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Attractiveness and Self-Esteem: a Test of Sociometer Theory

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Attractiveness and Self-Esteem: a Test of Sociometer Theory Attractiveness and self-esteem: A test of sociometer theory by Chris Bale A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire. September 2010 Student Declaration Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards I declare that while registered for the research degree, I was with the University’s specific permission, an enrolled student for the following award: Postgraduate Certificate in Professional Development (Higher Education Practise): University of Huddersfield, 2009. Material submitted for another award I declare that the following material contained in the thesis formed part of a submission for the award of MSc Research Methods in Psychology, University of Liverpool, 2004. (state award and awarding body and list the material below): Some data for Study 1, together with some written material for Chapters 1 & 2. Collaboration Where a candidate’s research programme is part of a collaborative project, the thesis must indicate in addition clearly the candidate’s individual contribution and the extent of the collaboration. Please state below: Signature of Candidate Type of Award PhD School Psychology ABSTRACT Sociometer theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000) proposes that self-esteem is an evolutionary adaptation which functions to monitor the quality and quantity of people’s interpersonal relationships together with their eligibility for these, and to motivate adaptive behaviour in response to these assessments. The present work describes a series of studies designed to systematically test hypotheses concerning relationships between self-perceptions of physical attractiveness, self-esteem and relationship behaviour, derived from sociometer theory. Study 1 extended previous research by employing a novel measure of self-perceived attractiveness and showing that this significantly and positively correlated with both global and multidimensional measures of self-esteem in both women and men. Studies 2 and 3 tested the hypothesis, derived from sociometer theory, that using a social comparison manipulation of self-perceived physical attractiveness should causally affect self-esteem in women. The results of these studies did not support this hypothesis and challenged previous findings in the literature: Women exposed to images of highly attractive others did not report significantly lower subsequent levels of self-esteem than those exposed to unattractive others. Study 4 examined whether exposing women to an implicit manipulation of self-esteem would affect their subsequent self-perceptions of attractiveness. The results showed that women exposed to a negative priming condition reported significantly lower levels of self-esteem and self-perceived physical attractiveness than those in the positive condition. These results constitute the first empirical demonstration that implicit manipulations of self- esteem can exert causal effects on specific self-perceptions. Study 5 examined the previously untested prediction that self-perceptions of desirability and self- esteem would correlate with self reports of romantic relational behaviour in women. The results indicated that although self-perceptions of desirability significantly correlated with relational behaviour, self-esteem did not. These results, together with previous research in self-esteem are discussed in relation to sociometer theory, and a novel modification of the theory is proposed. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: General Introduction 1.1 Approaches to Self-Esteem 1 1.2 Sociometer Theory 3 1.3 Domain Specificity of the Sociometer 6 1.4 The Importance of Sex 9 1.5 Desirability as Market Value 11 1.6 Overall Physical Attractiveness and Self-Esteem 15 1.7 Specific Aspects of Attractiveness 20 1.8 Attractiveness for its Own Sake 25 1.9 Self-Esteem and Specific Aspects of Attractiveness 27 1.10 Outline of the Present Research 32 CHAPTER 2: Study 1: The Relationship between Physical Attractiveness and Self- Esteem 2.1 Introduction 34 2.1.1 Aims of Study 1 34 2.1.2 Limitations of Previous Research 34 2.1.3 Predicted Relationships between Attractiveness 38 and Self-Esteem 2.1.4 Predicted Relationships between Global and Specific 39 Aspects of Self-Esteem 2.2 Method 44 2.2.1 Participants 44 2.2.2 Materials 44 2.2.3 Procedure 49 2.3 Results 52 2.3.1 Reliability and Validity of Study Measures 52 2.3.2 Relationships Between Physical Attractiveness and 53 Self-Esteem 2.3.3 Relationships Between Global and Dimensions of 59 Self-Esteem 2.3.4 Specific Physical Predictors of Self-Esteem 62 2.4 Discussion 63 CHAPTER 3: Study 2: Does Manipulating Self-Perceptions of Attractiveness Affect Self-Esteem? 3.1 Introduction 76 3.1.1 Manipulations of Social Inclusion Affect Self-Esteem 76 3.1.2 Manipulating Self-Perceived Attractiveness 81 3.1.3 Media Effects on Body Image 87 3.1.4 Limitations of Previous Research 89 3.2 Method 93 3.2.1 Design 93 3.2.2 Participants 93 3.2.3 Materials 94 3.2.4 Procedure 96 3.3 Results 99 3.3.1 Attractiveness Ratings of Stimuli 99 3.3.2 Trait Self-Esteem 99 3.3.3 State Self-Esteem 101 3.4 Discussion 103 CHAPTER 4: Study 3: A Further Investigation of the Possible Influence of Attractiveness on Self-Esteem 4.1 Introduction 108 4.1.1 An Extension of Study 2 108 4.2 Method 113 4.2.1 Design 113 4.2.2 Participants 113 4.2.3 Materials 114 4.2.4 Procedure 117 4.3 Results 121 4.3.1 Group Equivalence Checks 121 4.3.2 Comparison Ratings 122 4.3.3 Manipulation Checks 122 4.3.4 Contrast Effects on State Self-Esteem 124 4.3.5 Contrast Effects on Trait Self-Esteem 125 4.3.6 Effects of Initial Self-Perceived Attractiveness 127 4.3.7 Effects of Contingent Self-Esteem 131 4.4 Discussion 144 4.4.1 Implications of the Current Results 144 4.4.2 Choice of Comparison Targets 150 4.4.3 Defensive Processing 155 4.4.4 Implications for Sociometer Theory 160 CHAPTER 5: Study 4: Does Manipulating Self-Esteem Affect Self-Perceived Physical Attractiveness? 5.1 Introduction 163 5.1.1 Introduction 163 5.1.2 Manipulating Self-Esteem 165 5.1.3 Implicit Manipulations of Self-Esteem 168 5.1.4 Aims of Study 4 170 5.2 Method 172 5.2.1 Design 172 5.2.2 Participants 172 5.2.3 Apparatus and Materials 172 5.2.4 Procedure 173 5.3 Results 178 5.4 Discussion 179 CHAPTER 6: Study 5: Does Self-Esteem Influence Relationship Behaviour? 6.1 Introduction 189 6.1.1 Introduction 189 6.1.2 Self-Esteem and Behaviour 190 6.1.3 Self-Esteem in Romantic Relationships 195 6.1.4 Relationship Behaviour in the Absence of Threat 199 6.1.5 Mate Retention Behaviour 203 6.1.6 Aims and Predictions of Study 5 205 6.1.7 Domains of Self-Esteem and Specific Strategies 207 6.1.8 Summary of Predictions 209 6.2 Method 211 6.2.1 Participants 211 6.2.2 Materials 212 6.2.3 Procedure 215 6.3 Results 219 6.3.1 Data Considerations 219 6.3.2 Descriptive Statistics 220 6.3.3 Do Women’s Self-Esteem and Self-Perceived Mate 220 Value Relate to their Relationship Behaviour? 6.3.4 Does Self-Esteem or Relative Mate Value Predict 225 Relationship Behaviour? 6.3.5 Do Specific Domains of Self-Esteem Influence 228 Relationship Behaviours? 6.3.6 Do Specific Aspects of Mate Value Influence Relational 230 Behaviour? 6.3.7 Do Domains of Self-Esteem and Specific Aspects of 235 Mate Value Predict Overall Mate Retention and Partner Investment Behaviour? 6.4 Discussion 237 CHAPTER 7: General Discussion 7.1 Summary of the Present Research 246 7.2 Sample Limitations 249 7.3 An Assessment of Sociometer Theory 252 7.3.1 Relationships Between Self-Perceptions and Self-Esteem 253 7.3.2 Is Self-Esteem Adaptive? 268 7.3.3 Is Self-Esteem an Accurate Social Monitor? 269 7.3.4 Does Self-Esteem Motivate Adaptive Behaviour? 276 7.4 An Extension of Sociometer Theory 281 7.5 Self-Esteem, Attachment and Life History Strategies 287 7.6 Implications of the Current Work 294 7.7 Conclusions 299 REFERENCES 301 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Relationships Between Self-Perceived Facial Attractiveness 54 and Global Self-Esteem Table 2: Relationships Between Bodily Attractiveness and Global 56 Self-Esteem Table 3: Relationships Between Self-Perceived Facial Attractiveness 58 and Domains of Self-Esteem Table 4: Relationships Between Global and Specific Aspects of 60 Self-Esteem Table 5: Effects of Exposure to Different Levels of Attractiveness on 100 Trait Self-Esteem Table 6: Effects of Exposure to Different Levels of Attractiveness on 102 State Self-Esteem Table 7: Physical Attractiveness Comparison Effects on State 124 Self-Esteem Table 8: Physical Attractiveness Comparison Effects on Trait 126 Self-Esteem Table 9: Interactive Effects of Initial Self-Perceived Attractiveness 128 and Contrast Effects on State Self-Esteem Table 10: Interactive Effects of Initial Self-Perceived Attractiveness and 130 Contrast Effects on Trait Self-Esteem Table 11: Interaction Effects of Comparison Condition and Contingent 133 Self-Esteem on Subsequent Global State Self-Esteem Table 12: Interaction Effects of Comparison Condition and Contingent 134 Self-Esteem on Subsequent Appearance-Based State Self-Esteem Table 13: Interaction Effects of Comparison Condition and Contingent 135 Self-Esteem on Subsequent Global Trait Self-Esteem Measured with the Self-Esteem Scale Table 14: Interaction Effects of Comparison Condition and Contingent 136 Self-Esteem on Subsequent Global Trait Self-Esteem Measured with the Personal Evaluation Inventory Table 15: Interaction Effects of Comparison Condition and Contingent 137 Self-Esteem on Subsequent Appearance-Based Trait Self-Esteem Table 16: Interaction Effects of Comparison Condition and 139 Appearance-based
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