The Pharma Innovation Journal 2019; 8(1): 126-138

ISSN (E): 2277- 7695 ISSN (P): 2349-8242 NAAS Rating: 5.03 Applications of bio-colour in dairy industry TPI 2019; 8(1): 126-138 © 2019 TPI www.thepharmajournal.com Chaitali Chakraborty, Pinaki Ranjan Ray, Rimli Chatterjee and Manasi Roy Received: 18-11-2018 Accepted: 21-12-2018 Abstract Chaitali Chakraborty Color is a measure of quality and nutrient content of foods. The objective of adding color to foods is to Associate Professor, Department make them appealing, augment the loss of color during processing, to improve the quality and also to of Dairy Chemistry, Faculty of influence the consumer to buy a product. The developing food industry had a vast array of synthetic Dairy Technology, WBUAFS, colors. An established list of permitted synthetic color eventually came into force in most countries. Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, Consumers have become increasingly aware of the ingredients in their foods and as such they require India foods to be as `natural' as possible. Bicolour can be classified into three main classes: natural colors,

browning colors and additives. At present, the demand for natural dyes is increasing worldwide due to Pinaki Ranjan Ray Professor, Department of Dairy the increased awareness on therapeutic and medicinal properties and their benefits among public and also Chemistry, Faculty of Dairy because of the recognized profound toxicity of synthetic colors. Technology, WBUAFS, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, Keywords: Colors, bio colours, food industry, food dye, synthetic colors India 1. Introduction Rimli Chatterjee Colour is one of the most important qualities of foods. In the past, consumers did not care M. Tech Student, Department of Dairy Chemistry, Faculty of about the kind of pigments used in food colouring (natural or synthetic). Bio-colours, the word Dairy Technology, WBUAFS, consists of two words, BIO meaning natural and COLOUR meaning anything which is used Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, for colouring purpose. Bio-colour is any dye obtained from any vegetable, fruits, plants, India microorganisms, animal or mineral that is capable of colouring food, drugs, cosmetics or any part of human body. The production of the synthetic colorants is economically efficient and Manasi Roy M. Tech Student, Department of technically advanced but many artificial synthetic colorants, usually used in foodstuff, Food Safety and Quality dyestuff, cosmetics and pharmaceutical manufacturing processes, causes various hazardous Management, National Institute effects like toxic diseases such as cancer and other behavioural problems in children (Parmar, of Food Technology Gupta, Phutela, 2015) [75]. To counteract the ill effects synthetic colorants, there is worldwide Entrepreneurship and interest in process development for the production of pigments and colours from natural Management, Kundli, Sonepat, Haryana, India sources. But with reference to food colorants recently there is an aversion towards synthetic pigments owing to the belief such as "synthetic pigments are associated with several illnesses " and "natural pigments have pharmacological benefits" (Clydesdale, 1993) [34]. Natural organic pigments are generally extracted from fruits, vegetables, seeds, roots and microorganisms and they are sometimes called bio-colours because of their biological origin (Pattnaik et al., 1997) [95] . Bio-colours that are permitted for human foods are very limited and there is difficulty in getting approval for new sources for the reason that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers the pigments as additives and consequently pigments are under strict regulations (Wissgot and Bortlik, 1996) [120]. Recently there have been changes in the legislational so causing a significant reduction in number of synthetic colours used in foods [39] (Downham and Collins, 2000) . According to a study on dyes and organic pigments, the worldwide demand for organic colorants is projected to increase from 4.9% in 2003 to $10.6 billion in 2008. Future growth is going to be large for naturally derived colours with a predicted annual growth rate of 5-10%. Synthetic colours are still forecast to grow but at a lower rate of between 3 and 5% (Downham and Collins, 2000) [39].The demand for food colour in global market in 2000 was 2400MT which increased to 3000 MT by the year 2005 and

further to increase to 8000 MT by the year 2010 and is expected to increase to 15000 MT by the year 2015 (Lakshmi, 2014) [65]. The investment in natural food colour market acrosstheglobehastouchedtoUS$1 billion and is continuously growing as there is demand for Correspondence natural food colours against synthetic food colours (Magoulas, 2009) [73]. Because of Chaitali Chakraborty consumers choice for natural food processing industry and have contributed to the increase in Associate Professor, Department [98] of Dairy Chemistry, Faculty of natural colour market significantly (Ree, 2006) .Only few natural pigments are available in Dairy Technology, WBUAFS, sufficient quantities to be useful for industry because they are usually extracted from plants Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, (Lauro, 1991) [66]. India ~ 126~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

But there is an ever growing interest in microbial pigments which give yellow to red colours and the with their due to several reasons like their natural character and safety to principal subclass the , which impart red to blue use, production being independent of seasons and colours to flowers and fruits. In recent years, there has been geographical conditions, controllable and predictable yield much interest in , especially- as it is (Francis, 1987) [49]. The successful marketing of pigments converted in the body to vitamin A andhas antioxidant derived from algae or extracted from plants, both as a food properties. It has a beneficial effect in reducing the risk of colour and a nutritional supplement, reflects the presence and some cancers and perhaps heart diseases. It can be produced importance of niche markets in which consumers are willing commercially using microorganisms like Dunaliellasalina to pay a premium for ‘all natural ingredients’. Colours can and Blakesleatrispora. serve as the primary identification of food and are also a 3.2 Browning colours: These are produced during cooking protective measure against the consumption of spoiled food. and processing and thus may not be of any direct importance Colours of foods create physiological and psychological in foods. For e.g., as produced during sugar Caramelization, expectations and attitudes that are developed by experience, baking etc. tradition, education and environment: ‘We inevitably eat with 3.3 Additives: Food additive colours are based on our eyes’. anthocyanins derived from sources such as red grapes or beet The controversial topic of ‘synthetic dyes in food’ has been but the first additive colour were synthetic dyes which were discussed for many years and was amplified in 2007 with the extensively used as food colorants in nineteenth century and Southampton study (McCann et al., 2007) and its early 1900s. Anthocyanins are polyphenolic group of transcription in a legal frame (i.e. the use of warning labels in compounds which have been named Vitamins of the 21st Europe about a hyperactivity link for products containing any Century due to their impressive medical and health benefits. of the Southampton colours is mandatory since July 2010). 3.3.1 Food additives can be grouped according to the The scrutiny and negative assessment of synthetic food dyes function they perform by the modern consumer have given rise to a strong interest in  Antioxidants make food last longer by helping to stop natural colouring alternatives. Some companies decided to fats, oils and certain vitamins from combining with ‘colour food with food’, using mainly plant extracts or oxygen in the air, a process known as oxidation, which pigments from plants, e.g. red from paprika, beetroots, berries makes food taste ‘off’. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and or tomato; yellow from saffron or marigold; orange from vitamin E are commonly used antioxidants. annatto; green from leafy vegetables, etc. Penetration of the  Colourings impart colour to food and compensate for fermentation-derived ingredients into the food and cosmetic colour lost in processing. Some food colourings are industries is increasing year after year. Examples could be natural in origin, such as (E100), which comes taken from the following fields: thickening or gelling agents from the spice turmeric. (xanthan, curdlan, gellan), flavour enhancers (yeast  Emulsifiers help mix ingredients together that would hydrolysate, monosodium glutamate), flavour compounds normally separate. They are used in mayonnaise, (gamma-decalactone, diacetyl, methyl-ketones), acidulants margarine, ice cream and some baked goods. (lactic acid, citric acid), etc. Efforts have been made in order  Gelling, thickening and stabilising agents, such as carob to reduce the production costs of fermentation pigments gum, guar gum, xanthan gum and agar, give food its compared to those of synthetic pigments or pigments desired texture and consistency. extracted from natural sources Innovations will improve the  Flavourings are used to bring out and enhance the flavour economy of pigment production by isolating new or creating of food. better microorganisms, by improving the processes. (Dufossé, [42]  Preservatives stop mould or bacteria from growing, so 2006) . food can be safely kept for longer. Sulphur dioxide is an

2. History example of a preservative and is used in products such as From time immemorial, colour has been an important dried fruit. criterion for acceptability of products like textiles, cosmetics,  Sweeteners include aspartame and saccharin. These are food and other items. In Europe, it was practiced during the ‘intense sweeteners’ which are many times sweeter than Bronze Age. The earliest written record of the use of natural sugar and therefore used in smaller quantities. There are dyes was found in China dated 2600 BC. The cochineal dye also ‘bulk sweeteners’, which are of a similar sweetness was used by the people of Aztec and Maya culture period of to sugar and tend to be used in similar amounts. Central and North America. Henna was used even before  Sweeteners provide fewer calories than sugar and so can 2500 BC, while saffron is mentioned in the Bible.Use of be used instead of it to sweeten products such as yogurts, natural biocolarants in food is known from Japan in the soft drinks and chewing gum. Sweeteners are kinder to shosoin text of the Nara period (8th century), which contains our teeth because they are not broken down to form the references regarding coloring soybean and adzuki-bean acids that cause tooth decay, as happens when we eat cakes.According to Aberoumand in the Indian subcontinent foods containing sugar. and has been substantiated by findings of coloured garments 3.3.2 Applications of Bio-colours as additives: There are of cloth and traces of madder dye in the ruins of Mohenjo- various applications of Bio-colours in different industries as Daro & Harappa civilization (3500 BC) (Roy et al, 2008) [100]. described below: Thus, it appears that colored processed foods had been taken A. Pharmaceutical industry: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) by the people of some sections during that period. infects approximately 170 million people worldwide, and is often associated with chronic hepatitis, leading to liver 3. Classification: Biocolours can be classified into three cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (Brown, 2005). main classes (Sharma, 2014) [53]. Currently, interferon (IFN) and the nucleoside analogue 3.1 Natural colours: The principal natural colours used as ribavirin are used as the standard therapy to treat chronic additives are the green pigment , the carotenoids HCV infection. However, IFN- alone or in combination with ~ 127 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

ribavirin often leads to a range of side effects. The 65 kDa to extract colours. and betala in pigments, which HCV NS5B protein has RNA-dependent RNA polymerase are water soluble, are extracted from the raw material with (RdRp) activity and is key player in HCV RNA replication. water and sometimes with aqueous methanol. Monascus Purpureus produces pigments that are responsible For carotenoids extraction, hexane is the solvent of choice. for inhibiting hepatitis C virus replication by interfering with After thorough extraction, the extract is concentrated and viral RNA polymerase activity (Sun et al., 2011) [111]. A group subjected to purification steps by using column of Monascus orange pigment (MOP) derivatives effectively chromatography. Identification and quantification of the inhibited NS5B RdRp activity and interfered with the pigment is performed by spectrophotometry or by high mevalonate synthesis pathway, thereby suppressing HCV pressure liquid chromatography (Naidu and Sowbhagya, replication in cells. A double-hit strategy, including inhibition 2012) [89]. of HCV RdRp activity and interference with the mevalonate synthetic pathway, to inhibit HCV amplification may provide 5. The current advance techniques followed in colour the basis for successful antiviral therapy using the MOP extraction are as follows AADs derived from this microbial secondary metabolite. 5.1 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and Pulsed Electric B. Dairy industry: Among the various pigment-producing Field (PEF): These methods are environment friendly and microorganisms, Monascus sp. is reported to produce non- energy efficient technologies that enhance mass transfer toxic pigments, which can be used as food colorant. Besides a processes within cellular tissues, as the permeability of colouring agent it enhances the flavour of the food and acts a cytoplasmic membranes can be increased which in turn food preservative. Monascusruber has been used widely in the enhances extraction of valuable cell components. PEF is preparation of flavoured milk by utilization of rice reported to be an ideal method to enhance juice production, carbohydrate for its metabolism and production of secondary increase the extraction of valuable components better than the metabolite namely pigment. Red, orange and yellow pigments yields obtained by enzymatic maceration (Mason and Zhao, [80] are produced using solid-state fermentation and rice broken as 1994) . a substrate. Monascus Fermented Rice (MFR) 1.2% is used in 5.2 Sonication-assisted extraction: It is one of the most the preparation of flavoured milk (Vidyalakshmi et al., 2009) commonly used methods to enhance mass transfer phenomena [117]. by cavitation forces, where bubbles in the liquid/solid C. Fish industry: Aquaculture is a rapidly growing global extraction can explosively collapse and generate localized industry, comprising cultivation of various freshwater and pressure, causing plant tissue rupture and improving the marine species of finfish, shellfish, molluscs and ornamental release of intracellular substances into the solvent. (Nayak et fish (Garcia and Maurilio, 2013) [50]. Pigmentation is one of al., 2007). the important quality attributes of the aquatic animal for 5.3 Gamma irradiation: Gamma-irradiation, as a pre- consumer acceptability. As fishes cannot synthesize their own treatment to a plant material, increases cell wall colouring pigments de novo, the colouring agents which are permeabilization, resulting in enhanced extraction of cell [104, synthesized by some plants, algae and microorganisms, need constituents in higher yield (Sowbhagya and Chitra, 2010) 105] to be incorporated in the diet. Most promising pigment proved . to be successful in enhancing skin colour is Astaxanthin. 5.4 Enzymatic extraction: Enzyme assisted extraction of Commercially available products of astaxanthin () pigments is another new technology. Enzyme pre-treatment rich yeast Phaffia Rhodozyma and fermentation product of cannot be a complete substitute for conventional solvent Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous has been widely used. extraction, but can result in increased yield of value added Microalgae Chlorella vulgaris imparts yellow blue hues, cell components and a reduction in time of extraction and [99] yielding both muscle and skin pigmentation effects. (Johnson amount of solvent consumption (Rodriguez et al., 2001) . and An, 1991) [59-61]. 5.5 Membrane technology: Membrane processing is a fast D. Textile industry: The textile industry discharges large and emerging technique for the concentration and separation proportion of effluent that mainly consists of synthetic dyes. of macro and micro molecules based on molecular size and Synthetic dyes have been extensively used in the textile shape in biotechnology and food processing industries [40, 41] industries due to their ease and cost effectiveness in synthesis, (Downham and Collins, 2001) . Advantages of high stability towards light, temperature and technically membrane processing are many which include improved advanced colours covering the whole colour spectrum. product quality with higher yield, utilization of by products, However, these synthetic dyes are often toxic, mutagenic and temperature and pH sensitive products can easily be extracted carcinogenic leading to several human health problems such without alteration and lastly is environmental friendly as no as skin cancer and allergic reactions. Thus, the worldwide harmful chemicals are being used and less energy is [41] demand for the dyes of natural origin is increasing rapidly in consumed. (Spence et al., 2010) . the textile industry. (Gurav et al., 2011) 5.6 Future prospects: A giant leap forward in colour E. Printing industry: It has become important to reuse and production could be achieved by combining genetic recycle used papers in offices, etc. for the purpose of the manipulation and fermentation. Technological limitations are conservation of forest resources and reduction of wastes. the major bottleneck for the commercial exploitation of the Reuse of papers in offices is preferable, but it requires that microbes for bio-colour production and designing of proper letters and images easily disappear from printed papers. bioreactors would help to ease out the situation. (Parmar M., [75] Decolorable ink for inkjet printing contains a Monascus Phutela U.G., 2015)

pigment. The Monascus pigments are easily discoloured and 6. The requisite for biocolorants finally lose their colours by the irradiation of visible and/or [116] 1. To maintain the original food appearance even after ultraviolet light. (Tsuyoshi et al., 2004) . processing and during storage.

4. Methods of extraction of pigments 2. To assure the color uniformity for avoiding seasonal Solvent extraction is the conventional method that is followed variations in color tone. ~ 128 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

3. To intensify normal color of food and thus to maintain its yellowish-green than oil palm . Lutein, is also found quality. in Zucchini (Cucurbitapepo L. var. giromontia), green 4. To protect the flavor and light susceptible vitamins vegetables like cabbage, parsley, spinach, etc. and some making a light-screen support. fruits. 5. To increase acceptability of food as an appetizing item. 7.5 Annatto (C25H30O4) 7. Main Chromophores and their potential sources A yellow to orange color has been used for over two centuries (Shapley, P. (2012) Absorbing light with organic mainly for colouring dairy products especially cheese and is molecules) derived from the outer layer of seeds of the tropical tree The colorants that occur naturally in food plants have been the Bixaorellana. The chief coloring principle is the carotenoid, source of the traditional colorants. However, they can also be bixin and norbixin. The pH and solubility affect the color hue; obtained from microorganisms and animals, but few of them the greater the solubility in oil, the brighter is the color. Water are available in sufficient quantities for commercial use as soluble, oil soluble, and oil/water dispersible forms of annatto food colorant. Although, biocolorants are structurally much are available. Norbixin is used to color cheese (e.g., cheddar) diversified and from a variety of sources, the three most because it binds to the proteins. It may also be used to color important are: Tetrapyrrols, Tetraterpenoids, and Flavonoids. beverages with neutral pH, e.g., flavored milk drinks, but not The main pigments and their potential natural sources are with low pH because of precipitation and it is slightly more discussed below. reddish in application than β- carotene. Since it precipitates at low pH, it is also available as emulsion. 7.1 Carotenoids (C40H56) These are lipid-soluble, yellow–orange–red pigments found in 7.5.1 Use of Annatto in food industry all higher plants and some animals. Animals cannot Annatto is used currently to impart a yellow or orange colour synthesize carotenoids, so their presence is due to dietary to many industrialized and semi-industrialized foods. In the intake. The most important carotenoids are carotenes which European Union, it is identified by the E number E160b. including (alpha carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, Annatto has been a traditional colorant for Gloucester cheese lutein, and lycopene) and including violaxanthin, since the 16th century. During the summer, the high levels of neoxanthin, zeaxanthin and canthxanthin. carotene in the grass would have given the milk an orange tint which was carried through into the cheese. This orange hue 7.2 ß-Carotene (C40H56) came to be regarded as an indicator of the best cheese, These are oil soluble, orange-yellow in color but can be made spurring producers of inferior cheese to use annatto in order to into a water dispersible emulsion. Carrot (Daucuscarota) is a replicate it. The custom of adding annatto then spread to other good source of ß-carotene. But most ß-carotene for parts of the UK, for cheeses such as Cheshire and Red commercial use is now derived from algae, orange, apricot, Leicester, as well as coloured cheddar made in Scotland mango, and peach and pepper contributed significantly in (Aubrey, Allison, 2013) [23]. Many types of cheddar are increasing ß-cryptoxanthin and ß-carotene concentrations of produced in both white and red (orange) varieties, with the foods. Besides being used as colorants, carotenes are also latter being more popular despite the only difference between used for nutritional purposes as provitamin-A agents as in the two being the presence of annatto as a colouring. That margarine where they also provide color or as dietary practice has extended to many modern processed cheese supplements. products, such as American cheese and Velveeta.

Annatto condiments and colorants are safe for most people 7.3 Lycopene (C40H56) It is found in plants containing carotene, usually at a very low when used in food amounts, but they may cause allergic (sometimes undetectable) concentration. Lycopene is an reactions in those who are sensitive (Magee Elaine, 2010). In expensive pigment and is very prone to oxidative degradation, one 1978 study of 61 patients suffering from chronic hives or but highly stable under a wide range of temperature and pH, angioedema, 56 patients were orally provoked by annatto hence used as common food colorant. It is available in liquid extract during an elimination diet. A challenge was performed form or as cold water dispersible powder. Though lycopene is with a dose equivalent to the amount used in 25 grams (0.88 found in abundance in tomatoes in large proportion, but was oz) of butter. Twenty-six percent of the patients reacted to this also identified in about 70 plant species including red pepper, colour four hours after intake, worse than synthetic dyes such Kapia pepper, onion, Rosa rubiginosa (rose hip), as amaranth (9%), tartrazine (11%), Sunset Yellow FCF (17%), Food Red 17 (16%), Ponceau 4R (15%), erythrosine Taxusbaccata (yew), Calendula officinalis (marigold) and Citrulluslanatus (watermelon) also contain lycopene at low (12%) and Brilliant Blue FCF (14%) (Mikkelsenetal.1978) as concentration. Further, red cabbage juice and carrot has long a powerful yellow in applications such as saffron rice.

been a component of tomato blends, indicating that both 7.6 Flavonoids contain appreciable quantities of lycopene. Orange to yellow The flavonoids are a diverse group of polyphenolic colour of yew tree, Taxusbaccata is due to rhodoxanthin of compounds contribute to the yellow color of horticultural and Rubixanthin produces yellow colour in dog products. They are widely distributed in the plant kingdom rose, Rosa canina. and over 4000 structurally unique flavonoids have been identified in plant sources. These are divided into six differentmajor classes (flavonols, flavanones, flavones, 7.4 Lutein (C40H56O2) isoflavones, flavonols and ) based on Marigold, (Tageteserecta) flowers are by far the most differences in molecular backbone structure. Flavonols may to abundant natural source for commercial lutein. Lutein is fade in strong light but flavones remain more permanent but primarily found esterified with saturated fatty acids like paler in colour. The leading representatives of flavone lauric, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acid. Lutein is more pigments are apigenin, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin,

~ 129 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

luteolin, tricin, izoramnetin. The minor flavonoids are Galium species, particularly Galiumtinctorium, chalones - coreopsidoside and mareoside found in daisy Galiummullugo (great ladies bedstraw or Wild madder), family, aurones-sulphuroside in fustic, daisy family, genistein Galiumverum (yellow ladies bedstraw) and Galiumaperine in pea family, osajin and pomiferin in Osage-orange, Maclura (goosegrass or cleavers) are inferior dyes to the alizarin pomifera. Some of the major flavanoids are: obtained from madder. Several other species are Anchusatinctoria, Lithispermum spp. Carthamustinctoria. 7.6.1 Quercetin Indian mulberry (Morindacitrifolia) commonly known as The richest sources of quercetin are: apples, onions, plants of Noni, also a potential yielding anthraquinones and flavonoids. Cruciferae family, Sambucusnigra, in fact the main source of quercetin is from quercitron, isolated from the inner bark of 7.9 Betacyanins () (C24H26N2O13) an oak, Quercustinctoria but it is also present in horse Betalains are obtained from the red beet (Beta vulgaris) chestnuts, onion skins, tea and sumac, and extract that are mainly used as a food colouring agents. These Citrulluscolocynthis. red dyes and the related group, betaxanthins (yellows) were initially thought to be flavonoids but now it is estimated they 7.6.2 Luteolin differ from flavonoids as they contain nitrogen and do not One of the principle compounds of yellow dye, which change colour reversibly as the anthocyanins do to pH. produces the most vibrant and lightfast. The dye and weld or is the major component (95%) of the pigments in the dyer‘s rocket (Reseda luteola) was cultivated for extraction of extract and have a good flavor. The beet root extract contains luteolin in northern Europe. Its major use was the dyeing of red, yellow and also a bluish-red color pigments depending on gold braid. The perennial plant saw-wort, Serratulatinctoria their content produced by betanin which is stable at higher pH L. was also a yellow dye yielding plant due to the present of range than red cabbage extract. It has wide application in ecdysteroid, luteolin and luteolin-7-O glucoside content in the different food commodity from beverages to candy and from leaves. dairy to cattle products. Apparently, they are only present in a

few plants of the Chenopodiacae besides red beet (Beta 7.7 Anthocyanin (C15H11O+) The glycosides of anthocyanidins and are found more in vulgaris). Bixincan also be obtained from seeds of Sinduri plants than the parent anthocyanidins, belongs to phenolic (Bixaorella Linn.), which imparts orange-yellow colour to the substances widely distributed in vegetables, giving rise to the products. Some plants of portulaca and goosefoot families blue–purple– red–orange color of flowers and fruits. Until also yield significant amount of betacyanins. There is no limit now, more than 540 anthocyanin pigments have been in its upper usage level in the food products.

identified in nature, with most of the structural variation 7.10 Curcumin (C21H20O6) coming from glycosidic substitution at the 3 and 5 positions Curcumin is bright yellow colorant can also be obtained from and possible acylation of sugar residues with organic acids. the ground powder of the rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma The most common anthocyanidins are cyaniding (redpurple), longa Linn.) plant. Turmeric contains 3–5% volatile oils and delphinidin (blue-purple), malvidin (deep purple), peonidin 2.5–6% yellow pigments, the curcuminoids, of which (red), petunidin (purple) and pelargonidin (orange-red), and curcumin predominates. Solubility of turmeric compound the distribution of this pigment in the horticultural plants is depends on the processing medium. Turmeric oleoresin is not even. Some fruits contain a single type of anthocyanin water soluble; but oil extract can be added to fat based foods (e.g. cyanidin in apple, cherry,.), some contain two major and at high pH, the extract turns orange. There is no usage types (cyanidin and peonidin as cherry and cranberry); or restriction as long as the level conforms to Good some with several anthocyanins giving a variety of colors like Manufacturing Practices. Indigo blue is obtained the best red, purple, yellow and blue as in grape or raspberry or from dried leaves indigo, Indigofera spp., which contains strawberry. Anthocyanin are used to color a number of non- glucosideindican or isatan B or Indigotin. It is soluble in beverage foods, including gelatin desserts, fruit fillings and water and hydrolysed to indoxyl in the dyeing process. certain confectionaries. Grape peel extract (enocianina) also Oxidation, usually by exposure to air, turns the indoxyl to imparts a reddish purple color to beverages. indigotin (or indigo blue), which is insoluble in water, ether

and alcohol. Indigo blue is also known to be present in a small 7.8 Anthracenes (C40H10) The anthracenes contain several well-known dyes. number of plants like woad (Isatistinctoria), a Japanese Anthraquinones are the largest group of quinones, best known knotweed (Polygonumtinctorium), common knotweed (P. for their use as mordant dyes. However, their importance, as aviculare), Neriumtinctorium, and Lonchocarpuscyanescens.

with most other natural dyes, diminished with the 7.11 Paprika oleoresin (C40H56O3) development of the synthetic dye industry. They occur in (Also known as paprika extract and oleoresin paprika) It is an many different plants and are generally present as the oil-soluble extract from the fruits of Capsicum annuum or glycosides in young plants. The biosynthetic pathway for Capsicum frutescens, and is primarily used as a colouring anthraquinones is uncertain. They may be derived from and/or flavouring in food products. It is composed of shikimic acid, mevalonic acid or polyketides. Different vegetable oil (often in the range of 97% to 98%), capsaicin, anthraquinones are alizarin, mungistin, purpurin from Madder the main flavouring compound giving pungency in higher family; emodin from Persian berries, kermes and lac and concentrations, and capsanthin and capsorubin, the main Napthoquinones, e.g. juglone (walnut) and alkanin; hypericin colouring compounds (among other carotenoids) (Pérez- (St. John‘swort). Anthraquinone dyes require mordants (metal Gálvez A, Martin HD, Sies H, Stahl W, 2003). It is much ions complexed to the fabric to be dyed), which makes the milder than capsicum oleoresin, often containing no capsaicin dyeing process more complicated. Other plant yielding at all. Extraction is performed by percolation with a variety of anthraquinone red dyes are madder including Indian madder solvents, primarily hexane, which are removed prior to use. (R. Cordifolia Linn) and Naga madder (R. sikkimensis). Vegetable oil is then added to ensure a uniform color

~ 130 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

saturation (Jarén-Galán M, Nienaber U, Schwartz SJ Code of Federal Regulations part 73). In Europe, paprika (1999).Foods coloured with paprika oleoresin include cheese, oleoresin (extract), and the compounds capsanthin and orange juice, spice mixtures, sauces, sweets and emulsified capsorubin are designated by E160c. processed meats. In poultry feed, it is used to deepen the colour of egg yolks. In the United States, paprika oleoresin is Names and CAS nos. listed as a color additive “exempt from certification” (Title 21

Table 1: Names and CAS Numbers of Capsaicin, Capsanthin, Capsorubin

Trival Name Preferred Name Auto Nomenclature Name Case No. 8-Methyl-N-vanillyl-trans-6- Capsaicin (E)-8-Methyl-non-6-enoic acid 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzylamide 404-86-4 nonenamide (2E,4E,6E,8E,10E,12E,14E,16E,18E)-19-((R)-4-Hydroxy-2,6,6- (all-E,3R,3'S,5'R)-3,3'-dihydroxy- trimethyl-cyclohex-1-enyl)-1-((1R,4S)-4-hydroxy-1,2,2- Capsanthin 465-42-9 β,κ-caroten-6'-one trimethylcyclopentyl)-4,8,13,17-tetramethyl-nonadeca- 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18-nonaen-1-one (2E,4E,6E,8E,10E,12E,14E,16E,18E)-1,20-Bis-((1R,4S)-4- (all-E,3S,3'S,5R,5'R)-3,3'- Capsorubin hydroxy-1,2,2-trimethyl-cyclopentyl)-4,8,13,17-tetramethyl-icosa 470-38-2 dihydroxy-κ,κ-carotene-6,6'-dione 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18-nonaene-1,20-dione

7.12 Chlorophyll (C55H72O5N4) yielding a yellow–brown pigment (pheophytin). It is used in The green pigment utilized by all higher plants for jam, jelly, candy, ice cream and in several other products, but photosynthesis. The name derives from the Greek words for chlorophyll finds limited use as a colorant because of the green and leaf (compare to xanthophyll). Chlorophyll is a lability of the coordinated magnesium and the associated cyclic tetrapyrrole with coordinated magnesium in the center. color change. Chlorophyll is extracted from edible plants, In plants, there are two forms of chlorophyll (a and b) which nettle, grass, or alfalfa, silkworm droppings and mulberry only differ in the substitution of the tetrapyrrole ring. The leaves. oleoresin thus obtained typically contains 10–20% chlorophyll and some carotenoids (mainly lutein and ß- 8.1. The structures of are summarized below carotene), which are co-extracted by the organic solvents,

Table 2: Structures of Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll c1 Chlorophyll c2

Molecular C55H72O5N4Mg C55H70O6N4Mg C35H30O5N4Mg C35H28O5N4Mg C54H70O6N4Mg C55H70O6N4Mg formula C2 group -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CHO C3 group -CH=CH2 -CH=CH2 -CH=CH2 -CH=CH2 -CHO -CH=CH2 C7 group -CH3 -CHO -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 C8 group -CH2CH3 -CH2CH3 -CH2CH3 -CH=CH2 -CH2CH3 -CH2CH3 -CH2CH2COO- -CH2CH2COO- C17 group -CH2CH2COO-Phytyl -CH2CH2COO-Phytyl -CH=CHCOOH -CH=CHCOOH Phytyl Phytyl C17-C18 bond Single(chlorin) Single(chlorin) Double(porphyrin) Double(porphyrin) Single(chlorin) Single(chlorin) Occurrence Universal Mostly plants Various algae Various algae Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria

8.2 Culinary use browning and the different methods that can be employed to Chlorophyll is registered as a food additive (colorant), and its maximize this inhibition and ultimately prolong the shelf life E number is E140. Chefs use chlorophyll to colour a variety of food (Kaanane, A.; Labuza, T. P., 1989). of foods and beverages green, such as pasta and absinthe (Adams, Jad, 2004). Chlorophyll is not soluble in water, and it 9.1.1 Enzymatic browning is first mixed with a small quantity of vegetable oil to obtain Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions the desired solution. that takes place in most fruits and vegetables as well as in seafood. These processes affect the taste, colour, and value of 9. Food browning such foods (Holderbaum Daniel, 2010) [56]. Generally, it is a 9.1 Browning chemical reaction involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol It is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and reactions that take place within. The process of food browning benzoquinone from natural phenols. Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that take place in food (also called oxidation of foods) requires exposure to oxygen. chemistry and represents an interesting research topic It begins with the oxidation of phenols by polyphenol oxidase regarding health, nutrition, and food technology. Though into quinones, whose strong electrophilic state causes high there are many different ways food chemically changes over susceptibility to a nucleophilic attack from other proteins time, browning in particular falls into 2 main categories: (Macheix, J. J., et al., 1991). These quinones are then enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes. The browning polymerized in a series of reactions, eventually resulting in process of foods may yield desirable or undesirable results, the formation of brown pigments (melanosis) on the surface depending on the type of food (Kaanane, A, Labuza, T. P., of the food (Nicolas, J. J., et al., 1994). The rate of enzymatic 1989) [62]. Browning has many important implications on the browning is reflected by the amount of active polyphenol food industry relating to nutrition, technology, and economic oxidases present in the food. Hence most research cost (Corzo-Martínez, et al., 2012) [36]. Researchers are investigating methods to inhibit enzymatic browning has especially interested in studying the control (inhibition) of focused on hindering polyphenol oxidase activity. However,

~ 131 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

not all browning of food produces negative effects (Corzo- nutritional value of foods, causing huge economic loss when Martínez, et al., 2012) [36]. not sold to consumers on time (Corzo-Martínez, et al., 2012)  Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning: [36]. It is estimated that more than 50% of produce is lost as a  Developing colour and flavour in Coffee, Cocoa beans, result of enzymatic browning (Kaanane, A.; Labuza, T. P., and tea (He Quiang, 2008). 1989) The increase in human population and consequential  Developing colour and flavour in dried fruit such as depletion in our natural resources has prompted many raisins. biochemists and food engineers alike to find new and  Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning: improved techniques to preserve food longer, by using  Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, methods to inhibit the browning reaction, and effectively bananas and avocados. increase the shelf life of foods. A better understanding of the  Polyphenols oxidases, is the major reaction in the enzymatic browning mechanisms, specifically, understanding formation of Melanosis in crustaceans such as shrimp the properties of the enzymes and substratesthat are involved (Nirmal, et al., 2015) [92]. in the reaction, may help food technologists to control certain stages in the mechanism and inhibit browning. Apples are 9.1.2 Non-enzymatic browning fruits commonly studied by researchers due to their high The second type of browning, non-enzymatic browning is a phenolic content, which make them highly susceptible to process that also produces the brown pigmentation in foods, enzymatic browning. In accordance with other findings but without the activity of enzymes. The two main forms of regarding apples and browning activity, a correlation has been non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard found between high phenolic amount and enzymatic activity reaction. Both vary in the reaction rate as a function of water of apples. This provides a hope for food industries in an effort activity (in food chemistry, the standard state of water activity to genetically modify foods to decrease polyphenol oxidase is most often defined as the partial vapour pressure of pure activity and thus decrease browning. An example of such water at the same temperature. Caramelization is a process accomplishments in food engineering is in the production of involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in Arctic Apples. These apples, engineered by Okanagan cooking for the desired nutty flavour and brown colour. As Specialty Fruits Inc, are a result of gene splicing, a technique the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing that has allowed for the reduction in polyphenol oxidase the characteristic caramel flavour. (Holderbaum Daniel, 2010) [56]. The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. Another type of issue that is closely studied is the browning This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavour of seafood. Seafood, in particular shrimp, is a delicacy when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo consumed by people all over the world. The browning of Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a shrimp which is actually referred to as Melanosis, creates a chemical reaction that takes place between the amine group of great concern for food handlers and consumers. Melanosis a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar mainly occurs during post-mortem handling and refrigerated (Corzo-Martínez, et al., 2012) [36], usually with the addition of storage. Recent studies have found a plant extract that acts as heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a an anti-melatonin polyphenol oxidase inhibitor and serves the variety of odours and flavours. The Maillard reaction is the same function as sulphites but without the health risks basis for producing artificial flavours for processed foods in (Nirmal, et al. 2015) [92]. the flavouring industry (Tamanna, Nahid, 2015), since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavour. 10. Natural colors derived from microorganisms Melanoidins are brown, high molecular weight heterogeneous 10.1 Zeaxanthin (C40H5602) polymers that are formed when sugars and amino acids Zeaxanthin is one of the most common carotenoid alcohols combine through the Maillard reaction at high temperatures found in nature. It is important in the xanthophyll cycle. and low water activity. Melanoidins are commonly present in Synthesized in plants and some micro-organisms, it is the foods that have undergone some form of non-enzymatic pigment that gives paprika (made from bell peppers), corn, browning, such as barley malts (Vienna and Munich), bread saffron, wolfberries, and many other plants and microbes their crust, bakery products and coffee. They are also present in the characteristic colour (Linus Pauling Institute, 2014). wastewater of sugar refineries, necessitating treatment in Xanthophylls such as zeaxanthin are found in highest quantity order to avoid contamination around the outflow of these in the leaves of most green plants, where they act to modulate refineries. light energy and perhaps serve as a non-photochemical quenching agent to deal with triplet chlorophyll (an excited 9.1.2.1 Browning of grapes during winemaking form of chlorophyll) which is overproduced at high light Like most fruit, grapes vary in the amount of phenolic levels during photosynthesis. Animals derive zeaxanthin from compounds they have. This characteristic is used as a a plant diet. Zeaxanthin is one of the two primary xanthophyll parameter in judging the quality of wine. The general process carotenoids contained within the retina of the eye. Within the of winemaking is initiated by the enzymatic oxidation of central macula, zeaxanthin is the dominant component, phenolic compounds by polyphenol oxidases. Contact whereas in the peripheral retina, lutein predominates. between the phenolic compounds in the vacuole of the grape Zeaxanthin supplements are typically taken on the supposition cell and the Polyphenol oxidaseenzyme (located in the of supporting eye health. Although there are no reported side cytoplasm) triggers the oxidation of the grape. Thus, the effects from taking zeaxanthin supplements, this possible initial browning of grapes occurs as a result of benefit remains scientifically unproven, despite extensive "compartmentalization modification" in the cells of the grape ongoing research to define dietary or supplemental effects of (Macheix, J. J.; et al, 1991). zeaxanthin and lutein (Koo E., et al. 2014). As a food additive, zeaxanthin is a food dye with E number E161h. 9.2 Implications in food industry and technology Enzymatic browning affects the colour, flavour, and 10.2 Staphylococcus aureus ~ 132 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

Staphylococcus aureus (also known as golden staph) is a Administration have approved astaxanthin as a food colouring Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of (or colour additive) for specific uses in animal and fish foods. the Firmicutes, and it is a member of the normal flora of the The European Commission considers it food dye and it is body, frequently found in the nose, respiratory tract, and on given the E number E161j (E-numbers: E100- E200 Food the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction Colours). Plant-derived astaxanthin is generally recognized as and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need safe (GRAS) by the FDA, meaning it can be sold as a dietary for oxygen. (Masalha M., et al. 2001) [79]. supplement, but as a food colouring in the United States, it is restricted to use in animal food. 10.2.1 Staphylococcal pigments Some strains of S. aureus are capable of producing 10.5 Lycopene (C40H56) staphyloxanthin - a golden-coloured carotenoid pigment. This In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the pigment acts as a virulence factor, primarily by being a production of natural carotenoids by microbial fermentation. bacterial antioxidant which helps the microbe evade the Compared to chemical methods, microbial production of reactive oxygen species which the host immune system uses carotenoids is an environmentally friendly method and is to kill pathogens (Clauditz A, et al., 2006; Liu GY, et al. expected to meet the increasing demand for natural 2005) [64]. Mutant strains of S. aureus modified to lack carotenoids. Carotenogenic microbes comprise a wide variety staphyloxanthin are less likely to survive incubation with an of microbes including halo-tolerant fresh water algae, oxidizing chemical, such as hydrogen peroxide, than photosynthetic and phototropic bacteria, asporogenous yeasts pigmented strains. Mutant colonies are quickly killed when and fungi. Among these microorganisms, Dunallielasalina, exposed to human neutrophils, while many of the pigmented Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (formerly named colonies survive. In mice, the pigmented strains cause Phaffiarho-dozyma), Haematococcuspluvialis and lingering abscesses when inoculated into wounds, whereas Blakesleatrispora have been considered for production on a wounds infected with the unpigmented strains quickly heal. large scale (25,000 L) (Frengova and Beshkova, 2009). These tests suggest the Staphylococcus strains use staphyloxanthin as a defence against the normal human 10.6 Monascus purpureus immune system. Drugs designed to inhibit the production of Monascuspurpureus (syn. M. albidus, M. anka, M. araneosus, staphyloxanthin may weaken the bacterium and renew its M. major, M. rubiginosus, and M. vini) is a species of mold susceptibility to antibiotics. (Liu GY, et al. 2005). In fact, that is purplish-red in color. It is also known by the names because of similarities in the pathways for biosynthesis of ang-khak rice mold, corn silage mold, maize silage mold, and staphyloxanthin and human cholesterol, a drug developed in rice kernel discoloration. the context of cholesterol-lowering therapy was shown to This fungus is most important because of its use, in the form block S.aureus pigmentation and disease progression in a of red yeast rice, in the production of certain fermented foods mouse infection model. (Liu CI, et al. 2008). in China. However, discoveries of cholesterol-lowering statins produced by the mold have prompted research into its 10.3 Prodigiosin (C20H25N30) possible medical uses. It produces a number of statins. The Prodigiosin is the red pigment produced by many strains of naturally occurring lovastatins and analogs are called the bacterium Serratiamarcescens, (Bennett JW, Bentley R, monacolins K, L, J, and also occur in their hydroxyl acid 2000) [67]. Other Gram-negative, gamma proteobacteria such forms along with dehydroxymonacolin and compactin as Vibrio psychroerythrus and Hahella Chejuensis. It is in a (mevastatin). The prescription drug lovastatin, identical to family of compounds termed "prodiginines", which are monacolin K, is the principal statin produced by M. produced in some Gram-negative gamma proteobacteria, as purpureus. Only the open-ring (hydroxy acid) form is well as select Gram-positive Actinobacteria (e.g. pharmacologically active. Streptomycescoelicolor). The name "prodigiosin" is derived from "prodigious" (i.e. something marvelous) (Williamson 10.7 (C16H185N20O30) NR, et al. 2006). Phycocyanin is a pigment-protein complex from the light- harvesting phycobiliprotein family, along with 10.4 Astaxanthin (C40H5204) and (Glazer AN, 1989). It is Astaxanthin is a keto-carotenoid (Margalith, P. Z., 1999; an accessory pigment to chlorophyll. All phycobiliproteins are Choi, Seyoung; Koo, Sangho, 2005). It belongs to a larger water-soluble, so they cannot exist within the membrane like class of chemical compounds known as terpenes (as a carotenoids can. Instead, phycobiliproteins aggregate to form tetraterpenoid) built from five carbon precursors, clusters that adhere to the membrane called phycobilisomes. isopentenyldiphosphate, and dimethylallyldiphosphate. Phycocyanin is a characteristic light blue colour, absorbing Astaxanthin is classified as a xanthophyll (originally derived orange and red light, particularly near 620 nm (depending on from a word meaning "yellow leaves" since yellow plant leaf which specific type it is), and emits fluorescence at about 650 pigments were the first recognized of the xanthophyll family nm (also depending on which type it is). Allophycocyanin of carotenoids), but currently employed to describe carotenoid absorbs and emits at longer wavelengths than phycocyanin C compounds that have oxygen-containing components, or phycocyanin R. are found in Cyanobacteria hydroxyl (-OH) or ketone (C=O), such as zeaxanthin and (also called blue-green algae). Phycobiliproteins have canthaxanthin. Indeed, astaxanthin is a metabolite of fluorescent properties that are used in immunoassay kits. zeaxanthin and/or canthaxanthin, containing both hydroxyl Phycocyanin is from the Greek phyco meaning “algae” and and ketone functional groups. cyanin is from the English word “cyan", which conventionally Astaxanthin can also be used as a dietary supplement intended means a shade of blue-green (close to "aqua") and is derived for human, animal, and aquaculture consumption. The from the Greek “kyanos" which means a somewhat different industrial production of astaxanthin comes from plant- or colour: "dark blue". The product phycocyanin, produced by animal-based and synthetic sources. The U.S. Food and Drug Aphanizomenonflos-aquae and Spirulina, is for example used

~ 133 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

in the food and beverage industry as the natural coloring agent lagoons to intensive cultivation at high cell densities under 'Lina Blue' or 'EXBERRY Shade Blue' and is found in sweets carefully controlled conditions. (Mercadante, A.Z., et al. and ice cream. In addition, fluorescence detection of 1999). phycocyanin pigments in water samples is a useful method to monitor cyanobacteria biomass (Brient L, et al. 2008). 10.10 Torularhodin (C40H52O2) Phycocyanin can be used in many practices; it is particularly Carotenoids represent a group of valuable molecules for the used medicine and foods applications. It can also be used in pharmaceutical, chemical, food and feed industries, not only genetics, where it acts a tracer due to its natural fluorescence. because they can act as vitamin A precursors, but also for their colouring, antioxidant and possible tumor-inhibiting 10.7.1 Phycocyanin in Food activity. Animals cannot synthesize carotenoids, and these C-phycocyanin (C-PC) can be used as a natural blue food pigments must therefore be added to the feeds of farmed colouring. This food colourant can only be used for low species. The synthesis of different natural commercially temperature prepared goods because of its inability to important carotenoids (beta-carotene, torulene, torularhodin maintaining its blue colouring in high heats unless there is an and astaxanthin) by several yeast species belonging to the addition of preservatives or sugars. The type of sugar is genera Rhodotorula and Phaffia has led to consider these irrelevant; C-PC is stable when there is high sugar content. microorganisms as a potential pigment sources. In this review, Knowing so, C-PC can be used for numerous types of foods, we discuss the biosynthesis, factors affecting carotenogenesis one of which being syrups. C-PC can be used for syrups in Rhodotorula and Phaffia strains, strategies for improving ranging from green to blue colours. It can have different green the production properties of the strains and directions for tints by adding yellow food colouring (Martelli G, et al. potential utility of carotenoid-synthesizing yeast as an 2014). alternative source of natural carotenoid pigments. (Sperstad S, et al., 2006). 10.8 Beta-carotene (C40H56) β-Carotene is an organic, strongly coloured red-orange 10.11 Canthaxanthin (C40H52O2) pigment abundant in plants and fruits. It is a member of the Canthaxanthin is a keto-carotenoid (Seyoung Choi and carotenes, which are terpenoids (isoprenoids), synthesized Sangho Koo, 2005) pigment widely distributed in nature. biochemically from eight isoprene units and thus having 40 Carotenoids belong to a larger class of phytochemicals known carbons. Among the carotenes, β-carotene is distinguished by as terpenoids. The of canthaxanthin is having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. β-Carotene is C40H52O2 was first isolated in edible mushrooms. It has also biosynthesized from geranylpyrophosphate (Susan D. Van been found in green algae, bacteria, crustaceans, and Arnum, 1998). β-Carotene is the most common form of bioaccumulates in fish such as carp, golden mullet, seabream carotene in plants. When used as a food coloring, it has the E and trush wrasse. Canthaxanthin is associated with E number number E160a (Milne et al., 2008). In nature, β-carotene is a E-161g and is approved for use as a food colouring agent in precursor (inactive form) to vitamin A via the action of beta- different countries, including the United States and the EU; carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase (Susan D. Van Arnum, however, it is not approved for use in Australia and New 1998). Isolation of β-carotene from fruits abundant in Zealand. It is generally authorized for feed applications in at carotenoids is commonly done using column chromatography. least the following countries: US, Canada, EU. In the EU, It can also be extracted from the beta-carotene rich algae, canthaxanthin is allowed by law to be added to trout feed, Dunaliellasalina. (Rudolf Rüegg, 1984). The separation of β- salmon feed and poultry feed. The European Union limit is 80 carotene from the mixture of other carotenoids is based on the mg/kg of feedstuffs, 8 mg/kg in feed for egg laying hens and polarity of a compound. β-Carotene is a non-polar compound, 25 mg/kg in feed for other poultry and so it is separated with a non-polar solvent such as hexane. salmonids.Canthaxanthin is a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant. (Mercadante, A.Z., et al. 1999). Being highly conjugated, it is (Surai, P.F., 2012) [112]. The biological functions of deeply coloured, and as a hydrocarbon lacking functional canthaxanthin are related, at least in part, to its ability to groups, it is very lipophilic. function as an antioxidant (free radical scavenging/vitamin E sparing) in animal tissues. (Surai, A.P. et al., 2003) [113]. 10.9 Dunaliella salina Dunaliellasalina is a type of halophile green micro-algae 11. Market scenario of biocolorants especially found in sea salt fields. Known for its antioxidant Natural colors lost their appeal with the synthetic colors activity because of its ability to create large amount of arrived on the scene, as they provide less consistency, heat carotenoids, it is used in cosmetics and dietary supplements. stability and color range than their chemical alternatives. The Few organisms can survive like D. salina does in such highly market for natural carotenes has declined since the saline conditions as salt evaporation ponds. To survive, these introduction of synthetic colour. Moreover, natural colors are organisms have high concentrations of β-carotene to protect more expensive and unstable in nature. The leading markets against the intense light, and high concentrations of glycerol for natural colours in the EU are the UK, Germany, France, to provide protection against osmotic pressure. This offers an Italy and Spain. Recently, there is also a growing market in opportunity for commercial biological production of these emerging economy countries like China, India and South substances. Korea demand for natural colours is increasing day-by-day From a first pilot plant for D. salina cultivation for β-carotene because of the following reasons: production established in the USSR in 1966, the commercial 1. Increasing demand for natural food in comparison to cultivation of D. salina for the production of β-carotene synthetic one. throughout the world is now one of the success stories of 2. Health-promoting properties of bio-colorant food. [78] halophile biotechnology. (Susan D. Van Arnum, 1998) ; 3. Natural colours have been the consumer priority. Milne, George W. A., 2005; P. Karrer, et al., 1930). Different 4. Low-fat content is the objective for many new or technologies are used, from low-tech extensive cultivation in improved food formulations, replacing fats with ~ 134 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

thickeners or other food additives. fermentation. Finally, new bio-colorants would have to be 5. Increased consumer preferences for organic food. approved by the authorities, which are very costly because of 6. Variety and internationalisation of food colour and the various toxicological studies needed to confirm the safety flavours. and also the economics of a new food additive. The market for natural food colours is estimated to increase by approximately 10% annually. Many of the raw materials 13. References for colours and flavours require growing conditions which are 1. A phycocyanin probe as a tool for monitoring cyanobacteria more favourable in countries outside the EU. This makes EU in freshwater bodies. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2014; 10(2):248-55. DOI:10.1039/b714238b. PMID a large importer of colours and flavours. Total imports of 18246219.Eorge W. A., 2005) natural colours, flavours and thickeners by the EU amounted 2. Biosynthesis of carotenoids. Archived from the original on, to Euro 2,055 million or 475 thousand tonnes in 200828. 2012. Developing countries like India and china may play a major 3. Carotenoids. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus role in supplying natural colours either in processed forms or Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis. July as raw materials to the EU markets, due to their favourable 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2017. climatic and production conditions coupled with the rise in 4. Carotenoids: α-Carotene, β-Carotene, β-Cryptoxanthin, their middle income family. In essence, the message to Lycopene, Lutein, and Zeaxanthin. Micronutrient consumers that "Natural is Better" is gaining popularity day- Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State by-day. Although, natural colors are on the rise but they are University, Corvallis, OR. July 2016. Retrieved 29 May unlikely to be a total replacementfor synthetic dyes because 2017. the area of land required for production of natural colorants 5. "Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, 1 April 2012". Food yielding plants increasing due to inadequate strategies and and Drug Administration. Retrieved, 2013. horticultural practices on this crops. It was estimated that to 6. "Colour Additive Status List". Food and Drug provide sufficient vegetable dyes to dye cotton alone, about Administration. Retrieved, 2011. 462 million ha would be needed, ie, 31% of the world‘s 7. Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers. Food current agricultural land30, which appear unlikely. Thus, Standards Agency. 14 March 2012. Retrieved Dec 19, 2012. natural dyes is likely to occupy a small niche market, unless 8. Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers. United technology of horticultural practices and pigments extraction Kingdom: Food Standards Agency. 2010. Retrieved 12 August 2017. is redefined and standardisation on modern scientific lines. 9. Encyclopedia of Spices. TheEpicentre.com. Archived from 12. Conclusion the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2011. The earth is bestowed with plants containing a wide range of 10. European Union Register of Feed Additives, Revision 162 healthful and attractive pigments. But, worldwide, 70% of all released 7 June 2013 (PDF). European Commission. plants have not been investigated at all, and the chemical Retrieved, 2013. 11. Feeds Regulations, 1983 (SOR/83-593). Justice Laws, composition of only 0.5% has been exhaustively studied. Canada. Archived from the original on 2013-06-28. Despite centuries of interest in natural pigments, our Retrieved, 2013. knowledge of their sources from plants, distribution, 12. Foods highest in lycopene, Nutrition Data, USDA Nutrient availability and properties is limited. The increasing market Database, version SR-21. Nutritiondata.com. Conde Nast. demand for dyes and the dwindling number of dye-yielding 2014. Retrieved, 2014. plants forced the emergence of several synthetic dyes like 13. Foods highest in Retinol Activity Equivalent. aniline and coal-tar, which threatened total replacement of Nutritiondata.self.com. Retrieved, 2015. natural dyes. Also, low colour value and longer time make the 14. Lutein + Zeaxanthin Content of Selected Foods. Linus cost of dyeing with natural dyes considerably higher than Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 2014. synthetic dyes. Therefore, novel plant pigments must be Retrieved 20 May 2014. searched for in unprospected land or in the sea for their proper 15. Phycocyanin from Algae and Applications, Oilgae. collection, documentation, assessment and characterization. 16. Standard 1.2.4 - Labelling of ingredients. Australia New Natural dyes are confronted with the various drawbacks of Zealand Food Standards Code. Retrieved, 2011. commercial natural food colorants (instability to light, heat or 17. Summary of Color Additives for Use in the United States in adverse pH). New sources of plant pigments need to be Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices. US Food available in sufficient quantities for industrial extraction, and Drug Administration. May 2015. Retrieved 29 June large-scale cultivation, harvesting and storage facilities and 2017. new ways of formulating existing pigments, improvement of 18. Adams Jad. Hideous absinthe: a history of the devil in a existing sources through breeding and selection of high bottle. United Kingdom: IBTauris 2004, 22. ISBN 1860649203. yielding strains and application of biotechnological tools 19. Ahmadiani Neda, Robbins Rebecca J, Collins Thomas M et including plant cell and tissue cultures, genetic engineering al. Anthocyanins Contents, Profiles, and Color and other modern techniques are required to improve the Characteristics of Red Cabbage Extracts from Different quality and quantity of dye production and to enhance their Cultivars and Maturity Stages. Journal of Agricultural and stability during processing and storing. Fermentative bio- Food Chemistry. 2014; 62(30):7524-31. colorants production has a number of advantages; cheaper DOI:10.1021/jf501991q. PMID 24991694. production, possibly easier extraction, higher yields, no lack 20. Andersen Øyvind M (17 Oct). Anthocyanins. Encyclopedia of raw materials and no seasonal variations. Some fermented of Life Sciences. eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2001. colors are already used today: D. salina, B. trispora, spirulina DOI:10.1038/npg.els.0001909. ISBN 0470016175. and monascus. It is not unlikely that new, fermented colors 21. Archetti Marco, Döring Thomas F, Hagen Snorre B et al. such as lycopene from B. trispora will become allowed in the Unravelling the evolution of autumn colours: an near future. A giant leap forward in color production could be interdisciplinary approach. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. achieved by combining genetic manipulation and 2011; 24(3):166–73. DOI:10.1016/j.tree.2008.10.006. PMID ~ 135 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

19178979. Castillo M Dolores. Ph.D, Benjamin K. Simpson, ed. Food 22. Armstrong GA, Hearst JE. Carotenoids 2: Genetics and Biochemistry and Food Processing. Wiley-Blackwell. 2012; molecular biology of carotenoid pigment biosynthesis. 56-83. DOI:10.1002/9781118308035.ch4/summary. ISBN FASEB J. 1996; 10(2):228-37. PMID 8641556. 9781118308035. 23. Aubrey Allison (November 7). How 17th Century Fraud 37. Davies Kevin M. Plant pigments and their manipulation. Gave Rise To Bright Orange Cheese. The Salt. NPR, 2013. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, 6. ISBN 1-4051-1737-0. 24. Barnes Chris (11 October). How To Clean Tomato Sauce 38. Dean D, Metcalfe Hugh A. Sampson Ronald A. Simon: Stains From Plastic Storage Containers. The Huffington Food Allergy: Adverse Reactions to Foods and Food Post. Retrieved 29 May. 2017, 2011. Additives. 4th Ed., Blackwell Publishing, 2009, 416. ISBN 25. Bennett JW, Bentley R. Seeing red: The story of 978-1-4051-5129-0. prodigiosin. Adv Appl Microbiol. Advances in Applied 39. Downham A, Collins P. Colouring our foods in the last and Microbiology. 2000; 47:1-32. DOI:10.1016/S0065- next millennium International Journal of Food Science and 2164(00)47000-0. ISBN 9780120026470. PMID 12876793. Technology. 2000; 35(1):5-22. 26. Bernstein PS, Li B, Vachali PP, Gorusupudi A, Shyam R, 40. Downham A, Collins P. Coloring of our foods in last and Henriksen BSet al. Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and meso- next millennium. International Journal of Food Science and Zeaxanthin: The Basic and Clinical Science Underlying Technology. 2001; 35(1):34-36. Carotenoid-based Nutritional Interventions against Ocular 41. Downham A, Collins P. Coloring of our foods in last and Disease. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 2015; 50:34- next millennium. International Journal of Food Science and 66. DOI:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003. PMC Technology. 2001; 35(1):34-36. Spence Levitan, Shankar, 4698241 Freely accessible. PMID 26541886. Zampini. 2010. The multi sensory perception of flavour. 27. Bernstein PS, Li B, Vachali PP, Gorusupudi A, Shyam R, 42. Dufossé L. Current and potential natural pigments from Henriksen BSet al. Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and meso- microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, fungi, microalgae). In: Zeaxanthin: The Basic and Clinical Science Underlying Carle, R., Schweiggert, R. (Eds.), Handbook on Natural Carotenoid-based Nutritional Interventions against Ocular Pigments in Food and Beverages. Industrial Applications for Disease. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 2015; 50:34- Improving Food Colour, first ed. Sawston, Cambridge: 66. DOI:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003. PMC Woodhead Publishing (Elsevier group), pp. 2016, 337–354. 4698241 Freely accessible. PMID 26541886. ISBN 978-0-08-1003718, Chapter 16, DOI: 10.1016/B978- 28. Beshkova D, Simova E, Frengova G and Simov Z. dozyma 0-08-100371-8.00016-6. cultivated in peat hydrolysates. Appl. Bio, Production of 43. El-Shimi NM. Control of enzymatic browning in apple flavour compounds by yogurt chem. Biotechnol. 37, slices by using ascorbic acid under different conditions. 235Ð341. starter cultures. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 20, Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Dordrecht, Netherlands). Martin A., Lu C., and Patel T. (1993b), Growth 1993; 43(1):71-76. ISSN 0921-9668. PMID 8464847. parame180Ð186. 1998. 44. European Commission. Food Additives. Retrieved, 2014. 29. Boran Altincicek Jennifer L, Kovacs Nicole M, Gerardo. 45. European Food Safety Authority (April). Scientific opinion Horizontally transferred fungal carotenoid genes in the two- on the re-evaluation of anthocyanins (E 163) as a food spotted spider mite Tetranychusurticae. Biology Letters. additive. EFSA Journal. 2013; 11(4):3145. 2011; 8(2):253-257. DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2011. 0704. PMC doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3145. 3297373 Freely accessible. PMID 21920958. 46. European Food Safety Authority (April). Scientific opinion 30. Brient L, Lengronne M, Bertrand E, Rolland D, Sipel A, on the re-evaluation of anthocyanins (E 163) as a food Steinmann D et al (February). A phycocyanin probe as a additive. EFSA Journal. 2013; 11(4):3145. tool for monitoring cyanobacteria in freshwater bodies. DOI:10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3145. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2008; 10(2):248-55. 47. Fanning K, Edwards D, Netzel M et al. (November). DOI:10.1039/b714238b. PMID 18246219. Increasing anthocyanin content in Queen Garnet plum and 31. Campbell OE, Merwin IA, Padilla-Zakour OI. correlations with in-field measures. Acta Horticulturae. Characterization and the effect of maturity at harvest on the 2013; 985:97-104. phenolic and carotenoid content of Northeast USA Apricot 48. Food Standards Agency UK (12 April 2010). Canthaxanthin (Prunusarmeniaca) varieties. Journal of Agricultural and - your questions answered. Retrieved 19 December, 2012. Food Chemistry. 2013; 61(51):12700-10. 49. Francis F. Lesser-known food colorants. Food Technology. DOI:10.1021/jf403644r. PMID 24328399. 1987; 41:62-68. 32. Choi Seyoung, Koo Sangho. Efficient Syntheses of the 50. Garcia M, Maurilio L. The use of carotenoid in aquaculture. Keto-carotenoids Canthaxanthin, Astaxanthin, and Astacene. Research Journal of Fisheries and Hydrobiology. 2013; The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 2005; 70(8):3328-31. 8(2):38-49. DOI:10.1021/jo050101l. PMID 15823009. 51. Garcia-Viguera C, Zafrilla P, Tomas Barberan FA. 33. Clauditz A, Resch A, Wieland KP, Peschel A, Götz F Determination of authenticity of fruit jams by HPLC (August). Staphyloxanthin plays a role in the fitness of analysis of anthocyanins, J. Sci. Food Agric., 1997; 73:207- Staphylococcus aureus and its ability to cope with oxidative 213. stress. Infection and Immunity. 2006; 74(8):4950-3. 52. Glazer AN (January). Light guides. Directional energy DOI:10.1128/IAI.00204-06. PMC 1539600 Freely transfer in a photosynthetic antenna. The Journal of accessible. PMID 16861688. Biological Chemistry. 1989; 264(1):1-4. PMID 2491842. 34. Clydesdale F. Color as a factor in food choice. Critical 53. Rymbai1 H, Sharma RR, Manish Srivastav. Biocolorants Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 1993; 331(12):83- and its implications in Health and Food Industry - A 101. Review. International Journal of Pharm Tech Research 35. Cooper RDG, Davis JB, Leftwick AP, Price C, Weedon B. CODEN (USA): IJPRIF ISSN: 0974-4304. 2228-2244, Oct- Carotenoids and related compounds. 32. Synthesis of Dec 2011, 3(4). astaxanthin, hoenicoxanthin, hydroxyechinenone, and the 54. Harmer RA. Occurrence, chemistry and application of corresponding diosphenols. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. betanin. Food Chemistry. 1980; 5(1):81-90. 1975; 1(21):2195-2204. DOI:10.1039/p19750002195. DOI:10.1016/0308-8146(80)90066-7. 36. Corzo-Martínez Marta, Corzo Nieves, Villamiel Mar, Del 55. He Quiang. Elucidation of the mechanism of enzymatic ~ 136 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

browning inhibition by sodium chlorite. El Sevier, 2008. Microbiology and Applied Sciences. ISSN: 2319-7706. 56. Holderbaum Daniel. Enzymatic Browning, Polyphenol 2015; 4(7):688-694. Oxidase Activity, and Polyphenols in Four Apple Cultivars: 76. Manolova Y, Deneva V, Antonov L, Drakalska E, Dynamics during Fruit Development (PDF). Hort Science, Momekova D, Lambov N. The effect of the water on the 2010. curcumintautomerism: A quantitative approach. 57. Hosseinian FS, Beta T (December). Saskatoon and wild SpectrochimicaActa Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular blueberries have higher anthocyanin contents than other Spectroscopy. 2014; 132:815–820. Manitoba berries. Journal of Agricultural and Food DOI:10.1016/j.saa.2014.05.096. Chemistry. 2007; 55(26):10832-8. DOI: 77. Margalith PZ. Production of ketocarotenoids by microalgae. 10.1021/jf072529m. PMID 18052240. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 1999; 51(4):431- 58. Jarén-Galán M, Nienaber U, Schwartz SJ. Paprika 8. DOI:10.1007/s002530051413. PMID 10341427. (Capsicum annuum) Oleoresin Extraction with Supercritical 78. Martelli G, Folli C, Visai L, Daglia M, Ferrari D. Thermal Carbon Dioxide. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999; 47(9):3558-64. stability improvement of blue colorant C-Phycocyanin from DOI:10.1021/jf9900985. PMID 10552685. Spirulinaplatensis for food industry applications. Process 59. Johnson E, An G. Astaxanthin from microbial sources. Biochemistry. 2014; 49(1):154-159. Critical Reviews of Biotechnology. 1991; 11:297-326. DOI:10.1016/j.procbio.2013.10.008. 60. Johnson E, An G. Astaxanthin from microbial sources. 79. Masalha M, Borovok I, Schreiber R, Aharonowitz Y, Cohen Critical Reviews of Biotechnology. 1991; 11:297-326. G (December). Analysis of transcription of the 61. Johnson E, An G. Astaxanthin from microbial sources. Staphylococcus aureusaerobic class Ib and anaerobic class Critical Reviews of Biotechnology. 1991; 11:297-326. III ribonucleotidereductase genes in response to oxygen. 62. Kaanane A, Labuza TP. The Maillard reaction in foods. Journal of Bacteriology. 2001; 183(24):7260-72. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research. 1989; DOI:10.1128/JB.183.24.7260-7272.2001. PMC 95576Freely 304:301-327. ISSN 0361-7742. PMID 2675033. accessible. PMID 11717286. 63. KarrerP, HelfensteinA, WehrliH, Wettstein A. 80. Mason T, Zhao Y. Enhancement of ultra sonication "Pflanzenfarbstoffe XXV. Über die Konstitution des cavitation yield by multi frequency sonication. Ultrasonics Lycopins und Carotins". Helvetica ChimicaActa. 1930; 13 Sonochemistry. 1994; 29(5):567. (5):1084-1099. DOI:10.1002/hlca.19300130532. 81. May Paul. Chlorophyll. University of Bristol. 64. Koo E, Neuringer M, Sangiovanni JP. "Macular 82. Mercadante AZ, Steck A, Pfander H. Carotenoids from xanthophylls, lipoprotein-related genes, and age-related Guava (Psidiumguajava L.): Isolation and Structure macular degeneration". American Journal of Clinical Elucidation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999; 47(1):145-151. Nutrition. 2014; 100(1):336-346. DOI:10.1021/jf980405r. PMID 10563863. DOI:10.3945/ajcn.113.071563. PMC 4144106 Freely 83. Mikkelsen H, Larsen JC, Tarding F. Hypersensitivity accessible. PMID 24829491. reactions to food colours with special reference to the 65. Lakshmi C. Food Coloring: The Natural Way. Research natural colour annatto extract (butter colour). Archives of Journal of Chemical Sciences. 2014; 4(2):87-96. Toxicology. Supplement. Archives of Toxicology. 1978; 66. Lauro G. A primer on natural colors. Cereal Foods World. 1(1):141-3. DOI:10.1007/978-3-642-66896-8_16. ISBN 1991; 36:949-953. 978-3-540-08646-8. PMID 150265. 67. Li CY, Kim HW, Won SR et al. Corn husk as a potential 84. Milne George WA. Gardner's commercially important source of anthocyanins. Journal of Agricultural and Food chemicals: synonyms, trade names, and properties. New Chemistry. 2008; 56(23):11413-6. DOI:10.1021/jf 802201c. York: Wiley-Interscience, 2005. ISBN 0-471-73518-3. PMID 19007127. 85. Milne, George WA. Gardner's commercially important 68. Lieberman S. The antioxidant power of purple corn: a chemicals: synonyms, trade names, and properties. New research review. Alternative & Complementary Therapies. York: Wiley-Interscience. 2005. ISBN 978-0-471-73518-2. 2007; 13(2):107-110. DOI:10.1089/act.2007.13210. 86. Moran NA, Jarvik T. Lateral transfer of genes from fungi 69. Liu CI, Liu GY, Song Y, Yin F, Hensler ME, Jeng WY et al underlies carotenoid production in aphids. Science. 2010; (March). A cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor blocks 328(5978):624-7. DOI: 10.1126/science. 1187113. PMID Staphylococcus aureus virulence. Science. 2008; 20431015. 319(5868):1391-4. DOI:10.1126/science.1153018. PMC 87. Muneer Sowbiya, Kim Eunjeong, Park Jeong Suk, Lee 2747771 Freely accessible. PMID 18276850. Jeong Hyun. Influence of Green, Red and Blue Light 70. Liu GY, Essex A, Buchanan JT, Datta V, Hoffman HM, Emitting Diodes on Multiprotein Complex Proteins and Bastian JF et al. Staphylococcus aureus golden pigment Photosynthetic Activity under Different Light Intensities in impairs neutrophil killing and promotes virulence through its Lettuce Leaves (Lactucasativa L.). International Journal of antioxidant activity. The Journal of Experimental Medicine. Molecular Sciences. 2014; 15(3):4657-4670. 2005; 202(2):209-15. DOI:10.1084/jem.20050846. PMC DOI:10.3390/ijms15034657. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 2213009 Freely accessible.PMID 16009720. 3975419 Freely accessible. PMID 24642884. 71. Macheix JJ, Sapis JC, Fleuriet A. Phenolic compounds and 88. Muñoz-Espada AC, Wood KV, Bordelon B et al. polyphenoloxidase in relation to browning in grapes and Anthocyanin Quantification and Radical Scavenging wines. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. Capacity of Concord, Norton, and Marechal Foch Grapes 1991; 30(4):441–486. DOI:10.1080/10408399109527552. and Wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. ISSN 1040-8398. PMID 1910524. 2004; 52(22):6779-86. DOI:10.1021/jf040087y. PMID 72. Magee Elaine. What's Up With Food Dyes? Healthy Recipe 15506816. Doctor. WebMD. Retrieved 24 August, 2011. 89. Naidu M, Sowbhagya H. Technological Advances in Food 73. Magoulas C. How color affect food choices. Thesis, Colors. Chemical Industry Digest. 79-88. University of Nevada. 2009. 90. Nelson KM, Dahlin JL, Bisson J, Graham J, Pauli GF, 74. Majeed Shaheen. The State of the Curcumin Market. Natural Walters MA. The Essential Medicinal Chemistry of Products Insider, 2015. Curcumin: Miniperspective. Journal of Medicinal 75. Manisha P, Urmila Gupta Phutela. Biocolors: The New Chemistry. 2017; 60(5):1620-1637. Generation Additives. International Journal of Current 91. Nicolas JJ, Richard-Forget FC, Goupy PM, Amiot MJ, ~ 137 ~ The Pharma Innovation Journal

Aubert SY. Enzymatic browning reactions in apple and majorcontributors to the carotenoid pool of marine apple products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Rhodosporidiumbabjevae (Golubev). J Ind. Microbiol Nutrition. 1994; 34(2):109-157. Biotechnol. Apr. Epub. 2005 Dec 10.2006; 33(4):269-73. DOI:10.1080/10408399409527653. ISSN 1040-8398. PMID 109. States4439629 United States expired 4439629, Rudolf 8011143. Rüegg, Extraction Process for Beta-Carotene, published 92. Nirmal Nilesh Prakash, Benjakul Soottawat, Ahmad Mehraj, March 27, assigned to Hoffmann-La Roche Inc, 1984. Arfat Yasir Ali, Panichayupakaranant Pharkphoom. 110. Summary of Color Additives for Use in the United States in Undesirable Enzymatic Browning in Crustaceans: Causative Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices. Fda.gov. Effects and Its Inhibition by Phenolic Compounds. Critical Retrieved on, 2013. Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2015; 55(14):1992- 111. Sun J, Kim J, Kim G, Rhee K, Jung H, Jeun J et al. 2003. DOI:10.1080/10408398.2012.755148. ISSN 1549- Inhibition of hepatitis C virus replication by Monascus 7852. PMID 25584522. pigment derivatives that interfere with viral RNA 93. Nolan JM, Meagher K, Kashani S, Beatty S. What is meso- polymerase activity and the mevalonate biosynthesis zeaxanthin, and where does it come from?. Eye. 2013; pathway. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2011. 27(8):899-905. DOI:10.1038/eye.2013.98. PMC 112. Surai PF. The Antioxidant Properties of Canthaxanthin and 3740325 Freely accessible. PMID 23703634. Its Potential Effects in the Poultry Eggs and on Embryonic 94. Nováková E, Moran NA. Diversification of genes for Development of the Chick, Part 1. World's Poultry Science carotenoid biosynthesis in aphids following an ancient Journal. 2012; 68(3):465-476. transfer from a fungus. MolBiolEvol. 2012; 29(1):313-23. DOI:10.1017/S0043933912000578. DOI:10.1093/molbev/msr206. PMID 21878683. 113. Surai AP, Surai PF, Steinberg W, Wakeman WG, Speake 95. Pattnaik P, Roy U, Jain P. Biocolours: New Generation BK, Sparks NHC. Effect of canthaxanthin content of the Additives for Food. Indian Food Industry. 1997; 16(5):21- maternal diet on the antioxidant system of the developing 32. chick. British Poultry Science. 2003; 44(4):612-619. 96. Pérez-Gálvez A, Martin HD, Sies H, Stahl W. Incorporation doi:10.1080/00071660310001616200. of carotenoids from paprika oleoresin into human 114. Susan D, Van Arnum. Vitamin A, Kirk-Othmer chylomicrons. Br. J. Nutr. 2003; 89(6):787-93. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (45), New York: DOI:10.1079/BJN2003842. PMID 12828795. John Wiley, 1998, 99-107, 97. Pinazo-Durán MD, Gómez-Ulla F, Arias L, Araiz J, DOI:10.1002/0471238961.2209200101181421.a01, ISBN 0- Casaroli-Marano R, Gallego-Pinazo R et al. Do Nutritional 471-23896-1. Supplements Have a Role in Age Macular Degeneration 115. Tran XT, Parks SE, Roach PD, Golding JB, Nguyen MH. Prevention?. Journal of Ophthalmology, 2014. 2014: Effects of maturity on physicochemical properties of Gac 901686. DOI:10.1155/2014/901686. PMC 3941929 Freely fruit (Momordicacochinchinensis Spreng.). Food Science & accessible. PMID 24672708. Nutrition. 2015; 4(2):305-314. DOI:10.1002/fsn3.291. PMC 98. Ree E. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, 4779482. Freely accessible. PMID 27004120. Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with 116. Tsuyoshi N, Fudou R, Yamanaka S, Furunaga T, Sato K, Food on a request from the Commission related to Lutein for Kondo Y. Decolouring ink for ink jet printing and ink jet use in foods for particular nutritional uses. The EFSA printing method using it. Patent US20040150702A1. 2004. Journal. 2006; 315:1. 117. Vidyalakshmi, R., Paranthaman, R., Murugesh, S., and 99. Rodriguez S, Giusti L, Durst R, Wrolstad R. Development Singaravadivel K. Microbial Bioconversion of Rice Broken and process optimization of red raddish concentrate extract to Food Grade Pigments Global Journal of Biotechnology as potential natural red colorant. Journal of Food Processing and Biochemistry. 2009; 4(2):84-87. Preservation. 2001; 25:165. 118. Wada L, Ou B. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of 100. Roy S, Chatterjee S, Sen SK. Biotechnological potential of Oregon caneberries. Journal of Agricultural and Food Phaffia rhodozyma, J. Appli. Biosci., 2008, 5:115-122. Chemistry. 2002; 50(12):3495-500. DOI:10.1021/jf011405l. Shapley, P. (2012) Absorbing light with organic molecules. PMID 12033817. 101. Simpson K, Cerda A, Stange C. Carotenoid Biosynthesis in 119. Williamson NR, Fineran PC, Gristwood T, Leeper FJ, Daucuscarota. Sub-cellular Biochemistry. Carotenoids in Salmond GP. The biosynthesis and regulation of bacterial Nature. 2016; 79:199-217. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-39126- prodiginines. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2006; 7_7. ISBN 978-3-319-39124-3. PMID 27485223. 4(12):887-899. DOI:10.1038/nrmicro1531. PMID 102. Sloan DB, Moran NA. Endosymbiotic bacteria as a source 17109029. of carotenoids in whiteflies. BiolLett. 2012; 8(6):986-9. 120. Wissgot U, Bortlik K. Prospects for new food colorants. DOI:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0664. PMC 3497135 Freely Trends in Food Science and Technology. 1996; 7:298 302. accessible. PMID 22977066. 121. Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM et al. (November). 103. Smith James. Annatto Extracts (PDF). Chemical and Concentrations of anthocyanins in common foods in the Technical Assessment. JECFA. Retrieved 3 February. 2012. United States and estimation of normal consumption. 104. Sowbhagya H, Chitra V. Extraction of flavourings and Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2006; colorants from plant materials. Critical Reviews in Food 54(11):4069-75. DOI: 10.1021/jf060300l. PMID 16719536. Science and Nutrition. 2010; 50(2):146-148. 122. Yabuzaki Junko. Carotenoids Database: structures, 105. Sowbhagya H, Chitra V. Extraction of flavourings and chemical fingerprints and distribution among organisms. colorants from plant materials. Critical Reviews in Food Database, 2017. DOI:10.1093/database/bax004. Science and Nutrition. 2010; 50(2):146-148. 123. Yim KJ, Kwon J, Cha IT, Oh KS, Song HS, Lee HW et al. 106. Speer Brian R. Photosynthetic Pigments. UCMP Glossary Occurrence of viable, red-pigmented haloarchaea in the (online). University of California Museum of Paleontology. plumage of captive flamingoes. Scientific Reports. 2015; Retrieved 2010-07-17. 5:16425. DOI:10.1038/srep16425. PMC 4639753. Freely 107. Spence, Levitan, Shankar Zampini. The multisensory accessible. perception of flavour. 2010. 108. Sperstad SI, Lutnaes BF, Stormo SK, Liaaen-Jensen S, Landfald B. Torularhodin and torulene are the ~ 138 ~