. The three constructs and dependent variables were satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention.

5.6.3 Fifty propositions to test the new sports fan response model

The propositions outlined in Table 5.49 will be used to explore the new sports fan response model, and the tested version of the conceptual model. The propositions were based on theory outlined in the literature review (chapter two).

Where no theoretical support was identified, the propositions take a neutral stance. For example, proposition 4.1.11. There is no significant difference between genders for sport level as a point of attachment.

A neutral stance was also taken where previous research findings were contradictory. For example, Davis et al., (2010) versus Greenhill et al., (2002b) for gender and stadium facilities. A neutral stance was also applied where the previous research was consistent and suggested no difference. The latter situation was applied to the propositions involving gender and three motives; escape, drama and excitement. James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) reported no significant difference between genders for the above listed three motives.

215

Table 5-49 Summary of all research questions and propositions to be examined using CFA

Research Question Propositions

RQ1.What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? P1. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and attachment. RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors? P2. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and stadium factors.

RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

Satisfaction P3.1 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and satisfaction

P3.2 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction.

P3.3 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction

P3.4 There is a positive relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention.

BIRGing P3.5 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and BIRGing

P3.6 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing

Purchase P3.7 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention. intention P3.8 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention

P3.9 There is a positive relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

Motives P4.1.1 Family is a stronger motive for females*

P4.1.2 Friends is a stronger motive for females

P4.1.3 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of aesthetics*

P4.1.4 Other fans is a stronger motive for males*

P4.1.5 Vicarious achievement is a stronger motive for males

P4.1.6 Acquisition of sport knowledge is a stronger motive for males

P4.1.7 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of escape

P4.1.8 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of drama

P4.1.9 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of excitement

Attachment 4.1.10 Sport is a stronger attachment point for males*

P4.1.11 There is no significant difference between genders for sport level as a point of attachment

P4.1.12 There is no significant difference between genders for the club as a point of attachment*

P4.1.13 The team is a stronger attachment point for females*

P4.1.14 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of president

P4.1.15 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of coach

P4.1.16 There is no significant difference between genders for captain as a point of attachment *

216 P4.1.17 Players is a stronger point of attachment for females.

P4.1.18 There is no significant difference between genders for star player as a point of attachment*

Stadium P4.1.19 Stadium environment is stronger for females. factors P4.1.20 Stadium staff (customer service) is a stronger consideration for females.

P4.1.21 There is no significant difference between genders regarding entertainment value.

Fan P4.1.22 There is no significant difference between genders regarding fan motives impacting on response satisfaction.

P4.1.23 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for females

P4.1.24 Stadium factors to satisfaction is a stronger path for females

P4.1.25 Stadium factors are a stronger consideration for purchase intention for females.

P4.1.26 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for females

P4.1.27 There is no significant difference between genders regarding satisfaction impacting on purchase intention.

RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

P4.2.1 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans for fan motives to satisfaction path

P4.2.2 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for younger fans

P4.2.3 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the impact of stadium factors on satisfaction.

P4.2.4 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the impact of stadium factors on purchase intention.

P4.2.5 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for younger fans

P4.2.6 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the impact of satisfaction on purchase intention.

RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

P4.3.1 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for fan motives to satisfaction path

P4.3.2 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for fan motives to BIRGing path

P4.3.3 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of stadium factors on satisfaction.

P4.3.4 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of stadium factors on purchase intention.

P4.3.5 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of BIRGing on purchase intention

P4.3.6 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of satisfaction on purchase intention.

* non-contributory variables removed from the new sports fan response model

217 5.7 Answering the research questions using the new sports fan response model

5.7.1 The new sports fan response model

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), employing a maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) technique, was conducted to assess each of the key constructs in the hypothesised model: fan motives, attachment and stadium factors.

CFA, using AMOS, was performed on the reflectively measured constructs – grouped according to the hypothesised model – and combined with the fan response constructs of BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. Results are reported in both metric and graphic form in the following sections.

The new sports fan response model comprised six fan motives; friends, excitement, drama, knowledge acquisition, escape and vicarious achievement; four points of attachment, players, coach, president and sport-level; and three stadium factors, entertainment value (value for money), staff (customer service) and stadium environment. The three fan response constructs were BIRGing, satisfaction and purchase intention. The non-contributory variables that were removed from the model in a stepped process were three fan motives (family, other fans and aesthetics) and five points of attachment (star player, captain, team, club and sport). The propositions that became redundant were identified with an asterisk (*) in Tables 5.49 & 5.70

218 5.7.2 The new sports fan response model - goodness of fit

As detailed in Table 5.50, the new model had acceptable fit yet the p value did not meet the ‘fit’ characteristics as suggested by Hair et al., (2010). Hair et al., (2010) suggested that one problem with this measure was that a perfect population fit seldom occurs and it rarely results in a satisfactory fit when sample sizes are large and models are complex. The model did meet the suggested ‘fit’ characteristics by Hair et al., (2010) for a range of measures including normed chi squared, GFI, CFI, RMSEA and SRMR.

Table 5-50 New sports fan response model - goodness of fit indices

Normed P value Bootstrap GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR χ2 P value Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.050 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics35 CFI above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 2.92 0.00 0.002 .95 .93 0.05 0.06 Acceptable Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Source for fit indices: Hair et al., pp. 648-654

5.7.3 RQ1-RQ3: The new sports fan response model and findings

When it comes to path analysis, Cohen’s (2013) recommended rules for examining path coefficients are as follows; an insubstantial path is below 0.1; a small path is between 0.1 to 0.29; a medium path falls in the range of 0.3 to 0.49; and a substantial path is 0.5 and above.

Table 5.51 showed that the sports fan response model had three medium paths and four small paths between constructs with fan motives to satisfaction, the strongest path (0.43) existing between key constructs in the new model.

219 Table 5-51 New sports fan response model - regression weights (standardised)

Path Est. P Accept

ATTACHMENT <--- FAN MOTIVES -.056 .246 No

SATISFACTION <--- FAN MOTIVES .434 *** Yes

SATISFACTION <--- STADIUM FACT .184 .057 No

SATISFACTION <--- ATTACHMENT -.115 .002 Yes

BIRGING <--- FAN MOTIVES .394 *** Yes

BIRGING <--- ATTACHMENT .070 .063 No

BIRGING <--- SATISFACTION .163 *** Yes

Vic achievement <--- FAN MOTIVES .619 *** Yes

Escape <--- FAN MOTIVES .353 *** Yes

Knowledge <--- FAN MOTIVES .587 *** Yes

Drama <--- FAN MOTIVES .184 *** Yes

Excitement <--- FAN MOTIVES .704 *** Yes

Friend <--- FAN MOTIVES .177 *** Yes

Sport Level <--- ATTACHMENT .430 *** Yes

President <--- ATTACHMENT .792 *** Yes

Coach <--- ATTACHMENT .871 *** Yes

Players <--- ATTACHMENT .519 *** Yes

Value <--- STADIUM FACT .527 *** Yes

Staff <--- STADIUM FACT .479 *** Yes

Stad Environment <--- STADIUM FACT .756 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- SATISFACTION .183 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- BIRGING .217 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- STADIUM FACT .308 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- ATTACHMENT .067 .060 Yes

Note:***: P<0.000

5.7.3.1 New sports fan response model - discussion

The table showed three medium paths with fan motives to satisfaction, the strongest path lying between key constructs (0.43) in the new model. The other medium paths were fan motives to BIRGing (0.39) and stadium factors to purchase intention (0.31). All three paths displayed a positive relationship. 220 The new model contained the following small paths between constructs: • Attachment to satisfaction (-0.12), • Satisfaction to BIRGing (0.16), • Satisfaction to purchase intention (0.18) • BIRGing to purchase intention (0.22). All of these paths were positive except for the path attachment to satisfaction.

Three of the paths within the new sports fan response model were considered not significant with P values higher than 0.05. The three paths were fan motives to attachment (0.25), stadium factors to satisfaction (0.057) and attachment to BIRGing (0.063). The latter two paths would be considered significant if the P value criterion was lifted to 0.1 rather than 0.05. Still, the relatively low path weights mean that both paths were considered small and insubstantial respectively.

What follows is a discussion examining the first eleven propositions associated with the first three research questions. The first three research questions explored the relationships between the main constructs of fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response (satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention).

5.7.3.2 RQ1 What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment?

P1. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and attachment. Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship was not significant. The p value at 0.25 was well above the accepted 0.05 or even 0.1 p value criteria. The final gender model showed a significant positive, small path for females (.22) but a significant negative, small path (-.21) for males. The finding for females was consistent with research by Kwon et al., (2005). In spite of this, the negative relationship suggested for males was counter-intuitive and worthy of further investigation. This result was not consistent with the work of Woo et al., (2009) who reported a positive relationship between fan motives (vicarious achievement and social) and organisation attachment (team, coach, university and players).

Table 5-52 RQ1 Proposition and finding – fan motives and attachment

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ1. What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? P1. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and attachment Not supported

221 5.7.3.3 RQ2 What is the relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors?

P2. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. Supported. The new sports fan response model showed a strong relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. This finding was not unexpected and was consistent with the work of Funk et al., (2003) and Hall et al., (2010). What this finding reinforced was that stadium factors were an important consideration in sports fans decision to attend sports events.

Table 5-53 RQ2 Proposition and finding – fan motives and stadium factors

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives and stadium factors? P2. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. Supported

5.7.3.4 RQ3 How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response? P3.1 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and satisfaction. Supported. The new sports fan response model showed a moderate and positive relationship between these two constructs with a path co-efficient of 0.43. The new model also showed that the three strongest items within the fan motives construct were excitement (0.70), vicarious achievement (0.62) and knowledge acquisition (0.59). This finding was consistent with the findings of Hall et al., (2010). What this means is that the key motives of excitement, vicarious achievement and knowledge acquisition are important drivers of satisfaction for sports fans. Therefore, it is suggested that the SKFC event manager focus on creating a sense of anticipation and excitement surrounding home matches and the sense of excitement involved with attending sports events. Also, this finding highlights the importance of knowledge acquisition concerning the game itself as well as the teams, players and off-field leaders such as coaches. The findings also provide support for the importance of on-field success.

P3.2 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction. Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed a weak negative relationship between attachment and satisfaction. This result was a surprise as Kwon et al., (2005) discovered a positive relationship between various points of attachment (team, university and sport) and satisfaction. Gau, Gailliot, and Brady (2007) also noted a positive relationship between team attachment and satisfaction. Coach (0.87), president (0.79) and players (0.52) were the three strongest items within the attachment construct.

222 Despite the finding of a negative relationship appearing to be counter-intuitive, Caro and Garcia (2007) did find a negative relationship between pleasure and satisfaction when investigating runner satisfaction in an annual race. Their explanation was that a runner can feel negative emotions related to negative pleasure like the suffering involved in great physical effort and at the same time feel satisfaction. This finding is worthy of further investigation.

P3.3 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction. Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship was not significant. The relationship would be considered significant, positive and small if the p value criterion was lifted to 0.1 rather than 0.05. The p value was 0.057. All three stadium factors, value for money (0.53), staff service (0.48) and environment (0.76), showed medium or substantial paths within the construct. This finding was consistent with the work of Gau et al., (2007) and Theodorakis et al., (2013). Theodorakis et al., (2013) reported that functional quality (which consisted of five dimensions: stadium visual appeal, staff service, reliability of staff service, access to the stadium and safety within the stadium), contributed to satisfaction of sports spectators attending sports events.

P3.4 There is a positive relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention. Partial support.

The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship was significant, positive but rated as small (0.18). This finding was interesting and was consistent with McDonald (2010) and Theodorakis et al., (2013). McDonald (2010) suggested that satisfaction is a complex construct and its relationship with purchase intention is worthy of further investigation. Theodorakis et al., (2013) reported that satisfaction was determined to partially mediate the relationship between service quality and behavioural intentions. What this means was that satisfaction was a weak predictor of purchase intention. This highlights the challenges and difficulties facing the SKFC marketing and membership managers and particularly the number of uncontrollable factors such as the game quality and team performance that impact on purchase intention.

P3.5 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and BIRGing. Supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship was significant, positive and rated as medium (0.39). This discovery was consistent with Trail et al., (2012) research that suggested a strong positive relationship between vicarious achievement and BIRGing. The

223 implications of this finding are that when teams are successful, those fans with a high need for vicarious achievement will be more receptive to the club’s promotions and communications and more likely to purchase team merchandise and attend games. These fans may have been infrequent match attendees and/or lapsed club members. This last point was consistent with the results for low past match attendees (0.47) versus frequent match attendees (0.31) for the path fan motives to BIRGing. For the same path, it is interesting to compare younger fans (0.50) versus older fans (0.34). The fan motives to BIRGing path revealed little difference by gender with females (0.41) versus males (0.39).

P3.6 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing. Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship was not significant. The relationship would be considered inconsequential with an estimated path value of 0.07 even if the p value criterion was lifted to 0.1 rather than 0.05. This development was not unexpected given the team item was removed as a contributory item in the new model. Kwon et al., (2008) reported that team identification explained 41% of the variance in BIRGing behaviour.

P3.7 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention. Not supported. The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship was not significant. The relationship would be considered inconsequential with an estimated path value of 0.07 even if the p value criterion was lifted to 0.1 rather than 0.05. The result was consistent with the research of Kwon et al., (2005) where only attachment to the team and not other attachments (coach players, university, sport level) explained a significant variance in attendance. This discovery is not a surprise given the team item was removed as a contributory item in the new model.

P3.8 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention. Supported. The new sports fan response model showed a moderate and positive relationship between these two constructs with a path co-efficient of 0.31. This development was not a surprise and consistent with the research of Hall et al., (2010). Hall et al., (2010) proposed that the stadium facilities construct was directly related to the ‘attend’ construct. The implication is that fans are more likely to attend sports events if they are satisfied with the facilities associated with the stadium such as access, parking and seating.

224 P3.9 There is a positive relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention. Partial support. The new sports fan response model showed a small and positive relationship between these two constructs with a path co-efficient of 0.22. This result was consistent with the findings of Trail et al., (2005 & 2006). Trail et al., (2005) suggested that BIRGing behaviour is a prime determinant of fans intention to attend games, purchase team branded merchandise and future support. Trail et al., (2006) reported that intention to attend was an accurate predictor of actual match attendance. Mahony et al., (2000) noted that BIRGing behaviour led to increased merchandise and media consumption. Trail et al., (2003) reported fans that BIRG are upbeat and generally positive about the team. Therefore, it appears to be critical for the SKFC to nurture and develop these highly attached fans especially as they possess a high propensity to spend on club related items.

Table 5-54 RQ3 Propositions and findings – fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

Satisfaction

P3.1 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and satisfaction Supported

P3.2 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction. Not supported

P3.3 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction Not supported

P3.4 There is a positive relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention. Partial support

BIRGing

P3.5 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and BIRGing Supported

P3.6 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing Not supported

Purchase intention

P3.7 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention Not supported

P3.8 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention Supported

P3.9 There is a positive relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention Partial support

Figure 5.4 showed the new sports fan response model (standardised version). The fan motive construct consisted of six items (friends, excitement, drama, knowledge acquisition, escape and vicarious achievement. The attachment construct comprised four items, (players, coach, president and sport levels). The stadium factor construct comprised three items; value for

225 money, staff (customer service) and stadium environment. The constructs of attachment, BIRGing and satisfaction all mediated fan motives. The strongest path was fan motives to satisfaction (0.43) and the strongest path to purchase intention was stadium factors (0.31).

Figure 5-4 New sports fan response model (standardised values)

226 5.7.4 RQ4.1: New sports fan response model – gender findings

As detailed in Tables 5.55 (male) and 5.56 (female), the gender versions of the new sports fan response model showed acceptable fit despite the p value not meeting the ‘fit’ characteristics as suggested by Hair et al., (2010) and the GFI was marginal for both gender versions.

Table 5-55 New sports fan response model. Male version - goodness of fit indices

Group cases Normed P value GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 418 χ2 Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with CFI < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics36 above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 2.13 0.00 .93 .92 0.04 0.07 Acceptable Yes No Marginal Yes Yes Yes Source for fit indices: Hair et al., pp 648-654

Yet, the male and female versions of the new model did meet the suggested ‘fit’ characteristics by Hair et al., (2010) for a range of measures including normed chi squared, CFI, RMSEA and SRMR. GFI had fallen slightly below the recommended 0.95, nonetheless, Hair et al., (2010) noted that in the past, GFI values greater than 0.90 typically were considered good.

Table 5-56 New sports fan response model. Female version - goodness of fit indices

Group cases Normed P value GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 277 χ2 Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with CFI < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics37 above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 1.60 0.00 .94 .92 0.03 0.06 Acceptable Yes No Marginal Yes Yes Yes Source for fit indices: Hair et al., pp 648-654

Table 5.57 compared the path coefficients for the male and female versions of the new model. The male version identified three medium paths between constructs and six small paths. By comparison, the female version determined just one medium path and five small paths.

227 Table 5-57 New sports fan response model. Gender version - regression weights (standardised)

Path Male Female

Est P Accept Est P Accept

ATTACHMENT <--- FAN MOTIVES -.206 .001 Yes .224 .013 Yes

SATISFACTION <--- FAN MOTIVES .404 *** Yes .666 .120 No

SATISFACTION <--- STADIUM FACT .273 .004 Yes -.119 .772 No

SATISFACTION <--- ATTACHMENT -.064 .158 No -.193 .007 Yes

BIRGING <--- FAN MOTIVES .391 *** Yes 410. *** Yes

BIRGING <--- ATTACHMENT .127 .011 Yes -.034 .628 No

BIRGING <--- SATISFACTION .194 .001 Yes .127 .089 No

Vic Achievement <--- FAN MOTIVES .646 *** Yes .544 *** Yes

Escape <--- FAN MOTIVES .332 *** Yes .351 *** Yes

Knowledge <--- FAN MOTIVES .658 *** Yes .564 *** Yes

Drama <--- FAN MOTIVES .218 *** Yes .152 .033 Yes

Excitement <--- FAN MOTIVES .796 *** Yes .509 *** Yes

Friends <--- FAN MOTIVES .135 .013 Yes .273 *** Yes

Sport Level <--- ATTACHMENT .438 *** Yes .454 *** Yes

President <--- ATTACHMENT .824 *** Yes .757 *** Yes

Coach <--- ATTACHMENT .878 *** Yes .822 *** Yes

Players <--- ATTACHMENT .628 *** Yes .372 *** Yes

Value <--- STADIUM FACT .548 *** Yes .521 *** Yes

Staff <--- STADIUM FACT .483 *** Yes .443 *** Yes

Stad Environment <--- STADIUM FACT .759 *** Yes .707 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- SATISFACTION .222 *** Yes .111 .106 No

PURCHASE INTENT <--- BIRGING .282 *** Yes .142 .027 Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- STADIUM FACT .311 *** Yes .269 .005 Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- ATTACHMENT .051 .227 No .085 .210 No

Note:***: P<0.000.

228 5.7.4.1 RQ4.1 Gender versions of the new sports fan response model - discussion

For males, fan motives to satisfaction was the strongest path (0.40), fan motives to BIRGing (0.39) and stadium factors to purchase intention (0.31). All three paths displayed a positive relationship. By comparison, the female version had just one medium path between constructs, fan motives to BIRGing (0.41).

The new model showed six small paths for males and five small paths for females between constructs: • Fan motives to attachment: males (-0.20), females (+0.22) • Stadium factors to satisfaction: males (0.27), females not significant • Attachment to satisfaction: males (not significant), females (-0.19), • Attachment to BIRGing: males (0.13), females not significant • Satisfaction to BIRGing: males (0.19), females not significant • Satisfaction to purchase intention: males (0.22), females (0.11) • BIRGing to purchase intention: males (0.28), females (0.14). • Stadium factors to purchase intention: males (0.31, reported above as medium), females (0.27)

All of the above listed paths were positive except for the paths between fan motives to attachment (male) and attachment to satisfaction (female).

Two of the paths within the model were considered not significant with P values higher than 0.05 for males. In comparison, six of the paths were considered not significant for females. Just one of the eight paths, satisfaction to BIRGing (females), was considered significant (if the P value criterion was lifted to 0.1).

229 5.7.4.2 RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response? Research question 4.1 explored the impact of gender between key construct relations and within the key constructs of fan motives, attachment and stadium factors. What follows is a discussion examining the nineteen propositions associated with research question four and specifically the impact of gender.

Twenty-seven propositions were initially developed to explore the impact of gender in fan motives, attachment stadium factors and fan response. Eight of the 27 propositions were non- contributory as three motives (P4.1.1 family, P4.1.3 aesthetics and P4.1.4 other fans) and five points of attachment (P4.1.10 sport, P4.1.12 club, P4.1.13 team, P4.1.16 captain and P4.1.18 star player) were not included in the new sports fan response model. Of the remaining 19 propositions, ten were supported or partially supported. All nineteen propositions including the nine propositions not supported are discussed below.

5.7.4.2.1 Fan motives and gender.

The new sports fan response model showed that the three strongest paths within the fan motives construct for both males and females were excitement, vicarious achievement and knowledge acquisition. Males showed stronger estimates for the three factors. But, for escape and friends, both medium paths, female estimates were higher.

Nine propositions were initially developed to explore the impact of gender on fan motives. Three of the nine motive propositions were non-contributory (P4.1.1 family, P4.1.3 aesthetics and P4.1.4 other fans) and were not included in the new model. Of the remaining six propositions concerning fan motives, four were supported. The six propositions concerning fan motives are discussed below.

P4.1.2 Friends is a stronger motive for females: Supported.

The new sports fan response model revealed a stronger path coefficient for females (0.27) versus males (0.14). This result was expected and was consistent with the findings of numerous researchers (Clarke et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2010; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Fink & Parker, 2009a, Wann et al., 1999). The implication for the SKFC is that females are more likely to respond to communication from the club that highlights the opportunity for social interaction with friends.

230 P4.1.5 Vicarious achievement is a stronger motive for males: Supported.

The new model revealed a stronger path coefficient for males (0.65) versus females (0.54). This result was expected and consistent with the findings of numerous researchers (Aiken et al., 2010; Aiken & Koch, 2009; Greenwell et al., 2002b; James & Ridinger, 2002; Robinson & Trail, 2005b). The implication for the SKFC is that males are more likely to respond to communication from the club that highlights winning and achievements of the team.

P4.1.6 Acquisition of sport knowledge is a stronger motive for males: Supported.

The new sports fan response model revealed a stronger path coefficient for males (0.66) versus females (0.56). This result was expected and was consistent with the findings of numerous researchers (Clarke et al., 2009; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Farrell et al., 2011; Fink et al., 2002b; James & Ridinger, 2002) proposed that males spent more time discussing and watching sport and were more motivated by the acquisition of sport knowledge. The implication the SKFC is that males are more likely to respond to communication from the club that enhances sports knowledge.

P4.1.7 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of escape: Supported.

The new model revealed a slight difference between males (0.33) and females (0.35). This finding was consistent with James and Robinson (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) who reported no significance difference between genders on the three highest ranked motives of excitement, escape and drama. Escape was not one of the three highest ranked motives in this study for either gender. The three highest ranked motives for males and females were excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement but the order did vary by gender.

P4.1.8 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of drama: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model revealed a moderate difference between males (0.22) versus females (0.15) with both path coefficients rated as small. This finding was not consistent with James and Robinson (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) who reported no significant difference between genders on the three highest ranked motives of excitement, escape and drama. Drama was not one of the three highest ranked motives in this study for either gender. The three highest ranked motives for males and females were excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement noting that the order did vary by gender.

231 P4.1.9 There is no significant difference between genders for the fan motive of excitement: Not supported

The new model revealed a notable difference between males (.80) versus females (.51) for the motive of excitement. The proposition was based on the findings of James and Robinson (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) who identified no difference between genders for the motives of escape, excitement and drama. The new model revealed that excitement was the strongest fan motive for males (0.80) but the third ranked fan motive for females.

Table 5-58 RQ4.1 Propositions and findings - fan motives and gender

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

Motives

P4.1.1 Family is a stronger motive for females* Non contrib’

P4.1.2 Friends is a stronger motive for females Supported

P4.1.3 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of aesthetics* Non contrib’

P4.1.4 Other fans is a stronger motive for males* Non contrib’

P4.1.5 Vicarious achievement is a stronger motive for males Supported

P4.1.6 Acquisition of sport knowledge is a stronger motive for males Supported

P4.1.7 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of escape Supported

P4.1.8 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of drama Not supported

P4.1.9 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of excitement Not supported

* non-contributory variables removed from the new sports fan response model

232 5.7.4.2.2 Attachment and gender

Coach and president were the two strongest factors for both males and females within the attachment construct with males again showing higher path estimates. Players was another point of difference between the genders with males showing a substantial coefficient of 0.63 compared to a medium path (0.37) for females. Females had a marginally higher path weight for sport-level (0.45) compared to (0.44) for males.

Nine propositions were initially developed to explore the impact of gender in attachment. Five of the nine attachment propositions were non-contributory (P4.1.10 sport, P4.1.12 club, P4.1.13 team, P4.1.16 captain and P4.1.18 star player) and were not included in the new sports fan response model. Of the remaining four propositions concerning attachment, three were supported. The four propositions concerning fan motives are discussed below.

P4.1.11 There is no significant difference between genders for sport level as a point of attachment: Supported.

The new model showed that sport level was a moderate point of attachment for both males (0.44) and females (0.45). This discovery was consistent with the research of James and Ridinger (2002) that suggested males had a greater interest in the overall sport as distinct from levels within a sport, whereas females had a greater interest in teams. The implication is that off-field leaders such as the coach represent stronger points of attachment for both males and females.

P4.1.14 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of president: Supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that president was a substantial point of attachment for both males (0.82) and females (0.76). This was an interesting development as it was a potential attachment point with no apparent prior research and it was also a substantial point of attachment for both genders even though the club appointed a relatively low profile president at the time of data collection. The implication is that communication from the president about the club/team may be impactful for both genders.

P4.1.15 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of coach: Supported.

233 The new model showed that coach was a substantial point of attachment for both males (0.88) and females (0.82). This was an interesting discovery as it was a potential attachment point with no apparent prior research regarding gender differences and it was also a substantial point of attachment for both males and females despite the club having a relatively low profile and dour coach at the time of data collection. The implication is that communication from the coach about the club/team/players may be inspirational for both genders.

P4.1.17 Players are a stronger point of attachment for females: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that players were a substantial point of attachment for males (.63) and a medium moderate point of attachment for females (.37). The result was contrary to the work of Toffoletti and Mewitt (2012) that suggested that females derived greater pleasure from watching AFL players. The implication of this finding is that communication and promotion material for sporting events and club membership featuring players may be more effective in building attachment for males.

Table 5-59 RQ4.1 Propositions and findings - attachment and gender

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

Attachment

P4.1.10 Sport is a stronger attachment point for males* Non contrib’

P4.1.11 There is no significant difference between genders for sport level as a point of Supported attachment

P4.1.12 There is no significant difference between genders for the club as a point of Non contrib’ attachment*

P4.1.13 The team is a stronger attachment point for females* Non contrib’

P4.1.14 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of Supported president

P4.1.15 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of Supported coach

P4.1.16 There is no significant difference between genders for captain as a point of Non contrib’ attachment *

P4.1.17 Players is a stronger point of attachment for females. Not supported

P4.1.18 There is no significant difference between genders for star player as a point of Non contrib’ attachment*

* non-contributory variables removed from the new sports fan response model

234 5.7.4.2.3 Stadium factors and gender. All three stadium factors, entertainment value, staff service and environment, showed medium or strong paths for both males and females with males registering higher path weights for all three stadium factors.

Three propositions were developed concerning stadium factors with three propositions supported. The four propositions concerning fan motives are discussed below.

P4.1.19 Stadium environment is stronger for females: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that stadium environment was a substantial factor for both males (0.76) and females (0.71) and not just females as suggested by Greenwell et al., (2002b). Greenwell et al., (2002b) reported that women were more interested in stadium facilities and customer service than men. Davis et al., (2010) stated that men were more interested in ‘on- field’ performance and facilities at their home ground than women. The inference of this finding is that provision of a safe and secure stadium environment is very important in the decision to attend and return to future sports events as well as being important to both genders.

P4.1.20 Stadium staff (customer service) is stronger for females: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that customer service by stadium staff was equally important to both males (0.48) and females (0.44). This result contradicts the findings of prior studies by Greenwell et al., (2002b) and Davis et al., (2010). Both studies reported that women placed significantly greater priority on customer service than men. The implication of this discovery is that males and females are closely aligned on the importance of stadium factors with the provision of a safe and secure environment and the most significant of the three stadium factors. Staff service was rated the third factor and bordering on substantial importance for both males and females.

P4.1.21 There is no significant difference between genders regarding entertainment value: Supported. The new model showed that entertainment value was equally important to both males (0.55) and females (0.52). The significance of this finding is that males and females are closely aligned on the priority of stadium factors with the provision of a safe and secure environment the most important of the three stadium factors. Value for money (entertainment value) was rated second in concern and was a substantial item by both genders.

235 Table 5-60 RQ4.1 Propositions and findings - stadium factors and gender

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

Stadium Factors

P4.1.19 Stadium environment is stronger for females. Not supported

P4.1.20 Stadium staff (customer service) is a stronger consideration for females. Not supported

P4.1.21 There is no significant difference between genders regarding entertainment value. Supported

5.7.4.2.4 Fan response and gender Six propositions were developed to explore the impact of gender on fan response. The new sports fan response model did not support any of the six propositions. The six propositions concerning gender and fan response are discussed below.

P4.1.22 There is no significant difference between genders regarding fan motives impacting satisfaction: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path from fan motives to satisfaction was significant, medium weight (0.40) and positive for males but not significant for females. The new model suggested that three motives, vicarious achievement, knowledge acquisition and excitement were the key drivers of satisfaction for males. The path from satisfaction to purchase intention was rated as small for males (0.22).

P4.1.23 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for females: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path from fan motives to BIRGing was significant, positive, and medium weight for both genders with females (0.41) and males (0.39). This discovery contrasts with that of Spinda (2011) who suggested that females NFL fans exhibited much higher levels of BIRGing behaviours than males NFL fans.

P4.1.24 Stadium factors to satisfaction is a stronger path for females: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path co-efficient for stadium factors to satisfaction was significant, small weight (0.27) and positive for males but not significant for females. The proposition was largely based on research by Greenwell et al., (2002b) that reported women were more interested than men in stadium facilities and customer service.

236 P4.1.25 Stadium factors are a stronger consideration for purchase intention for females: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for stadium factors to purchase intention was similar for both males (0.31) and females (0.27). The proposition was based on research by Greenwell et al., (2002b) who reported that women were more interested than men in stadium facilities and customer service and the proposition assumed that female interest in stadium factors would flow through to purchase intention. Notwithstanding that the path co-efficient for both genders was small/medium, stadium factors was the strongest path to purchase intention for males and females. The significance is that stadium factors are important for both genders. Hall et al., (2010) research emphasised the importance of stadium factors in sports fans decision to attend and return to sports events.

P4.1.26 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for females: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path co-efficient for BIRGing to purchase intention was stronger for males (0.28) than females (0.14). The proposition was largely based on research by Spinda (2011) that construed that females were more likely than males to engage in BIRGing activities. The implication is that the SKFC should encourage BIRGing and that it is a slightly stronger path to purchase intention than satisfaction for both genders.

P4.1.27 There is no significant difference between genders regarding satisfaction impacting on purchase intention: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for satisfaction to purchase intention was positive and small (.22) for males and not significant for females unless the p value criterion was lifted to 0.1. With a relaxed p value the path would be best described as very small (0.11) for females. The implication for the SKFC membership manager is that the link between satisfaction for both genders is small and membership managers may be better served by focussing on stadium factors and BIRGing.

237 Table 5-61 RQ4.1 Propositions and findings - fan response and gender

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

Fan response

P4.1.22 There is no significant difference between genders regarding fan motives Not supported impacting satisfaction.

P4.1.23 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for females Not supported

P4.1.24 Stadium factors to satisfaction is a stronger path for females Not supported

P4.1.25 Stadium factors are a stronger consideration for purchase intention for females. Not supported

P4.1.26 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for females Not supported

P4.1.27 There is no significant difference between genders regarding satisfaction Not supported impacting on purchase intention.

Figures 5.5 (male version) and 5.6 (female version) showed the new sports fan response models by gender (standardised version). The differences by gender included a higher path weight for females between fan motives to BIRGing and a positive medium path for females between fan motives to attachment. The path for males was negative for fan motives to attachment. The male version showed a much higher path weight between BIRGing and purchase intention and a slightly higher path weight between stadium factors to purchase intention than the female version. The path between stadium factors and satisfaction was medium for males but insignificant for females. Also, the path between satisfaction and purchase intention was medium for males but not significant for females.

238

Figure 5-5 New sports fan response model - male version (standardised values)

239

Figure 5-6 New sports fan response model - female version (standardised values)

240 5.7.5 RQ4.2: New sports fan response model – age and fan response

As detailed in Tables 5.62 (younger fans – up to 39yrs) and 5.63 (older fans 40+), the age versions of the new sports fan response model showed a marginal fit especially for the younger fans version noting that the p value did not meet the ‘fit’ characteristics as suggested by Hair et al., (2010) for either version.

Table 5-62 New sports fan response model. Younger fans version - goodness of fit indices

Group cases Normed P value GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 265 X2 Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with CFI < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics38 above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 2.17 0.00 .93 .90 0.04 0.073 Acceptable Yes No Marginal Marginal Marginal (CFI) Marginal (CFI) Source for fit indices: Hair et al., pp 648-654

The goodness of fit indices for both younger and older fans versions of the new sports fan response model met the suggested ‘fit’ characteristics by Hair et al., (2010) for normed chi squared, but GFI, CFI, RMSEA and SRMR were considered marginal, the latter two indices largely due to the CFI of 0.90 and 0.91 for younger and older fans respectively. Even though GFI fell slightly below the recommended 0.95, Hair et al., (2010) noted that in the past, GFI values greater than 0.90 typically were considered good. Hair et al., (2010, p650) also noted that; “CFI values above 0.90 are usually associated with a model that fits well”.

Table 5-63 New sports fan response model. Older fans version - goodness of fit indices

Group cases Normed P value GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 439 X2 Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with CFI < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics39 above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 2.17 0.00 .93 .91 0.04 0.073 Acceptable Yes No Marginal Marginal Marginal (CFI) Marginal (CFI) Source for fit indices: Hair et al., pp. 648-654

Table 5.64 compared the path coefficients for the younger fans (up to 39yrs) and older fans (40+yrs) versions of the new sports fan response model. The younger fan version of the new model identified three strong paths between constructs and three small paths. By comparison, the older fan version of the new model indicated two medium paths and five small paths.

241

Table 5-64 New sports fan response model. Age version - regression weights (standardised)

Path Younger Up to 39 Older 40+

Est P Accept Est P Accept

ATTACHMENT <--- FAN MOTIVES -.082 .291 No -.023 .708 No

SATISFACTION <--- FAN MOTIVES .500 .002 Yes .349 .009 Yes

SATISFACTION <--- STADIUM FACT .128 .411 No .254 .050 Yes

SATISFACTION <--- ATTACHMENT -.182 .002 Yes -.067 .157 No

BIRGING <--- FAN MOTIVES .501 *** Yes .342 *** Yes

BIRGING <--- ATTACHMENT .055 .361 No .067 .176 No

BIRGING <--- SATISFACTION .124 .111 No .180 .002 Yes

Vic Achievement <--- FAN MOTIVES .679 *** Yes .592 *** Yes

Escape <--- FAN MOTIVES .374 *** Yes .361 *** Yes

Knowledge <--- FAN MOTIVES .597 *** Yes .575 *** Yes

Drama <--- FAN MOTIVES .280 *** Yes .125 .025 Yes

Excitement <--- FAN MOTIVES .687 *** Yes .705 *** Yes

Friends <--- FAN MOTIVES .305 *** Yes .086 .121 No

Sport Level <--- ATTACHMENT .552 *** Yes .322 *** Yes

President <--- ATTACHMENT .791 *** Yes .798 *** Yes

Coach <--- ATTACHMENT .880 *** Yes .865 *** Yes

Players <--- ATTACHMENT .627 *** Yes .422 *** Yes

Value <--- STADIUM FACT .470 *** Yes .554 *** Yes

Staff <--- STADIUM FACT .391 *** Yes .537 *** Yes

Stad Environment <--- STADIUM FACT .773 *** Yes .742 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- SATISFACTION .144 .048 Yes .200 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- BIRGING .160 .007 Yes .209 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- STADIUM FACT .497 *** Yes .224 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- ATTACHMENT .027 .628 No .083 .083 No

Note: ***: P<0.000

242 5.7.5.1 RQ4.2 Discussion of findings – age and fan response

For younger fans, fan motives to satisfaction was the strongest path (0.50), Fan motives to BIRGing (0.50) and stadium factors to purchase intention (0.48). All three paths displayed a positive relationship. By comparison, the older fan version had just two medium, positive paths between constructs, fan motives to satisfaction (0.35) and fan motives to BIRGing (0.34).

The table showed three small paths for younger fans and five small paths for older fans between constructs: • Attachment to satisfaction: younger (-0.18), older not significant • Stadium factors to satisfaction: younger not significant, older (0.25) • Satisfaction to BIRGing: younger not significant, older (0.18) • Satisfaction to purchase intention: younger (0.14), older (.20) • BIRGing to purchase intention: younger (.16), older (0.21) • Stadium factors to purchase intention: younger not significant, older (.22)

All of these paths were positive except for the path between attachment to satisfaction (younger fans).

5.7.5.2 RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response? Six propositions were developed to explore Research Question 4.2. This research question explored the impact of age on fan response. Past research (Greenwell et al., 2002b; Tobar, 2006; Westerbeek, 2000) pertaining to the impact of age on fan response is inconsistent in its findings, hence, four of the six propositions were written as neutral (i.e. no difference between younger and older fans). Five of the six propositions were not supported and are discussed below.

P4.2.1 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans for fan motives to satisfaction: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for fan motives to satisfaction was significantly higher for younger fans (0.50) than older fans (0.35). Younger fans recorded higher scores than older fans for all motives except excitement (younger 0.69 vs. older 0.71). The most important motives for younger fans were: vicarious achievement (0.68), knowledge acquisition (0.60) and excitement (0.69).

243 P4.2.2. Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for younger fans: Supported.

The new sports fan response model showed the path coefficient for fan motives to BIRGing was significantly higher for younger fans (0.50) versus (0.35) for older fans. This finding was consistent with Spinda’s (2011) research with NFL fans.

P4.2.3 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the impact of stadium factors on satisfaction: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path co-efficient for stadium factors to satisfaction was positive but weak for older fans (0.28) and not significant for younger fans. This proposition was neutral because of the conflicting research by Westerbeek (2000) reporting that older fans rated stadium facilities as more important than younger fans rated them. In direct contrast, Greenwell et al., (2002b) reported that younger customers were more critical of the stadium facility and service than older customers. Greenwell defined younger customers as up to 49 years.

P4.2.4 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the impact of stadium factors on purchase intention: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for stadium factors to purchase intention was positive and substantial for younger fans (0.50) and positive and small for older fans (0.22). This proposition was neutral because of the conflicting research by Westerbeek (2000) reporting that older fans rated stadium facilities as more important than younger fans. In direct contrast, Greenwell et al., (2002b) reported that younger customers were more critical of the stadium facility and service than older customers. Greenwell defined younger customers as up to 49 years. The significance of this finding for the SKFC is that stadium factors are extremely important for younger fans when determining their purchase intentions.

P4.2.5 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for younger fans: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path co-efficient for BIRGing to purchase intention was stronger for older fans (0.21) than younger fans (0.16). The proposition was based on research by Spinda (2011) suggesting that younger fans were more likely to engage in BIRGing activities. It is worth noting that the relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention was considered small and stadium factors was a stronger path to purchase intention for both groups of fans.

244 P4.2.6 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the impact of satisfaction on purchase intention. Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for satisfaction to purchase intention was positive and small (0.20) for older fans and positive and small for younger fans (0.14). The implication for the SKFC membership manager is that the link between satisfaction for both younger and older fans is relatively small. Therefore the SKFC membership manager may be better served by focussing on stadium factors.

Table 5-65 RQ4.2 Propositions and findings – age and fan response

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

P4.2.1 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans for fan motives Not supported to satisfaction path

P4.2.2 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for younger fans Supported

P4.2.3 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the Not supported impact of stadium factors on satisfaction.

P4.2.4 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the Not supported impact of stadium factors on purchase intention.

P4.2.5 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for younger fans Not supported

P4.2.6 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the Not supported impact of satisfaction on purchase intention.

245

Figure 5-7 New sports fan response model - younger fans (standardised values) Figures 5.7 (Younger fans – up to 39yrs) and 5.8 (Older fans - 40yrs and over) showed the new sports fan response models by age (standardised version). The differences by age (younger fans versus older fans) included three strong paths for younger fans between fan motives to BIRGing, fan motives to satisfaction and stadium factors to purchase intention. Younger fans also showed a negative small path between attachment to satisfaction. Older fans displayed a higher but still small path for satisfaction to purchase intention and BIRGing to purchase intention than younger fans.

246

Figure 5-8 New sports fan response model - older fans (standardised values)

5.7.6 RQ4.3: New sports fan response model –past match attendance and fan response

The reason for investigating past match attendance in this study is that McDonald et al., (2014c) and McDonald (2010) discovered that STHs with low match attendance were at a higher risk of non-renewal of their membership. Table 5.66 Frequent past match attendees (FPMA), defined as attending seven or more matches per season, and Table 5.67 Low past match attendees (LPMA), defined as attending six or less matches per season showed an acceptable fit noting that the p value did not meet the ‘fit’ characteristics as suggested by Hair et al., (2010) and the GFI was marginal for both versions.

247

Table 5-66 New sports fan response model. Frequent past match attendance version - goodness of fit indices

Group cases Normed P value GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 457 X2 Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with CFI < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics40 above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 2.055 0.00 .936 .921 0.039 0.0722 Acceptable Yes No Marginal Yes Yes Yes Source for fit indices: Hair et al.,, pp 648-654

The final frequent and low past match attendance versions of the new sports fan response model met the suggested ‘fit’ characteristics by Hair et al., (2010) for a range of measures including normed chi squared, CFI, RMSEA and SRMR. Notwithstanding that GFI had fallen marginally below the recommended 0.95, Hair et al., (2010) noted that in the past, GFI values greater than 0.90 typically were considered good.

Table 5-67 New sports fan response model. Low past match attendance version - goodness of fit indices

Group cases Normed P value GFI CFI RMSEA SRMR 245 X2 Fit Indices < 3:1 0.05 0.95 > 0.92 < 0.07 with CFI < 0.08 with CFI Characteristics41 above 0.92 above 0.92 Result 2.055 0.00 .936 .921 0.039 0.0722 Acceptable Yes No Marginal Yes Yes Yes Source for fit indices: Hair et al., pp 648-654

Table 5.68 compared the path coefficients for the frequent past match attendance (7+ matches per season) and low past match attendance (6 or less matches per season) versions of the new sports fan response model. The frequent past match attendance version of the new model discovered one strong path between constructs, one medium path and five small paths. By comparison, the low past match attendance version of the new model identified one strong path, two medium paths and four small paths.

248 Table 5-68 New sports fan response model. Past match attendance version - regression weights (standardised values)

Path FPMA 7+ LPMA 0-6

Acce Est P Est P Accept pt ATTACHMENT <--- FAN MOTIVES .037 .539 No -.236 .015 Yes

SATISFACTION <--- FAN MOTIVES .671 *** Yes .146 .392 No

SATISFACTION <--- STADIUM FACT .040 .699 No .393 .026 Yes

SATISFACTION <--- ATTACHMENT -.172 *** Yes -.068 .308 No

BIRGING <--- FAN MOTIVES .308 *** Yes .474 *** Yes

BIRGING <--- ATTACHMENT .079 .101 No .105 .116 No

BIRGING <--- SATISFACTION .240 *** Yes .160 .018 Yes

Vic Achievement <--- FAN MOTIVES .597 *** Yes .629 *** Yes

Escape <--- FAN MOTIVES .350 *** Yes .275 *** Yes

Knowledge <--- FAN MOTIVES .613 *** Yes .554 *** Yes

Drama <--- FAN MOTIVES .277 *** Yes .028 .698 No

Excitement <--- FAN MOTIVES .692 *** Yes .758 *** Yes

Friends <--- FAN MOTIVES .169 .002 Yes .080 .277 No

Sport Level <--- ATTACHMENT .468 *** Yes .361 *** Yes

President <--- ATTACHMENT .802 *** Yes .777 *** Yes

Coach <--- ATTACHMENT .862 *** Yes .885 *** Yes

Players <--- ATTACHMENT .528 *** Yes .502 *** Yes

Value <--- STADIUM FACT .496 *** Yes .578 *** Yes

Staff <--- STADIUM FACT .533 *** Yes .423 *** Yes

Stad Environment <--- STADIUM FACT .773 *** Yes .724 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- SATISFACTION .215 *** Yes .171 .015 Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- BIRGING .194 *** Yes .246 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- STADIUM FACT 257 *** Yes .340 *** Yes

PURCHASE INTENT <--- ATTACHMENT .118 .012 Yes .009 .878 No

Note: ***: P<0.000

249 5.7.6.1 RQ4.3 Past match attendance and fan response - discussion of findings

For frequent past match attending fans (FPMA), fan motives to satisfaction was the strongest path (0.67) with the medium path fan motives to BIRGing (0.31). For low past match attending fans (LPMA) the strongest path was fan motives to BIRGing (.48) with the two medium paths being stadium factors to satisfaction (.39) and stadium factors to purchase intention (0.34). All of these paths displayed a positive relationship.

The table showed five small paths for FPMA fans and four small paths for LPMA fans between constructs: • Fan Motives to attachment: FPMA not significant, LPMA (-.24) • Attachment to satisfaction: FPMA (-0.17), LPMA not significant • Satisfaction to BIRGing: FPMA (0.24), LPMA (.16) • Satisfaction to purchase intention: FPMA (.22), LPMA (0.17), • BIRGing to purchase intention: FPMA (0.19), LPMA (.25) • Attachment to purchase intention: FPMA (.12) LPMA: not significant

All paths were positive except for the paths between fan motives to attachment (LPMA) and attachment to satisfaction (FPMA). The stronger motives for FPMA fans were escape (.35), knowledge acquisition (.61), drama (.28) and sharing time with friends (.17). For LPMA fans, the important motives were vicarious achievement (.63), and excitement (.76). FPMA were more strongly attached to the sport level, president and players but LPMA were slightly more strongly attached to the coach (.89 vs. .87). FPMA fans placed greater importance on stadium staff (customer service) and the stadium environment while LPMA fans placed greater emphasis on entertainment value (value for money).

5.7.6.2 RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response? Six propositions were developed to explore Research Question 4.3. This research question explored the impact of past match attendance on fan response. Research on the specific impact of past match attendance is very limited. McDonald (2010) identified little difference in satisfaction based on past match attendance. Hence, all of the six propositions were written as neutral (i.e. no difference between frequent and low match attendees). All six propositions were not supported and are discussed below.

250 P4.3.1 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for fan motives to satisfaction: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for fan motives to satisfaction was substantial for frequent match attendees (0.67) but not significant for low match attendees. This discovery is contrary to McDonald’s (2010) research that past match attendance made little difference to overall satisfaction. Frequent match attendees recorded higher scores for four of the six fan motives with vicarious achievement (.60) knowledge acquisition (.61) and excitement (.69) showing substantial path coefficients.

P4.3.2 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for fan motives to BIRGing: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path co-efficient for fan motives to BIRGing was substantially higher for low match attendees (0.47) than frequent match attendees (0.31). Low match attendees recorded marginally higher scores than frequent match attendees for the fan motives of vicarious achievement (0.63 Vs. 0.60) and excitement (0.76 vs. 0.69).

P4.3.3 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of stadium factors on satisfaction: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path co-efficient for stadium factors to satisfaction was positive and moderate for low match attendees (0.39) and not significant for frequent match attendees. The implication of this finding for the SKFC is that stadium factors are a major contributor to satisfaction for low match attendees.

P4.3.4 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of stadium factors on purchase intention: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path co-efficient for stadium factors to purchase intention was positive and moderate for low match attendees (0.34) and positive and small for frequent match attendees (0.26). The significance of this finding for the SKFC is that stadium factors are extremely important for low match attendees when determining their purchase intentions.

P4.3.5 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of BIRGing on purchase intention: Not supported.

The new sports fan response model showed that the path coefficient for BIRGing to purchase intention was stronger for low match attendees (0.25) than frequent match attendees (0.19). It is worth noting that the relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention is considered small and stadium factors is a stronger path to purchase intention for both groups of fans.

251 P4.3.6 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees regarding the impact of satisfaction on purchase intention: Not supported.

The new model showed that the path coefficient for satisfaction to purchase intention was slightly stronger for frequent match attendees (0.22) than low match attendees (0.17). The relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention is considered small and stadium factors is a stronger path to purchase intention for both groups of fans.

The significance for the SKFC membership and event managers to reduce the risk of churn for LPMA fans is to build the excitement associated and surrounding home matches acknowledging that the game itself is not directly controllable but is influenced by coaching strategy, the rules of the game, the players’ fitness and commitment and the evenness of the teams in the competition. LPMA fans (vs. FPMA fans). place greater importance on entertainment value. Entertainment value takes into account not only the cost of the membership ticket but also the associated costs of attending a match including parking, food and beverages. The AFL, on behalf of the AFL clubs including the SKFC that hire the stadiums for AFL matches, identified the importance of reducing the total entertainment cost prior to the start of the 2015 season and have been working with ground trusts and concession holders at stadiums to provide match attendees with improved value for money.

Table 5-69 RQ4.3 Propositions and findings –past match attendance and fan response

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

P4.3.1 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for Not supported fan motives to satisfaction.

P4.3.2 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for Not supported fan motives to BIRGing

P4.3.3 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of stadium factors on satisfaction.

P4.3.4 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of stadium factors on purchase intention.

P4.3.5 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of BIRGing on purchase intention

P4.3.6 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of satisfaction on purchase intention.

252

Figure 5-9 New sports fan response model - frequent past match attendance version (standardised values)

Figures 5.9 Frequent past match attending fans (FPMA), seven or more matches, and 5.10 Low past match attending fans (LPMA), six or less matches showed the new sports fan response models based on past match attendance (standardised version). The differences between FPMA fans and LPMA included stronger paths for FPMA fans for fan motives to satisfaction (0.67) and satisfaction to BIRGing (0.24 vs. 0.16), and satisfaction to purchase intention (0.22 vs. 0.17). For LPMA fans the stronger paths included fan motives to BIRGing (0.47 vs. 0.31), BIRGing to purchase intention (0.25 vs. 0.19) and stadium factors to purchase intention (0.34 vs. 0.26).

253 The findings of this research study did not support McDonalds (2010) research of little difference in satisfaction for FPMA and LPMA fans. Yet, the discovery of stronger paths for LPMA fans for stadium factors to satisfaction and stadium factors to purchase intention was important as it provides clear guidance how the SKFC membership and event managers can work together to retain potentially ‘at risk’ LPMA fans. Stadium facilities were an important factor for LPMA for both satisfaction and purchase intention.

Figure 5-10 New sports fan response model - low past match attendance version (standardised values)

254 5.7.7 Summary: All propositions and findings

The new sports fan response model was used to examine the propositions that were first set out in Table 5.49. The propositions were based on theory outlined in the literature review (Chapter Two). Where no theoretical support was identified, the propositions took a neutral stance.

Table 5.70 shows a complete summary of all of the propositions under their respective research question. In total, there are 50 propositions with 11 propositions associated with the first three research questions. The first three research questions explored the relationships between the main constructs; fan motives, attachment, stadium factors and fan response (satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention). Twenty-seven propositions were used to assess the impact of gender within the constructs of fan motives, attachment and stadium factors as well as the relationships between the key constructs. Eight of the 27 propositions were non-contributory as three motives (P4.1.1 family, P4.1.3 aesthetics and P4.1.4 other fans) and five points of attachment (P4.1.10 sport, P4.1.12 club, P4.1.13 team, P4.1.16 captain and P4.1.18 star player) were not included in the new model. The remaining 12 propositions were used to assess the impact of age and past match attendance on fan response and specifically satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention.

255 Table 5-70 Summary - all propositions and findings

RQ’s Propositions Finding RQ1. What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment? P1. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and attachment Not supported RQ2. What is the relationship between fan motives and stadium factors? P2. There is a positive relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. Supported

RQ3. How do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

Satisfaction

P3.1 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and satisfaction Supported

P3.2 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and satisfaction. Not supported

P3.3 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction Not supported

P3.4 There is a positive relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention. Partial support

BIRGing

P3.5 There is a positive relationship between fan motives and BIRGing Supported

P3.6 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and BIRGing Not supported

Purchase intention

P3.7 There is a positive relationship between fan attachment and purchase intention Not supported

P3.8 There is a positive relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention Supported

P3.9 There is a positive relationship between BIRGing and purchase intention Partial support

RQ4.1 To what degree does gender explain difference in motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

Motives

P4.1.1 Family is a stronger motive for females* Non contributory

P4.1.2 Friends is a stronger motive for females Supported

P4.1.3 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of aesthetics* Non contributory

P4.1.4 Other fans is a stronger motive for males* Non contributory

P4.1.5 Vicarious achievement is a stronger motive for males Supported

P4.1.6 Acquisition of sport knowledge is a stronger motive for males Supported

P4.1.7 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of escape Supported

P4.1.8 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of drama Not supported

P4.1.9 There is no significant difference between genders for the motive of excitement Not supported

Attachment

256 P4.1.10 Sport is a stronger attachment point for males* Non contributory

P4.1.11 There is no significant difference between genders for sport level as a point of Supported attachment

P4.1.12 There is no significant difference between genders for the club as a point of Non contributory attachment*

P4.1.13 The team is a stronger attachment point for females* Non contributory

P4.1.14 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of Supported president

P4.1.15 There is no significant difference between genders for the attachment point of Supported coach

P4.1.16 There is no significant difference between genders for captain as a point of Non contributory attachment *

P4.1.17 Players is a stronger point of attachment for females. Not supported

P4.1.18 There is no significant difference between genders for star player as a point of Non contributory attachment*

Stadium Factors

P4.1.19 Stadium environment is stronger for females. Not supported

P4.1.20 Stadium staff (customer service) is a stronger consideration for females. Not supported

P4.1.21 There is no significant difference between genders regarding entertainment Supported value.

Fan response

P4.1.22 There is no significant difference between genders regarding fan motives Not supported impacting satisfaction.

P4.1.23 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for females Not supported

P4.1.24 Stadium factors to satisfaction is a stronger path for females Not supported

P4.1.25 Stadium factors are a stronger consideration for purchase intention for females. Not supported

P4.1.26 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for females Not supported

P4.1.27 There is no significant difference between genders regarding satisfaction Not supported impacting on purchase intention.

RQ4.2 To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

P4.2.1 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans for fan Not supported motives to satisfaction path

P4.2.2 Fan motives to BIRGing is a stronger path for younger fans Supported

P4.2.3 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the Not supported impact of stadium factors on satisfaction.

257 P4.2.4 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the Not supported impact of stadium factors on purchase intention.

P4.2.5 BIRGing has a stronger impact on purchase intention for younger fans Not supported

P4.2.6 There is no significant difference between younger and older fans regarding the Not supported impact of satisfaction on purchase intention.

RQ4.3 To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

P4.3.1 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for Not supported fan motives to satisfaction path

P4.3.2 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees for Not supported fan motives to BIRGing path

P4.3.3 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of stadium factors on satisfaction.

P4.3.4 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of stadium factors on purchase intention.

P4.3.5 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of BIRGing on purchase intention

P4.3.6 There is no significant difference between frequent and low match attendees Not supported regarding the impact of satisfaction on purchase intention.

* non-contributory variables removed from the new sports fan response model

5.8 Chapter Five: conclusion

This chapter presented the findings of the quantitative analysis of the conceptual framework and associated hypotheses that were outlined in Chapter Three. The survey, conducted on-line with season ticket holders from the St Kilda Football Club (SKFC), provided the data for analysis.

A series of multivariate analysis techniques were used; firstly, correlation analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were followed by confirmatory factor and regression analysis. Thirty out of forty seven hypotheses were supported (or partially supported) which provided permission to then use CFA and regression analysis to test the conceptual sports fan response model and identify the path weights between and within the constructs. Fifty propositions were developed, based on previous research, to assist the exploration of the new sports fan response model. All the hypotheses and propositions were examined in detail and the outcomes were discussed throughout the chapter. A final summary of the results is presented in Tables 5.48 and 5.70.

258 6 CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

6.1 Chapter introduction

Club members or season ticket holders (STHs) are strategically and financially important to professional sport clubs. The challenge facing most, if not all clubs in the Australian sports industry, is the difficulty in identifying those members most at risk of non-renewal or ‘churning’. An alternative framing of the same problem is to identify what are the key impacts on a season ticket holder’s decision to renew their club membership. This research set out to examine the relationships between nine fan motives, nine points of attachment and three stadium factors, and their impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention for season ticket holders (STH’s) of the St Kilda Football Club (SKFC). Additionally, this research set out to assess the impact of gender, age, past match attendance and length of club membership on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention for SKFC STH’s.

Following the completion of the literature review, four specific research questions were identified. First, is there a relationship between fan motives and attachment? Second, is there a relationship between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors? Third, do fan motives, attachment and stadium factors influence fan response? Finally, do demographic variables such as gender and age or behavioural variables such as past match attendance and length of club membership influence fan response?

This final chapter summarises the main conclusions to each of the four research questions as well as discusses the academic and managerial contributions of this project. This chapter also identifies the limitations of this research study and closes with recommendations for future research.

Figure 6.1 presents an outline of the chapter and its structure.

Figure 6-1 Map for Chapter Six: Conclusions and implications 259 6.2 Conclusions and key findings

The following section sets out a conclusion for each of the four research questions that were introduced at the start of this thesis. The first research question examined the relationship between fan motives and attachment.

6.2.1 RQ1: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment?

The correlation analysis showed that there were significant correlations between most but not all fan motives and points of attachment. The correlations rated as strong (above 0.350) were between the fan motives, excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement and three points of attachment, team, sport and club. All of these correlations were positive. The fan motive aesthetics showed strong positive correlations with the attachment points of sport and club.

These results are consistent with previous research (Funk et al., 2000; Funk et al., 2001; Funk et al., 2003; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Neale & Funk, 2006; Robinson et al., 2005a) that suggested that committed fans have additional points of attachment rather than just an attachment to the team. The findings are also consistent with Robinson and Trail’s (2005b) research that attachment to the team, sport and university (changed to club for this study) were of primary importance. The common ground between this study and Woo et al., (2009) was agreement concerning the strength of the relationship between the fan motive of vicarious achievement with the attachment points of team and club. The key difference identified between this study and Woo et al., (2009) was the discovery that the motives of aesthetics and knowledge acquisition could be considered fan as well as spectator motives.

The new sports fan response model showed that the relationship between the constructs of fan motives and attachment was not significant. This conclusion contrasted with the work of Woo et al., (2009) who reported a positive relationship between fan motives and organisation attachment (team, coach, university and players). The new sports fan response model (gender versions) showed a significant positive small path for females between fan motives and attachment but a significant negative small path for males. The finding for females was consistent with research by Kwon et al., (2005). Nevertheless, the negative relationship suggested for males was counter-intuitive and contrary to the research of Woo et al., (2009) and therefore worthy of further investigation.

The second area the study sought to explore was the relationships between fan motives, attachment and stadium factors. Stadium factors in this study consisted of three items:

260 entertainment value, customer service provided by stadium staff and the stadium environment. All three stadium factors were taken from the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) (Funk et al., 2003).

6.2.2 RQ2: What is the relationship between fan motives and attachment with stadium factors?

The correlation analysis showed that there were significant relationships between all nine fan motives and all three stadium factors. The correlations rated as strong (above 0.350) were between the fan motives, other fans, excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement and stadium environment. All of these correlations were positive. Also, the fan motive aesthetics showed strong positive correlations with stadium staff (customer service) and stadium environment.

The correlation analysis also showed that there were significant correlations between most but not all points of attachment and stadium factors. The correlations rated as strong (above 0.340) were between the three points of attachment, team, sport, and club and stadium environment. All these correlations were positive.

The above results were consistent with research conducted by Hall et al., (2010) and McDonald et al., (2013b). Hall et al., (2010) reported the emotion attached to the event and the perceived quality of the stadium to be key factors in determining satisfaction and purchase intention. McDonald et al., (2013b) stated that the standard of stadium facilities was one of four factors that impacted on STH satisfaction. There is limited research regarding the relationship between attachment and stadium factors so the finding concerning the strong correlations between the attachment points of team, sport and club and stadium environment were interesting and reinforced the importance of professional sport organisations and sports clubs providing a safe and friendly environment for their events.

The new sports fan response model also showed a strong relationship between fan motives and stadium factors. This discovery is consistent with the work of Funk et al., (2003), Hall et al., (2010) and McDonald et al., (2013b). Hall et al., (p 333, 2010) made the pertinent conclusion that, “the facilities on offer as well as the social, entertainment and fun aspects of the event influence attendance at sporting events”.

The third area the study sought to explore was the impact of fan motives, attachment and stadium factors on fan response. Fan response comprised three items, satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. 261 6.2.3 RQ3: How do fan motives, points of attachment and stadium factors influence fan response?

6.2.3.1 Fan motives and fan response The correlation analysis showed that there were significant correlations between all nine fan motives and all three fan response factors, satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. The correlations rated as strong (above 0.350) were between the fan motives, excitement, and knowledge acquisition with satisfaction; excitement and vicarious achievement with BIRGing; and excitement with purchase acquisition. All of these correlations were positive.

The new sports fan response model also showed moderate and positive relationships between (1) fan motives and satisfaction and (2) fan motives and BIRGing. Of particular interest was the relationship between fan motives and purchase intention, which was mediated by satisfaction and BIRGing.

In summary, this study discovered that the fan motives of excitement and knowledge acquisition were the key drivers of satisfaction and that excitement and vicarious achievement were the key drivers for BIRGing. These results are consistent with the research of Hall et al., (2010) and Trail et al., (2012) respectively.

6.2.3.2 Fan attachment and fan response

The correlation analysis showed that there were significant correlations between most but not all attachment points and all three fan response factors. Six of the nine attachment points showed a significant correlation with satisfaction, seven of the nine attachment points with BIRGing and eight of the nine attachment points with purchase intention. The correlations that were rated as strong (equal or above 0.350) were between (1) the points of attachment, team and club with satisfaction; (2) club with BIRGing and (3) team, sport and club with purchase acquisition. These three correlations were positive.

The strong positive correlations between team and club with satisfaction were consistent with the research of Kwon et al., (2005). The strong positive correlation between club and BIRGing and the importance for both points of attachment with purchase intention was also consistent with the prior research of Kwon et al., (2008) and Trail et al., (2012).

The new sports fan response model showed a weak negative relationship between attachment and satisfaction. This result is contrary to prior research by Kwon et al., (2005) who reported a positive relationship between various points of attachment (team, university and sport) and

262 satisfaction. This discovery is also contrary to the findings of Gau et al., (2007). The finding concerning the negative relationship between attachment and satisfaction is counter-intuitive and worthy of further investigation.

The new sports fan response model also showed that the relationships between attachment and BIRGing and attachment and purchase intention were not significant. These results were not a surprise given that the item ‘team’ was removed as a contributory item in the new model. Kwon et al., (2008) established that team identification explained 41% of the variance in BIRGing behaviour.

6.2.3.3 Stadium factors and fan response

The correlation analysis showed that there were significant correlations between the three stadium factors and all three fan response factors, satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. The correlations rated as strong (equal or above 0.350) were between stadium environment and satisfaction and between stadium environment and purchase intention. These results were consistent with the findings of Hall et al., (2010) and McDonald et al., (2013b). Moderate correlations were discovered between entertainment value with satisfaction and stadium environment with BIRGing. The latter finding was a surprise as nothing in the literature suggested a relationship between stadium environment and BIRGing. All of these correlations were positive.

The new sports fan response model showed a positive and small relationship between stadium factors and satisfaction. This discovery was consistent with the research of Gau et al., (2007) and Theodorakis et al. (2013). The new model also showed a moderate and positive relationship between stadium factors and purchase intention. This finding was consistent with the work of Hall et al., (2010).

6.2.3.4 Satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention The correlation analysis showed that there were significant correlations between satisfaction and purchase intention and also BIRGing and purchase intention. Both correlations were positive and were rated as strong (above 0.350). By contrast the new sports fan response model showed a positive but small relationship for satisfaction to purchase intention and BIRGing to purchase intention. These results were consistent with the work of Theodorakis et al., (2013) and Trail et al., (2005) respectively.

The final area this study sought to explore was the impact of demographic variables such as gender and age or behavioural variables such as past match attendance and length of club

263 membership on fan response. The aim was to uncover differences within the fan base that may assist club membership managers to develop targeted strategies to appeal to different segments within their membership with the objective of reducing non-renewal by season ticket holders.

6.2.4 RQ4.1: To what degree does gender explain difference in fan motives, attachment, stadium factors or fan response?

6.2.4.1 Gender and fan motives The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that six of the nine fan motives displayed significant differences by gender. But, all of the correlations were rated as weak as all were below 0.200. What this means is that the correlation analysis showed that gender doesn’t really explain difference in fan motives.

By contrast the new sports fan response model was more helpful and highlighted some important differences and one similarity by gender for fan motives.

• Friends was a stronger motive for females. This finding was consistent with the research of Clarke et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2010; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Fink and Parker, 2009a; Wann et al., 1999. • Excitement, drama, vicarious achievement and acquisition of sport knowledge were stronger motives for males. The results regarding excitement and drama were a surprise as they contradicted previous research by James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b) who reported no difference between genders for both motives. The findings regarding vicarious achievement and acquisition of knowledge were consistent with a range of researchers. The discovery that vicarious achievement was a stronger motive for males was consistent with research by Aiken et al., 2010; Aiken and Koch, 2009; Greenwell et al., 2002b; James and Ridinger, 2002; Robinson and Trail, 2005b. The outcome that knowledge acquisition was a stronger motive for males was consistent with research by Clarke et al., 2009; Dietz-Uhler et al., 2000; Farrell et al., 2011; Fink et al., 2002b; James and Ridinger 2002. • There was no significant difference between males and females for the motive of escape. This result was consistent with James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b).

264 6.2.4.2 Gender and attachment

The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that just two of the nine points of attachment displayed significant differences by gender. But, both of the correlations were rated as weak as they were below 0.100. What this means is that the correlation analysis showed that gender doesn’t really explain difference in attachment.

By contrast, the new sports fan response model was more helpful and highlighted some important similarities and one difference by gender for points of attachment.

• There was no significant difference between males and females for the attachment points of sport level, president and coach. The result concerning sport level was consistent with James and Ridinger (2002). Yet, the discovery of ‘no difference’ between genders for president and coach does not have a prior research context. • Players are a stronger attachment point for males. This finding is contrary to work of Toffoletti and Mew (2012) that suggested females derived greater pleasure from watching AFL players than males.

6.2.4.3 Gender and stadium factors The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that two of the three stadium factors displayed significant differences by gender, but both of the correlations were rated as weak/moderately weak as they were below 0.200. In short, the correlation analysis showed that gender doesn’t really explain difference in stadium factors.

By contrast, the new sports fan response model was more helpful and highlighted three important similarities between males and females for stadium factors.

• Stadium environment was equally important to both genders. This result was contrary to the research of Davis et al., (2010) and Greenwell et al., (2002b). Davis et al., (2010) reported that males were more interested in stadium facilities and Greenwell et al., (2002b) reported that females were more interested in stadium facilities. • Customer service provided by stadium staff was equally important to both genders. This discovery was contrary to the research of Davis et al., (2010) and Greenwell et al., (2002b). On the issue of customer service, Davis et al., (2010) and Greenwell et al., (2002b) were consistent in their research outcomes and both reported that females were more interested in customer service at sport stadiums. • Entertainment value was equally important to both genders. This finding does not have a prior research context.

265 6.2.4.4 Gender and fan response

The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that two of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences by gender, but both of the correlations were rated as weak as they were below 0.150. In summary, the correlation analysis showed that gender doesn’t really explain difference in fan response.

By contrast, the new sports fan response model was more helpful and highlighted four differences between genders and two similarities between males and females for fan response.

• Fan motives to satisfaction was a significant medium path for males and not significant for females. Excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement were the key drivers of satisfaction for males. This discovery does not have a prior research context for gender differences. • Stadium factors to satisfaction was a significant medium path for males and not significant for females. This result was contrary to the research by Greenwell et al., (2002b) but consistent with research by Davis et al., (2010). • BIRGing to purchase intention was a stronger (although moderately small) path for males versus a small path for females. This finding was contrary to the expected result based on research by Spinda (2011) that suggested females NFL fans exhibited much higher levels of BIRGing behaviour. • Satisfaction to purchase intention was a significant moderately small path for males versus a very small path for females. This outcome does not have a prior research context for gender differences. • No difference between genders for fan motives to BIRGing. This development was contrary to research by Spinda (2011) that proposed females NFL fans exhibited much higher levels of BIRGing behaviour. • No difference between genders for stadium factors to purchase intention. This result was contrary to the expected result based on research by Greenwell et al., (2002b) and Davis et al., (2010).

Notwithstanding that previous research has reported contradictory findings concerning the impact of gender in sport fandom, this study revealed important differences and similarities between males and females and will therefore add to the ongoing debate. This study identified that the event-related motives, excitement, drama, vicarious achievement and acquisition of sport knowledge, were stronger motives for males and the social motive of spending time with friends was a stronger motive for females. Accordingly, the discovery that the path

266 between fan motives to satisfaction was moderate for males and not significant for females was not a shock. Attachment and stadium factors were points of similarity between genders with the exception that players represented a stronger attachment point for males. The development that stadium factors to satisfaction was a significant path for males although not a significant path for females was, therefore, a revelation. Likewise, the finding of no significant difference between genders for fan motives to BIRGing was also a surprise. The major point of difference between genders was the relationship between fan motives and attachment with a small positive relationship discovered for females but a small negative relation reported for males. The latter result is not consistent with previous research by Woo et al., (2009) and is worthy of further investigation.

267 6.2.5 RQ4.2: To what degree does age explain difference in fan response?

The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that one of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences by age. Yet, the correlation was rated as weak as it was below 0.150. In summary, the correlation analysis showed that age doesn’t really explain difference in fan response.

By contrast, the new sports fan response model was more helpful and highlighted six differences between younger and older fans for fan response.

• Fan motives to satisfaction was a significant higher path for younger fans than older fans. The most important motives for younger fans in priority order were excitement, vicarious achievement and knowledge acquisition. Yet the motive friends was the biggest difference in fan motives between younger and older fans. The inference being that social interaction with friends was a bigger motive for younger fans. This discovery was contrary to Westerbeek (2000) who reported that older fans scored significantly higher on the opportunity to relate to and communicate with each other. • Fan motives to BIRGing was a significantly higher path for younger fans than older fans. This result was consistent with Spinda’s (2011) research with NFL fans. • BIRGing to purchase intention was a stronger (although moderately small) path for older fans versus a small path for younger fans. This development was a revelation in light of the previous finding that the path from fan motives to BIRGing was stronger for younger fans. • Stadium factors to satisfaction was a significant although small path for older fans but not significant for younger fans. This discovery was compatible with Westerbeek (2000) and contrary to the findings of Greenwell et al., (2002b) • Stadium factors to purchase intention was a significantly higher path for younger fans than older fans. This outcome was a surprise in light of the previous one that the path from stadium factors to satisfaction was not significant for younger fans. • Satisfaction to purchase intention was a significant small path for older fans versus a very small path for younger fans. This finding does not have a prior research context.

Previous research studies (Greenwell et al., 2002b; Tobar, 2006; Westerbeek, 2000) explored the impact of age on fan response, but this study clarified the importance of stadium factors for younger fans regarding purchase intention as well as suggesting that social motives are more important as a driver of satisfaction for younger fans for SKFC STH’s.

268 6.2.6 RQ4.3: To what degree does past match attendance explain difference in fan response?

The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that two of the three fan response factors displayed significant differences by past match attendance. Here the correlation for purchase intention was rated as weak as it was below 0.100 and the correlation for satisfaction was rated as moderate (i.e. just below 0.300). In short, the correlation analysis showed that past match attendance was a factor in explaining difference in fan satisfaction.

By comparison the sports fan response model was more helpful and highlighted six differences between frequent past match attendees and low past match attendees for fan response.

• Fan motives to satisfaction was substantial for frequent match attendees but not significant for low match attendees. This result was contrary to research by McDonald (2010) that reported past match attendance made little difference to overall satisfaction. • Satisfaction to purchase intention was a significant small path for frequent match attendees versus a very small path for low match attendees. This outcome does not have a prior research context. • Fan motives to BIRGing was a significantly higher path for low match attendees than frequent match attendees. This discovery does not have a prior research context. • Stadium factors to purchase intention was a significantly higher path for low match attendees than for frequent match attendees. This development does not have a prior research context. • Stadium factors to satisfaction was a significant and moderate path for low match attendees but not significant for frequent match attendees. This result does not have a prior research context. • BIRGing to purchase intention was slightly stronger (yet moderately small) path for low match attendees versus a small path for frequent match attendees. This finding does not have a prior research context.

Although previous research studies (McDonald, 2010; McDonald et al., 2014c) explored the impact of past match attendance on fan response, this study clarified the importance of stadium factors for low past match attendees as an important driver of satisfaction, as well as an important path to purchase intention for SKFC STH’s.

269 6.2.7 RQ4.4: To what degree does length of club membership explain difference in fan response?

The correlation and ANOVA analysis showed that just one of the three fan response factors displayed significant difference by length of club membership. Yet, the correlation for satisfaction was rated as weak as it was below 0.125. This result was consistent with McDonald’s (2010) finding of little difference in satisfaction between recent and established club members.

The correlation analysis showed that length of club membership doesn’t really explain difference in fan response. Consequently, the decision was made not to use the new sports fan response model and path analysis to explore further the impact of length of club membership on fan response.

This area is worthy of further investigation to explore conclusions of McDonald (2010) and McDonald et al., (2014) that length of club membership, in combination with match attendance, provides highly useful warning signals for potential member non-renewal.

270 6.3 Contributions of the study

This research although based on a single Melbourne based AFL club makes a number of significant additions – both academic and managerial – to existing knowledge for SKFC STH behaviour and specifically which fan motives, attachments and stadium factors are important to purchase intention and also the role of satisfaction and BIRGing as pathways to purchase intention. The following sections outline these contributions.

6.3.1 Academic contributions and implications for theory

This single club case study adds to the body of knowledge through the presentation of the new sports fan response model. The new model extends the work of Funk et al., (2003) and Kwon et al., (2005) and Woo et al., (2009) and demonstrates the impact of fan motives, attachment and stadium factors on the dependent variables of satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention for a homogenous group of committed sports fans. Additionally, the model provides an Australian context noting the SII has only been used once in Australia (Neale & Funk, 2006) and all prior studies using the PAI work were conducted in the USA and used student samples.

The specific value of this new model (refer to figure 6.2) is that it addresses the challenge presented by McDonald et al., (2013b) in that it attempts to quantify the drivers of satisfaction and the role of satisfaction with purchase intention for St Kilda Football Club (SKFC) season ticket holders.

This research established that satisfaction was a partial mediator between fan motives and purchase intention for SKFC financial members, albeit a relatively small path. In summary, satisfaction alone does not lead to renewal of club membership. The partial mediating role of satisfaction discovered in this study was consistent with the work of Theodorakis et al., (2013) who also reported that satisfaction mediated stadium factors and game quality for behaviour intentions.

This study also quantified the role of BIRGing and stadium factors for purchase intention for SKFC STH’s. The new sports fan response model highlighted that the strongest path in the new sports fan response model was between stadium factors and purchase intention. This particular finding was consistent with the research of Hall et al., (2010) who reported that the most significant predictor of attendance was the stadium facilities associated with the event.

271 Also this investigation identified that STHs ranked stadium factors in the following priority order: 1. stadium environment. 2. entertainment value. 3. staff service.

The discovery regarding BIRGing as the second strongest path (even though a small path) to purchase intention was important as it confirms that BIRGing contributed to purchase intention. This result was consistent with research of Trail et al., (2005) who reported that BIRGing behaviour was a prime determinant of sports’ fans intention to attend sport events. Trail et al., (2006) stated that intention to attend was an accurate predictor of actual match attendance.

This study’s finding concerning the role of attachment and specifically the strong correlations between the fan motives of excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement with the attachment points, team, club and sport indicated that SKFC STH’s can have multiple points of attachment rather than just one attachment with the team. This outcome was consistent with research of Funk et al., (2000, 2001, 2002), Kwon and Armstrong (2004) and Robinson and Trail (2005b). Nonetheless, the overall findings concerning attachment and specifically attachment’s small but negative relationship with satisfaction, and inconsequential relationships with BIRGing and purchase intention, suggested that the attachment point of team was crucial. The item team was not included in the new sports fan response model. Kwon et al., (2005) reported that only attachment to the team and not other attachments (coach, players, university, sport level) explained a significant variance in attendance.

The lack of a significant relationship between fan motives and attachment was not consistent with the work of Woo et al., (2009) who reported a positive relationship between fan motives and organisation attachment (team, coach, university and players). The new sports fan response model (gender versions) showed a significant positive small path for females between fan motives and attachment but a significant negative small path for males. The result for females was consistent with research by Kwon et al., (2005). The negative relationship suggested for males was counter-intuitive and contrary to the findings of Woo et al., (2009) and is, therefore, worthy of further investigation.

On a micro level this study’s contribution to theory also includes the following eight points: 1. The motives aesthetic and knowledge acquisition can be considered as fan motives rather than purely spectator motives. This discovery contrasts with Woo et al., (2009) who attributed both motives to spectators rather than fans.

272 2. Fan motives and gender difference. The event-related fan motives of excitement, drama, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement were stronger motives for males and the social motive friends was a stronger motive for females. There was no significant difference between genders for the motive of escape. The result of difference between genders for excitement and drama was a surprise as it contradicted previous research by James and Ridinger (2002) and Robinson and Trail (2005b). 3. Attachment and gender difference. Players was a stronger attachment point for males but there was no significant difference between genders for coach and president. 4. Stadium factors and gender difference. There was no significant difference between genders for stadium environment and staff service. This finding was a revelation as it contradicted research by Davis et al., (2010) and Greenwell et al., (2002b). 5. Fan response and gender difference. Fan motives to satisfaction, stadium factors to satisfaction, BIRGing to purchase intention and satisfaction to purchase intention were all stronger paths for males. There was no significant difference between gender for the two paths, fan motives to BIRGing and stadium factors to purchase intention. 6. Fan response and age. The path stadium factors to purchase intention and social factors were more important for younger fans. 7. Fan response and past match attendance. Stadium factors were more important to low past match attendees for both satisfaction and purchase intention. 8. Fan response and length of club membership. This study suggested that length of club membership had a weak correlation with satisfaction but no significant relationship with BIRGing or purchase intention. It is recommended that this area is worthy of further investigation based on McDonald (2010) and McDonald et al., (2014c) findings regarding length of club membership and past match attendance.

273

Figure 6-2 The new sports fan response model (SFRM)

274 The new model illustrates how six fan motives, four points of attachment, and three stadium factors impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention for season ticket holders.

Set out below is a summary of the key attributes of the new Sports Fan Response model: • Satisfaction acts as a mediator between fan motives and purchase intention • BIRGing acts as a mediator between fan motives and purchase intention • Satisfaction acts as a partial mediator between stadium factors and purchase intention • Satisfaction is a relatively weak predictor of purchase intention. • BIRGing is a relatively weak predictor of purchase intention • Stadium factors are the strongest path to purchase intention • Attachment and fan motives – no significant path. • Attachment and satisfaction - negative and weak path. • Attachment to BIRGing - inconsequential path (missing team). • Attachment to purchase intent - inconsequential path. • Strongest motives for STHs – excitement, vicarious achievement and knowledge acquisition. Previous research (Robinson and Trail, 2005b) listed excitement, escape, drama as the strongest motives

6.3.2 Managerial implications and implications for policy or practice

Sports events are similar to many services and have a complexity that makes it challenging for sports organisations such as the AFL and the 18 clubs that make up the Australian Football League to deliver events at a consistent and satisfying level. Sports events are heterogeneous, in that each time a match is played, it is different and each customer’s experience of it is different (Robinson et al., 2013). The match experience can be of variable quality as it is a mix of controllable and uncontrollable factors (Hoye et al., 2015). This section will focus on what St Kilda Football Club management can control in the presentation of sports events and service provision to its members.

In this investigation, excitement was identified as a key fan motive and a strong contributor to satisfaction for SKFC STH’s. Excitement, as defined for this study, consisted of three dimensions; the excitement associated with AFL games, the excitement surrounding AFL games and the excitement generated during the match. AFL clubs are directly responsible for the presentation of home games so it follows that the SKFC event manager can influence the first two dimensions of excitement through their communication and promotion strategies.

275 It can be argued that the game itself is influenced by many stakeholders and is not a controllable factor. The AFL has a range of equalisation measures in place that over the longer term may assist with building the third dimension of match excitement. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that the SKFC, as well as the other 17 AFL clubs, fully embrace the complete range of equalisation measures. The aim of these measures is to create an even competition where the outcome of every match is uncertain. Match outcome uncertainty will generate match excitement and drama. The equalisation measures the AFL already has in place include team salary caps and player draft rules and more recently a cap and tax on football department spending (Denham & Smith, 2015).

In 2015, AFL clubs were encouraged by the AFL to improve the match experience and a number of initiatives were trialled including lighting the stadium in club colours and crowd participation in singing club related songs prior to the start of the game. Fans were encouraged to display club banners and personalised messages during matches, the playing of ‘curtain raiser’ matches prior to the main game was re-introduced and match attendees were given access to the playing surface at the conclusion of the match (Cherny, 2015). The success of these initiatives is debatable but at least improving the match experience for match attendees has been clearly placed on the agenda and needs to be an ongoing priority for the SKFC.

Knowledge acquisition was described as a key motive in this study of SKFC STH’s and is also a controllable factor. The AFL and AFL clubs currently assist fans and spectators to enhance their knowledge of the game through their dedicated web sites and the match program. In addition, the SKFC could also run contests before and during breaks in home games based on knowledge of the sport, club, team and players using the large video screens within venues as well as ‘on-line’ so that the competitions can be accessed by fans using portable devices such as smart phones. The SKFC should also review the information provided to potential club members, new club members and children during school visits and the Auskick program. Such a review would assist knowledge building for SKFC fans about all aspects of the game. The AFL and its media partners are also important in improving knowledge of the game through coverage of all matches as well as match previews and match post-mortems.

In this study, stadium factors were established to be the strongest path to purchase intention. The importance of stadium facilities concurs with research conducted by Hall et al., (2010)

276 and McDonald et al., (2013b). The SKFC, the AFL and various ground trusts share the responsibility to provide a safe and secure environment. For the AFL, as the peak body for the sporting code, stadium factors are crucial for building attachment to the sport and differentiating Aussie Rules from other football codes.

Stadium management is difficult for AFL clubs on an individual basis as most AFL clubs including the SKFC, hire the venue from a ground trust and are usually one of numerous tenants. The SKFC doesn’t have direct control over many of the service elements that contribute to customer satisfaction as they rely on the ground trusts and the third parties they contract for beverage and food catering, sale of merchandise and hiring and managing stadium staff. Prior to the 2015 home and away season, the AFL took a lead role in negotiating with the main stadium ground trusts in Melbourne on behalf of the Victorian based clubs in an attempt to improve ‘entertainment value’ and specifically the cost of food and beverages within the stadium as well as service provided by stadium staff (ABC, 2015). This initiative should be considered a ‘work in progress’ and needs to be an ongoing priority for the SKFC and the AFL especially at Etihad Stadium, the home ground for the SKFC.

Stadium factors are important in strengthening two points of attachment, team and club. Additionally, stadium factors impact on a range of event-related fan motives including excitement, knowledge acquisition and vicarious achievement as well as social motives such as spending time with family, friends and like-minded other fans. The opportunity to socialise is an important motive for attending matches (Doyle et al., 2016; Fink et al., 2002a; Wann et al., 2004). Therefore, it is recommended that the SKFC work with Etihad stadium management to create ‘engaging and friendly’ spaces within the stadium that encourage social interaction. It is also advocated that the SKFC host pre match and/or post match events especially at the start of a new season for all members and not just members who have purchased catering packages. The purpose of these events is to strengthen the sense of shared identity or collective esteem as well as to assist the induction of new members. This advice is consistent with the conclusions of recent research by Doyle et al., (2016). Doyle et al., (2016) also counselled hosting regular off-season events and creating social media based competitions to build fan engagement throughout the year.

277 6.4 Limitations of the study

Even though various limitations of the methodology and data collection techniques were discussed in Chapter Four, it is vital to identify and acknowledge limitations of this research when considering future research opportunities.

First, data was collected in 2010 from just one AFL Melbourne based club and in one context with thesis submission in 2016. This limits the ability to generalise the findings and conclusions to all AFL clubs in 2016 and especially AFL clubs based outside Victoria. Further a single AFL club case study reduces the ability to generalise the findings to other sporting codes and professional sports clubs in Australia and overseas and indeed to non- sports clubs with a paying membership base in Australian and overseas.

Second, the use of an on-line questionnaire, despite it providing many benefits, nevertheless limited the sample to SKFC members who had computer access and computer literacy to participate. It may be that some financial members of SKFC were unable to participate due to limited computer access and/or limited computer literacy.

Third, the two scales used for this study focussed on motivation and attachment as the main independent variables. The literature has identified many other factors that can impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention. For example, McDonald et al., (2013b) when measuring STHs’ satisfaction used a twenty-one item scale. The scale explored the members involvement with the club (six items including access to players and training sessions as well as opportunities to mix with other members and recognition by the club), administration of the club (four items including the club’s financial position and functioning of the club board), service provided by the club (four items including complaint handling and quality of club functions) as well as on-field factors (four factors including player effort and the quality of play) and home ground facilities (three factors). Hall et al., (2010) used a scale that included a range of stadium specific items that explored back room factors (i.e. stadium accessibility, parking and ease of getting a seat) and front room stadium factors (i.e. alcohol and smoke free zones) in addition to numerous motives and points of attachment. Theodorakis et al., (2013) used a 28-item scale that explored game quality (four items), team performance (four items), stadium front room factors (four items), stadium back room factors (four items), in addition to service provided by the stadium staff (eight items including four items on reliability) and stadium security and safety (four items).

278 6.5 Implications for future research.

This research investigation focussed on season ticket holders from a single Melbourne based AFL club and therefore the ability to generalise the findings and conclusions to other AFL clubs and other sports codes professional club members is limited.

The first recommendation is for future research to replicate this research with other AFL clubs and especially AFL clubs based outside of Victoria. It is also advocated that future research explore the drivers of purchase intention for a range of sporting codes beyond football and beyond Australia. An interesting question to address is whether fan motives, attachments and stadium factors and their impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention differ from teams sports such as Aussie rules, soccer, rugby, basketball and cricket to individual sports such as tennis and golf. Also, what is the impact of culture and specifically the difference between Australian, American, English, European and Asian sports fans?

Future research should also investigate elite sport featuring female athletes following the recent local announcements concerning the introduction of a women’s big bash league (city based T20 Cricket) in 2016/17 (Pierik, 2016), a new professional national netball league in 2017 (Masters, 2016) and a professional national Aussie rules female competition planned for 2017 (Lane, 2015b). Qualitative research could also be used to provide new insights into sports fans and spectator motivations and attachment points.

There is also an opportunity to compare and contrast the drivers of purchase intention for committed fans, such as season ticket holders, to those of the less committed spectator (i.e. those who attend sports events as observers and do not have a strong attachment to the team or club or players etc.) to attend sport events.

A further extension would be to investigate similarities and differences in membership renewal between sports club members and non-sports club members.

This study also identified five specific areas for future research.

McDonald et al., (2013b) reported that the role of satisfaction in membership renewal is complex and important. McDonald et al., (2013b) suggested five dimensions of club performance that contributed to satisfaction with on-field performance being just one of the dimensions. This study discovered that the fan motives excitement, vicarious achievement 279 and knowledge acquisition were significant contributors to satisfaction. The new sports fan response model showed that attachment had a weak and negative relationship with satisfaction. An important discovery of this study was that satisfaction acted as a mediator to purchase intention. Theodorakis et al., (2013) also reported that satisfaction acted as a partial mediator between game quality, facility factors and purchase intention. The factors that contribute to satisfaction and the role of satisfaction as a mediator for purchase intention is suggested as an area of future research.

In this investigation, correlation analysis identified strong relationships between some fan motives and select points of attachment but the new sports fan response model showed that the relationship between fan motives and attachment was not significant. This discovery contrasted with the work of Woo et al., (2009) who reported a positive relationship between fan motives and organisation attachment (team, coach, university and players). The new sports fan response model (gender versions) showed a significant positive small path for females between fan motives and attachment but a significant negative small path for males. The finding for females was consistent with research by Kwon et al., (2005). The negative relationship suggested for males was counter-intuitive and contrary to the findings of Woo et al., (2009) and therefore is worthy of further investigation.

It is recommended that future research also explore the impact of a high profile AFL club president such as Eddie McGuire (Collingwood FC) or high profile AFL coach such as Alistair Clarkson (Hawthorn FC) on an AFL financial member’s attachment to their club.

This study uncovered that all three stadium factors had a significant positive correlation with BIRGing. This was a surprise as nothing in the literature suggested a relationship between stadium factors and BIRGing. Therefore this relationship is recommended for further research.

Finally, McDonald (2010) and McDonald et al., (2014c) reported that length of club membership, in combination with match attendance, provided highly useful early warning signals for potential member non-renewal. This study did not find that length of club membership explained difference in satisfaction, BIRGing or purchase intention, yet it is suggested that further investigation may provide useful information that will assist AFL club membership managers identify in advance those members most likely not to renew their membership. The research ideas outlined above would provide a systematic means to develop a broader conceptual framework for spectator and fan related research.

280 6.6 Concluding remarks

For many people, sport is a source of fascination as well as a mixture of pain and pleasure. Therefore, it’s not surprising that the literature concerning sports fans and spectators is extensive and sometimes contradictory, especially concerning the role and drivers of satisfaction. The role of satisfaction and its impact on purchase intention is one area suggested by this study for future research. The sports fan literature is also comprehensive and sometimes conflicting concerning the impact of gender on fan motives and stadium factors and their impact on satisfaction, BIRGing and purchase intention and is likewise recommended for further investigation.

It would be foolish to suggest that one research project involving 700 plus committed fans from one AFL Melbourne based club will substantially change decades of research into sports fan’s motives, attachments and response. My own view is that this one club case study contributes to the body of knowledge through the presentation of the new sports fan response model. The real value of this model is that it addresses the challenge outlined by McDonald et al., (2013b) by attempting to quantify the drivers of satisfaction and the role of satisfaction in purchase intention for the most committed of fans, season ticket holders. It also quantifies the role of BIRGing and stadium factors in purchase intention. Additionally, the new model illustrates the impact of gender, age and past match attendance on fan response.

281 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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316 8 Appendices

Appendix A: Definition of key terms ...... 318 Appendix B: Examples of fan typology …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 335 Appendix C: Motivation scales developed to understand sports fan consumption (1975-2012) ...... 324 Appendix D: Summary of articles for gender differences (1987 to 2013) ...... 327 Appendix E: Full list of original SII variables, item measures and Cronbach’s alphas ...... 333 Appendix F: Sport Interest Inventory (SII) - contextualised for AFL/Aussie rules ...... 336 Appendix G: Point of Attachment (PAI) - contextualised and extended for AFL/Aussie rules ...... 338 Appendix H: Copy of sports fans questionnaire ...... 340 Appendix I: Ethics Approval (SUHREC Project 2009/146) ...... 347 Appendix J: Frequency tables …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...363 Appendix K: Histograms ...... 389 Appendix L: Factor description and alpha co-efficient comparison …………….....……………………………………….402

317 Appendix A: Definition of key terms To ensure clarity and consistency of meaning of key words used throughout the thesis, the following definitions are provided.

Loyalty (to a sport object): a persistent choice that is resistant to change to follow a specific team or club or entity related to the team or club; i.e. player, coach, president. This choice leads to biases in cognitive processing and guides behaviour.

Season Ticket Holder (STH): a club member who pays an annual fee to a professional sports club in return for access to seating at matches over one season. Also known as a club financial member. Season Ticket Holders are considered to be the most committed of fans (McDonald 2010).

Sports fan: highly involved and possess an emotional attachment to their team or club.

Fanatics: regular consumers of sport that are often at the extreme end of passion and enthusiasm and may be intolerant of other fans who may not appear as committed.

‘Other fans’: like-minded sports fans and they support the same team. Sometimes referred to as members of the same sporting tribe. Also strongly connected to socialisation (refer next definition).

Socialisation: the extent to which a sports event provides the opportunity to interact with ‘like minded’ others.

Sports spectator: those who attend sports events as observers and do not have a strong social psychological attachment to team entities such as the team, players or coach. Also referred to as a ‘casual fan’.

Motivation: refers to “inner reasons or driving forces behind human actions as consumers are driven to address real needs”, Babin & Harris, 2011, p. 83). Decoding the motivations that bring people to sports events is crucial to the long-term financial success of professional sport (Kwon & Trail, 2003; Wann, 1995).

318 Attachment: sports consumers form cognitive and emotional attachments to various elements of the sport experience, which may include the team, coach, player, club, level of sport, and/or type of sport. These connections are called points of attachment (Kwon et al., 2005).

Stadium factors (venue characteristics): Buttle et al., (1995) identified three types of stadium factors; front room factors, back room factors and facility factors. Front room factors are those that directly impact on the attendees’ enjoyment of the event and include smoke free zones. Back room factors include access to the stadium, parking and the ease of getting to a seat. The facility factor includes the design and comfort of the venue, the standard of available food and drinks, ticket prices, facilities for children and pre/post match entertainment.

Customer service: the service provided at a sports stadium or by a sports club that affects an individual’s interest in attending games or renewing their club membership.

Stadium environment: the extent to which a safe and secure atmosphere contributes to the enjoyment of a sports event.

‘Value for Money’: the extent the affordability of the entertainment contributes to one’s attendance at games. Also referred to as ‘entertainment value’.

Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing): when a team wins, its fans usually want to promote their association so that they can ‘bask in the reflected glory’ with the objective of making others think that the fan is as successful as the team. Typically, fans ‘BIRG’ by wearing team related apparel (i.e. team scarfs and beanies), placing signs or flags in their yards or on their cars and discuss the team as though they were part of it.

Cutting Off Reflected Failure (CORFing): the opposite fan response to BIRGing. Fans attempt to disassociate themselves from a losing team. Commonly, the disassociation appears in the language used when referring to the team (i.e. “they” not “we”), no longer wearing team apparel and non- attendance at team functions and other team related activities.

Satisfaction: refers to the decision to attend a sports event, the spectating experience at the sports event and the game experience at the sports event.

319 Purchase intention: refers to the potential to attend future games and the possibility to purchase the team/club merchandise and apparel or the resolution to renew club membership.

Australian Football League (AFL): the AFL is the dominant code of football played in Australia in terms of television audience, match attendances and revenue generation. At the elite level, the AFL has 18 clubs who compete for an annual premiership. The AFL season in 2015 consisted of 23 regular season rounds and a knockout finals season played over four weeks. The AFL was formed in 1990. The VFL was the predecessor to the AFL. This football code is uniquely Australian and is also as known as ‘Aussie Rules’.

Victorian Football League (VFL): the VFL was formed in 1897 and consisted of eight foundation clubs. All eight clubs were former members of the Victorian Football Association (VFA). The VFL was the predecessor to the AFL (refer to the above definition)

320 Appendix B: Examples of fan typology (1988 – 2013)

Authors/ Year Country Sport Sample size Segmentation basis Segments

Smith 1988 USA N/A Conceptual Social integration Sports fans (contest matters)

Escape & Excitement and NON-fan (indifferent to the result)

Aesthetics (Excellence & Beauty) Uses spectator, sports fans and sport follower interchangeably.

Does note graduations of this group from minimal interest to addiction

Real & 1992 USA World Cup Conceptual Extensive Media coverage: Deep fans Mechikoff (soccer) and Olympics Esteem, Honour, dignity, respect status in over ones head – high stakes

Stewart & 1997 Australia AFL Loyalty • Aficionado Smith • Theatre Goer Performance • Passionate Partisan • Champ Follower Identification • Reclusive Partisan

Hunt 1999 N/A N/A Conceptual Motivation source • Temporary fan Bristol • Local Fan Bashaw Fan Behaviour • Devoted Fan • Fanatical Fan • Dysfunctional fan

Quick 2000 Australia AFL Western Length of membership • Irrational Vs. Rational Bulldogs • Win Vs. Loss 400(1996) Team performance • Ongoing attendance vs. limited attendance.

Sydney Swans Match attendance • Light attendance 510 • Medium attendance: fragile • Medium attendance: non fragile • Heavy attendance

Dixon 2001 N/A N/A Conceptual Loyalty to a team • Partisan • Moderate Partisan

321 Authors/ Year Country Sport Sample size Segmentation basis Segments

• Purist

Giulianotti 2002 UK/Euro Professional Conceptual Club identification by spectators: investment; • Supporters Football club’s role in self formation • Followers • Fans • Flaneurs

Tapp 2002 UK Football 667 Premier 1. Supporter value to the club based on games Fanatics Clowes league STH attended. • Regulars • Carefree Casuals • Committed casuals 2. Also product need. • Professional wanderers

• Mines a Pint • Juggling the kids • Thermos Row D • Season ticket friendlies • Loyal cash and chant • Dads and sons

Wann et al 2003 US? ? 4943 panels Individual support • Die hard fans 8% • Avid Fans 23.5% Norco 1400 avid fans Emotional involvement • Casual Fans 45.8% • Championship fans 9.6% Social aspects • Non-fans 13.3.%

Dale et al 2005 UK/Euro Rugby League 290 home Attendance profile • Hard Core spectators • Sleepers Club performance • Young ones • Yet to be converted Spending profile

Membership type

Ross 2007 USA NBA 662 ticket Perceptions of the sport brand across 11 Cluster 1 more positive brand perceptions holders dimensions Cluster 2 more educated more wealthy

322 Authors/ Year Country Sport Sample size Segmentation basis Segments

Mackellar 2009 Australia Elvis revival Ethnographic Behavioural segmentation. Knowledge of Elvis • Social and 30 and ERF • Dabbler conversations • Fan • Fanatic

DeSarbo 2012 USA College Football 307 college 35 Football activity descriptions- covering • Diehard active 16.6% Madrigal students attendance media participation social • Anti-athletic 23.2% • Social Butterflies 22.5% • Young Belongers 37.7%

Fillis 2013 UK Scottish Football Case study Cultural, social motivational and consumption • Social Devotee Mackay approach • Committed Supporter • Casual Follower • Fan

323 Appendix C: Motivation scales developed to understand sports fan consumption (1975-2012)

Researchers Scale Developed No of No of Motives Measured Sample type/size items sub-scales (year)

Spreitzer, Snyder & Refer Grove ?? ?? Psychological and social wellbeing Refer Grove Dorsch Hopkins Larson (1979) Dorsch Hopkins

Wann & SSIS 7 1 Vic Achieve, fan of team, friends see you as fan of team, Branscombe 1993 follow team,, fan importance, rival dislike, display team name/logo etc.

Wann (1995) Sports Fan 23 8 Eustress, Self Esteem, Escape, Entertainment, Economics, Study 1: 272 University students associated Motivation Scale Aesthetic, Group Affiliation, Family with recreational softball league. (SFMS) Study 2: 144 Undergrad Psychology students

Kahle, Kambara & Fan Attendance ?? ?? Self-expression, group affiliation, attachment, love for the Refer Grove Dorsch Hopkins Rose (1996) Motivation game (FAM)

Milne & McDonald Motivation of the 37 Mental well-being (self actualisation, self esteem, value (1999) Sport Consumer development, (MSC)

Trail & James Motivation Scale 27 9 Achievement, Knowledge, Aesthetics, Drama, Escape, STH’s Major league baseball (203) (2001) of Sport Family, Physical attraction, Physical skills, Social Consumption (MSSC)

Funk, Mahony, Sport Interest 30 Nakazawa & Inventory (SII) Hirakawa (2001)

Funk, Mahony & Sport Interest 54 Ridinger (2002) Inventory (SII)

324 Researchers Scale Developed No of No of Motives Measured Sample type/size items sub-scales (year)

Mahony, Nakazawa, J League 28 Funk, James & Spectator Scale Gladden (2002) (links to SII)

Funk, Ridinger & Sport Interest 90 Moorman (2003) Inventory (SII)

Bauer, Sauer & PCT (Mahony, ? 16 Team, team play, head coach, success, fans, club ID, club 1298 German soccer fans – 85% male. Cannot Exler (2005) Madrigal & history/tradition, stadium, identification, peer group confirm if STH’s. Howard 2000; acceptance, escape, social, emotions, nostalgia & Kwon & Trail entertainment 2003) and ALM (Gladden & Funk 2001)

Dale, Iwaarden, Van Service N/A 6 Attendance profile, Club performance (on field, price, 290 home supporters including 100 STH’s and de Wiele & improvements in a promos), Spending behaviour (Merchandise, shop/web site) 81 lapsed STH’s Rugby league UK. Williams (2005) sports Initiatives to increase attendance, lapsed supporters and environment attract new members), Demographics, Membership stats (type, length)

Theodorakis, Sport Spectator Vic Achieve, fan of team, friends see you as fan of team, Vlachopoulos, Identification follow team,, fan importance, rival dislike, display team Wann, Afthinos and scale (SSIS-G) name/logo etc. Nassis (2006)

Kuenzel & Yassim Social: Trail et al 20 5 Social, Game Quality, Auditory, Satisfaction, Word of Mouth 581 game spectators at English domestic cricket (2007) (2003) recommendation, Revisit matches

Game Quality: Matsuoka et al (2003).

Auditory: specifically

325 Researchers Scale Developed No of No of Motives Measured Sample type/size items sub-scales (year)

designed using Westerbeek 1999.

Satisfaction: Oliver 1980.

Word of Mouth & Revisit: Hightower et al (2002).

Ross, Bang, Lee Team Brand 35 11 Brand, Rival, Food (stadium), social, commit, team history, 349 student season ticket holders (Ice Hockey (2007) Association scale Organisation, success, team-play, coach, stadium (TBAS)

Schneider, Bristow Fan Loyalty index unknown 5 Loyalty, match attendance, purchase team merchandise, team 337 attendees at a Major league match (2001) (2007) name likability, on field performance

Theodorakis, (SSIS-G) + N/A 7 Vic Achieve, fan of team, friends see you as fan of team, 257 spectators at a Greek Pro basketball match Koustelios, follow team,, fan importance, rival dislike, display team Robinson, Barlas SPORTSERV name/logo etc. (2009) scale and Repurchase Intent Stadium facilities, service, security, access, reliability, repurchase intentions

Grove, Dorsch & Replication of 21 5 Well being, self expression, pride in place, social integration, 430 students from a large South-eastern Hopkins (2012) 1982 study clarification of gender roles University USA

Wu, Tsai & Hung Trust, Vicarious 21 7 Trust in player, trust in team, Vicarious achievement player, 217 attendees at Chinese Pro Baseball League (2012) achievement and vicarious achievement team, player ID, Team ID, Future ID affect fan attendance. loyalty

326 Appendix D: Summary of articles for gender differences (1987 to 2013)

Authors Year Country Sport Sample size Finding on gender difference

Bryson L 1990 Australia n/a n/a Sports participation/exercise: Up to 15 years males and females equally likely to exercise. By 17, 15% fewer females exercise 3 times per week or more. The gap widens with increasing age.

Male control of Sport Admin. Female sports – examples Ice Hockey and Basketball. 18% of all sports official positions were held by females.

Media coverage 3 radio reports and 15 newspaper reporters were female. Coverage of female sport was 1.3% of all sport.

Summary – sport is defined in male terms

Sargent SL, 1998 USA TV 190 students Viewing: males watched combative sports, females watched stylistic sports as much as combative sports – due to male Zillman D, coverage SE USA insistence? Weaver JB. of sport University Elegance: Males detected more elegance in violent combative sports than females.

Enjoyment, Excitement, Boring, Violent, Active, Dangerous - Negligible or insignificant gender differences

Wann D, 1999 USA Range of Study 1: 96 Study 1: Males scored higher on eustress, self esteem, escape and aesthetics. Females reported higher levels of family Schrader M, Sports residents motivation – all consistent with previous Wann research (1995). Unlike past research males recorded higher levels of Wilson A economic and group affiliation motives but no difference between genders on entertainment motives. Study 2 – 86 students. Study 2 – consistent with study 1 and past research, males scored higher on eustress and self esteem while females scored higher on family motivation. Contrary to previous research but consistent with study 1, males reported higher Study 3 – levels of economic motivation. Gender differences were not found on other subscales. 115 students. Study 3 – males scored higher on eustress and self esteem while females reported higher levels of family motivation. But males and females were not statistically significantly different on the family subscale. Males also scored higher on the entertainment and aesthetic subscales.

Summary – males and females have differences as described above but do not exhibit consistent differences in tendencies toward escape, entertainment, economic and group affiliation motives.

327 Authors Year Country Sport Sample size Finding on gender difference

Dietz-Uhler B, 2000 USA Sports Under- Both males and females equally considered themselves sports fans. Males identified more strongly as sports fans than Harrick E, fans graduates females. Males spend more time discussing sport, watching sport on TV and possess more sport knowledge than females. End C, students (Av Males and females spend an equal amount of time attending sports events. Females are more likely to be a sport fan for Jacquemotte 20yrs) social reasons. L.

Wann D, 2001 USA N/A 120 males Male fans viewed female sport fans in a positive light (contrast with Dietz-Uhler et al 2000) Authors suggest results are Schimmer J, psychology compatible – different but positive vs. different. Keenan B college students Support for the local team was important even for males with little interest in sport. Its hard to explain the very positive evaluations by low sport males for high sport high local team females – assist male’s social integration including with male peers who are sports fans.

Fink J, 2002 USA Men’s and 1234 Greater differences between fans of women’s and fans of men’s basketball. Women’s college Trail G, college basketball Gender differences were female’s greater interest in purchase of team apparel, less interest in print media and track team basketball attendees statistics. Females showed a greater interest toward future loyalty Anderson G

Fink J, Trail 2002 USA Men’s and 364 college Vicarious achievement explained much more variance for women (55%) than men (20%). Suggests that females are G, Anderson D Women’s basketball more likely to be “fair weather” fans. This is a contrast to previous research. college attendees basketball Motives of knowledge and social interaction played a significant role in the team identification of men but not women is consistent with prior research

James JD, 2002 USA Men’s and 634 college Results suggest that female fans may think of themselves as fans of a specific team rather than general sports fans. Males Ridinger LL women’s basketball enjoy and also derive social identity from sport. college attendees basketball Motives – no significant difference between gender on the three highest ranked motives – Action, Escape and Drama. attendees Achievement, Empathy and Knowledge higher for Males than females. Empathy and Knowledge were not important for females

Social interaction was NOT an important motive for males or females.

Females enjoyed the aesthetics of women’s basketball compared to men’s basketball

328 Authors Year Country Sport Sample size Finding on gender difference

Greenwell TC, 2002 USA Minor 218 minor Women were less critical of the team‘s performance than men. Women may be more interested in the physical facility Fink J, Pastore League league and service personnel than men – allege consistency with trail et al findings 2002 – not substantiated D hockey hockey attendees

Cere R 2002 Italy Soccer Roversi’s Women account for 40% of the stadium audience in Parma (p178) and even share organising activities with males study of 264 mainly match choreography. ultras – 45 women Main concern is that Roversi’s study’s only mention of women is “to sew the flags and banners and sell the promotional material”. Also the perception that women only have secondary roles.

Mainstream media is also guilty of presenting women only as part of the “sport spectacle”.

Wann D 2003 USA N/A 264 Gender role orientation was a better predictor of the various sport fan motives than anatomical sex. Waddill Undergradu ate students Masculinity was a significant predictor for 6 of the motives (entertainment, eustress, group affiliation, self esteem, escape and aesthetics) and femininity was involved in three motives and the greatest amount of variance in family motivation.

Anatomical sex was the single best predictor of the economic motive.

These findings are consistent with the work of Wann et al., (2002) who found that masculinity was the best predictor of level of sport fandom. The finding that femininity is the best predictor of family motivation is consistent with previous research except James and Ringer (2002).

Crawford G & 2004 UK Men’s Ice 37 Perceived safety and accessibility are key attractions for female fans. Gosling V Hockey interviews No significant differences between male and female interviewees in commitment to the team or knowledge of the sport.

Sexual attractiveness of the players does NOT play any significant role in attracting women to attend this sport

Bush V, Bush 2004 Southern n/a 118 female This group relies heavily on interpersonal influences in their product and services decisions. If such products are A, Clark P, US teenagers endorsed by their favourite athletes, young females spread positive WOM. Bush R. The lower females self esteem, the more they rely on interpersonal and sports celebrity influences

Robinson M, 2005 USA Football 669 inter No significant differences between genders for escape, drama and social interaction (similar to James & Ridinger 2002 college

329 Authors Year Country Sport Sample size Finding on gender difference

Trail G Basketball spectators and Wann et al., 1999).

No significant gender differences for motives of achievement & aesthetics (inconsistent with James & Ridinger 2002).

No significant gender differences on eustress, self esteem, entertainment, economic, aesthetic and family – inconsistent with Wann et al., 1999

Thiry E, 2005 Aust N/a 222 female The ‘sportscape’, family/friends, and special events/entertainment are highly important in motivating women to attend O’Mahony B, living in sports events. All of these factors are controllable. ‘Sportscape’ is defined as the service experience at a sport event Hall J, Melb Aust (Robertson & Pope 1999) Oppenheim P. Women are loyal, committed fans and care less about the team’s performance in relation to attendance. Note: 22% of the sample were not interested in sports events.

Tobar D 2006 USA NFL 81 TV Men scored higher for sports fandom than women. Super- viewers Bowl college Women reported a greater decrease in tension and vigour following the Super-Bowl compared to men. (Explanation was students and women may return to normal daily routine which women may consider as less tense and arousal inducing) their parents (111) Women reported greater enjoyment of the half time show. (Supported Toney & Weaver findings of 1994 that women get greater enjoyment from soft rock music).

Mewett P, 2008 Australia AFL Four focus 4 fan categories for females: Toffoletti K groups plus 16 In the blood, Learners, Converts, STF’s interviews

(43 Women)

Clark J, 2009 USA NFL 1009 Both males and females found watching NFL games a social experience, however females fans were motivated more by Apostolopoulo Super Superbowl sharing the experience with family and friends (contrary to Dietz Uhler 2000 Gantz and Wenner 1991 James & Ridinger s A, Gladden Bowl TV viewers 2002). J. Males were more likely than females to seek out knowledge about their favourite team (similar to the above three studies).

Males were significantly different regarding the entertainment value of an NFL broadcast. Males rated the competitiveness of the contest and the teams playing higher than females. Females rated the pageantry of the event

330 Authors Year Country Sport Sample size Finding on gender difference

higher than males. Females held the more favourable attitudes towards the half time show than males. Males are more likely to be the avid sports fans and viewed ancillary elements of the broadcast as fluff or a detraction from the core product of the game itself.

Fink J, Parker 2009 USA NFL 142 college Men scored higher on the motives of drama, appreciation of physical skills, aesthetics and Knowledge. Women scored H students higher on family and physical attractiveness. (Results similar to Wann et al., 1999, and Deitz Uhler et al 2000 in that women rated the family motive higher. Note key difference with the James and Ridinger 2002 study where Men scored higher than women in the family motive.

Gender explained 57% of the variance in motives scores for this study while Robinson et al 2005 noted that most studies of fans demonstrate that demographics such as gender have little impact on motive scores.

Although women scored physical attractiveness higher than men, this motive had a low mean score. The authors noted that this motive should be further examined where athlete attractiveness is more visible than in the NFL where athletes wear pants, long socks and helmets.

Aiken KD, 2009 USA Football 53 & 82 Study 1. Forming team preference. Males placed higher emphasis on winning and little emphasis on social affiliation or Koch EC Basketball undergrads tradition. Females on social affiliation and little emphasis on winning. , Baseball North Western Uni Study 2. Males – most important factor was the presence of all star players. For females, geographic associations were most important in forming team preferences. Men placed social connections with friends as the least important factor and women valued a sense of tradition the least. Women and men placed similar values on familial associations

Aiken KD, 2010 USA Arena 367 match Old school Vs. New school: Women were more likely to require professional athletes to be role models and men were Campbell R Football attendees more interested in winning. Sukhdial A League

Farrell A, Fink 2011 USA Men’s 12 Female These women were socialised into sport fandom by the men in their lives. Male sports were the only sports worthy of J, Fields S collegiate STH’s of consumption. Only men really understand sport – males failed to see women as equals in dialogue and participation basketball Men’s about sport. Women’s sport generated much less media coverage. Many of the study participants became spectators to basketball spend more time with the men in their lives.

Pope S, 2011 UK Rugby 22 older No induction to physical sport through participation unlike males. Widespread opposition in the sample that young Wiiliams J Union female fans females might routinely play rugby. of Leicester Tigers Attending sport was once a way to stake a claim for more joint leisure time. Perception today is that women are in a position to make their own choices regarding leisure and spending time with men.

331 Authors Year Country Sport Sample size Finding on gender difference

Professionalism brought access to better family friendly stadium facilities, fitter more attractive bodied players and better media coverage making the game more accessible to women BUT women still contest male condescension in sporting landscapes – at best they are considered “honorary males”.

Davis P, 2010 Australia Soccer 2586 STH Females are more likely to join due the influence of family and friends. Females are more likely to join as a STH for McDonald H, family or friend interaction. 64.5% of women attended soccer matches with family (males 45.3%) Karg A

Appelbaum 2012 Duke Uni n/a 293 - Younger males tend to spend more time engaged in sport spectating. LG, Cain MS, USA majority Darling EF, were 18 to Findings support group affiliation as a motive for watching sport but not gender specific. Also Escape, eustress and Stanton SJ. 26 years entertainment.

No support for achievement – explanation was the sample were mostly sports spectators and not sports fans

Toffoletti & 2012 Australia AFL 69 women Some Women do attend the football and enjoy watching ‘hot’ male bodies but its only part of the reason for attending a Mewitt self match. The game itself is the main reason for attending. Women fans do not diminish the footballers legitimacy as designated athletes in contrast to how female athletes are often portrayed. AFL fans Females are aware that voyeurism is perceived to be inconsistent with ‘authentic’ fandom so potential pleasure is subsumed under the shroud of a serious supporter.

Hoeber L 2013 USA & Baseball Collective Females hold an ambiguous place as sports fans as defined by hegemonic masculinity in North America. Kerwin S Canada Football self ethnography Women have reinforced the male hegemonic masculinity associated with sport fan culture, which has marginalised other (2) female sport fans.

Pope S 2013 UK Soccer 85 female Academic research has largely marginalised female sport fans. football fans Rugby Females can be authentic sports fans.

Escape from the daily grind and Social interaction with friends are important motivators for female sports fans.

332

Appendix E: Full list of original SII variables, item measures and Cronbach’s alphas

Factor and SII Scale items as originally devised for USA market. Alpha description Coefficients 1. Escape: desire to get I like attending games because they provide me with a 0.92 away or be part of distraction from my daily life for a while. something different The games provide me with an opportunity to escape from the normal the reality of my daily life for a while. routine Getting away from the routine of everyday life is an important reason why I would attend a game. 2. Interest in Sport: My interest in basketball sparked my interest in the 0.87 interest in the overall team. sport I attend games because basketball is my favourite sport First and foremost, I consider myself a fan of basketball. 3. Value: affordability The games provide affordable entertainment. 0.92 of attending the event Games are great entertainment for the price. I attend games because it is an entertaining event for a reasonable price. 4. Family Bonding: Attending games gives me a chance to bond with my 0.92 opportunity to spend family. quality time with I enjoy sharing the experience of attending a game family with family members. An important reason I attend games is to spend quality time with my family. 5. Friends Bonding: Attending games gives me a chance to bond with my 0.81 opportunity to spend friends. quality time with I enjoy sharing the experience of attending a game friends with friends. An important reason I attend games is to spend quality time with my friends. 6. Drama: the element I prefer watching a close game rather than a one sided 0.79 of uncertainty about game. the outcome of the I like games where the outcome is uncertain. game A close game between two teams is more enjoyable than a blowout. 7. Vicarious I feel I have won when the team wins. 0.92 achievement: a I feel a sense of accomplishment when the team wins. heightened sense of self esteem as a result When the team wins, I feel a personal sense of of the team winning achievement. 8. Stadium Staff The staff is always helpful and courteous to me as a 0.89 (Customer service): fan/customer. the effect of stadium I enjoy games because the staff is friendly and staff service levels available to me as a customer. and attentiveness I feel customer satisfaction is important to the game day staff.

333 Factor and SII Scale items as originally devised for USA market. Alpha description Coefficients 9. Interest in Players: I watch the games because of individual players more 0.75 watch and follow a than the team competing specific favourite I am more a fan of individual players than I am of the player entire team The main reason I attend is to cheer for my favourite player. 10. Role Model: AFL Players provide inspiration for girls and boys. 0.93 players serving as I think the players are good role models for young positive role models girls and boys. for young children The players provide inspiration for young people. 11. Other Fans I enjoy interacting with other spectators and fans 0.85 (Socialisation): when attending games opportunity to interact Games have given me a chance to meet other people with like minded fans with similar interests to mine. I like to talk with other people sitting near me at games. 12. Interest in team: I consider myself a fan of the whole team more than a 0.88 Interest in the team as fan of a single player. a whole rather than I come to games to support the whole tem. individual players I am a fan of the entire team. 13. Sport Knowledge: Knowing the rules of basketball helps me to enjoy the 0.85 Understanding of the games. rules, strategy etc. I enjoy the basketball games because I know a lot contributes to about the game of basketball. enjoyment I feel my understanding of the game of basketball adds to my enjoyment of watching the team. 14. Excitement: I like the excitement associated with the games 0.90 surrounding the game I enjoy the excitement surrounding the games. and spectacle I find games very exciting 15. Stadium I like attending a game because it is good clean fun. 0.92 Environment There is a family friendly atmosphere at the games (Wholesome Environment): The friendly environment of the games is an family friendly important reason to attend. environment 16. Aesthetics: the The style of Play of the WNBA provides me with a 0.87 excellence, beauty, more enjoyable form of entertainment in comparison creativity of athletic to the NBA. performance and style I like women’s basketball because their style of play of play. (WNBA in emphasises strategy and the traditional aspects of the comparison to NBA) game. The WNBA style of basketball is a more pure form of basketball compared to NBA’s style Source: Funk et al., (2003).

334 Appendix E: Full list of original PAI variables, item measures and Cronbach’s alphas

1. Attachment to the I consider myself to be a “real” fan of the basketball 0.87 team team I would experience a loss if I had to stop being a fan of the team Being a fan of the basketball team is very important to me 2. Attachment to the First and foremost, I consider myself a (specific sport 0.83 sport e.g. Football) fan. (Specific sport) is my favourite sport. I am a (specific sport) fan at all levels (e.g. high school, college, professional), 3. Attachment to the I identify with numerous aspects of the university 0.83 University. rather than with just its team. I feel part of the university, not just its teams. I support the university as a whole, not just its athletic teams. 4. Attachment to the I identify with an individual player(s) on the team 0.87 players rather than with the team. I am a big fan of specific players more than I am a fan of the team. I consider myself a fan of certain players rather than a fan of the team 5. Attachment to the I am a fan of collegiate (specific sport) regardless of .083 level of sport who is playing I don’t identify with one specific college (specific sport) team but with collegiate (specific sport) in general I consider myself a fan of collegiate (specific sport), and not just one specific team 6. Attachment to the I am a big fan of the coach (name) 0.87 Coach I follow the (sport) team because I like coach (name). I am a fan of the (sport) team because they are coached by (name). 7. BIRGing (Basking I would like to let others know about my association 0.87 in reflected glory) with this team. I would like to publicise my connection with this team I would like to tell others about my association with my team 8. Satisfaction I am satisfied with my decision to attend. 0.71 I am satisfied with my spectating experience. I am satisfied with the game experience. 9. Future Purchase I am more likely to attend future games. 0.84 Intention (Conative I am more likely to purchase the team’s merchandise Loyalty). I am more likely to buy (team name) clothing Number of home games attended Source: Kwon et al., (2005) 335 Appendix F: Sport Interest Inventory (SII) - contextualised for AFL/Aussie rules Factor and Scale item contextualised for AFL/Aussie Rules Football description

1. Escape: desire to get • I like attending AFL games because they provide me with a distraction away or be part of from my daily life for a while. something different • AFL games provide me with an opportunity to escape the reality of my from the normal daily life for a while. routine • Getting away from the routine of everyday life is an important reason why I would attend an AFL game.

2. Interest in Sport: • My interest in Aussie Rules football sparked my interest in my AFL interest in the overall team. sport • I attend AFL games because Aussie Rules football is my favourite sport • First and foremost, I consider myself a fan of Aussie Rules football.

3. Value: affordability • AFL games provide affordable entertainment. of attending the event • AFL games are great entertainment for the price. • I attend AFL games because it is an entertaining event for a reasonable price.

4. Family (Bonding): • Attending AFL games gives me a chance to bond with my family. opportunity to spend • I enjoy sharing the experience of attending an AFL game with family quality time with members. family • An important reason I attend games is to spend quality time with my family.

5. Friends (Bonding): • Attending AFL games gives me a chance to bond with my friends. opportunity to spend • I enjoy sharing the experience of attending AFL games with friends. quality time with • An important reason I attend AFL games is to spend quality time with friends my friends.

6. Drama: the element • I prefer watching a close game rather than a one sided game. of uncertainty about • I like games where the outcome is uncertain. the outcome of the • A close game between two teams is more enjoyable than a one sided game game.

7. Vicarious • I feel I have won when my team wins. achievement: a • I feel a sense of accomplishment when my team wins. heightened sense of • When my team wins, I feel a personal sense of achievement. self esteem as a result of the team winning

8. Stadium Staff • The stadium staff are always helpful and courteous to me as a fan and (Customer service): customer. the effect of stadium • I enjoy AFL games because the stadium staff are friendly and available staff service levels and to me as a customer. attentiveness • I feel customer satisfaction is important to the game day stadium staff.

9. Interest in Players: • I watch AFL games because of individual players more than the teams watch and follow a competing specific favourite • I am more a fan of individual players than I am of the entire team player • The main reason I attend AFL games is to cheer for my favourite player.

336 Factor and Scale item contextualised for AFL/Aussie Rules Football description

10. Role Model: AFL • AFL players provide inspiration for boys and girls players serving as • I think the AFL players are good role models for young boys and girls. positive role models • AFL players provide inspiration for young people. for young children

11. Other fans • I enjoy interacting with other spectators and fans when attending AFL (socialisation): games opportunity to • AFL games have given me a chance to meet other people with similar interact with like interests to mine. minded fans • I like to talk with other people sitting near me at AFL games.

12. Interest in team: • I consider myself a fan of the whole team more than a fan of a single Interest in the team as player. a whole rather than • I go to AFL games to support the whole tem. individual players • I am a fan of the entire team.

13. Sport Knowledge: • Knowing the rules of AFL football helps me to enjoy the games. Understanding of the • I enjoy AFL games because I know a lot about the game of Aussie Rules rules, strategy etc. Football. contributes to • I feel my understanding of the game of AFL football adds to my enjoyment enjoyment of watching my team.

14. Excitement: • I like the excitement associated with AFL games surrounding the game • I enjoy the excitement surrounding AFL games. and spectacle • I find AFL games very exciting

15. Stadium Environment • I like attending AFL games because it is good clean fun. (wholesome • There is a family friendly atmosphere at AFL games environment): family • The friendly environment of the game is an important reason to attend. friendly environment

16. Aesthetics. • The style of Play of Aussie Rules football provides me with a more enjoyable form of entertainment in comparison to soccer. • I like AFL football because the style of play emphasises strategy and the traditional aspects of the game. • The AFL style of football is a more pure form of football compared to soccer

Source: Adapted from Funk et al., (2003)

337 Appendix G: Point of Attachment (PAI) - contextualised and extended for AFL/Aussie rules

Factor Scale item

Attachment to the I consider myself to be a real fan of the team team I would experience a loss if I had to stop being a fan of the team

Being a fan of the team is very important to me

Attachment to the First and foremost, I consider myself an Aussie Rules Football fan. sport Aussie Rules Football is my favourite sport.

I am an Aussie Rules fan at all levels (e.g. school team, local team, AFL team).

Attachment to the I identify with numerous aspects of the club rather than with just its team. Club I feel part of the club, not just its team.

I support the club as a whole, not just its football team.

Attachment to the I identify with an individual player(s) on the team rather than with the team. player I am a big fan of specific players more than I am a fan of the team.

I consider myself a fan of certain players rather than a fan of the team

Attachment to the I am a fan of Aussie Rules regardless of the teams playing level of sport I don’t identify with one specific AFL team but with Aussie Rules football in general

I consider myself a fan of Aussie Rules Football and not just one specific team

Attachment to the I am a big fan of the coach Coach I follow my team because of the coach

I am a fan of my team because of the coach.

Attachment to the I am a big supporter of the club president. Club President I support my club because of the club president.

I am a member of my club because of the club president.

Attachment to the I identify with the captain rather than with the team. team captain I am a big fan of the captain more than I am a fan of the team.

I consider myself a fan of the captain rather than a fan of the team.

Attachment to the I consider the signing of a proven star player from another AFL team to my star player club as beneficial to the team.

It would reduce my enjoyment if another AFL club recruited our best player.

I consider the signing of proven star players from another AFL club to my club as very important.

BIRGing I would like to let others know about my association with my team.

338 Factor Scale item

I would like to publicise my connection with my team

I would like to tell others about my association with my team

Satisfaction I am satisfied with my decision to attend AFL games in 2009.

I am satisfied with my experience as a spectator in 2009

I am satisfied with the game experience in 2009.

Future Purchase I am more likely to attend future games. Intention (Conative loyalty) I am more likely to purchase the team’s merchandise (all licensed products)

I am more likely to buy strongly branded team clothing (i.e. playing jersey, training jersey, beanie, scarf etc.)

I am more likely to buy discreetly branded club leisure clothing (i.e. t-shirt, hoodie, track pants etc.)

Number of home games attended

Source: Adapted from Kwon, Trail & Anderson 2005

339 Appendix H: Copy of sports fans questionnaire

Thank you for agreeing to complete this survey about your football club. All answers are confidential and you will not be asked to give your name. There is no right or wrong answer. Your participation is voluntary and you are free to stop answering the questions at any time. This survey will take about 25 minutes to complete.

Use your mouse to click the relevant circles or boxes to mark your selection. Some questions require you to type in your answers. In order for your answers to be sent, you will need to click the “finish” button at the end of the survey.

Some of the questions may appear to be similar. We are trying to establish which of the questions answers the research questions therefore some of the questions are very similar. Thank you for your patience in answering all of the questions. It would be appreciated if you could complete your survey by 5pm XX/XX/XX.

If you have any questions about the survey, please contact us at Swinburne University on 9214 8053.

Please remember to click the finish button ONCE when you have completed the survey

Thank you again for your assistance.

Professor Linda Brennan

David Fouvy

Swinburne University

340

Question 1 What is the name of the club that you follow? Any questions you answer from now on will be about that club unless otherwise specified.

Question 2 Thinking now about Aussie Rules Football and your AFL club, please rate whether you agree or disagree with each statement. If you strongly disagree you would give it a 1; if you strongly agree you would give it a 7. You may of course give any score in between.

(The scale for the next 84 questions is a 7 point Likert scale where 1= strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree).

1. My interest in Aussie Rules Football sparked my interest in my AFL team. ____ 2. I attend AFL games because Aussie Rules Football is my favourite sport. ____ 3. First and foremost, I consider myself a fan of Aussie Rules Football. ____ 4. I watch AFL games because of individual players more than the teams ____ competing 5. I am more a fan of individual players than I am of the entire team ____ 6. The main reason I attend AFL games is to cheer for my favourite player ____ 7. Attending AFL games, gives me a chance to bond with my friends ____ 8. I enjoy sharing the experience of attending AFL games with friends ____ 9. An important reason I attend AFL games is to spend quality time with my ____ friends 10. I enjoy interacting with other spectators and fans when attending AFL games ____ 11. AFL games have given me a chance to meet other people with similar interests ____ to mine 12. I like to talk with other people sitting near me at AFL games ____ 13. I prefer watching a close game rather than a one sided game ____ 14. I like games where the outcome is uncertain 15. A close game between two teams is more enjoyable than a one sided game. ____ 16. I consider myself a fan of the whole team more than a fan of a single player ____ 17. I go to AFL games to support the whole team ____ 18. I am a fan of the entire team. ____ 19. AFL Players provide inspiration for boys and girls ____ 20. I think AFL players are good role models for young boys and girls ____ 21. AFL players provide inspiration for young people ____ 22. Attending AFL games gives me a chance to bond with my family ____ 23. I enjoy sharing the experience of attending an AFL game with family members ____ 24. An important reason I attend AFL games is to spend quality time with my ____ family 25. The style of play of AFL football provides me with a more enjoyable form of ____ entertainment in comparison to soccer 26. I like AFL Football because the style of play emphasizes strategy and the ____ traditional aspects of the game. 27. The AFL style of football is a more pure form of football compared to soccer ____ 28. The stadium staff are always helpful and courteous to me as a fan and customer ____ 29. I enjoy AFL games because the stadium staff are friendly and available to me ____ as a customer 30. I feel customer satisfaction is important to the game day stadium staff. ____ 31. I like the excitement associated with AFL games ____ 32. I enjoy the excitement surrounding AFL games ____ 33. I find AFL games very exciting ____ 34. AFL games provide affordable entertainment ____ 35. AFL Games are great entertainment for the price ____ 36. I attend AFL games because it is an entertaining event for a reasonable price ______

341 37. Knowing the rules of AFL Football helps me to enjoy the games ____ 38. I enjoy AFL games because I know a lot about the game of Aussie Rules Football ____ 39. I feel my understanding of the game of AFL football adds to my enjoyment of watching my team. ____ 40. I feel like I have won when my teams wins ____ 41. I feel a sense of accomplishment when my team wins ____ 42. When my team wins, I feel a personal sense of achievement. ____ 43. I like attending AFL games because it is good clean fun ____ 44. There is a friendly family atmosphere at AFL games ____ 45. The friendly environment of the game is an important reason to attend. ____ 46. I like attending AFL games because they provide me with a distraction from my daily life for a while ____ 47. AFL games provide me with an opportunity to escape the reality of my daily life for a while. ____ 48. Getting away from the routine of everyday life is an important reason why I would attend an AFL game. ____ 49. I consider myself to be a real fan of my team ____ 50. I would experience a loss if I had to stop being a fan of my team ____ 51. Being a fan of my team is very important to me. ____ 52. First and foremost I consider myself an Aussie Rules Football fan ____ 53. Aussie Rules Football is my favourite sport 54. I am an Aussie rules football fan at all levels (e.g. school team, local team, AFL team) ____ 55. I identify with numerous aspects of the club rather than with just its team ____ 56. I feel part of the club, not just its team. ____ 57. I support the club as a whole, not just its football team. ____ 58. I identify with an individual player(s) on the team rather than with the team ____ 59. I am a big fan of specific players more than I am a fan of the team ____ 60. I consider myself a fan of certain players rather than a fan of the team ____ 61. I consider the signing of a proven star player from another AFL team to my club as beneficial to the team ____ 62. It would reduce my enjoyment if another AFL club recruited our best player ____ 63. I consider the signing of proven star players from other AFL clubs to my club as very important. ____ 64. I identify with the captain rather than with the team ____ 65. I am a big fan of the captain more than I am a fan of the team ____ 66. I consider myself a fan of the captain rather than a fan of the team ____ 67. I am a big supporter of the club president ____ 68. I support my club because of the club president ____ 69. I am a member of my club because of the club president ____ 70. I am a fan of AFL Football regardless of the teams playing ____ 71. I don’t identify with one specific AFL team, but with Aussie Rules football in general ____ 72. I consider myself a fan of Aussie Rules Football and not just one specific team ____ 73. I am a big fan of the coach ____ 74. I follow my team because of the coach ____ 75. I am a fan of my team because of the coach ____ 76. I would like to let others know about my association with my team ____ 77. I would like to publicise my connection with my team ____ 78. I would like to tell others about my association with my team ____ 79. I am satisfied with my decision to attend AFL games in 2009 ____ 80. I am satisfied with my experience as a spectator in 2009 ____ 81. I am satisfied with the game experience in 2009 ____ 82. I am more likely to attend future AFL games ____ 342 83. I am more likely to purchase the teams merchandise (all licensed products) ____ 84. I am more likely to buy strongly branded team clothing (i.e. playing jersey, training jersey beanie scarf etc.) ____ 85. I am more likely to buy discretely branded club leisure clothing (i.e. t-shirt, hoodie, track pants etc.)

End of 7-point Likert scale questions

Question 3 Which of the following options best describes the number of years you have followed your AFL team?

• Less than one year • 1-3 years • 4-6 years • 7-10 years • 11-15 years • 16-20 years • More than 20 years

343

Question 4 Which of the following options best describes the number of years you have been a financial member of your AFL club?

• Less than one year • 1-3 years • 4-6 years • 7-10 years • 11-15 years • 16-20 years • More than 20 years

Question 5 The number of AFL matches I have attended this season (2009) is:

• 0 • 1-3 matches • 4-6 • 10-12 • 13-15 • More than 16 matches

Question 6 The number of AFL matches I attended last season (2008) was:

• 0 • 1-3 matches • 4-6 • 10-12 • 13-15 • More than 16 matches

Question 7 I mainly follow my team through:

• Free To Air TV • Pay TV • Radio • Newspapers • On line • Going to AFL matches • Other – please specify

Question 8 When considering a purchase of a product or service, would you give preference to a company that was a sponsor of your club? (team?)

• Never • Extremely unlikely • Unlikely • Possibly • Likely • Extremely likely • Always

344 Question 9 Can you name two sponsors of your team/club? Have you purchased their products or services in the last 12 months?

• No • Once • A couple of times • Sometimes • Often • Regularly • Frequently • Don’t know who they are

Question 10 Do you follow any other AFL team?

• Yes • No If yes please go to question 11 If no, please go to Question 12

Question 11 Which other AFL team(s) do you support?

Question 12 Do you watch any other sport?

• Yes • No

If yes please go to question 13 If no, please go to Question 14

Question 13 Which other sports do you watch?

1. 2. 3. 4. Question 14 How often do you play organized competitive sport?

• 1-2 times a year • 3-5 times a year • 1-2 times a month • 1-2 times a week • 3-4 times a week • More than 5 times a week • I don’t play sport

345 Question 15 How often do you exercise? (excluding organized competitive sport).

• 1-2 times a year • 3-5 times a year • 1-2 times a month • 1-2 times a week • 3-4 times a week • More than 5 times a week • I don’t exercise

Question 16 You are • Male OR • Female

Question 17 Which of the following age groups do you fall (belong?) to?

• Under 18 years • 18-29 years • 30-39 years • 40-49 years • 50-59 years • 60-69 years • 70 years and over

Question 18 What is your occupation?

Question 19 Which of the following statements best describes your household?

• Couple with no children at home • Couple with children at home • Single parent with children at home • Single parent with no children at home • Single person living alone (no children) • Single person sharing with friends • Single person living with parents • Other (please specify)

Question 20 Which state or territory of Australia do you live in?

• NSW • QLD • VIC • SA • WA • TAS • ACT • NT

- END OF QUESTIONNAIRE -

346 Appendix I: Ethics Approval (SUHREC Project 2009/146)

347

348 Appendix J: Frequency Tables

1. My interest in Aussie Rules football sparked my interest in my AFL team

Cumulative Frequency Per cent Valid Per cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 65 8.9 8.9 8.9 2 77 10.6 10.6 19.5 3 65 8.9 8.9 28.5 4 115 15.8 15.8 44.3 5 78 10.7 10.7 55.0 6 85 11.7 11.7 66.7 7= Strongly agree 242 33.3 33.3 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

2. I attend AFL games because Aussie Rules Football is my favourite sport. Valid Per Cumulative Per Frequency Per cent cent cent Valid 1= Strongly disagree 16 2.2 2.2 2.2 2 18 2.5 2.5 4.7 3 29 4.0 4.0 8.7 4 71 9.8 9.8 18.4 5 85 11.7 11.7 30.1 6 119 16.4 16.4 46.5 7 = Strongly agree 389 53.5 53.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

3. First and foremost, I consider myself a fan of Aussie Rules Football. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 24 3.3 3.3 3.3 2 27 3.7 3.7 7.0 3 48 6.6 6.6 13.6 4 71 9.8 9.8 23.4 5 88 12.1 12.1 35.5 6 109 15.0 15.0 50.5 7 = Strongly agree 360 49.5 49.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

4. I watch AFL games because of individual players more than the teams competing Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 227 31.2 31.2 31.2 2 204 28.1 28.1 59.3 3 119 16.4 16.4 75.7 4 115 15.8 15.8 91.5 5 41 5.6 5.6 97.1 6 9 1.2 1.2 98.3 7 = Strongly agree 12 1.7 1.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

349

5. I am more a fan of individual players than I am of the entire team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 325 44.7 44.7 44.7 2 210 28.9 28.9 73.6 3 96 13.2 13.2 86.8 4 55 7.6 7.6 94.4 5 17 2.3 2.3 96.7 6 10 1.4 1.4 98.1 7 = Strongly agree 14 1.9 1.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

6. The main reason I attend AFL games is to cheer for my favourite player Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 312 42.9 42.9 42.9 2 199 27.4 27.4 70.3 3 110 15.1 15.1 85.4 4 59 8.1 8.1 93.5 5 20 2.8 2.8 96.3 6 14 1.9 1.9 98.2 7 = Strongly agree 13 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

7. Attending AFL games gives me a chance to bond with my friends Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 71 9.8 9.8 9.8 2 101 13.9 13.9 23.7 3 92 12.7 12.7 36.3 4 185 25.4 25.4 61.8 5 116 16.0 16.0 77.7 6 86 11.8 11.8 89.5 7 = Strongly agree 76 10.5 10.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

8. I enjoy sharing the experience of attending AFL games with friends Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 21 2.9 2.9 2.9 2 35 4.8 4.8 7.7 3 53 7.3 7.3 15.0 4 120 16.5 16.5 31.5 5 148 20.4 20.4 51.9 6 162 22.3 22.3 74.1 7 = Strongly agree 188 25.9 25.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

350

9. An important reason I attend AFL games is to spend quality time with my friends Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 81 11.1 11.1 11.1 2 120 16.5 16.5 27.6 3 102 14.0 14.0 41.7 4 160 22.0 22.0 63.7 5 112 15.4 15.4 79.1 6 80 11.0 11.0 90.1 7 = Strongly agree 72 9.9 9.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

10. I enjoy interacting with other spectators and fans when attending AFL games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 30 4.1 4.1 4.1 2 61 8.4 8.4 12.5 3 85 11.7 11.7 24.2 4 141 19.4 19.4 43.6 5 167 23.0 23.0 66.6 6 142 19.5 19.5 86.1 7 = Strongly agree 101 13.9 13.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

11. AFL games have given me a chance to meet other people with similar interests to mine Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 55 7.6 7.6 7.6 2 148 20.4 20.4 27.9 3 112 15.4 15.4 43.3 4 122 16.8 16.8 60.1 5 125 17.2 17.2 77.3 6 89 12.2 12.2 89.5 7 = Strongly agree 76 10.5 10.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

12. I like to talk with other people sitting near me at AFL games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 40 5.5 5.5 5.5 2 77 10.6 10.6 16.1 3 91 12.5 12.5 28.6 4 134 18.4 18.4 47.0 5 165 22.7 22.7 69.7 6 135 18.6 18.6 88.3 7 = Strongly agree 85 11.7 11.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

351

13. I prefer watching a close game rather than a one sided game Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 33 4.5 4.5 4.5 2 42 5.8 5.8 10.3 3 68 9.4 9.4 19.7 4 181 24.9 24.9 44.6 5 142 19.5 19.5 64.1 6 145 19.9 19.9 84.0 7 = Strongly agree 116 16.0 16.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

14. I like games where the outcome is uncertain Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 43 5.9 5.9 5.9 2 47 6.5 6.5 12.4 3 76 10.5 10.5 22.8 4 151 20.8 20.8 43.6 5 157 21.6 21.6 65.2 6 159 21.9 21.9 87.1 7 = Strongly agree 94 12.9 12.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

15. A close game between two teams is more enjoyable than a one sided game. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 26 3.6 3.6 3.6 2 38 5.2 5.2 8.8 3 66 9.1 9.1 17.9 4 132 18.2 18.2 36.0 5 136 18.7 18.7 54.7 6 190 26.1 26.1 80.9 7 = Strongly agree 139 19.1 19.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

16. I consider myself a fan of the whole team more than a fan of a single player Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 6 .8 .8 .8 2 3 .4 .4 1.2 3 4 .6 .6 1.8 4 13 1.8 1.8 3.6 5 25 3.4 3.4 7.0 6 157 21.6 21.6 28.6 7 = Strongly agree 519 71.4 71.4 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

352 17. I go to AFL games to support the whole team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 4 .6 .6 .6 2 1 .1 .1 .7 3 2 .3 .3 1.0 4 6 .8 .8 1.8 5 24 3.3 3.3 5.1 6 130 17.9 17.9 23.0 7 = Strongly agree 560 77.0 77.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

18. I am a fan of the entire team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 5 .7 .7 .7 2 1 .1 .1 .8 3 4 .6 .6 1.4 4 8 1.1 1.1 2.5 5 30 4.1 4.1 6.6 6 132 18.2 18.2 24.8 7 = Strongly agree 547 75.2 75.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

19. AFL players provide inspiration for boys and girls Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 5 .7 .7 .7 2 13 1.8 1.8 2.5 3 39 5.4 5.4 7.8 4 116 16.0 16.0 23.8 5 186 25.6 25.6 49.4 6 181 24.9 24.9 74.3 7 = Strongly agree 187 25.7 25.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

20. I think the AFL players are good role models for young boys and girls Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 16 2.2 2.2 2.2 2 30 4.1 4.1 6.3 3 78 10.7 10.7 17.1 4 175 24.1 24.1 41.1 5 187 25.7 25.7 66.9 6 145 19.9 19.9 86.8 7 = Strongly agree 96 13.2 13.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

353 21. AFL players provide inspiration for young people Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 7 1.0 1.0 1.0 2 15 2.1 2.1 3.0 3 40 5.5 5.5 8.5 4 140 19.3 19.3 27.8 5 199 27.4 27.4 55.2 6 177 24.3 24.3 79.5 7 = Strongly agree 149 20.5 20.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

22. Attending AFL games gives me a chance to bond with my family Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 43 5.9 5.9 5.9 2 65 8.9 8.9 14.9 3 49 6.7 6.7 21.6 4 100 13.8 13.8 35.4 5 108 14.9 14.9 50.2 6 169 23.2 23.2 73.5 7= Strongly agree 193 26.5 26.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

23. I enjoy sharing the experience of attending an AFL game with family members Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 21 2.9 2.9 2.9 2 32 4.4 4.4 7.3 3 35 4.8 4.8 12.1 4 83 11.4 11.4 23.6 5 111 15.3 15.3 38.8 6 181 24.9 24.9 63.8 7 = Strongly agree 263 36.2 36.2 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

24. An important reason I attend games is to spend quality time with my family Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 56 7.7 7.7 7.7 2 75 10.3 10.3 18.0 3 84 11.6 11.6 29.6 4 134 18.4 18.5 48.1 5 111 15.3 15.3 63.4 6 117 16.1 16.1 79.5 7 = Strongly agree 149 20.5 20.5 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

354

25. The style of play of Aussie Rules football provides me with a more enjoyable form of entertainment in comparison to Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 13 1.8 1.8 1.8 2 10 1.4 1.4 3.2 3 19 2.6 2.6 5.8 4 57 7.8 7.9 13.6 5 59 8.1 8.1 21.8 6 103 14.2 14.2 36.0 7 = Strongly agree 465 64.0 64.0 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

26. I like AFL football because the style of play emphasizes strategy and the traditional aspects of the game. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 4 .6 .6 .6 2 15 2.1 2.1 2.6 3 19 2.6 2.6 5.2 4 89 12.2 12.3 17.5 5 130 17.9 17.9 35.4 6 202 27.8 27.8 63.2 7 = Strongly agree 267 36.7 36.8 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

27. The AFL style of football is a more pure form of football compared to soccer Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 46 6.3 6.3 6.3 2 52 7.2 7.2 13.5 3 54 7.4 7.4 20.9 4 138 19.0 19.0 39.9 5 69 9.5 9.5 49.4 6 95 13.1 13.1 62.5 7 = Strongly agree 272 37.4 37.5 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

355

28. The stadium staff are always helpful and courteous to me as a fan and customer Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 34 4.7 4.7 4.7 2 46 6.3 6.3 11.0 3 85 11.7 11.7 22.7 4 197 27.1 27.1 49.9 5 164 22.6 22.6 72.5 6 122 16.8 16.8 89.3 7 = Strongly agree 78 10.7 10.7 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

29. I enjoy AFL games because the stadium staff are friendly and available to me as a customer Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 64 8.8 8.8 8.8 2 100 13.8 13.8 22.6 3 118 16.2 16.3 38.8 4 202 27.8 27.8 66.7 5 133 18.3 18.3 85.0 6 64 8.8 8.8 93.8 7 = Strongly agree 45 6.2 6.2 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

30. I feel customer satisfaction is important to the game day stadium staff Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 49 6.7 6.7 6.7 2 69 9.5 9.5 16.3 3 98 13.5 13.5 29.8 4 182 25.0 25.1 54.8 5 123 16.9 16.9 71.8 6 113 15.5 15.6 87.3 7 = Strongly agree 92 12.7 12.7 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

356

31. I like the excitement associated with AFL games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 4 .6 .6 .6 2 1 .1 .1 .7 3 4 .6 .6 1.2 4 16 2.2 2.2 3.5 5 44 6.1 6.1 9.5 6 216 29.7 29.8 39.4 7 = Strongly agree 439 60.4 60.6 100.0 Total 724 99.6 100.0 Missing System 3 .4 Total 727 100.0

32. I enjoy the excitement surrounding AFL games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 4 .6 .6 .6 2 4 .6 .6 1.1 3 5 .7 .7 1.8 4 15 2.1 2.1 3.9 5 54 7.4 7.4 11.3 6 219 30.1 30.1 41.4 7 = Strongly agree 426 58.6 58.6 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

33. I find AFL games very exciting Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 5 .7 .7 .7 2 2 .3 .3 1.0 3 1 .1 .1 1.1 4 23 3.2 3.2 4.3 5 71 9.8 9.8 14.1 6 215 29.6 29.7 43.7 7 = Strongly agree 408 56.1 56.3 100.0 Total 725 99.7 100.0 Missing System 2 .3 Total 727 100.0

357 34. AFL games provide affordable entertainment Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 28 3.9 3.9 3.9 2 39 5.4 5.4 9.2 3 52 7.2 7.2 16.4 4 126 17.3 17.3 33.7 5 169 23.2 23.2 56.9 6 154 21.2 21.2 78.1 7 = Strongly agree 159 21.9 21.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

35. AFL games are great entertainment for the price Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 23 3.2 3.2 3.2 2 30 4.1 4.1 7.3 3 56 7.7 7.7 15.0 4 120 16.5 16.5 31.5 5 183 25.2 25.2 56.7 6 169 23.2 23.2 79.9 7 = Strongly agree 146 20.1 20.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

358 36. I attend AFL games because it is an entertaining event for a reasonable price Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 32 4.4 4.4 4.4 2 62 8.5 8.5 12.9 3 75 10.3 10.3 23.2 4 143 19.7 19.7 42.9 5 167 23.0 23.0 65.9 6 140 19.3 19.3 85.1 7 = Strongly agree 108 14.9 14.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

37. Knowing the rules of AFL football helps me to enjoy the games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 3 .4 .4 .4 2 4 .6 .6 1.0 3 9 1.2 1.2 2.2 4 30 4.1 4.1 6.3 5 91 12.5 12.6 18.9 6 218 30.0 30.1 49.0 7 = Strongly agree 370 50.9 51.0 100.0 Total 725 99.7 100.0 Missing System 2 .3 Total 727 100.0

359 38. I enjoy AFL games because I know a lot about the game of Aussie Rules Football Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 6 .8 .8 .8 2 12 1.7 1.7 2.5 3 34 4.7 4.7 7.2 4 71 9.8 9.8 16.9 5 105 14.4 14.4 31.4 6 187 25.7 25.7 57.1 7 = Strongly agree 312 42.9 42.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

39. I feel my understanding of the game of AFL football adds to my enjoyment of watching my team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 Strongly disagree 6 .8 .8 .8 2 5 .7 .7 1.5 3 15 2.1 2.1 3.6 4 46 6.3 6.4 10.0 5 95 13.1 13.1 23.1 6 219 30.1 30.3 53.4 7 Strongly agree 337 46.4 46.6 100.0 Total 723 99.4 100.0 Missing System 4 .6 Total 727 100.0

360 40. I feel like I have won when my teams wins Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 7 1.0 1.0 1.0 2 8 1.1 1.1 2.1 3 13 1.8 1.8 3.9 4 39 5.4 5.4 9.2 5 76 10.5 10.5 19.7 6 161 22.1 22.2 41.9 7 = Strongly agree 422 58.0 58.1 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

41. I feel a sense of accomplishment when my team wins Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 Strongly disagree 9 1.2 1.2 1.2 2 10 1.4 1.4 2.6 3 21 2.9 2.9 5.5 4 65 8.9 9.0 14.5 5 78 10.7 10.7 25.2 6 170 23.4 23.4 48.6 7 Strongly agree 373 51.3 51.4 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

361 42. When my team wins, I feel a personal sense of achievement Valid Per Cumulative Per Frequency Per cent cent cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 16 2.2 2.2 2.2 2 18 2.5 2.5 4.7 3 37 5.1 5.1 9.8 4 117 16.1 16.1 25.9 5 101 13.9 13.9 39.8 6 146 20.1 20.1 59.8 7= Strongly agree 292 40.2 40.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

43. I like attending AFL games because it is good clean fun Cumulative Frequency Per cent Valid Per cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 7 1.0 1.0 1.0 2 9 1.2 1.2 2.2 3 22 3.0 3.0 5.2 4 78 10.7 10.8 16.0 5 115 15.8 15.9 31.9 6 231 31.8 31.9 63.8 7 = Strongly agree 262 36.0 36.2 100.0 Total 724 99.6 100.0 Missing System 3 .4 Total 727 100.0

362 44. There is a friendly family atmosphere at AFL games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 11 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 15 2.1 2.1 3.6 3 38 5.2 5.2 8.8 4 136 18.7 18.7 27.5 5 184 25.3 25.3 52.9 6 185 25.4 25.5 78.4 7= Strongly agree 157 21.6 21.6 100.0 Total 726 99.9 100.0 Missing System 1 .1 Total 727 100.0

45. The friendly environment of the game is an important reason to attend. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 19 2.6 2.6 2.6 2 22 3.0 3.0 5.6 3 56 7.7 7.7 13.3 4 168 23.1 23.1 36.5 5 191 26.3 26.3 62.7 6 148 20.4 20.4 83.1 7 = Strongly agree 123 16.9 16.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

363 46. I like attending AFL games because they provide me with a distraction from my daily life for a while Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 31 4.3 4.3 4.3 2 48 6.6 6.6 10.9 3 46 6.3 6.3 17.2 4 113 15.5 15.5 32.7 5 141 19.4 19.4 52.1 6 179 24.6 24.6 76.8 7 = Strongly agree 169 23.2 23.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

47. AFL games provide me with an opportunity to escape the reality of my daily life for a while. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 46 6.3 6.3 6.3 2 54 7.4 7.4 13.8 3 51 7.0 7.0 20.8 4 112 15.4 15.4 36.2 5 141 19.4 19.4 55.6 6 163 22.4 22.4 78.0 7 = Strongly agree 160 22.0 22.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

364 48. Getting away from the routine of everyday life is an important reason why I would attend an AFL game. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 54 7.4 7.4 7.4 2 78 10.7 10.7 18.2 3 67 9.2 9.2 27.4 4 118 16.2 16.2 43.6 5 143 19.7 19.7 63.3 6 130 17.9 17.9 81.2 7 = Strongly agree 137 18.8 18.8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

49. I consider myself to be a real fan of my team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1= Strongly disagree 5 .7 .7 .7 2 1 .1 .1 .8 3 3 .4 .4 1.2 4 15 2.1 2.1 3.3 5 37 5.1 5.1 8.4 6 117 16.1 16.1 24.5 7 = Strongly agree 549 75.5 75.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

365 50. I would experience a loss if I had to stop being a fan of my team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 18 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 17 2.3 2.3 4.8 3 17 2.3 2.3 7.2 4 34 4.7 4.7 11.8 5 62 8.5 8.5 20.4 6 122 16.8 16.8 37.1 7 = Strongly agree 457 62.9 62.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

51. Being a fan of my team is very important to me Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 3 .4 .4 .4 2 6 .8 .8 1.2 3 10 1.4 1.4 2.6 4 20 2.8 2.8 5.4 5 69 9.5 9.5 14.9 6 140 19.3 19.3 34.1 7 = Strongly agree 479 65.9 65.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

366 52. First and foremost I consider myself an Aussie Rules Football fan Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 29 4.0 4.0 4.0 2 32 4.4 4.4 8.4 3 47 6.5 6.5 14.9 4 94 12.9 12.9 27.8 5 95 13.1 13.1 40.9 6 132 18.2 18.2 59.0 7 = Strongly agree 298 41.0 41.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

53. Aussie Rules Football is my favourite sport Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 14 1.9 1.9 1.9 2 19 2.6 2.6 4.5 3 24 3.3 3.3 7.8 4 60 8.3 8.3 16.1 5 60 8.3 8.3 24.3 6 138 19.0 19.0 43.3 7 = Strongly agree 412 56.7 56.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

367 54. I am an Aussie rules fan at all levels (e.g. school team, local team, AFL team) Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 50 6.9 6.9 6.9 2 78 10.7 10.7 17.6 3 91 12.5 12.5 30.1 4 128 17.6 17.6 47.7 5 104 14.3 14.3 62.0 6 82 11.3 11.3 73.3 7 = Strongly agree 194 26.7 26.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

55. I identify with numerous aspects of the club rather than with just its team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 18 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 36 5.0 5.0 7.4 3 56 7.7 7.7 15.1 4 131 18.0 18.0 33.1 5 163 22.4 22.4 55.6 6 144 19.8 19.8 75.4 7 = Strongly agree 179 24.6 24.6 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

368 56. I feel part of the club, not just its team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 15 2.1 2.1 2.1 2 32 4.4 4.4 6.5 3 61 8.4 8.4 14.9 4 133 18.3 18.3 33.1 5 149 20.5 20.5 53.6 6 139 19.1 19.1 72.8 7 = Strongly agree 198 27.2 27.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

57. I support the club as a whole, not just its football team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 12 1.7 1.7 1.7 2 17 2.3 2.3 4.0 3 32 4.4 4.4 8.4 4 86 11.8 11.8 20.2 5 129 17.7 17.7 38.0 6 164 22.6 22.6 60.5 7 = Strongly agree 287 39.5 39.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

369 58. I identify with an individual player(s) on the team rather than with the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 170 23.4 23.4 23.4 2 179 24.6 24.6 48.0 3 151 20.8 20.8 68.8 4 137 18.8 18.8 87.6 5 41 5.6 5.6 93.3 6 17 2.3 2.3 95.6 7 = Strongly agree 32 4.4 4.4 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

59. I am a big fan of specific players more than I am a fan of the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 211 29.0 29.0 29.0 2 208 28.6 28.6 57.6 3 140 19.3 19.3 76.9 4 108 14.9 14.9 91.7 5 32 4.4 4.4 96.1 6 12 1.7 1.7 97.8 7 = Strongly agree 16 2.2 2.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

370 60. I consider myself a fan of certain players rather than a fan of the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 229 31.5 31.5 31.5 2 203 27.9 27.9 59.4 3 145 19.9 19.9 79.4 4 94 12.9 12.9 92.3 5 27 3.7 3.7 96.0 6 14 1.9 1.9 97.9 7= Strongly agree 15 2.1 2.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

61. I consider the signing of a proven star player from another AFL team to my club as beneficial to the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 Strongly disagree 23 3.2 3.2 3.2 2 23 3.2 3.2 6.3 3 53 7.3 7.3 13.6 4 156 21.5 21.5 35.1 5 176 24.2 24.2 59.3 6 176 24.2 24.2 83.5 7 Strongly agree 120 16.5 16.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

371

62. It would reduce my enjoyment if another AFL club recruited our best player Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 64 8.8 8.8 8.8 2 85 11.7 11.7 20.5 3 83 11.4 11.4 31.9 4 92 12.7 12.7 44.6 5 133 18.3 18.3 62.9 6 114 15.7 15.7 78.5 7 = Strongly agree 156 21.5 21.5 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

63. I consider the signing of proven star players from another AFL club to my club as very important. Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 34 4.7 4.7 4.7 2 43 5.9 5.9 10.6 3 83 11.4 11.4 22.0 4 215 29.6 29.6 51.6 5 164 22.6 22.6 74.1 6 115 15.8 15.8 90.0 7 = Strongly agree 73 10.0 10.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

372 64. I identify with the captain rather than with the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 213 29.3 29.3 29.3 2 218 30.0 30.0 59.3 3 119 16.4 16.4 75.7 4 119 16.4 16.4 92.0 5 38 5.2 5.2 97.2 6 10 1.4 1.4 98.6 7 = Strongly agree 10 1.4 1.4 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

65. I am a big fan of the captain more than I am a fan of the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 248 34.1 34.1 34.1 2 220 30.3 30.3 64.4 3 100 13.8 13.8 78.1 4 108 14.9 14.9 93.0 5 28 3.9 3.9 96.8 6 10 1.4 1.4 98.2 7 = Strongly agree 13 1.8 1.8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

373 66. I consider myself a fan of the captain rather than a fan of the team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 293 40.3 40.3 40.3 2 210 28.9 28.9 69.2 3 105 14.4 14.4 83.6 4 84 11.6 11.6 95.2 5 24 3.3 3.3 98.5 6 4 .6 .6 99.0 7 = Strongly agree 7 1.0 1.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

67. I am a big supporter of the club president Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 72 9.9 9.9 9.9 2 108 14.9 14.9 24.8 3 107 14.7 14.7 39.5 4 268 36.9 36.9 76.3 5 87 12.0 12.0 88.3 6 50 6.9 6.9 95.2 7 = Strongly agree 35 4.8 4.8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

374 68. I support my club because of the club president Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 334 45.9 45.9 45.9 2 174 23.9 23.9 69.9 3 101 13.9 13.9 83.8 4 98 13.5 13.5 97.2 5 11 1.5 1.5 98.8 6 3 .4 .4 99.2 7 = Strongly agree 6 .8 .8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

69. I am a member of my club because of the club president Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 375 51.6 51.6 51.6 2 175 24.1 24.1 75.7 3 83 11.4 11.4 87.1 4 77 10.6 10.6 97.7 5 8 1.1 1.1 98.8 6 3 .4 .4 99.2 7 = Strongly agree 6 .8 .8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

375 70. I am a fan of AFL football regardless of the teams playing Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 60 8.3 8.3 8.3 2 60 8.3 8.3 16.5 3 82 11.3 11.3 27.8 4 149 20.5 20.5 48.3 5 149 20.5 20.5 68.8 6 103 14.2 14.2 82.9 7 = Strongly agree 124 17.1 17.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

71. I don't identify with one specific AFL team, but with Aussie Rules football in general Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1= Strongly disagree 376 51.7 51.7 51.7 2 174 23.9 23.9 75.7 3 79 10.9 10.9 86.5 4 56 7.7 7.7 94.2 5 21 2.9 2.9 97.1 6 6 .8 .8 97.9 7 = Strongly agree 15 2.1 2.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

376 72. I consider myself a fan of Aussie Rules Football and not just one specific team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 306 42.1 42.1 42.1 2 170 23.4 23.4 65.5 3 93 12.8 12.8 78.3 4 80 11.0 11.0 89.3 5 26 3.6 3.6 92.8 6 29 4.0 4.0 96.8 7= Strongly agree 23 3.2 3.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

73. I am a big fan of the coach Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 37 5.1 5.1 5.1 2 49 6.7 6.7 11.8 3 68 9.4 9.4 21.2 4 140 19.3 19.3 40.4 5 151 20.8 20.8 61.2 6 151 20.8 20.8 82.0 7 = Strongly agree 131 18.0 18.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

377 74. I follow my team because of the coach Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 326 44.8 44.8 44.8 2 180 24.8 24.8 69.6 3 88 12.1 12.1 81.7 4 97 13.3 13.3 95.0 5 23 3.2 3.2 98.2 6 5 .7 .7 98.9 7 = Strongly agree 8 1.1 1.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

75. I am a fan of my team because of the coach Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 334 45.9 45.9 45.9 2 172 23.7 23.7 69.6 3 86 11.8 11.8 81.4 4 94 12.9 12.9 94.4 5 24 3.3 3.3 97.7 6 8 1.1 1.1 98.8 7 = Strongly agree 9 1.2 1.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

378 76. I would like to let others know about my association with my team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 19 2.6 2.6 2.6 2 38 5.2 5.2 7.8 3 55 7.6 7.6 15.4 4 125 17.2 17.2 32.6 5 125 17.2 17.2 49.8 6 146 20.1 20.1 69.9 7 = Strongly agree 219 30.1 30.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

77. I would like to publicise my connection with my team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1= Strongly disagree 32 4.4 4.4 4.4 2 68 9.4 9.4 13.8 3 63 8.7 8.7 22.4 4 131 18.0 18.0 40.4 5 122 16.8 16.8 57.2 6 117 16.1 16.1 73.3 7 = Strongly agree 194 26.7 26.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

379 78. I would like to tell others about my association with my team Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 21 2.9 2.9 2.9 2 50 6.9 6.9 9.8 3 57 7.8 7.8 17.6 4 130 17.9 17.9 35.5 5 121 16.6 16.6 52.1 6 143 19.7 19.7 71.8 7 = Strongly agree 205 28.2 28.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

79. I am satisfied with my decision to attend AFL games in 2009 Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1= Strongly disagree 6 .8 .8 .8 2 7 1.0 1.0 1.8 3 12 1.7 1.7 3.4 4 51 7.0 7.0 10.5 5 67 9.2 9.2 19.7 6 178 24.5 24.5 44.2 7 = Strongly agree 406 55.8 55.8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

380 80. I am satisfied with my experience as a spectator in 2009 Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 11 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 5 .7 .7 2.2 3 13 1.8 1.8 4.0 4 60 8.3 8.3 12.2 5 78 10.7 10.7 23.0 6 218 30.0 30.0 53.0 7 = Strongly agree 342 47.0 47.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

81. I am satisfied with the game experience in 2009 Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 10 1.4 1.4 1.4 2 4 .6 .6 1.9 3 9 1.2 1.2 3.2 4 49 6.7 6.7 9.9 5 84 11.6 11.6 21.5 6 217 29.8 29.8 51.3 7 = Strongly agree 354 48.7 48.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

381 82. I am more likely to attend future games Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 7 1.0 1.0 1.0 2 4 .6 .6 1.5 3 13 1.8 1.8 3.3 4 49 6.7 6.7 10.0 5 55 7.6 7.6 17.6 6 154 21.2 21.2 38.8 7 = Strongly agree 445 61.2 61.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

83. I am more likely to purchase the team’s merchandise (all licensed products) Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 18 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 39 5.4 5.4 7.8 3 28 3.9 3.9 11.7 4 109 15.0 15.0 26.7 5 124 17.1 17.1 43.7 6 132 18.2 18.2 61.9 7 = Strongly agree 277 38.1 38.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

382 84. I am more likely to buy strongly branded team clothing (i.e. playing jersey, training jersey, beanie, scarf etc.) Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 28 3.9 3.9 3.9 2 60 8.3 8.3 12.1 3 57 7.8 7.8 19.9 4 132 18.2 18.2 38.1 5 103 14.2 14.2 52.3 6 113 15.5 15.5 67.8 7 = Strongly agree 234 32.2 32.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

85. I am more likely to buy discretely branded club leisure clothing (i.e. t-shirt, hoodie, track pants etc.) Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1 = Strongly disagree 48 6.6 6.6 6.6 2 72 9.9 9.9 16.5 3 69 9.5 9.5 26.0 4 145 19.9 19.9 45.9 5 117 16.1 16.1 62.0 6 117 16.1 16.1 78.1 7 = Strongly agree 159 21.9 21.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

383 Q86 Which of the following options best describes the number of years you have followed your AFL team? Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 1-3 years 12 1.7 1.7 1.7 11-15 years 59 8.1 8.1 9.8 16-20 years 57 7.8 7.8 17.6 4-6 years 29 4.0 4.0 21.6 7-10 years 30 4.1 4.1 25.7 Less than 1 year 1 .1 .1 25.9 More than 20 years 539 74.1 74.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q87- Which of the following options best describes the number of years you have been a financial member of your AFL club? Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid Less than one year 1 .1 .1 .1 1-3 years 114 15.7 15.7 15.8 11-15 years 118 16.2 16.2 32.0 16-20 years 57 7.8 7.8 39.9 4-6 years 142 19.5 19.5 59.4 7-10 years 104 14.3 14.3 73.7 Less than 1 year 65 8.9 8.9 82.7 More than 20 years 126 17.3 17.3 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q88 -The number of AFL matches I attended for the 2009 season was Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 2 .3 .3 .3 0 25 3.4 3.4 3.7 1-3 132 18.2 18.2 21.9 10-12 69 9.5 9.5 31.4 13-15 139 19.1 19.1 50.5 4-6 98 13.5 13.5 64.0 7-9 65 8.9 8.9 72.9 More than 16 197 27.1 27.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

384

Q89- Looking forward to the 2010 season, the number of AFL matches I am likely to attend is Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid Missing 3 .4 .4 .4 0 14 1.9 1.9 2.3 1-3 104 14.3 14.3 16.6 10-12 101 13.9 13.9 30.5 13-15 137 18.8 18.8 49.4 4-6 98 13.5 13.5 62.9 7-9 61 8.4 8.4 71.3 More than 16 209 28.7 28.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q90 I mainly follow my team through

Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid Missing 2 .3 .3 .3 Free To Air TV 164 22.6 22.6 22.8 Going to AFL matches 359 49.4 49.4 72.2 Newspapers 24 3.3 3.3 75.5 On-Line 49 6.7 6.7 82.3 Other 15 2.1 2.1 84.3 Pay TV 92 12.7 12.7 97.0 Radio 22 3.0 3.0 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q9I mainly follow my team through Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid Missing 712 97.9 97.9 97.9 All of above 1 .1 .1 98.1 ALL OF ABOVE 1 .1 .1 98.2 all of the above 4 .6 .6 98.8 ALL OF THE ABOVE 1 .1 .1 98.9 Sweden 1 .1 .1 99.0 Every way I can 1 .1 .1 99.2 Foxtel 1 .1 .1 99.3 Free to Air TV, Radio, 1 .1 .1 99.4 Going, Newspapers Going or whatever TV 1 .1 .1 99.6 they are featured on pocket news tests 1 .1 .1 99.7 TV & attending 1 .1 .1 99.9 TV, I live interstate 1 .1 .1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

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Q92 -When considering a purchase of a product or service, would you give preference to a company that is a sponsor of your club Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid Always 53 7.3 7.3 7.3 Extremely Likely 134 18.4 18.4 25.7 Extremely unlikely 21 2.9 2.9 28.6 Likely 184 25.3 25.3 53.9 Never 12 1.7 1.7 55.6 Possibly 259 35.6 35.6 91.2 Unlikely 64 8.8 8.8 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q 92 Can you name two sponsors of your team/club? Valid Per Cumulative Frequency Per cent cent Per cent Valid 3 .4 .4 .4 A couple of times 71 9.8 9.8 10.2 Don't know who they are 5 .7 .7 10.9 No 460 63.3 63.3 74.1 Often 21 2.9 2.9 77.0 Once 53 7.3 7.3 84.3 Regularly 55 7.6 7.6 91.9 Sometimes 59 8.1 8.1 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q93 -Do you follow any other AFL team? Frequency Per cent Valid Per cent Cumulative Per cent Valid No 684 94.1 94.1 94.1 Yes 43 5.9 5.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q94 Do you watch any other sport? Frequency Per cent Valid Per cent Cumulative Per cent Valid No 42 5.8 5.8 5.8 Yes 685 94.2 94.2 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

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Q95 - How often do you play organised competitive sport? Valid Per Frequency Per cent cent Cumulative Per cent Valid Missing 3 .4 .4 .4 1-2 times a month 47 6.5 6.5 6.9 1-2 times a week 131 18.0 18.0 24.9 1-2 times a year 77 10.6 10.6 35.5 3-5 times a year 40 5.5 5.5 41.0 6-11 times a year 33 4.5 4.5 45.5 I don't play sport 368 50.6 50.6 96.1 More than 3 times a 28 3.9 3.9 100.0 week Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q96 How often do you exercise? (excluding organised competitive sport) Valid Per Frequency Per cent cent Cumulative Per cent Valid Missing 1 .1 .1 .1 1-2 times a month 86 11.8 11.8 12.0 1-2 times a week 215 29.6 29.6 41.5 1-2 times a year 8 1.1 1.1 42.6 3-5 times a year 20 2.8 2.8 45.4 6-11 times a year 21 2.9 2.9 48.3 I don't exercise 50 6.9 6.9 55.2 More than 3 times 326 44.8 44.8 100.0 a week Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q97 Gender - You are Valid Per Frequency Per cent cent Cumulative Per cent Valid Missing 9 1.2 1.2 1.2 Female 284 39.1 39.1 40.3 Male 434 59.7 59.7 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q98 Which one of the following age groups do you fall into? Valid Per Frequency Per cent cent Cumulative Per cent Valid 18-29 years 122 16.8 16.8 16.8 30-39 years 120 16.5 16.5 33.3 40-49 years 167 23.0 23.0 56.3 50-59 years 192 26.4 26.4 82.7 60-69 years 79 10.9 10.9 93.5 70 years and over 16 2.2 2.2 95.7 under 18 years 31 4.3 4.3 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

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Q99 Which of the following statements best describes your household? Valid Cumulative Frequency Per cent Per cent Per cent Valid 9 1.2 1.2 1.2 Couple with children at home 269 37.0 37.0 38.2 Couple with no children at home 232 31.9 31.9 70.2 Other (please specify) 17 2.3 2.3 72.5 Single parent with children at 25 3.4 3.4 75.9 home Single parent with no children at 11 1.5 1.5 77.4 home Single person living alone (no 73 10.0 10.0 87.5 children) Single person living with parents 60 8.3 8.3 95.7 Single person sharing with friends 31 4.3 4.3 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

Q100 Which state of Australia do you live in? Valid Per Frequency Per cent cent Cumulative Per cent Valid ACT 15 2.1 2.1 2.1 New South Wales 34 4.7 4.7 6.7 Northern Territory 1 .1 .1 6.9 Queensland 45 6.2 6.2 13.1 24 3.3 3.3 16.4 Tasmania 29 4.0 4.0 20.4 Victoria 551 75.8 75.8 96.1 Western Australia 28 3.9 3.9 100.0 Total 727 100.0 100.0

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Appendix K: Histograms

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401 Appendix L Factor Description and Alpha Coefficients comparison

Scale Dimension / Subscale Items Alpha Alpha Factor SII for Funk AFL 2003 fans 2016 SII Sport Interest in My interest in basketball sparked my 0.87 0.82 identification sport (BAS) interest in the team. (6 items) I attend games because basketball is my favourite sport. First and foremost I consider myself a fan of basketball. SII Organisation Interest in I watch the games because of 0.75 0.88 identification player individual players more than the team (6 (PLA) competing. items) I’m more of a fan of the individual players than I am of the entire team. The main reason I attend is to cheer for my favourite player. SII Fan Motives Bonding with Attending games gives me a chance to 0.81 0.84 Friends bond with my friends. (BON) I enjoy sharing the experience of attending a game with friends An important reason I attend games is to spend quality time with my friends. SII Fan Motives Socialisation I enjoy interacting with other 0.85 0.84 (SOC) spectators and fans when attending games. Games have given me a chance to meet other people with similar interests to mine. I like to talk with other people sitting near me at games. SII Spectator Drama I prefer watching a close game rather 0.79 0.88 Motives (DRA) than a one-sided game. I like games where the outcome is uncertain. A close game between two teams is more enjoyable than a blowout. SII Organisation Team I consider myself a fan of the whole 0.88 0.85 identification (TEM) team more than a fan of a single (6 player. items) I come to games to support the whole team. I am a fan of the entire team. SII N/A Community My connection to the community is 0.84 n/a Support why I like the team. (COM) I support the team because the team enhances the status of the city. I attend games to support the city’s team. SII N/A Support I attend games because I believe it is 0.93 n/a Women’s important to support women’s sport. opportunity My support for the team is a reflection (SWO) of my support for women’s sport. Attending games demonstrates my support for women’s sport in general. SII New Role Model Players provide inspiration for girls 0.93 0.88 dimension to (ROL) and boys. model. I think the players are good role

402 Scale Dimension / Subscale Items Alpha Alpha Factor SII for Funk AFL 2003 fans 2016 models for young girls and boys. The players provide inspiration for young people. SII Fan Motives Bonding with Attending games gives me a chance to 0.92 0.90 Family bond with my family. (FAM) I enjoy sharing the experience of attending a game with family members. An important reason why I attend games is to spend quality time with my family. SII Sport Aesthetics The style of play of the WNBA 0.87 0.80 Identification (AES) provides me with a more enjoyable form of entertainment in comparison to the NBA. I like women’s basketball because their style of play emphasises strategy and the traditional aspects of the game. The WNBA style of basketball is more a pure form of basketball compared to the NBA’s style. SII Stadium Stadium staff The staff are always helpful and 0.89 0.84 factor (customer courteous to me as a fan/customer. service) I enjoy the games because the staff are (MGT) friendly and available to me as a customer. I feel customer satisfaction is important to the game day staff SII Spectator Excitement I like the excitement associated with 0.90 0.94 Motives (EXC) the games. I enjoy the excitement surrounding the games. I find games very exciting SII Stadium Entertainment The games provide affordable 0.92 0.93 factor Value entertainment. (ENT) Games are great entertainment for the price. I attend games because it is an entertaining event for a reasonable price. SII Spectator Sport Knowing the rules of basketball helps 0.85 0.88 Motives knowledge me to enjoy the game. acquisition I enjoy the basketball games because I (KNW) know a lot about the game of basketball. I feel my understanding of the game of basketball adds to my enjoyment of watching the team. SII Fan Motives Vicarious I feel I have won when the team wins. 0.92 0.90 achievement. I feel a sense of accomplishment when (VIC) the team wins. When my team wins, I feel a personal sense of achievement.

403 Scale Dimension / Subscale Items Alpha Alpha Factor SII for Funk AFL 2003 fans 2016 SII Stadium Stadium I like attending a game because it is 0.92 0.79 factor. environment good clean fun. (WHO) There is a friendly, family atmosphere at the games. The friendly environment of the games is an important reason to attend.

SII Overarching Escape I like attending games because they 0.92 0.96 fan Motives (ESC) provide me with a distraction from my and daily life for a while. spectator The games provide me with an motives opportunity to escape the reality of my daily life for a while. Getting away from the routine of everyday life is an important reason why I would attend a game.

Source: adapted from Funk et al., (2003)

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Scale Dimension / Subscale Items Alpha Alpha Factor Kwon for et al AFL 2005 fans 2016 PAI Organisation Attachment I consider myself to be a “real” fan of the 0.87 0.85 Identification to the team team. (6 I would experience a loss if I had to stop items) being a fan of the team. Being a fan of the team is very important to me. PAI Sport Attachment First and foremost I consider myself a 0.83 0.82 Identification to the sport specific sport e.g. football) fan. (6 (Specific sport) is my favourite sport. items) I am a (specific sport) fan of all levels (e.g., high school, college, professional). PAI Organisation Attachment I identify with numerous aspects of the 0.83 0.86 Identification to the university rather than just its team. university I feel a part of the university community (club) not just its teams. I support the university as a whole not just its athletic teams. PAI Organisation Attachment I identify more with an individual 0.87 0.88 Identification to the player(s) on the team than with the team. (6 players items) I am a big fan of specific player(s) more than I am a fan of the team. I consider myself a fan of certain players rather than a fan of the team. Organisation Attachment I consider the signing of a proven star n/a 0.55 Identification to the star player from another AFL team to my club player as beneficial to the team It would reduce my enjoyment if another AFL club recruited our best player I consider the signing of proven star players from another AFL club to my club as very important Organisation Attachment I identify with the Captain rather than n/a 0.91 Identification to the with the team captain I am a big fan of the Captain more than I am a fan of the team I consider myself a fan of the captain rather than a fan of the team Organisation Attachment I am a big supporter of the Club president n/a 0.71 Identification to the Club I support my club because of the club president president I am a member of the club because of the club president PAI Sport Attachment I am a fan of collegiate (specific sport) 0.83 0.64 Identification to the level regardless of who is playing. of sport I don’t identify with one specific college (specific sport) team, but collegiate in general. I consider myself a fan of collegiate (specific sport), and not just one specific team. PAI Organisation Attachment I am a big fan of the Coach (name). 0.87 0.62 Identification to the I follow the football team because I like coach Coach (name).

405 I am a fan of the football team because they are coached by Coach (name). PAI Fan response BIRGing I would like to let others know about my 0.87 0.94 association with this team. I would like to publicize my connection with this team. I would like to tell others about my association with this team. PAI Fan response Satisfaction I was satisfied with my decision to attend. 0.71 0.92 I was satisfied with my spectating experience. I was satisfied with the game experience.

PAI Fan response Purchase I am more likely to attend future games. 0.84 0.74 intention I am more likely to purchase the team’s (4 (Conative merchandise. items) loyalty) I am more likely to buy (team name) clothing. Number of home games attended Source: Adapted from Kwon et al., (2005)

Scale Dimension / Subscale Items Factor Part Woo Funk AFL A et al et al fans 2009 2003 (SKCC) SII 2016 MSSC Spectator Vicarious I feel a personal sense of achievement 0.87 0.92 0.90 motives Achievement when the team does well. I feel like I have won when the team wins. I feel proud when the team plays well. MSSC Fan/Spectator Aesthetics I appreciate the beauty inherent in the 0.99 n/a 0.80 motives sport. I enjoy the natural beauty in the sport I enjoy the gracefulness associated with the sport. MSSC Fan/Spectator Drama I enjoy the drama of close games. 0.89 0.79 0.88 motives I prefer watching a close game rather than a one-sided game. I enjoy it when the outcome of the game is not decided until the very end. I enjoy the uncertainty of close football games. MSSC Fan/Spectator Escape The game provides an escape from my 0.81 0.92 0.96 motives day-to-day routine. The game provides a distraction from my everyday activities. The game provides a diversion from “life’s little problems” for me. MSSC Fan/Spectator Knowledge I can increase my knowledge about the 0.90 0.85 0.88 motives acquisition sport. I can increase my understanding of the sport’s strategy by watching the game. I can learn about the technical aspects of the sport by watching the game. MSSC Fan/Spectator Physical The athletic skills of the players are 0.86 n/a n/a motives Skills something I appreciate. I enjoy watching a well-executed athletic performance. I enjoy a skilful performance by the

406 Scale Dimension / Subscale Items Factor team. MSSC Fan/Spectator Social I enjoy interacting with other people 0.94 0.85 0.84 motives when I go to a game. I enjoy talking with other people when I go to a game. I enjoy socialising with other people when I go to a game. Part Woo Kwon AFL B et al et al fans 2009 2005 (SKCC) 2016 PAI Organisation Players I identify more with an individual 0.83 0.87 0.88 ID player(s) on the team than with the (6 team. items) I am a big fan of specific player(s) more than I am a fan of the team. I consider myself a fan of certain players rather than a fan of the team. PAI Organisation Team I consider myself to be a “real” fan of 0.88 0.87 0.85 ID the team. (6 I would experience a loss if I had to items) stop being a fan of the team. Being a fan of the team is very important to me. PAI Organisation Coach I am a big fan of the Coach (X). 0.85 0.87 0.62 ID I follow the football team because I like Coach (X). I am a fan of the football team because they are coached by Coach (X). PAI Organisation University I identify with numerous aspects of the 0.82 0.82 0.86 ID university rather than just its team. (Club) I feel a part of the university community not just its teams. I support the university as a whole not just its athletic teams. Part Woo Kwon AFL C et al et al fans 2009 2005 (SKCC) 2016 PAI Sport ID Sport First and foremost I consider myself a 0.81 0.83 0.82 football fan. (6 Football is my favourite sport. items) I am a football fan of all levels (e.g., high school, college, professional). Sport Level I am a fan of collegiate football 0.77 0.83 0.64 regardless of who is playing. I don’t identify with one specific college football team, but collegiate football in general. I consider myself a fan of collegiate football, and not just one specific team. Source: adapted from Woo et al., (2009)

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