Home Science

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HOME SCIENCE

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

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Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

NOT FOR SALE

Content Creation

The wise possess all

State Council of Educational Research and Training © SCERT 2018

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational Services Corporation www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in

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How To Use The Book

Introduction Motivate the students interest into the content.

Learning Objective

This gives an overview of the chapter.

Case study Deeper understanding and knowledge application is enhanced.

Do you know? To give the learner additional information related to that particular topic.

Activity Activities are given to ellicit critical and creative thinking and develop independent learning skills.

QR Code Enhances the visual knowledge, memory and presents the content in a interesting manner.

ICT Corner References to the relevant website for further information on topics covered in that chapter.

Summary

Brief outline of the entire chapter is given in a nutshell.

Glossary Gives detailed meaning of new technical terms.

Reference http/; All basic materials used for the development of contents.

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CAREER GUIDANCE What Do I Do Now? Professional Courses • M.B.B.S • B.D.S Diploma Courses • Pharm D • Diploma in Food and Nutrition • B.Pharm • Diploma in Dietetics in Public Health Nutrition • B.A.M.S • Diploma in Early child hood care and Education • B.V.Sc • P.G. Diploma in Dietetics • B.Sc Agriculture • Diploma in Dyeing and Printing

UG Degree Courses Diploma Paramedical Courses • B.Sc Nutrition Food Service Management and Dietetics • Diploma in Physiotherapy • B.Sc Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics • Diploma in Occupational Therapy • B.Sc Nutrition and Dietetics • DOTT (Diploma in Operation Theatre Technology) • B.Sc Food Science and Nutrition • Diploma in Dialysis Technology • B.Sc Home Science • DMLT (Diploma in Medical Lab Technology) • B.Sc Textiles and Fashion Design • Diploma in X-Ray Technology • B.Sc Interior Design & Resource Management • Diploma in Radiography • B.Sc. Human Development • Diploma in Medical Imaging Technology • Diploma in Medical Record Technology • Diploma in Nursing Care Assistant PG Degree Courses • ANM • M.Sc Food Science and Nutrition • GNM • M.Sc Foods and Nutrition • Diploma in Ophthalmic Technology • M.Sc Food Service Management and Dietetics • DHLS (Diploma in Hearing Language and Speech) • M.Sc Textile and Fashion Apparel • Diploma in Anaesthesia Technology • M.Sc Interior Design and Resource Management • Diploma in Dental Hygienist • M.Sc Human Development • Diploma in Rural Health Care • M.Sc Extension and Communication • Diploma in Community Health Care • M.Sc Bio-Textiles • M.Sc Apparel and Fashion Design • M.Sc Exercise Physiology and Nutrition Certificate Courses • Certificate in X-Ray Technician Higher Studies(M.Phil&Ph.D) • Certificate in Lab Assistant/Technician • Food Science and Nutrition • Certificate in Dental Assistant • Foods and Nutrition • Certificate in Operation Theatre Assistant • Food Service Management and Dietetics • Certificate in Nursing Care Assistant • Textiles and Fashion Apparel • Certificate in ECG and CT Scan Technician • Human Development • Certificate in Dialysis Technician • Extension and Communication • Certificate in Home Based Health Care • Resource Management • Certificate in Rural Health Care • Bio –Textiles • Certificate in HIV and Family Education • Exercise Physiology and Nutrition • Certificate in Nutrition and Childcare

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HOME SCIENCE

Chapter 1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 1

Chapter 2 Human Development and its Challenges 11

Chapter 3 Food Science 46

Chapter 4 Food Preservation Methods 70

Chapter 5 Nutrition 88

Chapter 6 Family Meal Management 120

Chapter 7 Family Resource Management 156

Chapter 8 Communication 185

Chapter 9 Personality Development and Life Coping Skills 206

E-book Assessment DIGI links

Lets use the QR code in the text books ! How ? • Download the QR code scanner from the Google PlayStore/ Apple App Store into your smartphone • Open the QR code scanner application • Once the scanner button in the application is clicked, camera opens and then bring it closer to the QR code in the text book. • Once the camera detects the QR code, a url appears in the screen.Click the url and goto the content page.

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Concepts and Scope of Chapter 1 Home Science

Learning Objectives

This chapter will help the students to: • Know the importance about Home Science as a subject • Understand the various components of Home Science • Know how Home Science can improve quality of life • Gain insight into the educational and vocational scope of Home Science.

Foods and Nutrition

Food Service Textiles Management and Dietetics

HOME

SCIENCE Clinical Family Resource Nutrition Management

Human Growth Interior and Decoration Development

p Fig. 1 Home Science- An art and cis ence

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 1

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1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 EVOLUTION OF THE Home Science or the science of managing a DISCIPLINE OF HOME home, includes a study of all aspects related SCIENCE to our home. It is a study that focuses on In India, the study of Home Science family members and the achievement of sat- can be traced back to the British rule isfaction of each and every member through between 1920 and 1940. The rulers in thoughtful effective and constructive use of that period introduced Home Science in resources. some schools and colleges. It was initially Home Science is both an “art and known as “domestic science” and was science”. This is because it teaches the art of first introduced in Maharani Girl’s High using resources so that a harmonious whole School, Baroda. Later the Home Science is achieved and an overall pleasant effect is subject was included in various other created. At the same time, it provides the states such as Uttar Pradesh, Madhya scientific basis of techniques involved in Pradesh and some southern states and making a home a happy healthy and beauti- thus the curriculum underwent changes ful place to live in. For example, the subject over the years. Home Science imparts knowledge about the Home Science has now been different food groups, the nutrients present claimed to be an important subject in the in them, the causes of nutrient deficiency school curriculum because it includes all and the dietary management of various significant areas of art and science which diseases. This is the‘sci ence’. However, is crucial for the development of the indi- the ability to prepare various recipes with vidual, family and society. required nutrients for a particular age group Although Home Science paved and serve it in a very attractive manner in its ways into many schools all over India a pleasant environment so as to motivate it was not offered at the college level for consumption of healthy foods and feeling of a very long time. Hence, many students wellbeing is an ‘art’. were unable to pursue the study of Home Interdisciplinary Nature of Home Science at an advanced level. Lady Irwin Science College, Delhi was the first to introduce Home Science draws a major portion Home Science as a degree programme at of its content from pure science disciplines college level in 1932.From 1938 onwards, such as physics, chemistry, biochemistry, Chennai University offered Home Science physiology and biology. It also draws its at the degree level. Queen Mary’s College content equally from economics, sociol- and Women’s Christian College at Chennai ogy, anthropology, psychology, community started Home Science in 1942. Since 1950, development, communication, media and a degree programme in Home Science technology. Hence, it is an interdisciplinary was included at Coimbatore (Tamil field with much scope as it encompasses the Nadu), Ludhiana (Punjab), Mumbai salient features and components of both sci- (Maharashtra), New Delhi, Udaipur ence and arts courses. (Rajasthan) and Tirupathi (Andhra Pradesh).

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 2

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Initially there were few students constitution of the Home Science associa- who enrolled for the course. With the tion was framed by Miss Dorothy Pearson regular reconstruction of the curricu- of Women’s Christian College, Chennai. lum based on the reforms in science, Later the association became affiliated technology and art, there was found to to the “International Federation of Home be a steady increase in the number of Economics”. students who enrolled for a degree in Home Science. At present thousands of 1.3 COMPONENTS OF post graduates and Ph.D degree holders HOME SCIENCE are in prominent positions in prestigious There are five major components or areas institutions all over the country. Home of specialisation in Home Science. Science has now been claimed to be one • Food and Nutrition of the important subjects in the school • Family Resource Management curriculum because it offers fundamen- • Textile and Clothing tal opportunities to students to develop • Human Development their potential for promoting the society • Communication and Extension and themselves. The study of Home Science is so advanced that each specialization is a vast 1.2.1 Diploma Courses in domain in its own ways with its areas of Home Science specialization and vocation/professional Diploma course in Home science was opportunities. Table- 1 emphasises the offered by the Agricultural Institute branches of Home Science along with spe- of Allahabad in 1935. In 1950, Baroda cific areas dealt in each branch. became a significant nucleus and epicen- tre of Home Science education. In the COMMUNICATION AND mid 1960’s and 1970’s more Agricultural FOODS AND NUTRITION EXTENSION Universities were established throughout the country and a diploma course in HOME SCIENCE Home Science was included in most of the

Agricultural Universities. HUMAN FAMILY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT

p Fig. 2 Five Major Components of Home Science Eminent Pioneers in Home Science in India 1.3.1 Foods and Nutrition Dr. Flemmie.P Kittrell, Dr. Leela Shah In this course, the chemical composition Ms. Dorothy Pearson, and Dr Rajammal of food, the nutrients present in them, P. Devadass their bioavailability, functions of various nutrients, and loss of nutrients in cooking In 1951 the “Home Science and processing, techniques in food safety Association of India” was formed. The and food security, nutritional deficiencies

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 3

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Table 1%UDQFKHVRI+RPH6FLHQFH$ORQJ:LWK6SHFL¿F$UHDVRI6SHFLDOLVDWLRQ,Q(DFK Branch

Main Branch Areas of specialisation

Food Science and Food Safety Clinical Nutrition and Clinical Biochemistry Community Nutrition Foods and Nutrition Therapeutic Nutrition Sports Nutrition Food Preservation

Fuel and Energy Management Family Finance Management Family Resource Management Housing and Equipment Interior Decoration Consumer Education

Clothing Construction Concepts of Fibres and Fabrics Textiles and Clothing Textile Designing Apparel Designing Care and Maintenance of Clothes

Human Growth and Development Adolescence, Marriage, and Family Guidance Human Development Needs and Care of Elderly Needs and Care of Special Children

Modes and Significance of Communication Development Programmes- Planning and Evaluation Communication and Extension Entrepreneurship- Training and Capacity Building Management of Community Service Organisation

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 4

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in the human body and its consequences also included under this subject in order are dealt with in detail. to ensure that students become intelligent consumers who are aware of their 1.3.2 Family Resource duties, responsibilities, rights and privi- Management leges as consumers in the society. The stu- The management of resources such as dents are provided information regarding time, money, energy and space are the food safety, safety against adulteration, main topics for study under family and common adulterants, health hazards and community resource management. The Consumer Protection Act. Major princi- students gain knowledge about home scale ples and basics of design and arts are also budget preparation and work simplifica- detailed in this area. tion techniques. Consumer education is 1.3.3 Textile and Clothing Textile science includes all details about various natural and synthetic fibres. The Literacy process involved in construction of fab- and rics, apparel designing and as well as fab- Education Social ric finishes are also taught. Emotional Career and Development Spintual Strength

Financial Physical and Health Resource Management

Home Production and Storage

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 5

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1.3.4 Human Development

Human development deals with the development of a child from conception to old age and the developmental task pertaining to each stage in life. Physical, motor, emotional, language, cognitive and social development of human beings are also included in this. Behavioural problems of children, special or differently abled children and specific problems and issues that hinder the development of human beings are also dealt. Geriatrics is also a part of the study.

1.4 RELEVANCE OF HOME SCIENCE IN IMPROVING QUALITY OF LIFE The study of Home Science improves the quality of life of people through the following ways:

• Helps people lead a more satisfying personal, family and community life through the dissemination of knowledge and appreciation of cultural and spiritual values. 1.3.5 Communication and • Offers maximum opportunity to Extension express one’s ability to understand and manage their resources and develop Extension education includes the study leadership qualities. of programme planning, preparation of • Develops qualities needed for respon- audio visual aids, social work, applied sible citizenship. nutrition and methods of communicating • Helps student to recognise the impor- with the society. tance of food in ensuring health.

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 6

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• Teaches about food safety that needs to 1.5.2 Public Health be adapted right from farm to fork, Nutritionists • Imparts knowledge about healthy food • Public health departments such as preparation techniques. ICDS and Noon Meal Programme , • Provides practical tips in preparing a • Food experts and scientists in insti- balanced diet. tutes such as Central Food Technolog- • Enables one to make good decisions, ical Research Institute and National sort out family problems and find out Institute of Nutrition. solutions for them. • Provides necessary guidelines about 1.5.3 Academicians and entrepreneurship so as to help young Research Scholars students identify and pursue income • Teaching in schools, colleges, univer- generating activities. sities, health professional colleges and • Gains technical knowledge and infor- culinary schools mation from various branches of • Manage or assist with clinical proto- Home Science for both personal and cols, interventions or clinical trials. professional use. 1.5.4 Consultant / Private 1.5 EDUCATIONAL AND Practice VOCATIONAL SCOPE • Dietary consultants or Dietitians at OF HOME SCIENCE hospitals after being certified as Regis- At the College / University level, Home tered Dietitians. Science is offered as a Bachelor’s Degree • Client counselling for weight manage- programme with a duration of three years ment, eating disorders, sports nutri- and as a Master’s Degree programme with tion, disease management, a duration of 2 years. Master of Philosophy • Write cookbooks, educational pro- in Home Science is one year programme. grams, articles for local newspapers or The course offered in some of the reputed specialty magazines, colleges and universities in Tamil Nadu are given in Table-2. 1.5.5 Business and Industry The future career prospects for • Careers in business and industry graduates and post graduates in Home include jobs such as sales, marketing, Science are as follows: public relations, research and development (labeling, recipes, product information and production, quality 1.5.1 Clinical Dietician control) • Hospitals and outpatient clinics, • Food production ( food products & • Work with chefs in hospitals, cor- preservation), porate sectors, hostel and day care • Nutraceuticals. centres. • Hotel Industry. • Consultants in diet and health • Fashion designing

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 7

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Table 2 +RPH6FLHQFH&RXUVH2IIHUHG,Q9DULRXV&ROOHJHVDQG8QLYHUVLWLHV Courses UG courses B.Sc Nutrition Food Service Management and Dietetics B.Sc Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics B.Sc Nutrition and Dietetics B.Sc Food Science and Nutrition B.Sc Home Science B.Sc Textiles and Fashion Design B.Sc Interior Design & Resource Management B.Sc. Human Development B.Sc. (Hons.) Food, Nutrition and Dietetics PG courses M.Sc Food Science and Nutrition M.Sc Foods and Nutrition M.Sc Food Service Management and Dietetics M.Sc Textile and Fashion Apparel M.Sc Interior Design and Resource Management M.Sc Human Development M.Sc Extension and Communication M.Sc Bio-Textiles M.Sc Apparel and Fashion Design M.Sc Exercise Physiology and Nutrition M.Phil and Ph.D. Food Science and Nutrition Foods and Nutrition Food Service Management and Dietetics Textiles and Fashion Apparel Human Development Extension and Communication Resource Management Bio-Textiles Exercise Physiology and Nutrition

• Establishing day care centres for babies • Public Policy / Government and Pre-school children. organisations • Public service through group service 1.5.6 National and examination International Food Organizations Activity 1 Based on the specialisation in various branches of Home Science a student may How will you motivate your friends in gain entry into Junior school to enrol for the subject Home Science in higher education by • Organizations such as World Health Organi- highlighting the scope of Home Science zation, Food and Agriculture Organization, 1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 8

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SUMMARY As a complement to the challeng- Home Science is a unique and interdisci- ing but rewarding curriculum, it provides plinary course covering a wide spectrum career opportunities and has opened its of areas including Foods and Nutrition, doors for new avenues in all possible Family Resource Management, Textile and ways which include hospitals, catering Clothing, Human Development as well as establishments, food production and Communication and Extension. preservation industries, communication technology, fitness centers, interior design- This course which is unique blend of ing, textile and fashion industry as well as science and art has been developed to provide family housing. knowledge and skills that an individual can use in all areas of life including human growth Students can also pursue higher and development, interior decoration, nutri- education in Home Science which is tion, family meal management and family offered in various college and universities resource management thus making it a course in TamilNadu and all over India. close to out our hearts, home and health.

GLOSSARY

Interdisciplinary – (HM«[L) Salient features – (¯ÔxJ2Ý@Õ>ã)- Involving two or more different Pointing out facts about something. subjects or areas of knowledge Geriatrics – (YA JTØ Ôæ) The Sociology – (@Â>Jà) It is the branch of medicine or social scientific study of society, including science dealing with the health patterns of social relationships, and care of the elderly social interaction, and culture. Nutraceuticals – (ÃØKTz}>àæ) Anthropology – (ITCJà) It is Products derived from food the study of human beings and sources to provide extra health their ancestors through time and benefits space and in relation to physical character, environmental and Apparel – (3[C) Clothes worn daily social relations, and culture and for important occasions

1 Concepts and Scope of Home Science 9

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Questions

I. Choose the correct answer

1. Which state introduced Home Science in India? a. Baroda b. West Bengal c. Hyderabad d. Assam 2. Which college introduced Home III. Answer briefly (3 Marks) Science in India? 1. Illustrate the various disciplines of a. Lady Irwin College–Delhi Home Science? b. Queen Mary’s College–Chennai 2. How will the study of Home Science help c. Jagruti Degree College–Hyderabad in the development of an individual? d. Goa College of Panaji 3. Why is Home Science education 3. The Constitution of Home Science important? association of India was formed by? 4. Write a brief note about the field of a. Dr.Flemmie P.Kittrell Home Science? b. Miss. Dorothy Pearson 5. How do families make a nation c. Dr.Rajammal P.Devadoss prosperous? d. Dr.Leela Shah 6. Write about the interdisciplinary II. Very short answer (2 marks) nature of Home Science? 1. Define Home Science. IV Write in detail (5 Marks) 2. Give your view in 2 sentences about 1. Trace the history of Home Science in Home Science education in India? India? 3. What is the scope of Home Science? 2. Discuss the main branches of Home 4. What is the significance of food and Science with specific reference to the nutrition? specific areas dealt in each branch. 5. In what way does Home Science help 3. Give a detail account of job in the selection of apparel ? opportunities after completing a post graduate degree in Home Science? REFERENCES 4. Leela has completed her B.Sc. in 1. Vyas. J.N and Shastri. H.D New trends Nutrition, Food Service Management in Home Science. and Dietetics. What are the future 2. Paraliker. K (1999) What is Home prospects for her Science? III Ed. Ekvira Publications. 5. Home Science is combination of 3. Desai. D.M. (1996) Home Science science and art–Justify. Education and Extension 4. Sharma. S and Kowshik. V (1994) Principles of Home Science, Anmol Publications Private Limited.

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Human Development Chapter 2 and its Challenges

Learning Objectives

This chapter will enable the students to • Know about the various stages in life span, its meaning and subdivisions • Gain knowledge about the characteristics of each stage in life span • Understand the physical, social, emotional and cognitive changes in each stage • Know the challenges faced by children with special needs • Understand the challenges in adulthood and old age

2.1 INTRODUCTION (1844-1924) in United States of America, The study of human development can be and Alfred Binet (1857- 1911) in France traced back to the 18th century. The first carried out scientific investigation to under- effort towards the study of the child based stand the causes of human behaviour. on direct observations were initiated by Hall studied the concepts of chil- Darwin (1809-82) and Preyer (1841-97). dren and published his finding in the book They maintained careful notes on the devel- “The content of Childrens mind” in 1883. opment and behaviour of individual chil- The first intelligence scale was published dren over a period of years. Stanley Hall in 1905 by Binet. A discipline of science 2 Human Development and its Challenges 11

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IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Growth: It is defined as physical changes in body size, structure, bodily dimensions and increase in magnitude, muscular strength and organs. Development: It is a progressive series of changes in an orderly, coherent pattern whereby an individual adapts to their environment. Development includes physical characteristics (height, weight), intellectual functions (creativity, performance of intelligence) and social characteristics (independence, aggressiveness). Maturation: It is development of the organism as a function of time or age; it refers to neuro physiological and biochemical changes such as the time a child’s teeth erupts, the child’s developing ability to talk, walk etc. Learning and Experience: It is any relatively permanent changes in thought, feeling and behaviour caused by interaction with the environment. Maturation and Learning Interrelation: Learning and maturation cannot be isolated from each other. Development is the result of interaction of maturation and learning. This is clear in motor development especially in postural responses, locomotion and manipulation. In summary, development is a multifaceted and complex process, involving gains and losses, growth and aging and more are brought about by both maturation and learning.

called “Human Development” emerged in the gains and losses in motor abilities that the twentieth century in order to under- occur over the years. stand the patterns of development from Motor Development: Motor develop- conception to the period of old age. ment refers to the development of a child’s In this chapter on human develop- bones, muscles and ability to move around ment we will be able to understand the and manipulate his or her environment. stages in the life span of a human being, Motor development can be divided into the developmental changes and develop- two sections: gross motor development mental tasks in each stage starting from and fine motor development. prenatal stage to old age. • Gross motor development involves the movement of the large muscles in the 2.2 DOMAINS AND STAGES child’s body. This movement including OF DEVELOPMENT sitting, walking, running and climbing Physical Development: It includes the stairs. growth of the body and its organs dur- • Fine motor development are those that ing childhood, the appearance of physi- involve the small movements of the fin- cal signs of aging during adulthood, and gers and hands. They include picking up

2 Human Development and its Challenges 12

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objects, using cups, knives and forks, pour- 2.2.1 Infancy ing drinks, dressing, holding and using Infancy is very critical and shortest of all pencils, pens, scissors and keyboards. developmental periods. Infancy is the sec- Social Development: Social development ond most rapid period of development refers to the process by which a child learns and growth. Infancy begins with birth and to interact with others around them. ends when the infant in approximately two weeks old. Th is period is divided into two Emotional Development: It refers to the periods namely ability to recognize, express, and manage feelings at different stages of life how and why they happen and to have empathy for the feelings of others. Cognitive Development: Cognitive development involves changes and stability in mental processes. Language Development: Language development is the use of arbitrary symbols in an orderly fashion to communicate verbally and individual’s wants and needs.

Activity 1 i. Period of the Partunate – from birth to fifteen to thirty minutes Observe your friends and write down after birth. The infant continues their physical activities. Observe to be a parasite until the umbilical differences among them. cord has been cut and tied.

p Fig. 1 Domains of development in the human life cycle

2 Human Development and its Challenges 13

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Table 1 Stages in the Human development

Prenatal period Conception to birth

Infancy Birth to the end of the second week

End of the second week to end of the second Babyhood year

Early childhood Two to six years

Late childhood Six to twelve years

Adolescence Twelve to Eighteen years

Early adulthood Eighteen to forty years

2 Human Development and its Challenges 14

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Table 1 (continued)

Middle age Forty to sixty years

Old age After sixty years

Activity 2 chin is much too small. The nose is small and flat. The neck is short and Collect photos/ Pictures of each stage of the almost invisible. life span and paste them on a chart. Ob- The shoulders are narrow, while serve and record pattern of development. the abdomen is large and bulging. Hands and feet are miniature. With ii. Period of the Neonate – from cut- the birth cry, the lungs are inflated and ting and tying of the umbilical respiration begins. Neonatal heart beat cord to approximately the end of is more rapid. Elimination of waste the second week of postnatal life. products begins in a few hours after During this period, the infant birth. The relative proportion is shown must make adjustments to the new in figure 2. environment. b. Motor Activities The first activities of human infant are a. Physical Development random, imperfect and uncoordinated. Infants differ greatly in appearance and The most common of these include physiological functions at birth and in visual fixation of light, spontaneous eye their early adjustments after birth. movement, sucking, swallowing, lifting • Body Length and Weight the head, hand movements, leg and foot At birth, the average infant weighs 3 to movements and body jerks. 3.5 kg and measures 50 cms (20 inches) c. Sensory Abilities of the infant in length. Weight in relation to height is less at birth. The muscles of the new- i. Sight born are soft, small and uncontrolled. • At birth, the retina has not reached its full development. • Physical Proportions There is no coordination Babies have a large head and promi- between both eyes. At about nent forehead, chubby cheeks and the thirty hours, the papillary

2 Human Development and its Challenges 15

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p Fig. 2 ZĞůĂƟǀĞWƌŽƉŽƌƟŽŶƐ

iv. Smell • Infants are able to sense the odours that adults can sense. v. Skin Sensitivities • The skin sensations of touch, pressure, temperature and pain are present at birth. d. Adjustments during Infancy Every new born infant’s adjustment to p Fig. 3 ^ĞŶƐŽƌǇĂďŝůŝƟĞƐŽĨŝŶĨĂŶƚƐ postnatal life is difficult at first. They must make 4 major adjustments before they can reflexes are well established. resume their developmental progress. They can detect movement as i. Breathing early as two or three days after During prenatal stage, the fetus is birth. At seventh or ninth day supplied oxygen through the umbil- of life, they respond to different ical cord. When the umbilical cord colours. is cut aft er birth the infants must ii. Hearing begin to breathe on their own. Th e • At birth, hearing is lowest infants take their fi rst breath imme- because the middle ear has diately aft er birth as they cry since amniotic fluid. their lungs are fi lled with oxygen. iii. Taste ii. Temperature Changes • During the first week of life Before birth, the infants are in infants react differently to dif- temperature of 98o–100oF in the ferent tastes. uterine sac, while temperature in 2 Human Development and its Challenges 16

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patting, rocking, warmth and sucking. Unpleasantness is expressed by tensing of the body, kicking, wriggling and crying. e. Cognitive Development Newborns interact with their environment entirely through reflexive behaviours. They follow their instincts and involuntary reactions to get what they need: food, air, and attention. Babies begin to grow and learn about their environment through their senses. p Fig. 4 ĚũƵƐƚŵĞŶƚƐĚƵƌŝŶŐŝŶĨĂŶĐǇ 2.2.2 Babyhood Babyhood continues from infancy to the the hospital or home may vary from second year. It is the true foundation age 60 to 70°F. Newborns are usually with rapid growth and development. kept warm by providing suitable a. Physical Development during Babyhood warm clothing, warm bedroom or • Height placed next to the mother’s warm During babyhood, changes in the over- body. all size of the child’s body are more iii. Sucking and Swallowing rapid than any other time aft er birth. Infant must now get nourish- Th e baby measures between 23 and ment by sucking and swallowing, 24 inches at four months, by the end of instead of receiving it through one year the baby measures between 28 the umbilical cord. These reflexes and 30 inches and between 32 and 34 are perfectly developed at birth inches at two years. and are increased along with • Weight development. During the fi rst year, weight changes are iv. Elimination more than height changes. At four months The infant’s organs of elimination the babies weight will double their birth begin to work soon after birth.For- weight and triple it at 1 year. At one year, merly, waste products were elimi- babies weigh, on the average, three times nated through the umbilical cord. as much as they did at birth, or approx- After birth, defecation occurs at an imately 10 kilograms. Increase in weight average of 4 to 7 times and urina- during babyhood comes mainly from an tion at an average of 18 times. increase in fat tissue. d. Emotional Development of Infancy • Physical Proportions At birth, the emotions consist of only Growth of the head slows down in pleasure and pain. Pleasantness is expressed babyhood while the trunk and limb by relaxing of body and is elicited through growth increases. Thus, the baby

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gradually becomes less top-heavy and appears more slender and less chubby by the end of babyhood. • Bones The fusion of bones increases during babyhood. Calcification begins in the early part of the first year but is not completed until puberty. The soft spot on the skull (tontanelle) will be closed ECTOMORPH MESOMORPH ENDOMORPH by the end of two years.

p Fig. 5 dǇƉĞƐŽĨŽĚǇďƵŝůĚ DO YOU KNOW? • Nervous System There are 270 bones at birth, but adult The brain weight is one-eighth of the humans have only 206 bones. baby’s total weight at birth. During the first 2 years, brain weight is gained • Muscles and Fat and this leads to the baby’s top heavy Muscle fibers are present at birth but appearance. The cerebellum and the in very under developed forms. They cerebrum triple its weight in one year. grow slowly during babyhood and are Immature cells, present at birth, con- weak. The fat tissue develops rapidly tinue to develop after birth but rela- during babyhood due partly to the tively few new cells are formed. high fat content of milk.

• Body Builds DO YOU KNOW? Babies begin to form characteristic By the end of 2nd year a baby will have body builds from during their second more than 100 trillion synapses. Find year of life. The three most common out the Synapses present in the baby? forms of body build are ectomorphic, which tends to be long and slender, endomorphic, which tends to be round By three months, the eye muscles and fat, and mesomorphic which tends are well developed and babies can to be heavy, hard and rectangular. see things clearly. They can also see • Teeth colours. Hearing develops rapidly By the end of one year the baby has during this stage. Smell and taste are four to six temporary teeth and sixteen improved during babyhood. Babies by the age of two. The teeth present are highly responsive to all skin stim- in the front will emerge first and the uli because all sense organs relating to molars which are situated at the back touch, pressure, pain, and temperature appears last. are present in well-developed forms.

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In this sequence of development it DO YOU KNOW? can noted that the development proceeds At birth babies can taste sweet, bitter from head to foot as shown in figure 6 and sour, but cannot taste salt until they c. Social Development are 4 months old. The baby begins to communicate with others by gestures and also develops close b. Motor Skills Development during relation with care givers like mother and Babyhood. father. At about five weeks of age, the baby After the fast growth spurt in infancy, smiles in response to patting. By the sec- the growth rate of the baby is slow. Motor ond month it recognizes his/her mother development means the ability to control and by the third month the baby will turn movement of several parts of the body its head in response to human voice. Once through coordinated movement of mus- the babies get attached to their mother cles and limb. The sequences of postural they show fear on separation. control and locomotion among babies as d. Emotional Development reported by Schiamberg are as follows Until use of language begins, it is emotions that make adults know the needs of Table 2 Pos t ural Control and Locomotion during Babyhood baby. As age increases, emotions become Age Development less diffused and more specific and differ- 1st month Holds chin up entiated in relation to cause, and they can 2nd month Holds chest up be aroused by a wide variety of stimuli. It Rolls from side to back is shown in figure 7 3rd month Reaches and misses object e. Cognitive Development 4th month Sits with support. According to Piaget’s theory babyhood is 5th month Sits on lap and Grasp objects the “sensory motor” stage. Babies under- 6th month Sits on high chair and grasp stand the permanence of objects and peo- dangling object ple. They visually follow the displacement th 7 month Sits alone and starts to crawl of objects and begin to use instruments th 8 month Stands with help and tools. They also understand discipline th 9 month Stands holding furniture and what behaviour is appropriate and in th 10 month Creep appropriate. They also understand the con- th 11 month walking with support cepts of words like “please” and “thank you”. 12th month Pulls to stand by using furniture f. Language Development 13th month Climb stairs Language development is an important 14th month Stands alone means of becoming independent for the 15th month Walk alone baby. It gives him a new power to communicate their feeling to others. Source: Schiamberg L.B (1985) Human Development, II Edition, Macmillan Publish- • Before the baby speaks words, they ing Company, New York. show the ability to produce vowel and consonants sounds.

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Walks without Support

Stands without Support

Crawls On Hands and Knees

Sits without Support

Rolls Over

Prone, Chest Up; Uses Arms for Support

Prone, Lifts Head

0 123 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Age (months)

p Fig. 6 Post ural control and locomotion development

Delight, Excitement and Distress 3 months

Fear, Disgust, Anger and Excitement 6months

Delight, Excitement, Distress, Fear, Disgust, Anger,

12 months Excitement, elation and Af fection.

Delight, Excitement, Distress, Fear, Disgust, Anger,

24 months Excitement, Elation and Affection, Distress and Joy.

p Fig. 7 ŵŽƟŽŶĂůĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚŝŶďĂďǇŚŽŽĚ

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2.2.3.1 Early Childhood DO YOU KNOW? 1. Pattern of Development in Early Two year old babies can understand Childhood 100 to 150 words and start to add about Growth during early childhood proceeds 10 new words per day at a slow rate when compared with the rapid rate of growth in babyhood. • By the third month the baby coos and babbles before he/she speaks words. a. Physical Development in Early These two along with gestures are Childhood known as pre -speech forms. i. Height • By six months he/she produces most of The average annual increase in height the vowels and few consonants sounds. is 2.5 inches. By the age of six, the average child measures 46.6 inches (118.36 centimeters). Cooing – quick burst of squealing noise. Babbling – production of inarticulate meaningless speech sounds which are sequences of vowels and consonants such as da-da-da.

g. Physiological Function Babyhood is the time when the fundamen- ii. Body weight tal physiological patterns of eating, sleep- The average annual increase in weight ing and elimination should be established, is around 1.6-2.3 kilograms. At age six, even though the habit formation may not children should weigh approximately 7 be completed when babyhood ends. times as much as they did at birth. An 2.2.3 Childhood average girl weighs 25-30 kilograms and boy weighs 30-32 kilograms. Childhood begins at the conclusion of babyhood and extends to the time when iii. Body proportions the child becomes sexually mature at thir- Body proportions change markedly and teen years for girls and fourteen for boys. the baby look disappears. Facial features Childhood period is now divided into – look small but chin becomes more pro- early and late childhood. nounced and neck elongates. The stock- iness of the trunk is decreased and the

CHILDHOOD abdomen appears flat. Chest and shoul- der become broader and flatter. Muscle begins to form and growth of the head EARLY CHILDHOOD LATE CHILDHOOD (2 TO 6 YEARS) (6 TO 12 YEARS) slows down. Arms and legs lengthen and hands and feet grow bigger.

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DO YOU KNOW?

The most important activity of Anganwadi Centre (AWC) under Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) programme is growth monitoring of children from birth to five years. Growth monitoring means keeping a regular track of the growth and development of the child with the help of plotting the child’s weight, taken every month or quarter, on the growth chart and joining these weight points with a line to form the growth curve. In the following chart green coloured zone denotes normal body weight, yellow coloured zone denotes moderately underweight and reddish orange coloured zone denotes severely underweight.

iv. Body build calcify at different rates in differ- Children have an endomorphic or ent parts of the body. Bones become mesomorphic or ectomorphic type of harder and stronger, giving the child body build based on their gene make a firmer shape and protecting internal up, diet and physical activities. organs. v. Bones vi. Teeth Bone development consist of growth At the beginning of early childhood the in bone size, change in the number baby has all of their milk teeth. In the of bones and composition. The bones last year of early childhood the baby

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loses its milk teeth which are replaced b. Motor Development by permanent teeth. The permanent During the first four or five years, the teeth to appear first are the front cen- child gains control over gross and fine tral incisors. When early childhood movement. Table 3 summarizes the devel- ends the child has one or two per- opment of motor skill. manent teeth in front and some gaps Artistic expression seems to peak where permanent teeth will eventually by the end of the early childhood period. erupt. During these years, children begin to vii. Nervous and Muscular system paint and hold the brush with thumb and The growth of the nervous system fingers. They give names to their drawings is very rapid during babyhood and and begin to represent things. slows down at 3-4 years. Development of immature to mature cells occurs at c. Social development this stage. These changes are coordi- This age is characterized by the widely nated by the maturing brain and the expanding world and awareness of people nervous system promotes the devel- and things. opment of a wide range of motor They learn how to make social con- skills. The brain is about 75 percent- tact and get along with people outside the age of its adult weight at five years family, especially with peer group (chil- and is 90 percentage of adult weight dren of their own age). Play is an important at eight years. part of social development. By the age of 3-4 years they learn to adapt and cooper- viii. Sensory Organs ate in group play activities. This increases The growth of the eyeball is not com- his/her social contact which increases the plete until puberty so young children chances for social behaviour of others. tend to be far sighted. Vision and focusing ability improves consider- i. Social Behaviours ably as children grow through these • Imitation- Children imitate the atti- years. The need for corrective lenses tudes and behaviour of a person whom becomes more noticeable in early they especially admire and want to be childhood. like.

Table 3 Motor Development – Gross Skill and Fine Skill Age Gross Skills Fine Skills 2 years Hops, climbs stairs with altering feet, Copies circle, opposes thumb to finger, scrib- jumps from bottom step bling continues to improve. 3 years Runs well, skillful jumping, begins to Hold pencil, walks balance beams skip, pedals tricycle 4 years Hops about 50 feet, balance on one foot, Colors within lines, forms letters, dresses and can catch large ball, skipping undresses self with help, eats more readily 5 years Carries bundles, begins to ride bicycle, Ties shoes, uses scissors, uses knife and fork, jumps rope, can catch tennis ball and washes self with help.

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• Sharing- Sharing and caring will win HANDEDNESS social approval. Children learn this while playing with friends. Early childhood may be regarded as a ii. Unsocial Behaviors critical period in the establishment of • Negativism- The habit of contradict- handedness. During this period, chil- ing elders starts between 3 and 4 years dren shift from the use of one hand to and then it declines. the other and are asked to concentrate • Aggressiveness- The physically aggres- on learning skills with one dominant sive behaviour that begins by the age hand and other as the auxiliary or of 2, normally declines by the age of 4 helping hand. For example in case of giving way to verbal attacks like name colouring, the dominant hand is used calling or blaming others. for colouring and the auxiliary to hold • Bossiness- Children become more the paper. authoritative at the age of 3. • Destruction- The children display their temper by destroying anything within their reach. d. Emotional Development The emotional expressions of children differ from those of adults. Emotions can be broadly classified as positive emotions (integrative) and negative emotions (dis- integrative). Such emotions are joy, affection, curiosity and sympathy. Negative emotions on the other hand give an unpleasant feeling and disliked by others. The examples of such negative emotions are anger, fear, jealousy, envy, grief and anxiety. e. Cognitive Development • Rivalry- Children feel an urge to The mental development that occurs in out-do others at home and outside. early childhood is exciting and dynamic • Co-operation- Children at the end of as children explore their environment, the third year learn to socialize and co- develop ideas, learn solutions to prob- operate with their peer group. Th eir lems, participate in imaginary play, and inclination to play with other children gain a unique understanding of the world increases. and how it operates. Children make judg- • Sympathy- Play contacts develop sym- ments based on a limited understanding pathetic attitudes in children. This of operations and rules and with minimal helps in understanding feelings and cues and information. Young children emotions of others. may have trouble telling the difference

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between what is real and what is fantasy. enters school and experiences a major With increased ability to ask questions in change in the life pattern. words, they understand people, objects Physical Development and situation rapidly. After this, the child Late childhood is a period of slow and uni- obeys commands but does not under- form growth until the changes of puberty stand why things are right or wrong. begins. f. Language Development Height and Weight- The child’s height Early childhood is known as “the chat- and weight approximately reaches 2/3rd ter box age” because children are able to of adult height. Both boys and girls can speak with ease. They may use gestures but be expected to grow about two to three mainly as supplements to speech. During inches each year. The average height for early childhood, there is a strong motiva- boys is slightly greater than that of girls tion to learn to speak. At approximately 2 throughout this period. However a girl’s years of age, their ability to use language average height between ten and twelve suddenly increases rapidly. The formation years exceeds that of boys. At the onset of of sentences follows a fairly definite and puberty, an average 11 years old girl has a predictable pattern in early childhood. height of 58 inches while an average boy Two to three year old children usually use of the same age has little lesser than that. short sentences of three or four words. Many of the sentences are incomplete. By 6 years of age, most children are about seven times their birth weight. Weight increase is at the rate of 1.3 to 2.3 2.2.3.2 Late Childhood kg. The average 11 year old girl weighs Late childhood extends from the age of six 40.1 kg and an average boy of the same age years to the time the individual becomes weighs 38.7 kg. sexually mature. This period is marked by Body proportions- Body shapes of indi- conditions that profoundly affect a child’s viduals are characterized by a greater personal and social adjustment. The child proportion of body fat to muscle among females, while the opposite is true for males. Facial disproportions disappear as the mouth and jaw become larger, the forehead broadens and becomes slimmer, Mary is 46 inches tall and weighs the neck becomes longer, the chest broad- 18 kilograms at the end of six years. ens, the abdomen flattens, the arms and From these observations what is legs lengthen and hands and feet grow your inference about her weight larger but at a slow rate. and body type? Muscle development- The increasing level Answer: Mary is under weight and and desire for physical activity in mid- she has an ectomorphic body build dle childhood reflects the increasing size due to being under weight and strength of a child’s muscle. Gain in weight is due to increase in size of skeletal,

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muscular systems and some organs. Muscle They spend more time in free, unstruc- mass and strength gradually increases tured activities, rough games and vigorous as “baby fat” decrease in middle and late play such as wrestling, kicking and chas- childhood. Throughout the middle years ing. By 6 years, most children can skip rope muscle growth tends to be extremely rapid, and begin to ride a bicycle and by 7 years and they are firmly attached to the bones. most begin to perfect the movement nec- Eye-hand coordination also improves and essary for catching, throwing, swimming by twelve years of age, most children have and hitting ball. They develop flexibility in highly coordinated muscles. different parts like wrists and legs. Bone development- As the child 3. Social development approaches sexual maturity, the rate A number of changes in social develop- of bone development will quicken in ment occur in the late childhood years. response to stimulation due to sex hor- Besides the parents and the family mem- mones that are produced in large quan- bers, the peer group comes to take an tities. The length and width of the bones important place in the child’s life. increase. In late childhood, bones are • Creation of childhood gangs- Upon hardened and reach a final mature shape. beginning schooling, children enter Development of Teeth- The primary teeth the “gang age” when social conscious- that erupted during infancy and early child- ness develops rapidly. It is character- hood are lost from the age of six up to thir- ized by interest in peer activities and teen years. All milk teeth are replaced with an increasingly strong desire to be an primary teeth. Girls are found to have per- accepted member of a gang. manent teeth earlier than boys. • Over sensitiveness- A common out- Brain Development- About 90% of adult growth of susceptibility to social brain size is achieved by age six. During approval and disapproval is over late childhood, brain development sensitiveness. The tendency to be eas- includes the organization of brain func- ily hurt by peers or siblings or parents tioning and myelination. Functions of the and to interpret what others say and do right and left hemisphere become well as hostile, is a measure of the children’s established during this age group. desire for social acceptance. • Responsibility- Children who learn to assume responsibility at home not only Myelination is the deposition of fatty make better adjustment with their peer substance around nerve cells which helps group but also are likely to be selected in conduction of electrical impulses. for leadership roles. 4. Emotional development in late childhood 2. Motor development during late • Temper Tantrum childhood Tantrum or temper tantrum is an emo- Children are eager to participate in activi- tional outburst of children. It is typically ties that require large muscle movements. characterized by crying and screaming.

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Children in the first grade, on average know about 20,000 to 24,000 words. By the sixth grade they will know about 50,000 words. • Anger Not only do older children learn new words, Anger is expressed when needs are not ful- they also tend to learn new meanings for filled. It is expressed through screaming, old words. The length of sentences increases withdrawal, destructive and disrespectful from 6 years. The characteristic chatterbox behaviour. stage of early childhood is replaces by more • Fear controlled and selective speech. Fear is still found in late childhood. A large proportion of the fears shown in childhood persist into the adulthood. • Anxiety Harish has difficulty to do home Children’s anxiety increases somewhat work, cannot do quiet tasks or activ- with maturity. This anxiety makes chil- ities. He dashes around, touching or dren bored, restless and disturbed and playing with anything and everything they cannot concentrate. They feel inse- in sight and is very impatient. He cure and show their anxiety by nervous also blurts out inappropriate com- mannerism and speech problems. ments, shows his emotions without 5. Cognitive Development restraint, and acts without regard for As a child develops there are considerable consequences. changes in his mental abilities which include From above case study what imagination, memory, creativity, question- are your inferences about his condi- ing and perception. They can also develop a tion? What is the specific name given plan to meet desired goal. They have a better to this condition? understanding of spatial concepts of causal- Answer: Harish is hyper active and ity of categorization of inductive reasoning. his condition is called as “Attention Children begin to read and write and start Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder”. gaining skills in reading and writing. 6. Language Development Linguistic skills are improved or acquired 2.2.4 Children Wth Special by an individual with the help of parents Needs and from the world outside the family All children are ‘unique’ yet similar to such as television, radio, books and peers. one another in most aspects of growth.

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Baker, a well-known psychologist defines the disabled child as “one who deviates from what is supposed to be an average child in physical, mental, emotional and social characteristics to such an extent that the child requires special educational services to help develop to the maximum capacity”. Categories of Disabled/Disadvantaged Children: The disabled children can be broadly grouped into three categories. These are: a. Physically disabled children. b. Mentally disadvantaged children. c. Socially maladjusted children. Causes of Disability among Children: The various causes of physical disability are as follows: a. Heredity b. Unfavorable environment c. Injury during child birth d. Accidents during early childhood However, some children are very differ- causing orthopedic problems. ent from their age-mates that they ‘stand e. Surgery requiring the amputation out’. Such children have to deal with the of the diseased part. normal/usual problems of growth along f. Mental and emotional problems with all those difficulties that may arise in early childhood result in stam- because of being ‘different’. The child is mering, stuttering and speech unable to deal with the social and emo- defects. tional problems associated with it. This g. Ear infections and injuries result- has marked effect on the child’s personal ing in hearing defects. and social development. h. Psychological, emotional problems and feelings of neglect result in Normal Child and Disabled/ behavioural problems. Disadvantaged Child A normal healthy child is able to grow and 2.2.4.1 Visual Impairment: do things to equip him/her for future life. A child who is not able to withstand the Vision is a critical tool that children use challenges of day-to-day life is generally in obtaining information about the world referred to as handicapped/disabled or dis- in which they live. Impairment of vision advantaged children. Th ey are also known can lead to partial or total blindness. Th e as children who are ‘diff erently abled ’. children with visual impairment will need

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special materials and attention to develop The Braille dots are punched out one at a fully. time from right to left. Children learn to Causes of Visual Impairment use Braille with ease once coached properly. Visual impairment can be caused by the following factors: DO YOU KNOW? a. Congenital Blindness: White cane day is celebrated worldwide It refers to a child being born blind. on October 15th every year. This is celebrated to create awareness and celebrate b. Acquired Blindness: the importance of the white cane used In this case the child is not born blind. by visually challenged people. The child may lose eye-sight on account of some accident. The resulting eye-defect is called acquired blindness. 2.2.4.2 Hearing Impairment c. Nutritional blindness: Definition It is a result of prolonged absence A child with hearing impairment is one of vitamin-A rich foods in the diet. who has lost the sense of hearing before Deficiency of vitamin-A causes dryness of learning the language. This means that the eyes, (xerophthalmia) and impaired vision child is born without the ability to hear. in dim light (night blindness). Such children are often mute and silent. Special Needs of a Visually Challenged Hard of hearing on the other hand Child: is a defect that is acquired later in life. The Physical Needs: child experiences varying degrees of hear- Parents of a visually challenged children ing loss. have to give special attention and train Causes of hearing impairment their children to do their daily routine Hearing impairment and loss can be due jobs like toilet, bath, dressing and feeding to the following factors: etc. Special effort is needed to help them (a) Conductive hearing impairment to move around the house without knock- The passage of air in the outer ear is called ing things and hurting themselves. the ’Conductive Pathway’. The conductive pathway can get affected due to Emotional and Social Needs: i. Build up of wax in the ear, Parents and siblings need to develop social ii. A foreign body in the pathway contact and provide constant reassurance iii. Any swelling of the outer ear. by hugging, petting and reassuring the handicapped child when scared and emo- These conditions can cause temporary tionally upset. hearing impairment that can be medically treated. Educational Needs: Books with big print and a desk with proper (b)Sensory Neutral hearing loss is due light and recorded tapes are of considerable to the damage of the ear drum, cochlea, help to the child with defective vision. The auditory nerve and the associated brain special tool called “Braille” is also helpful. cells.

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(c)Mixed Hearing Loss is a result of hearing use of bones, muscles and joints. Similar impairments arising due to a combination handicap is experienced by children with of conductive and sensory neural defects. a missing limb. Such children are known Characteristics of a Child with Hearing to be orthopedically crippled. Impairment: • The child may be speech impaired besides having hearing impairment. • They may have difficulty in learning language/vocabulary. It is an enormous challenge to learn to communicate in a language one cannot hear. Special Needs of a Child with Hearing Impairment Characteristics of A Child With Affected / Hearing defects cause a lot of problems Missing Limb ranging from language and vocabulary • Physical defect leads to inferiority to comprehension and communication. complex among young children. Physical needs can be eff ectively taken care • The feelings of inadequacy result in of by providing physical comfort. Parents self-pity. can use play way techniques to help child. • The child often goes through psychological trauma because of discrepancy Emotional and Social Needs: between his/her aspirations and the Suspicion is almost the second nature with ability to perform. deaf children. Their social behaviour also needs to be improved and refined. Love Special Needs of Children with Missing / and affection provide emotional security Affected Limbs besides the much needed encouragement Physical Needs consist of being able to for better learning. cope with one’s daily routine. Th e attitude of parents should help the child do his/her Educational Needs involve child’s ability duties independently rather than “do things to understand the language. They learn to for them”. Use of special contraptions like communicate through visual and manual calipers, shoes and artifi cial limbs along means. with proper training has yielded very good i. Oral Method or Lip-Reading is a slow results. Use of crutches and wheel chair method involving a lot of patience for improves the mobility besides boosting the learner as well as the educator. their confi dence. ii. Manual Method or Sign Language helps the child to communicate with Social and Emotional Needs. gestures, cues and finger-spellings. Children with aff ected limbs are very oft en left out of social group activities. Th e child may feel frustrated, dejected and 2.2.4.3 Orthopedic Impairment neglected. Loving care and proper training A child with an affected limb is not able to to be independent and self-reliant are the fully perform the activities involving the basic needs of all handicapped children.

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Educational Needs involve and enlarged tonsils, adenoids, etc. Motor include such activities that require ‘doing’. activities, dramatic play of all kinds, Writing, playing, drawing, painting, knitting excursions, discussing and planning and even dancing are some much activities. group activities will help in developing correct speech patterns. 2.2.4.4 Children with Educational Needs Impaired Speech Classes under special teachers will be use- The main purpose of speech is effective ful for correction of pronunciation communication. When speech is defective Emotional needs communication is also defective. Children should be given opportunities Causes of Speech Defects to listen to stories. The teacher and par- There are many causes for speech defects. ents should always make it a point to pro- They are as follows: nounce words clearly themselves. a. Physiological causes: Defects and 2.2.4.5 Mentally Challenged deformities of the larynx and the Children vocal cords affect the speech produced. Incomplete development of The intelligence possessed by a normal the skull and head produces a cleft individual is said to be between 90 and palate and cleft lip which produce 110 I.Q. Some children possess less than speech defects average intelligence and they are said b. Neurological causes. When nerves to be mentally challenged or mentally connected with the areas of speech handicapped. and learning process are impaired, Meaning of I.Q. some type of speech defect or dis- The letters IQ stand for Intelligence order of articulation occurs Quotient. It is a measure of intelligence. c. Psychogenic Causes. These are The formula used to calculate the I.Q. is causes related to one’s mind. Some ma ca × 100. MA stands for Mental Age and types of stuttering are purely psy- CA stands for Chronological Age. The chogenic in origin. General self mental age of a person is found out by consciousness added with speech intelligence tests. If the mental age corre- defect may produce stuttering. sponds with his chronological age or the d. (d) Sociological causes. Some physical age, then his mental growth is speech habits such as too rapid or said to be normal. The mentally retarded too slow speech, or speaking in the children have a lower mental age than low tones insisted by the parent their chronological age. may lead to speech defects. Classification of mentally challenged Special need of children with speech people defects Depending on the I.Q possessed, mentally Physical needs challenged people/children are classi- Surgery can correct some of the physio- fied as slow learners, challenged, moder- genic causes like cleft palate, extremely ately challenged and severely challenged.

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Children who are mildly retarded are or dwarfism. Brain injury due to acci- referred to as educable. Those who are dents, brain fever in the new born, also moderately challenged are called train- lead to mental challenges after birth. able. Those who are severely and pro- Needs of Mentally challenged foundly challenged are called totally Children. dependent. Proper prenatal care including immuni- The characteristics of mentally challenged zation, good diet, and medical check-up children delivery attended by a trained person, a. Physical traits- For majority of preferably hospital delivery and proper them, their height and weight is weaning foods for the baby will reduce normal for their respective ages. the incidence of individual attention and Muscular control is fairly well instruction. In the case of slow learners developed. Senses are well devel- they need more help and stimulation. oped but occurrence of speech The teacher needs to give clear direction defects such as stammering and and encouragement. The learning process lisping is fairly large among these must be made simple and more of con- children. crete examples must be used. b. Other traits- Socially they are found to be less adjustable. Vocab- 2.2.5 Adolescence – Growth ulary is very much limited. They and Development find adjustment to new situations difficult. Causes of Mental Challenges in Individuals WHAT WILL YOU LEARN The causes may be endogenous or exogenous. IN THIS LESSON? Endogenous type mainly consists of hereditary conditions. Defect in the • Who is an adolescent? germ cell produces a retarded condition • Classification and definition of the called microcephaly. Defects in the nerv- adolescent period ous system and weaker nerve potential • Characteristic changes during inherited also lead to mental challenges. adolescence Marriage between men and women who are close blood relatives is said to lead to mental challenges in their children. Definition Exogenous causes for mental Adolescence is derived from the Latin challenges includes venereal diseases in word “adolescere” meaning to grow into the mother, brain injury at birth and var- maturing. The World Health Organisation ious forms of anoxia at the time of birth. defines adolecence as any person between Toxic conditions in older mothers during the age of 10 and 19. It is between child- pregnancy causes mongolism. Thyroid hood and adulthood and is closely related deficiency in children causes cretinism to the teen age years.

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vague and there is a confusion about the ADOLESCENTS roles they are expected to play as they are neither children nor adults. Persons between 10and 19 years of age (ii) Period of change The stage of adolescence is characterized by changes in physical, cognitive, social and emotional areas of their lives. This sets them apart and uniquely distinguishes them from other stages

(a) Physical changes During adolescence, primary sex characteristics (the reproductive organs) develop and mature and secondary sex characteristics appear. Primary Sex characteristics- In males, the testes grow rapidly during the first Stages of adolescence in boys and girls year or two of puberty. After that, the penis Adolescence may be divided into three starts to grow in length and the seminal ducts stages namely pre adolescene, early ado- and the prostate gland enlarge. The female lescence and late adoelscence uterus, fallopian tube and vagina grow rapidly through puberty. The ovaries produce Table 4 Stages in Adolesce nce ova and secrete the hormones needed for Stages in adolescence Girls Boys pregnancy, menstruation and the develop- (years) (years ) ment of secondary sex characteristics. Pre-adolescence 10-12 11-13 Early adolescence 12-16 13-17 Table 5 Secondary es x characteristics in adolesce nt boys and girls Late adoelscence 16-21 17-21 Secondary sex characteristics The period of adolescence is Girls Boys extremely important in one’s life because at Breasts develop Pubic hair appear this stage, one moves from childhood to the Pubic hair appear Axillary hair appear onset of maturity. In every period of devel- Axillary hair appear Facial hair and body opment from birth onwards a person may hair appear face many challenges due to the changes Increased width and Voice change that occur during that period. Each phase depth of pelvis in life has distinct characteristics. Source: Lefton, 1985 Characteristics of the Adolescent Period The secondary sex characteris- (i) Transitional period tics are those which are not directly tied Adolescence is a period of transition. to reproduction yet distinguish the male During this phase the individuals status is from the female species. The secondary

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p Fig. 8 Characteristics of the adolesce nt period

sex characteristics between boys and girls Chums- close friends – They are are given in the table above: inseperable companions as confidants Cliques – They are made up of groups (b) Cognitive changes in adolescents . of close friends Crowds – they are made up of cliques WHAT IS COGNITION and close friends Organised groups – Th ese groups are It is the mental action or process of planned by orgainised sectors like acquiring knowledge .and under- schools, churches or community centres standing through experiences Gangs- Th ey are a group of boys and/or girls who are poorly adjusted to society In this stage, adolescents develop the ability to process Information, improve in Individual activity 3 areas of decision making, memory, criti- Who are your chums? – What criteria cal thinking and self-regulatory learning. do you have to select your confidants? This is known as the ‘Formal Operation Stage of Development’ How many members are there in your clique? What are your common (c) Social Changes and Development interests? During Adolescence Friendship during adolescence is based Are you part of an organized group? on similarities and interests . The com- List any three social causes addressed mon social groups in adolescence is as by your group. follows:

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emotional experience. This period is often DO YOU KNOW? known as the “period of storm and stress”. Every 5th person in India is an adolescent The word storm and stress suggest anger – Hence adolescents are a very precious and turmoil. segment of the population.

Significant changes in the area of social development occur in the period of adolescence with regard to their peers and relationship with adults. • Relationship with peers- Adolescents are very much influenced by their peer group. Their behaviour and attitude are affected by peers. Causes for Heightened Emotionality • Relationship with adults- Adoles- The major causes for heightened emotion- cents develop values different from ality are as follows: the ones held by adults because the • Psychological problems due to phys- influence of peer group is more than ical changes – Sudden spurt in height, that of adults. Hence the adolescent is appearance of secondary sex characteris- torn between his loyalty to his parents tics, voice change, appearance of pimples and peers. Their values often clash and acne, on the face. etc. cause much with those of adults and many rebel embarrassment to them and they become against parental authority worried about their physical appearances. • Social expectations- Adolescents are Activity 4 treated neither as a child nor as an adult. The constant pressure to live Compare And Contrast Any Six up to social expectations causes a Values Between Adults And Present generalized state of anxiety in them. Generation Adolescents • Unrealistic aspirations- Adolescent Values Opinion of Opinion of aspirations are sometimes unrealistic. adults adolescents When they are not able to attain them they feel inferior and frustrated. • Urge for sex- Reproductive hormones are active and so there is the presence of sex urge. This may lead to anxiety. • Identity crises- The adolescent is expected to form a realistic self-concept. (d) Emotional changes They have to try out different roles and Adolescence is said to be a period of develop a holistic idea of their future heightened emotionality. Heightened role. Until they find their role they are emotionality is a state of more than normal often confused and anxious

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• Unfavorable family relationships- Conflicts often occur between adults National Youth Day is celebrated and adolescents due to the generation in India on 12 January on the birth- gap between them. day of Swami Vivekananda. In 1984 (iii) Adolescence is a problem age the Government of India declared the Adolescence is known as a problem age day as the National Youth Day and because they are faced with many chal- since 1985 the event is celebrated in lenges that arise due to the anatomical, India every year. To quote from the psychological changes. This is further Government of India's communica- enhanced by peer pressure and conflicts tion, 'it was felt that the philosophy with parents and elders. Most of these of Swamiji and the ideals for which problems are aggravated due to mislead- he lived and worked could be a great ing and misguiding parents, teachers and source of inspiration for the Indian friends, ignorance of elders, being half Youth.' informed or ill-informed about the real- ities in life and wrong messages and concepts depicted though the media challenges and help them set realistic (iv) Adolescence is period when there is goals based on available resources search for identity JUVENILE DELINQUENCY Adolescence is the period of transition Delinquency is a problem associated with between childhood and adulthood. It is a the period of adolescence. It is engaging in stressful and confusing period because at activities which are against law and are pun- times they are expected by the society to think ishable. When a delinquent act is committed and behave in mature manner. At the same by a child or young person before the age of time, they are often reprimanded for the same age of 18 it is called juvenile delinquency. and are demanded to be meek and submis- sive as they are under the control of parents, A list of delinquent act by minors include elders and teachers. The conflicts that arise committing theft of valuables, burglary, due to this, cause a lot of stress among ado- looting, black mailing, murdering, rap- lescents as they are confused whether they ing, leading immoral life like prostitu- should be like children or behave as adults. tion, drinking, gambling, smuggling, drug addiction and anti-social acts like damag- (v) Adolescence is a time of unrealism ing public utilities etc. Many adolescents have unrealistic goals and aspirations. They live in an imaginary Causes of delinquency world. These unrealistic thinking pattern i. Personal causes- A person’s physi- may often lead to anxiety and depression cal defects, aggressiveness and low especially when they are not able to fulfill intelligence make a person prone to their goals. For this purpose, it is impor- delinquency. tant for parents, teachers and elders to ii. Family causes- Children from bro- guide adolescents into identifying their ken homes lack love and affection strengths, weakness, opportunities and and a feeling of security. They tend 2 Human Development and its Challenges 36

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to seek the comfort from peers Prevention of delinquency involving antisocial activities • Satisfactory adult-adolescent relationship, absence of feeling of rejection and (iii) Community factors- Numerous of presence of love and affection among community factors are proved to insti- members of the family will be of much gate the adolescents towards delinquency. help in preventing delinquency. They are • Community efforts by parent teachers a. Poor housing – Poor housing is a association, schools, religious institu- symbol of poor economic and social tions, social workers, counselors and status. Overcrowding in poor houses voluntary organizations play a major and lack of privacy is said to be a role in guiding children. cause for committing sex offences. • Mass media such as radio, television and newspaper should educate parents and the society on proper treatment of children. • Educational Institutions can have programmes such as “Earn While You Learn” by engaging adolescents in useful activities.

2.2.6 Adulthood Adulthood is usually divide into subdivisions or stages b. Poor recreational facilities – In absence of good recreational facil- Table 6 &ODVVL¿FDWLRQRIDGXOWKRRG ities, delinquency itself becomes a StagesAge recreational activity. Early adulthood 18-40 years c. Poor schools – Many factors in Middle adulthood 41-60 years school contribute to delinquency. Late adulthood or old 61 years and extends Nagging by peers, lack of under- age until death standing from teachers, unhappy ;ƌŝĐŬƐŽŶ͕ϭϵϱϬͿ home- school relationship make children dislike the school and Expectations and developmental tasks engage in antisocial behaviour during adulthood: d. Unemployment – Unemployment • Achieving a measure of personal among school dropouts and those autonomy who have no secured jobs tend to • Molding an identity cause delinquency. • Developing emotional stability e. Movies and comic books- Crime, • Establishing and consolidating a career gangster movies, glamour and sex • Becoming a part of a social group or movies stimulate young people to community commit offences. • Selecting a mate and adjusting to marriage

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• Establishing residence and managing a The Gastrointestinal System: home With increasing age there is decreased • Becoming a parent and rearing a child capacity for biting and chewing, decrease in the production of digestive enzymes, Physical and Cognitive Changes during decreased gastric and intestinal mobility Adulthood and lack of appetite. a. Physical Changes It has been found that the organ system of most per- The Cardiovascular System: sons show a 0.8 to 1 percent decline With the aging process, there is a decrease per year in functional ability after in the elasticity of blood vessels and blood the age of 30. Major physical cell production as well. changes with ageing are described The Central Nervous System (CNS): as (1) external changes (2) internal Beginning at about age 60, there is a changes, and (3) changes in sen- reduction of cerebral blood flow. There is sory capacities. also a decline in oxygen and glucose con- 1. External Changes sumption. The most definite change is the External changes refer to the outward symp- slowing down of responses. toms of growing old. The more observable 3. Changes in Sensory Capacities changes are those associated with the skin, With advancing age, there is gradual slow hair, teeth, and general posture. down in the sensory abilities. • Skin also becomes thick, hard, less elas- Vision: tic, brittle and dry and wrinkled. With • Increasing age brings in several prob- advancing age, the hair of the person lems in vision. continues to turn white and loses its • The lens continue to lose elasticity. luster and continues to thin. • The pupils become smaller and irregu- • Baldness and loss of teeth is common lar in shape. for many, dentures become a way of life. • The eyelids have a tendency to sag. • Most weakening occurs in the back and • Colour vision becomes less efficient. leg muscles, less in the arm muscles. • There is a progressive decline in energy Cognitive Changes during Adulthood production. Muscle tissue decreases in and Aging size and strength. The four major aspects of cognition includes memory, learning, attention and 2. Internal Changes intelligence. Old persons are found to Internal changes refer to the symptoms perform poorer than young ones on long- of growing old that are not visible or term memory tasks which require pro- obvious. cessing of information and organization The Respiratory System: of material. They are not in a position to With increasing age, there is reduction in learn skills. Attention span is also found breathing efficiency. Decreased oxygen to be lower than younger individuals. supply makes the old person less active, Intelligence tests indicate that old persons less aware and less strong. are slower on reaction time. Among the

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elderly, we often can find reduced abilities Challenging Areas That Require for complex decision making and slowing Adjustments during Old Age of performance. There are several challenges in different areas of old age which require 2.2.7- Old age – Personal and adjustments and intervention. For the social adjustments purpose of better understanding it can be The time at which old age begins is still ill discussed at four levels- biological, psy- defined. Sixty years is taken as the arbi- chological, sociological or psychological trary dividing line. or behavioural. Age divisions during old age: Biological aging and its • The young -old (60-69 years) This is chall enges– It includes changes in a transition period marked by many sensory- motor performance, muscle adjustments such as retirement and strength, brittleness of skeletal structure, declining strength, sharp reduction in visual acuity and decreased reaction time expectation and behaviours. and balance. These are examples of bio- • Middle-aged old (70-79 years) This logical aging which may influence attitude period is characterized by increasing and behaviour. deaths of friends and spouse, reduced Psychological aging and its participation in home and community adjustments – This consists of a general activities, increasing health problems, decline in the mental abilities that accom- contracting social world. pany old age. • Old (80-89 years) In this period, assistance is needed in maintenance Sociological aging and its of social contacts, there may be many chall enges – It refers to changes in social health problems and some may become roles- loss of spouse, vulnerability to dis- institutionalized or may lead a very ease, compulsory or voluntary retirement, sheltered life. loss of income and loss of status. • Very old ( 90 years and above ) Health Psycho- social aging and its problems are more severe and seri- chall enges – It refers to systematic changes ous with very limited activity in this in personality needs, expectations and period. behaviours as well as changes in roles and changes in relation to others. Specific Psychological Problems Faced By Old People a) Feeling of inadequacy. b) Lack sense of belonging and acceptance. c) Economic insecurity. d) Changing social attitudes e) Feeling of loneliness, uncertainty, restlessness.

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f) Feeling tired and depressed. 2. They need to recognize that they g) High on anxiety. have to explore new ways of coping h) Low self-esteem and worthlessness with their life events. Adjustments in old age 3. The elderly need to make greater Some of the adjustments people have to use of “information seeking” and make as they move into old age include: of “problem solving” rather than withdrawing or isolating. Health adjustment: One of the 4. They need to enhance their self- threats to the elderly is prolonged illness. confidence, self reliance, develop The aging body is highly vulnerable to healthy attitude about their strengths ravaging diseases and injury. The psycho- and weaknesses as well as learning and logical stressors of old age can also pro- maintaining effective coping skills voke psychological disorders. 5. Participate in various group Adjustment to retirement – activities such as joining clubs and Retirement is separation from a sphere of certain organizations for informal activity that has provided special social social interaction is very helpful for order, economic remuneration, personal the aged. identity and prestige for many years. The 6. Involvement in grand parenting abrupt termination of one’s livelihood helps the elderly satisfy many of their may be a great threat to the old people; personal and emotional needs. a welcome relief to some from tedious thankless jobs or a natural conclusion SUMMARY of one’s successful career. It may pro- • Human development and its challenges vide more time for some to pursue their deals with the various stages of the life dreams and pleasurable activities span a human being goes through from infancy to old age. • It includes the changes (physical, emo- 1st October is celebrated as the tional, social and cognitive) in the life International Day for Elderly People cycle of an individual and the various each year. developmental tasks in each stage. • Specific areas of concern such as juvenile delinquency, its causes and Coping with the Problems Faced During rehabilitation measures have been Old Age addressed. Different people adopt differ- • Emphasis has been given to children ent coping strategies to meet their life with special needs including those challenges. Some of the effective coping who are visually challenged, mentally strategies may be summarized as follows: challenged, orthopedically challenged, 1. The elderly need to develop an hearing and speech impaired with attitude of flexibility so that they may specific reference to the various dif- adapt to life’s pressures and problems ficulties they face along with coping of old age. mechanisms. 2 Human Development and its Challenges 40

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• Knowledge gained though the study of • Besides addressing the challenges in this lesson on human development and the adolescent stage in which the stu- its challenges will motivate students dents are , this chapter will prepare to pursue higher education in human students to prepare for adulthood and development or psychology. its various development tasks. • The information gathered through • The needs of the elderly and challenges this chapter may foster an interest faced by them are discussed in detail. among students to address the spe- Such knowledge will prepare students cific needs of differently abled chil- about the changes that are likely to dren either by pursuing research in take place during old age and mentally this domain or by specially equipping prepare them for the same. themselves to provide support to these children .

GLOSSARY

Hopping –(«ãNà) A short jump by a without thinking or learning person on one foot about it Scribbling - (x²Ô>à) To make Involuntary Reactions - meaningless marks or lines, with a (EåÖ[@JäL)Unintentional or pencil or pen unconscious action Grasp Objects –(YHT±ã>ã }Ú« Defecation - (IMÝ>ÚEà)waste [PÚ±Ô> ¯Jäz) a holding or matter remaining after food has griping an object or toy with the been digested is discharged from hands or arms the body through the anus Temporary Teeth - (Eä>T> Hä>ã) Prenatal Stage – (I>ÜZH Any of a set of early, temporary ²Ô¤¯äHØC>TMÝ) Period from (milk) teeth in young children fertilization till birth which fall out as the permanent Amniotic Fluid - (2ÝZGT}ÔKPÝ) teeth emerge Fluid in which the embryo or fetus is Calcifications – (>TàzJÝÂMÝ8³ suspended with in the uterus Ý®>ã>}GITxåLG) Bones are Postnatal - (K@PÚä¤L¤) Period hardened by the deposit of calcium of time immediately after a baby salts has been born Behavior (FCÚ[E) particular way of Umbilical Cord - (YETÜ®ãY>T}) acting The long, tube-like structure that Instinct- (6ã´Dß¶) The way connects a fetus to its mother’s people naturally react or behave, placenta

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Permanent Teeth - (KÛEKHà) who is unable to walk as a result of Permanent teeth (or adult teeth) illness, injury, or disability come after the set of primary teeth Microcephaly - (zJE[M) It is a and are normally intended to remain medical condition in which the brain in the mouth for the whole lifetime does not develop properly resulting Dominant hand - (ZIMTÔ>[>) in a smaller than normal head Hand which is used for performing Transition - (ITäLÝ) Passage from fine motors skills or tasks (e.g., one condition or one part to writing, holding etc) another Auxiliary hand - («[D[>) Distinguishes - (ZP²H©Ú>TØ©PET>) Supportive hand which is used to recognize a difference support the dominant hand for Menstruation - (ITECTÞ) The performing fine motors skills process in a woman of discharging Heredity - (IK®@TßÛE)The passing on blood and other material from the of physical or mental characteristics lining of the uterus at intervals genetically from one generation to of about one lunar month from another puberty until the menopause Orthopedic Problems - (8³ÝJà Juvenile Delinquency - zÔ>à>ã)Injuries of the skeleton (4NÝ¤äLPT>ã) Criminal or or tendons and ligaments unlawful acts committed by an Psychological – (IZGTEÚ«P)Related individual below the age of 18 to the mental and emotional state Economic Insecurity - (YHT±NT of a person ETKHT«>TÜå[I) This is the Swelling – ( Ô>Ý) An abnormal condition of not having stable enlargement of a part of the body income or other resources to support a standard of living Crutches – (7å²Z>Tã) A supportive long stick with a crosspiece at the Coping - (@ITÔ¤Ý) To face and deal top, used as a support under the with responsibilities, problems, armpit for use as an aid in walking or difficulties, especially successfully in a calm manner Wheelchair - (@Ô>KFTä>T) A chair fitted with wheels for use as a means of transport by a person

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Questions

I. Choose the correct answer 8. Gerontology is related to ______1. The prenatal period consist of a. Babyhood b)adulthood ______days b. old age d) infancy a. 270 days to 280 days 9. Old age is termed as ______b. 200 days to 210 days a. Age of increased individuality c. 230 days to 240 days b. Second Childhood period d. 180-200 days c. Period of storm and stress d. Age of temper tantrums 2. Babies should stand with support by a. 6 months b. 8 months 10. ------is a sensory motor stage b. 1 year d. 15 months a. Adulthood b. Childhood b. Infancy d. Babyhood 3. Babbling denotes a. Production of inarticulate mean- 11. At one year babies will weigh -----as ingless speech and sound much as their birth weight b. Uttering meaningful words a. Twice b. Thrice c. Production of sentences combining b. Four times d. five times three or more words II. Very short answer (2 marks) d. concrete sounds 1. Define period of the Partunate. 4. Gang age is ______2. Define endomorphic body form. a. Preschool stage 3. What do you mean by temper tantrum? b. late childhood 4. Who is a special child? c. adolescence d. adulthood 5. How can you motivate the self-esteem of a child who is visually impaired? 5. Cliques are usually made up of 6. Suggest two ways of preventing a. Only one close friend juvenile delinquency? b. less than nine friends 7. What is the difference between gross c. crowds of people motor skills and fine skills? d. 2-3 friends 8. What could be the reasons for over 6. Deficiency of vitamin-A causes sensitivity among 12 year old children? impaired vision in dim light known as 9. Define handedness. a. night blindness 10. Why is adolescence called a period of b. colour blindness transition? c. squint eyes d. keratoamalacia 11. Define juvenile delinquency. 7. IQ is a. Intelligence quota b. intellectual quota c. intelligence quotient d. information quotient

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III Answer briefly (3 marks) IV Write in detail (5 Marks) 1. List the gross motor skills of a 5 year 1. Explain the physical and emotional old child. development that takes place during 2. What are the types of visual babyhood. impairment? 2. Describe the emotional expressions 3. Kal who is a two year old baby has only during early childhood. one temporary teeth- Is this normal 3. Describe the postural and locomotion development ? changes during baby hood? 4. What is the difference beteen cliques, 4. Sketch the emotional development of crowds and chums ? an individual from infancy to old age. 5. Abdul can jump in place by the end of 5. Elaborate on the physical development two years. Is his growth normal? during late childhood 6. List the characteristics of the 6. Suggest suitable ways in which you adolescent period. will help a person with orthopedic 7. Lucy can catch a large ball while disability. skipping by end of 4 years. State the 7. What are the special needs of the type of skill involved. visually and hearing impaired 8. Mohan who is 12 years old has trouble children? telling the difference between what is 8. Babyhood is a period of adjustments real and what is a fantasy and does not – Explain. obey commands. What could be the 9. Is adolescence a period of storm and reasons for his behaviour? stress? Explain. 9. Retirement is a challenging period in 10. Trace the changes in developmental the life of an individual –Justify tasks among adolescents and adults. 10 11. Juvenile delinquency can be avoided if suitable preventive measures are taken and addressed- Explain. 12. Adult hood is the period in which one has to make several crucial decisions- Elaborate 13. How can old age be classified? Describe the psychological changes during old age . From above graph it is observed Anita was 14. What could be reasons for depression weighing 30 kilograms at 6 years. Her weight and anxiety during old age? Suggest is increasing at the rate of 1.3 to 2.3 kg per suitable ways in which old people can year. By the end of 11 years she is observed cope with the changes in this phase of to weigh 40 kilograms. Is this observation their life? normal? 15. What are the various changes during old age that make this period a challenging phase in a person’s life?

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REFERENCES 7. UNICEF, Rapid Survey on Children 1. Devadas.P.R& Jaya.N (1996) A text- (RSOC) 2013-14 book on Child Development, Macmil- 8. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_ lan Publishing company, New Delhi deficit_hyperactivity_disorder 2. Hurlock,E.B (1995) Developmental 9. www.blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodin- Psychology a Life-Span Approach, V tervention1/category/1-3-what-is-de- edition, Tata McGraw- Hill publishing velopment-motor-development company Ltd, New Delhi 10. www.education.com/reference/article/ 3. Jaya. N &Narasimhan. S (2006) Parent- social-emotional-development-2. ing Children Below Two Years, Abacus 11. www.kidsmatter.edu.au/mental-health-mat- Foundation, Coimbatore ters/social-and-emotional-learning/ 4. Schiamberg. L.B (1985) Human Devel- emotional-development opment, II edition, Macmillan Pub- 12. www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/body-type lishing Company, New York. 13. www.scanva.org/support-for-par- 5. Suriakanthi.A. (1997). Child Develop- ents/parent-resource-center-2/ ment -An Introduction. Gandhigram: social-development-in-children Kavtha Publisher. 14. www.what-when-how.com/child- 6. Srivasta ,S. & Rani.S. (2014). Textbook of development/motor-development- Human Developmental Approach . New child-development Delhi: S.Chand & Company Pvt Ltd.

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Chapter 3 Food Science

Learning Objectives

In this chapter the student will • Understand the diverse functions of food • Gain knowledge of the various food sources and the different nutrients present in them • Understand concepts of the basic four food groups, food guide pyramid and “my plate” • Get familiar with the different cooking methods • Learn the methods of enriching food • Learn about various kitchen equipment required for cooking • Know about techniques that would ensure safety in the kitchen

3.1 INTRODUCTION man ate food most naturally. Fruits, veg- Food has been a necessity for human etables, cereals, pulses, fats, oils or sugars survival since the very beginning of the were all consumed as they were available world. Food is required for every living without any refinement or processing. creature. Good food is reflected by opti- Later man discovered methods of cook- mum health and wellbeing. In early times ing and also preserving food according to his need. By accident man discovered fire and then experimented and began to cook non-vegetarian foods like fish, meat etc. by direct roasting on fire. This was followed by salting food and dehydration of foods as preservation techniques. The importance of food gave rise to a science called “food science”. This is “a discipline in which the engineering, biological and physical sciences are used The first wealth is health. to study the nature of foods, the causes of — Ralph Waldo Emerson deterioration, the principles underlying

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food processing, and the improvement of a) Energy Yielding Foods foods for the consuming public”.

Food has been a basic part of our sur- Food Sources: Cereals, millets, roots vival. Next to air and water, food is the utmost and tubers, sweets, jaggery and sugar, important thing for survival. Food is essential fats and oils. for growth, development, active and healthy life of an individual. Through, centuries, food has also been used, as an expression of love, Energy is mainly provided to our body friendship and social acceptance. through carbohydrates and fats in the food. Carbohydrates and fats provide energy to sus- Food refers to anything, which nour- tain involuntary processes in the body for con- ishes the body. It would include solids, semi- tinuous life, to carry out voluntary activities solids and liquids which when consumed like professional, household and recreational help to sustain the body and keep it healthy. activities and to convert food ingested into usa- Food is a substance, which after ingestion, ble nutrients in the body. The energy needed is digestion and absorption is capable of being metabolized by oxidation of foods consumed. utilized by the body for its various functions. b) Body building foods 3.2 FUNCTIONS OF FOOD Food is classified according to their func- Food Sources: Pulses, Legumes, tions in the body as shown in Figure 1. meat, fish, poultry, egg, milk and 3.2.1 Physiological Functions milk products. of Food The physiological functions of food can In our body there is continuous break- be further sub divided as follows down of old tissues and building up of new a. Energy yielding foods tissues going on at all ages irrespective of b. Body building foods the apparent growth thus maintaining a c. Protective and regulatory food. need for body building nutrients.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

FUNCTIONS

SOCIAL

FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS OF FOOD

PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

p Fig 1 Functions of food

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For the body building purpose, the major nutrients are proteins and minerals. Foods rich in protein are called For example consumption of vitamin A body building foods. Milk, meat, egg and & vitamin C rich food help in building fish are rich in proteins of high quality resistance in the body to fight against due to the presence of essential amino invading organisms acids. Pulses and nuts are good sources of protein but the protein is not of good 3.2.2 Psychological Functions quality because they lack some of the of Food essential amino acids which are rich in The second major function of food is psy- cereals. chological function. Food also satisfies c) R egulatory and protective function certain psychological needs of human of foods beings. Foods indirectly helps to provide a sense of security, love and acceptance. Every one grows in a particular Food Sources: Vegetables and fruits. culture with its own unique food habits. The person begins to associate the food habits and foods commonly consumed These foods regulate the activities of the as it gives a sense of security and satiety. body such as beating of the heart, main- Even a nutritionally balanced meal may tenance of body temperature, muscle con- not be satisfying to the individual, if food traction, control of water balance, clotting included is unfamiliar or distasteful. of blood, removal of waste products from the body, etc. 3.2.3 Social Functions of Food Our body uses water in all its cells, Food is also a symbol of social life. When organs and tissues to help regulate its a meal is shared with anyone else, the temperature and maintain other bodily acceptance of friendship and respect for functions. Our body loses water through that person are expressed. breathing, sweating and digestion, its Earlier only persons enjoying equal important to rehydrate by drinking fluids status in society ate together. A person and eating foods that contain water. would never share a meal with someone Dietary fibers found mainly in inferior to him in social terms. fruits and vegetables, wholegrains and Food is a medium through which legumes provide health benefits such happiness is expressed. For example feasts as relieving constipation, maintaining are given at specific states of life such as healthy weight and lowering the risk of birthday, marriage etc. Sweets are also diabetes and heart diseases. distributed and exchanged to mark cer- Apart from regulating our body tain auspicious occasions like festivals. processes, food also protects us from vari- Such gatherings bring people together and ous infections, diseases and injuries. help to strengthen mutual friendship.

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3.3 BASIC FOUR FOOD i. Planning wholesome balanced GROUPS AND ITS menus to achieve nutritional ade- SIGNIFICANCE quacy. Food groups have been classified accord- ii. Assessing nutritional status – a ing to various methods from time to time. brief diet history of an individual ICMR (2011) has classified the different can disclose inadequacies of food foods items into four food groups as listed and nutrients from any of the four in Table 1. They are groups. 1. Cereal, millets and pulses Based on the assessment, nutrition educa- 2. Milk, and animal products tion can be imparted to the individual. 3. Fruits and vegetables The quantity of the meals can be 4. Fats, oils and nuts improved or is said to be optimum when Significance of the Four-Food Group the diets are complete. Every meal should System have foods providing energy, protein, The four food group system can be used vitamins and minerals fibre and adequate for the following purposes: amount of water.

Table 1 Basi c Four Food Groups Food Groups Main Nutrient 1 Cereal millets and pulses: Rice, Wheat, Ragi, Bajra, Maize,Rice flakes Energy, Protein, invisible fats, Vit B1, Pulses and legumes : Bengal gram, black gram, B2, Folic acid, iron, fibre green gram, red gram, rajmah Energy, proteins, Invisible fats, Vit B1, B2, folic acid, calcium, iron fibre 2 Milk and Animal products: milk, curd, Skimmed Protein, Fat, Vit B2, Calcium milk, Cheese, Chicken, Liver, Fish, Egg, Meat 3 Fruits and vegetables : Mango, Guava, tomato, Papaya, Orange, etc Carotenoids, Vitamin C, Vit B2, Iron, Green leafy vegetables: Amaranth, spinach, folic acid, fibre coriander leaves, fenugreek leaves, Drumstick Carotenoids, vitamin B2,folic acid, fibre leaves Carotenoids, folic acid, calcium Other vegetables: carrot, Brinjal, beans, Onions, etc 4 Oils, Fats and nuts Fats, Butter, ghee, hydrogenated fat, cooking oil Energy, Fat, essential fatty acid like groundnut, mustard, sunflower Energy sugar, jaggery, Sugar,Cane Protein, Omega 3 fatty acid Almonds, walnuts, and gingelly seeds

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Colourful rainbow of fruits and vegetables presents you with following health benefits.

Balanced diet can be defined as one which contains different types of foods in such quantities and proportions that the need for all the nutrients are adequately met and a small extra provision is made for nutrients as a margin of safety.

Millets Millets are small – seeded grasses that are REAL FOOD IS THE KEY hard and grow well in dry zones as rain- TO HEALTH fed crops under marginal conditions of What do we mean by real food? soil fertility and moisture. Millets are one Eating fruits, vegetables and whole of the oldest foods known to humans and grains that haven’t been overly pro- possibly the first cereal grains to be used cessed will keep you healthy. By eating for domestic purposes. They are highly whole food, you can avoid over-pro- nutritious, gluten free. Hence they are cessed foods that are packed with soothing and easy to digest. They are con- sugar, sodium, carbohydrates and fats. sidered to be the least allergic and most

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digestible grains available. Compared to rice, polished rice, millets release lesser percentage of glucose and over a longer period of time this lowers the risk of diabetes.

Activity 1 List the Different kinds of Millets available in the market

Activity 2 3.3.1 Types and Importance of Millets Formulate a recipe using millets Millets are particularly high in minerals like iron, magnesium, phosphorous and potassium, finger millet (ragi) is richest in • Main meal items like ragi kali is highly calcium content. nutritious. • Millets can also lend themselves to the Kinds of millets: baking of cakes and biscuits as a 20% 1. Barnyard Millet – Kuthiravali to 50% level of the cereal flour is being 2. Finger Millet – Ragi used and therefore enhance the nutri- 3. Foxtail Millet – Thinai tive value of the product. The nutritional 4. Kodo Millet – Varagu content of millets is given in Table 2. 5. Little Millet – Samai 6. Pearl Millet – Kambu 3.4 FOOD PYRAMID 7. Proso Millet – Panivaragu Food pyramid is a visual tool that is used 8. Sorghum – Cholam as a guide in designing diet. It is developed • Millets can be incorporated in our as a guide to provide a frame work for the daily diet for almost all the meals and types and amounts of food that can be eaten dishes. Breakfast items like porridge, in combination to provide a healthy diet. dosa, idli, uppuma, puttu,ragi kali,- doughnuts, vadas, bonda, chapathis, The Indian adaption of the food pooris etc are some of the commonly pyramid is divided into four levels prepared items.

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Table 2 Nutritional Content in Millets Iron Calcium Minerals Fibre Protein Millet (in mg) (in mg) (in g) (in g) (in g) Pearl millet 16.9 38 2.3 1.3 10.6 Finger millet 3.9 344 2.7 3.6 7.3 Foxtail millet 2.8 31 3.3 8.0 12.3 Proso millet 0.8 14 1.9 2.2 12.5 Kodo millet 0.5 27 2.6 9 8.3 Little millet 9.3 17 1.5 7.6 7.7 Barnyard millet 15.2 11 4.4 10.1 11.2

Source: Millet Network of India of foods according to recommended level should be eaten liberally. consumption. 3. Animal source foods and oils on the 1. Cereals, legumes / beans, dairy prod- third level to be eaten moderately ucts at the base should be eaten in suf- 4. At the apex highly processed foods ficient quantity. that are high in sugar and fat are to be 2. Vegetables and fruits on the second eaten sparingly.

p Fig 2 Food Pyramid

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One peculiarity of the Indian adaptation Boiled rice tastes different from of the food pyramid is the recommenda- jeera rice or pea pulao because these are tion to do regular physical activity. The cooked differently. Similarly, a chapatti pyramid provides information on the food tastes different from a puree or paratha, types and amount necessary to meet daily again because all these are cooked differ- dietary requirements. Each food group is ently. Generally, vegetables like tomatoes, represented by a band or level. Narrow cucumber and fruits are best eaten raw bands at the apex indicate lower quanti- while wheat, rice, pulses, potatoes and ties, while wider bands at the base means other vegetables must be cooked. Cooking that more from that food group needs to providing variety and the main objectives be consumed. of cooking are: Most important is to include 2 to • Improves the taste and food quality. 3 litre of water each day as it’s the most • Cooking food to the required tempera- important nutrient of all, accounting for ture for a required length of time can 70% of our body weight and also helping destroy all harmful microorganisms in in the upkeep of our health. food. It is very important that an indi- • Cooking improves digestibility. vidual incorporates the principles of good • Cooking increases variety. nutrition such as variety, a balanced intake of nutrients and moderation. The best way 3.5.1 Moist Heat Methods to meet the daily requirements is to eat a i) Boiling: Boiling is cooking foods by diet that combines cereals, fruits, vegeta- just immersing them in water at 100°C bles, meat, fish, poultry legumes and dairy and maintaining the water at that tem- products. Eating a variety of foods daily perature till the food is tender. It does not as guided by the “Food Pyramid” will help require special skill and equipment. It is to provide all the nutrients needed by time consuming. the body.

3.5 METHODS OF COOKING Merits: 1. Simple method, does not require skill Cooking has been practiced since times or any particular equipment. immemorial. The ancient man ate only 2. Uniform cooking can be achieved. raw food.Once a piece of meat fell into the fire accidentally and got roasted. The Demerits: ancient man ate this piece of roasted meat 1. Continuous boiling damages the struc- and liked it. Thus began the process of ture and texture of food. cooking. It has evolved a lot since then. 2. There is a loss of vitamins B and C if Cooking offers a wide variety of the cooking water is discarded. foods. For example food items like roti, 3. It is time consuming and may lead to puri, paratha, rice, pulao, pulses, vegetable, increased use of fuel. salad, chutney, pickle, curd, butter milk, 4. Loss of colour —Water soluble pig- fruits, etc.are prepared from different food. ments may be lost during cooking.

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METHODS OF COOKING

MOIST HEAT METHODS DRY HEAT METHODS COMBINATION METHODS

BOILING BAKING BRAISING SIMMERING GRILLING POACHING ROASTING STEWING SAUTEING STEAMING FRYING PRESSURE COOKING BLANCHING

p Fig 3 Methods of cooking

Activity 3 simmering. It is a useful method when foods have to be cooked for a long time to You must have eaten potatoes cooked make it tender. (eg) vegetables. in different ways. Can you name some? Merits: ii) Simmering 1. Food can be cooked with less chances When food is cooked in a pan with a well of burning. fitted lid at a temperature just below the 2. The flavour of the food can be boiling point 82°–99°C, it is known as enhanced.

Stewing Steaming Pressu re Cooker

PoachingBoiling Simmering Blanching

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3. Does not require any skill or specific v) Steaming equipment. This method requires the food to be cooked in steam. This is generated from Demerits: vigorously boiling water or liquid in a pan 1. Takes a long time for cooking the food. so that the food is completely surrounded 2. Precaution must be taken to ensure by steam and not in contact with the water that the food does not get burnt. or liquid. Here the food gets cooked at iii) Poaching 100 degrees. This involves cooking in the minimum Merits: amount of liquid at a temperature of 80°– 1. Less chances of burning. 85°C. Foods generally poached are eggs 2. Texture of food is better, as it is made and fish. light and fluffy. Merits: 3. Saves time and fuel. 1. No special equipment is needed. 4. Steamed foods like idli and idiappam 2. It is a quick method of cooking and have very negligible fat and are easy thus saves fuel. to digest, and are good for children, 3. Poached foods are easily digested as no elderly and therapeutic diets. fat is added. Demerits: Demerits: 1. Steaming equipment is required. 1. Poached foods may not appeal to ev- 2. This method is limited to the prepara- erybody as they are bland to taste. tion of selected foods. 2. Foods can get burnt if not monitored vi) Pressure cooking closely. In pressure cooking escaping steam is 3. Water soluble nutrients may be lost if trapped and kept under pressure so that they are leached into the water. the temperature of the boiling water and iv) Stewing steam can be raised above 100°C thus This is a gentle method of cooking in a pan reducing cooking time. Foods cooked in with a tight fitting lid, using small quan- pressure cooker are rice, dhal, vegetables tities of liquid to cover only half the food. and meat. The liquid is brought to a boiling point and Merits: then the heat applied is reduced to maintain 1. Cooking time is less compared to oth- the cooking at simmering temperature ie., er methods. 98°C. Apples can be cooked by this method. 2. Nutrient and flavour loss is minimized. Merits: 3. Conserves time and fuel and different 1. Loss of nutrients is avoided as the wa- items can be cooked at the same time. ter used for cooking is not discarded. 4. Less chance of burning. 2. Flavour is retained. 5. Constant monitoring is not necessary. Demerits: Demerits: 1. The process is time consuming and 1. The initial investment cost may not be there is wastage of fuel. affordable by everybody.

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2. Knowledge of the use, care and main- 2. Destroys enzymes that bring about tenance of the cooker is required to spoilage. prevent accidents. 3. Texture can be maintained, while im- 3. Careful watch on the cooking time is proving the colour and flavor of the necessary to prevent over cooking. food. vii) Blanching Demerits: In meal preparation, it is often necessary 1. Loss of nutrients if cooking water is only to peel off the skin of fruits and veg- discarded. etables without making them tender. This can be achieved by the method of blanch- 3.5.2 Dry Heat Methods ing. In this method food is dropped in In this either air or fat is used as the boiling water for 5 seconds to 2 minutes medium of cooking. depending on the texture of food. This helps to remove the skin without softening 3.5.2.1 Air as a Medium the food. of Cooking Blanching can also be done by i) Grilling pouring enough hot water on the food to Grilling consists of placing the food immerse it for some time or subjecting below or above or in between a red-hot foods to boiling temperatures for short surface. This results in the browning of periods and then immediately immersing the food. them in cold water. This process causes Merits: the skin to become loose and then can be 1. Quick method of cooking. peeled off easily. 2. It improves the appearance, texture Merits: and flavour of the food. 1. Peels can easily be removed to improve 3. Minimum oil is used. digestibility. Demerits: 1. Foods can be burnt due to carelessness. 2. Grilling denatures the proteins reducing their availability. ii) Pan broiling or roasting When food is cooked uncovered on heated metal or a frying pan, the method is known as pan-broiling, (e.g) chapathis. Merits: 1. Quick method of cooking. 2. It improves the appearance, texture and flavor of the food. 3. Minimum oil is used. 4. Spices are easily powdered if they are first roasted.

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Deep Frying Shallow Frying Grilling Sauteing Baking

Roast ing Stir Frying Barbecuing Pan Frying

Demerits: 2. Baking skills are necessary to obtain 1. Foods can be burnt due to carelessness. a product with ideal texture, Flavour 2. Grilling denatures the proteins. and colour characteristics. 3. Careful monitoring needed to prevent iii) Baking scorching. Here food gets cooked by hot air inside the oven. Foods baked are generally 3.5.2.2 Fat as a Medium brown and crisp on the top and soft of Cooking and porous in the centre, (eg) cakes and breads. The temperature that is nor- i) Sauteing mally maintained in the oven is between This method involves cooking in just 120°C–260°C. enough of oil to cover the base of the pan. Foods cooked by sauteing are generally Merits: vegetables used as side dishes in a menu. 1. It gives a unique flavour to food. 2. Foods are made light and fluffy – cakes, Merits: rolls, custard, bread. 1. Takes less time. 3. Certain foods can be prepared only by 2. Simple technique. this method – bread, cakes. 3. Minimum oil is used. 4. Uniform and bulk cooking can be 4. Constant monitoring is needed to pre- achieved. vent scorching. 5. Flavour and texture of the food is en- Demerits: hanced. 1. Constant monitoring is needed to pre- 6. A variety of dishes can be made. vent scorching. Demerits: ii) Shallow and deep fat frying 1. Special equipment like oven is re- Here food is cooked on a tava with little oil (eg) quired. chapathi, cutlets, etc. Deep fat frying Food is

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totally immersed in hot oil and cooked. The temperature maintained is 180°–220°C (eg.) Samosa, Bajji, etc. The taste of the food is improved along with texture. Merits: 1. Very quick method of cooking. 2. The calorific value of food is increased as fat is the medium of cooking. 3. It gives a delicious flavour and appearance to the food. 4. Taste and texture are improved. Demerits: p Fig 4 Microwave oven 1. Constant monitoring is needed to prevent scorching. or no water and thus preserves the natural 2. The food may become soggy due to colour of vegetables and fruits. too much fat absorption. 3. Fried foods are not easily digested. Merits: 4. Repeated use of heated oils will have ill 1. Quick method – 10 times faster than effects on health. the conventional method. So loss of nutrients can be minimized. 3.5.3 Combination Method 2. Only the food gets heated and the oven i) Braising does not get heated. Braising is a combined method of roasting 3. Foods get heated uniformly. and stewing in a pan with a tight fitting 4. Leftovers can be reheated without chang- lid. Meat is cooked by this method. ing the flavor and texture of the product. Examples of foods cooked by braising are: 5. Microwave cooking enhances the fla- 1. Uppuma : Roasting and vor of the food because it cooks quick- boiling ly with little or no water. 2. Cutlet : Boiling and shallow frying. Demerits: 3. Vermicelli payasam : Roasting and 1. Baked products do not get a brown simmering. surface. 2. Microwave cooking cannot be used for 3.5.4 Innovative Methods simmering, deep frying or stewing. i) Microwave Cooking 3. Flavour of all ingredients do not blend Electromagnetic waves from a power well as the cooking time is too short. source called magnetron are absorbed by the food and food becomes hot at once. ii) Solar Cooking Microwave cooking enhances the flavour Solar cooker works on solar energy. Solar of food because it cooks quickly with little cooker consists of well insulated box, the inside of which is painted dull black and 3 Food Science 58

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Activity 4

Observe and list the changes in the colour, texture and taste of the following food items after they are cooked. Also note the method used for cooking them. • Spinach • Rice • Toor dhal • Potato • Egg p Fig 5 Solar cooker is covered by one or more transparent 3.6 STEPS IN MINIMIZING covers, the purpose of which is to trap the LOSS OF NUTRIENTS heat inside the solar cooker. The temper- DURING COOKING ature maintained is around 140°C. Cost Some nutrients are lost when foods are of the cooker and the maintenance cost is cooked. Nutrients like vitamin B and C low. It takes longer time and special ves- are lost when foods are boiled or soaked sels need to be used in water and the water is thrown away. Nutrients like vitamin A are lost when Merits: fats are used for cooking foods. Therefore 1. Simple techniques – requires no spe- we must think of ways of saving these cial skill. nutrients. 2. Cost effective as natural sunlight is the • Wash vegetables before cutting them form of energy so that minerals and vitamins are not 3. Original flavour of food is retained destroyed. Do not wash the foods more 4. There is no danger of scorching or than necessary. burning • Peel vegetables thinly as vitamins and 5. Loss of nutrients is minimum as minerals are found just under the skin. only little amount of water is used in • Cut vegetables into large pieces just cooking before cooking. Small pieces mean Demerits: greater loss of nutrients. 1. Special equipment is needed • If vegetables are to be cooked in water, 2. Slow cooking process put them into boiling water. Scrape the 3. Cannot be used in the absence of sun- peels very thin. light-rainy season, late evening and • Use just enough water for cooking. Do night not throw away the extra water. Use this

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• To make proper selection and prepara- extra water to cook some other food. tion of foods. • Do not use cooking soda. Use of tam- • To consume food in a balanced manner. arind or lemon juice helps to conserve • To improve the flavour and texture of the vitamins. the food. • Cook rice in just enough water which • To get variety in food. gets absorbed during cooking. • To assist in planning the daily menu, • Cook in a pan which has a well fitting keeping in view the nutrient content of lid. When you cook in an uncovered the food. pan most nutrients are lost. • To prevent deficiency diseases in the • Do not overcook the food as many body. nutrients will be destroyed. • To develop good food habits. Methods of Enrichment of Nutrients Activity 5 There are three methods by which one can You love to eat boiled rice and dhal. enhance or increase the nutrients present Rice has to be boiled with lots of water in food. and the extra water is thrown away. You i) Combination know that throwing this water means ii) Fermentation we throw away the soluble nutrients iii) Germination present in rice. i) Combination Why is it necessary to break this Combination is the process of combining habit? cheaper and commonly available foods How can this problem be solved? from different food groups to improve the quality of nutrients. Combining of foods from different 3.7 FORTIFICATION AND food groups is the easiest way of eating all ENRICHMENT nutrients. Fortification is adding nutrients to the food even though the nutrient is already present in food. Fortification is done to improve the nutritive value whereas the process of improving the nutrient levels of nutrients which might be lost during processing in foods by special methods is called Enrichment. Importance of Enhancing Nutritive Value of Food • To meet the nutritional requirements of the body. Combination of foods

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Combination of foods improves the Curd, bread, dhokla and idli are all quality of nutrients. Cereals lack certain examples of fermented foods. essential amino acids and these are pres- Advantages of fermentation ent in dhals. On the other hand dhals lack a) Fermentation improves the digest- some other essential amino acids that are ibility of foods. The microorgan- present in cereals. The quality of proteins isms which cause fermentation becomes as good as that of milk. The com- break the proteins and carbohy- bination of a variety of foods ensures bet- drates into smaller parts, which are ter availability of nutrients. easier to digest. Combination helps to b) During fermentation of cereals i) Eat a diet that has good quality and foods like peas, beans etc. the nutrients. minerals, calcium, phosphorus, ii) Use cheaper and easily available and iron are changed into better foods that enhance the nutrient quality ones. These are then easily content of food considerably. absorbed by the body. iii) Provide balanced diet to the family. c) Fermented foods become spongy ii) Fermentation and soft and are liked by children Fermentation is a process in which some and adults. micro-organisms are added to the food. iii) Germination They change nutrients already present in Germination is a process in which small the foods into simpler and better forms shoots come out of the dhal or cereal when and also make other new nutrients. these are kept with small amount of water. Fermentation makes the dough rise The grains and pulses to be sprouted need and become almost double in quantity. to be soaked in just enough water so that During fermentation the microorganisms all of it is absorbed. If the extra water in use up some of the nutrients present in the which they are soaked is thrown away, a dough and change them into other better lot of nutrients are lost. quality nutrients. They also make some Grains like wheat, bajra, jawar, etc. new nutrients. can also be sprouted. These grains can

Curd Germination

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then be dried in shade and roasted lightly • liquid measuring cup with space at top on a tawa. They can be ground and used • spatula to level off dry ingredients in many dishes. Pulses are also sprouted first and then steamed and consumed. The time and water which each grain Slicing and Cutting Tools or pulse needs for soaking and sprout- • paring knife cleans/pares fruits and ing is different. Normally 8–16 hours vegetables are needed for soaking and 12–24 hours • utility knife for all cutting purposes for sprouting. The cloth in which the • butcher knife-heavy duty for large cuts soaked dhal is tied should be kept moist of meat all the time. • bread knife has serrated edge Germination helps • chef’s knife/French knife for slice, dice, i) Increase the digestibility of food chop a triangle blade a) Some carbohydrates and proteins • slicing knife has a long narrow blade are broken down into smaller and used for meat and cabbage easily digestible forms. b) Grains and pulses become soft after • carving knife for meat sprouting, so they take less time • peeler for peeling fruits and vegeta- for cooking and are easy for you to bles digest. • kitchen shears ii) Increase the nutritive value of food • cutting board with no additional cost • grater Some vitamins and minerals become more • mixing tools when foods are germinated Vitamin B becomes almost double in quantity while • baking tools vitamin C increases almost 10 times. • cooking tools • kitchen aids 3.8 KITCHEN EQUIPMENT • cookware Knowing the names and uses of equip- • cleaning equipment ment is as important as knowing where to The minor kitchen equipment is used find them in a kitchen. mostly for prepreparation of foods. Minor Equipment: The small equipment that we use in the kitchen for food are Major Equipment: The major kitchen known as minor equipment. equipment that are used for everyday cooking would include a food processor Measuring equipment (mixee cum grinder/blender), refriger- • dry measuring cups for solid ator, microwave oven and even a small ingredients non-commercial oven cum toaster and • measuring spoons for small amounts grill.

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Minor Equipments

Food processor (mixer)

Oven Cum Toaster and Grill Refrigerator These major equipment are very essential for daily use. The refrigerator is used for storing food and keeping it fresh free from spoilage. These foods include vegetables, fruits, eggs, milk and milk products and leftover cooked food also. The freezer helps to store and preserve foods, especially raw food items like non-vegetarian foods such as fish, meat and chicken and their products at a much lower temperature (at zero degrees centigrade and below).

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Activity 6

Identify the given kitchen equipment used at home and mention their uses

Strainer

Frying pan

Cooking pot

sci sor

Thermos

Cutting board (Potato) peeler Tongs

3.9 BASIC RULES OF a plan for kitchen cleanliness, and have KITCHEN SAFETY necessary safety equipment at your disposal. Cooking is fun, but kitchen safety is a priority. There are many types of equipment • Store knives in a wooden block or in a in the kitchen and environmental hazards drawer that can be extremely dangerous. Sharp • Never cook with loose clothes on and objects like knives, open fire by the oven, keep long hair tied back. electrical appliances, and even bacteria • Never cook while wearing dangling around the kitchen. jewellery • Keep pot holders nearby and use them Observing basic rules of kitchen • Turn pot handles away from the front safety is a good habit to develop. To pre- of the stove. vent serious injuries or accidents: always • Don’t let temperature-sensitive foods pay attention to what you’re doing, adopt sit out in the kitchen. 3 Food Science 64

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• Wipe up spills immediately. DO YOU KNOW? • Separate raw meat and poultry from other items whenever you use or store Alloxen, a byproduct of bleaching white them. flour which is often found in junk food, • Wash your hands before handling food leads to diabetes by destroying pancre- and after handling meat or poultry. atic beta cells • Get a fire extinguisher for the kitchen.

Follow these steps to keep cuts clean and peroxide or iodine, which could irri- prevent infections and scars. tate the cut. • Wash your hands. First, wash up with • Remove any dirt or debris. Use a pair soap and water so you don’t get bac- of tweezers cleaned with alcohol to teria into the cut and cause an infec- gently pick out any dirt, gravel, glass, tion. If you’re on the go, use hand or other material in the cut. sanitizer. • Stop the bleeding. Put pressure on the Generally a good antiseptic cream (sil- cut with a gauze pad or clean cloth. verex or burnol) should be kept handy. Keep the pressure on for a few min- It is advisable to have a small first aid kit utes. readily available in the kitchen. • Clean the wound. Once you’ve stopped the bleeding, rinse the cut under cool SUMMARY running water or use a saline wound wash. Clean the area around the wound 1. Having learnt about the functions of with soap and a wet washcloth. Don’t food, the different food groups and get soap in the cut, because it can irri- their nutrients, one would understand tate the skin. And don’t use hydrogen the importance of a balanced diet and would also be able to plan a balanced diet from the locally available foods . 2. Knowledge of the different methods FIRST AID BOX CONTENTS of cooking along with their merits and demerits enables one to choose the best method of cooking for any given First aid manual Syringes food, so as to ensure the availability of Band aid Guaze (different maximum nutrients . Scissors (small) sizes) 3. A study on the different kitchen equip- Lotion Thermometer ment and appliances helps in familiar- Roll Bandages Contact lenses izing the same. The chapter also throws Antiseptic wipes Gloves light on simple first aid measures and different methods of improving the nutritional quality of common foods p Fig 6 Contents of a First Aid Box like cereals and legumes.

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ICT CORNER

Step 1: Scan the QR code from your mobile and download ‘Food Science’ app. Step 2: Select ‘Fruits’ tab and explore the list of fruits with its nutritional values. Step 3: Select ‘Vegetables’ tab and explore the list of vegetables with its nutritional values. Step 4: Try to calculate and balance nutritional values of our daily needs with the food items.

Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4

Food Science App’s URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.dhiraj. foodscience&hl=en

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ICT CORNER

Step: 1 Type URL or scan the QR code. ‘Talking food pyramid’ web page will open. Step: 2 Click on the picture to start ‘Talking food pyramid. Step: 3 Place the mouse over the different parts of the food group to hear from the chef. At the same time healthy tips will appear in the text box.

Step1 Step2 Step3

URL: http://www.nourishinteractive.com/kids/healthy-games /13-interactive-food-pyramid-five-food-groups

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GLOSSARY Existence - (4±Ü®) Maintenance of life Degenerative - (z[E¶) Progressive loss of function (of organs or tissue) Physiological - (6CJà) Relating to physiology Palatability - (9ä®ÚEå[I) appetizing

Regulatory - (;µÕ¤¯[L) To control or Marginal - (zJ) small direct Domestic - (6ãFTØ©) family/home/ Antioxidants - (3ÔAZGäL) A private substance that inhibits oxi dation

QUESTIONS I. Choose the correct answer ______. a. steaming 1. ______is the combination b. boiling method of cooking c. stewing a. Braising d. pressure cooking b. Boiling c. Blanching 5. ______is a poor source of iron. d. Sautéing a. green leafy vegetables 2. ______is an example of minor b. liver equipment c. milk a. Mixie d. jaggery b. Grinder 6. The process of adding microorganisms c. Cooker to food is called d. Knife a. germination 3. A method of cooking where food is b. fermentation . cooked without coming in contact c. fortification with water is called ______. d. additional cooking a. steaming 7. The base of the food pyramid compris- b. boiling es of c. stewing a. Fruits d. pressure cooking. b. sugar c. Meat 4. The moist heat method which pre- d. Cereals serves the maximum nutrients is called

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ll. Very short answer (2 marks) 9. Draw the food pyramid 10. Suggest three ingredients in a health 1. Define the food guide pyramid? drink for school children 2. What is “colour my plate” 3. List any 10 articles that should be pres- IV. Write in detail (5 marks) ent in the first aid box. 1. Discuss the importance of the food 4. List the important nutrients present in pyramid. millets 2. What are the moist heat methods of 5. What is fortification? Give an example. cooking – Explain in detail 6. Which method of cooking is most ef- 3. Elaborate on the kitchen equipment fective in conserving nutrients in rice ? used in day to day cooking III. Answer briefly (3 marks) 4. Rita suffers from protein energy deficiency. Suggest three recipes to en- 1. What are the functions of food? hance her health status 2. Define germination and its benefits? 5. Is there a loss of nutrients during 3. What are the merits of steaming foods? cooking? How can nutrient losses be 4. List the basic four food groups? prevented 5. Compare the merits and demerits 6. Food is not only a source of nutrients – of pressure cooking and microwave explain. cooking. 7. In what way does the intake of 4 food 6. What is the difference between germi- groups serve as an important measure nation and fermentation to prevent nutrient deficiencies ? 7. List three minor equipments. 8. What are the do’s and don’t’s to be carried out immediately in case of cuts and bruises.

REFERENCES 1. Mudambi, S.R. and Rajagopal, M.V. 4. Srilakshmi, B (2015) “Food Science”. (2008) “Food Science”. New Age In- New Age International (P) Limited ternational (P) Limited Publishers, Publishers, New Delhi. New Delhi. 5. Swaminathan, M. (1979) “Food Science 2. Manay, S. and Shadaksharaswamy, M. and Experimental Foods”. Ganesh & (1987) “Foods, Facts and Principles”, Co, Madras New Age International Publishers, 6. www.humankinetics.com New Delhi 7. Wikieducator.org> Different_m_c 3. Roday, S. (2012) “Food Science and Nutrition” Tata McGraw-Hill publishing company limited, New Delhi.

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Food Preservation Chapter 4 Methods

Learning Objectives

This chapter will enable the students to • Know the importance of food preservation • Enhance their knowledge of different preservation techniques • Know the difference between traditional techniques and modern industrial techniques • Understand the steps to be taken before freezing vegetables, fruits, meat and poultry • Know the different methods of food preservation • Using low and high temperature • Use of chemical preservatives and high osmotic pressure • Dehydration • Irradiation • Vacuum packaging

4.1 INTRODUCTION Besides when food spoils, they Millions of fruits and vegetables are pro- undergo physical and chemical changes duced each year and they are lost due to that results in the food becoming inedi- poor processing and preservation. Fresh ble or hazardous to eat. The chief causes of fruits are abundant during the season and food spoilage are; are not available during off season. Due to • The growth of microorganisms like bac- this the food has to be stored until the next teria, yeast and moulds. season. Fish and meat too have to be pre- • The action of enzymes that normally served as all that is killed or caught cannot occur in the food. be eaten at one time. Bacteria, fungi and • Other causes of spoilage are non enzy- yeasts tend to decay the food and render matic reactions in food such as oxida- it unfit to eat. Hence all fresh foods have tion and mechanical damage such as to be preserved if it is to be used after a bruising and damage from rodents and period of time. insects.

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MECHANICAL YEAST DAMAGE BACTERIA MOULDS

CAUSES ENZYMES IN FOOD THE FOOD SPOILAGE

DAMAGE FROM INSECTS AND RODENTS

p Fig. 1 Causes of food ps oilage

In order to prevent food spoilage Importance of food preservation and ensure food security and availabil- Food production and supply does not ity, various food preservation techniques always tally with the demand or needs of have been used over the several years. the people. In some places, there is surplus The earliest steps in food preservation are production of food product, whereas in drying of grains and nuts. Later salting, some other place there is inadequate sup- smoking and drying were applied to pre- ply. It is therefore important to improve serve the food. and expand facilities for storage and preservation of food to ensure its availability 4.1.1'H¿QLWLRQRI)RRG and acceptability at all times. Preservation Preservation ensures: Food preservation is known as “the sci- • Increase in shelf life of foods. ence which deals with the process of pre- • Availability of seasonal foods through- vention of decay or spoilage of food thus out the year. allowing it to be stored in a fit condition for • Stability in prices of food as there will future use”. not be a deficit in supply. Preservation also can be defined • Good quality as “the state in which any food may be • Edibility – texture and flavour retained over a period of time without • Retention of nutritive value being contaminated by pathogenic organ- • Retention of original colour of food. isms or chemicals, without losing opti- For the process of preservation, a mum qualities of colour, texture, flavour preservative (e.g. salt, sugar, vinegar) is and nutritive value”. needed.

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Traditional techniques include curing, DO YOU KNOW? freezing, boiling, heating, sugaring, pick- A preservative is a substance that is ling, canning, smoking, salting and fer- added to food to inhibit and retard the mentation. Modern industrial technique growth of microorganisms and helps in involve pasteurization, vacuum packing, the process of preservation. artificial food additives and irradiation. In this chapter, preservation techniques are discussed under the following Principles of Food Preservation headings. They are use of low tempera- 1. Prevention or delay of microbial de- ture, use of high temperature, dehydra- composition. tion, use of chemical preservatives and a. By keeping out microorganisms preservation by high osmotic pressure. and preventing contamination from pathogens. It involves apply- Activity 1 ing the strictest rules to minimize the risk of infection (asepsis). Boil sliced potatoes in water for three b. Removal of microorganism through minutes. Observe the changes that usage of membrane which retains take place in the texture, colour and microorganisms (filtration). appearance. c. By hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms (refrigeration, dehydration, addition of 4.2.13UHVHUYDWLRQRI)RRGV chemical preservatives). with Low Temperature d. By killing microorganisms (boiling, Use of low temperature reduces the irradiation). microbial activity and enzyme activity 2. Prevention or delay of self decomposi- thus prolongs shelf life of foods. Two dif- tion of food ferent temperatures are employed in low a. By destruction or inactivation of temperature namely chilling temperature enzymes (blanching). and freezer temperature. b. By prevention or delay of chemical reactions (anti oxidants). 4.2.1.1 Chill Storage 3. Prevention of damage caused by me- Chill temperature is just above the refriger- chanical causes, insects and rodents. ated temperature. In chilling fish, the temperature is reduced to freezing point of water. 4.2 PRESERVATION Chill temperature delays both bio-chemical METHODS and bacteriological changes. The deteriora- Many foods cannot be stored as such and tive changes are retarded when low temper- need to undergo a treatment or a tech- ature is maintained. Hence the shelf life of nique which helps to prevent spoilage. food is improved and this ensures preserving The techniques adopted to preserve the natural and functional properties of food. foods are grouped into traditional tech- Storage at −1°C and −4 °C can provide sta- niques and modern industrial techniques. bility in the presence of food preservation.

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p Fig. 2 Methods of food preservation

p Fig. 3 Techniques of food preservation

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4.2.1.2 Freezing Freezing is a means of preserving food through the application and maintenance of extreme cold temperature (−4°C to −40°C). It is effective because most of the water of the food tissue is changed from the liquid to the solid state. This change in the physical state of water retards enzy- matic action and stops microbial growth, the cause of food spoilage, thus preserving food. Many foods can be frozen for twelve months or more without major changes in size, shape, texture, colour and flavour. Food stored in the refrigerator • Slow freezing process It is also known as sharp freezing. In this method, the food is frozen under temperatures ranging from −4oC to −29oC. Fact Ice and snow was used to preserve food in ancient times, now 85 per cent of all foods are refrigerated.

Table 1 Comparis o n Data of Shelf Life of Frozen and Refrigerated Foods Vegetables/ Refrigeration Freezing Meat/Dairy/ Fruits Frozen grapes Pears 5 Days One year Butter 1–2 months 9 months Milk 8–20 days 3 months Lean fish 1–2 days 6–10 months Fatty fish 1–2 days 2–3 months Poultry 1–2 days 6–9 months Bread 1–2 weeks 2–3 months Flour 1 year 1–2 years Corn 1–2 days 8 months Green peas 1–2 days 8 months Spinach 5–7 days 8 months Normal grapes Source: foodclubkitchen.com

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vegetables is equal to that of fruits and 7LSVIRU3UHVHUYDWLRQ vegetables which are frozen without pre- In vegetables, enzyme action may liminary drying. The cost is marginally produce undesirable effects on flavour less because of weight and volume savings and texture during freezing. So the in packing, freezing, storing and shipping. enzymes must be destroyed by heat- Points to be Considered Before ing before the vegetables are frozen. Freezing Food Vegetables: Blanching (dipping the products in boil- Freezing may require three to seventy-two ing water for two to three minutes) veg- hours under such conditions. Home freez- etables before freezing reduces the num- ing is done by this method. ber of microorganisms, removes some • Quick freezing process air from the tissues, makes them more The temperatures used in the quick freez- compact and enhances their colour. Its ing process range from −32oC to −40oC. most important function is to inactivate It freezes food so rapidly that fine crys- enzymes otherwise that would cause dete- tals are formed. The time taken for quick rioration in palatability, colour and ascor- freezing is significantly lower than that bic acid content during storage. of slow freezing. In quick freezing, large Fruits: quantities of food can be frozen in a short The enzymes of fruits can be inactivated period of time. The use of very low tem- by blanching but it is not done as it gives perature for both freezing and holding the fruit a cooked flavour and soft texture. frozen products adds to the cost but of Rather fruits are cut directly into sugar desirable for many products in terms of syrup or sugar to prevent oxidation. Sugar retention of palatability and nutritive not only increases the sweetness but helps value. to retain volatile aroma. • Dehydro freezing Meat and poultry: Dehydro freezing of fruits and vegeta- Meat and poultry require only wrapping bles is the drying of the food to about 50 for freezing. After slaughtering the ani- percent of its original weight and volume mal, the pork, meat and poultry is chilled and then freezing the food to preserve it. promptly to avoid spoilage. The ten- The quality of dehydro frozen fruits and dency of the fat of the pork and poultry to become rancid during storage in a freezer is aggravated by storage before freezing. DO YOU KNOW?

Cryogenic liquids are liquefied gases 4.2.2 Preservation by High used for freezing due to its low boiling Temperature point. The commonly used cryogenic The temperature and time used in heat liquids are liquid nitrogen, liquid car- processing a food depends upon the bon-dioxide and Freon. effects of heat on food and the other preservative methods employed.

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4.2.2.1 Pasteurization at 180°F to 190°F. Blanching focuses on Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills deaerating the product and inactivating part but not all the micro organisms pres- degradative enzymes before further pro- ent and involves the application of tem- cessing. Blanching is an important step in peratures below 100°C. The heating, may freezing food, as frozen foods can develop be by means of steam, hot water, dry heat off flavour, vitamin losses and colour or electric currents and the products are changes while in storage. cooled immediately after the heat treat- Blanching ment. Milk is usually pasteurized. • Prevents bacterial growth. Pasteurized products are not ster- • Fixes the natural colour of vegetables – ile. They contain vegetative organisms and holds the colour. spores which are still capable of growth. • Shrinks the product, better for filling the Hence many pasteurized foods must be container. stored under refrigeration. Pasteurized milk can be stored for over a week under refrigeration while pasteurized milk stored at room temperature will spoil within a day.

Table 2 The Time and Temperature for the Past eurization of Various Food Products Food Temperature Duration (°C) Milk 62.8 30 mts. Blanching of tomatoes 71.7 15 sec. Ice cream mix 71.1 30 mts. 82.2 60–20 secs. Activity 2 Grape wine 82–85 1 min. 1. Cut apple/banana. Expose them for Dried fruits 65.6–85 30–90 mts. 5 minutes in the air. Observe what Bottled grape juice 76.7 30–90 mts. happens. Carbonated juices 65.5 30 mts. 2. Squeeze a few drops of lemon juice on a slice of apple. Does the colour Source: Food Science III Edition, New Age change? International publishers Srilalshmi. B. (2006), Chennai 4.2.2.3 Canning 4.2.2.2 Blanching Canning involves the application of tem- Blanching is a heat treatment like pasteur- peratures to food that is high enough to ization. It is done by dipping the products destroy essentially all micro organisms in boiling water for two to three minutes present. It also involves airtight sealing in

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sterilized containers to prevent recontam- manently sealed mechanically. ination. The degree of heat and the length • The sealed containers are subjected to of time of heating vary with the type of high temperatures, to destroy the most food and the kinds of micro organisms. heat resistant organisms. Large quantities of food are canned for • After this, the cans are cooled by water preservation. In developed countries, in a cooling canal to about 38°C, before canned foods form a major part of the diet storage. of the people. Items often canned are • The final step is casing and storing the cans. meats and meat products, fruits and vegetables, fish products, soups, etc. 4.2.3 Preservation by Dehydration Dehydration is the extraction of moisture from food products like fruits, vegetables, herbs and meat. It inhibits the growth of microorganisms and imparts a long storage life. This is a modern development of smoking and drying. Some changes that occur during the process of dehydra- The process of canning involves the tion are: following steps: • Chemical changes • Receiving, cleaning, grading and • Browning and flavour changes inspecting of raw commodity. • Denaturation of proteins • Blanching to inactivate enzymes. • Concentration on the surface of the food • Placing in the container with added (case hardening) brine or syrup and deaeration of the product. Dehydration can be done by dry- • The next process is exhausting. Exhaust- ing and salting. Evaporation is quickened ing is done to expel the air and gas from with the addition of moderate heat which the can so that its internal pressure, is sometimes provided by natural sunlight. after heating and cooling, is the same as The ultraviolet rays from the sun serve to the atmospheric pressure. kill microbes. Modern methods of dehy- • After exhausting, the filled cans are per- dration use circulating air that is heated just enough to promote dehydration without cooking the food. Food preservation by drying is one of the oldest methods used by human beings. Drying is one of the methods used for dehydration.

4.2.3.1 Drying Drying is the method nature resorts to preserve foods. Natural drying was adopted by early man to dry fruits, fish and meat p Fig. 4 Home scale canning by exposing them to the sun.

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• Foods that lack good structure and are high in sugar content, give an impres- sion of retaining moisture even after the drying process. Fruits like grapes and figs have high sugar content and lack good structure, hence appearing moist even after dehydration. • Complete prevention of these changes is impossible. They can be minimized by using appropriate technology. Dried tomatoes

Sun drying is used in many parts Dry figs are richer in fiber. A ¼ – of the world for preserving certain foods, cup serving of dried figs is nutri- such as fruits and nuts. However, this tionally comparable to a serving of method can be used only if the climatic two large fresh figs, providing about conditions are hot with low humidity. In same amount of calories, fibres and many cases foods are pretreated before potassium. drying to make the structure more porous and to facilitate transfer of moisture, thereby speeding the drying rate. Food Methods of Drying porosity increases the chance of quick sol- A number of drying methods are available; ubility on reconstitution, but is at a disad- some are suitable for liquids, others for vantage due to increased bulk and shorter solid foods or mixtures containing food storage stability. Vegetables like beans, pieces. The common drier types used for peas, potatoes, cauliflower, ladies finger, liquid and solid foods may be categorized garlic, onion and all leafy vegetables can be as the air-convection drier, drum or roller sundried. drier and vacuum drier. Changes during drying • Shrinkage occurs on the surface first 4.2.3.27\SHVRI'ULHUV and then proceeds to the inner lay- • Air-Convection drier – In the air-con- ers. With quick high temperature vection drier, hot air supplies the heat drying of food, the surface becomes for evaporation. Though there are dif- dry and rigid long before the center ferent types of air-convection driers, dries out. they all have an insulated enclosure, • Dried food pieces may also contain a means of circulating air through cracks and pores of various diameters. the enclosure and a means of heating The shrinking and pore clogging by this air. the solutes is known as core hardening. If liquid, the food may be sprayed It can be minimized by gradual drying or poured into pans or on belts. Food with low surface temperature. in the form of a fine spray or mist is

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introduced into a tower or chamber 4.2.46PRNLQJRI)RRGV along with heated air. The small drop- Smoking is mostly done to preserve the lets come into contact with the hot air, meat. This process helps to develop fla- blast off their moisture, become small vours in it. Wood smoke contains small particles and drop to the bottom where amounts of formaldehyde, higher alde- they are removed. This method can hydes, formic acid, acetic acid and resins. produce a high quality product even These compounds have antiseptic proper- with heat sensitive products like milk, ties and destroy microorganisms present. eggs and coffee. The temperature and period of smoking • Drum or Roller drier – Liquid foods, vary with the type of meat. In sausages, purees and mashes are dried by this the smoking is done for a few hours method. The food to be dried is after smoking the material is packed in applied, as a continuous thin layer, on polythene bags and kept at refrigerated to the surface of a revolving drum or conditions. between a pair of drums moving in opposite directions heated by steam. 4.2.5 Preservation by The dried layer of food is scraped by a Chemical Preservatives scraper blade positioned at a point on Preservatives are chemical agents which the drum. Foods that are sticky cannot serve to retard, hinder or mask undesir- be scraped when it is hot. Such a sticky able change in food. Preservatives help in food becomes brittle when cooled, retaining the original quality of food and which facilitates scraping. For heat delaying their spoilage. resistant food products, drum drying Preservatives are classified into is one of the inexpensive dehydration class I and class II preservative. Class methods. I preservatives are available at home. • Vacuum driers – This method is quiet Class II preservatives are prepared in the expensive but gives good quality foods. industries. It consists of a vacuum chamber that • Sulphur dioxide is the only permit- can withstand air pressure and contains ted preservative used in the form of shelves to hold food. The shelves are sulphites. heated. The food gets heated by con- • In India, sodium benzoate, sulphites duction and radiated heat. Liquid foods and sorbic acids are permitted preser- dehydrated by vacuum drying have vatives used in fruits and vegetables. a puffed structure and are easily dis- • Dried fruits are treated with sul- solved in water. There is minimum fla- phur dioxide to conserve the vour change and heat damage because colour and to prevent the growth of low temperature is used in this method. microorganisms. Dried foods are very convenient as they • Sodium benzoate is preferred to ben- are light weight, take up little storage zoic acid because of its solubility and space and can be stored for long periods used in tomato ketchups, sauces, jams, as emergency foods. jellies, pickles and fruit juices.

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CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVE

CLASS I PRESERVATIVE CLASS II PRESERVATIVE

(Salt, Sugar, Spices, Vinegar, Honey Benzoic acid and its sodium and potassium salts) and edible vegetable oils.) Sorbic acid and its sodium and potassium salts)

• Sorbic acid and its salts are effective microbes (plasmolysis) and makes it dehy- against yeasts and moulds but less drated, thus killing them. But yeasts and effective against bacteria. They are moulds are relatively resistant to high good preservatives for foods with high osmotic pressure. Hence, preserved foods fat content e.g., low fat spreads and like pickles tend to spoil if not stored processed cheese. properly.

Sulphite Fact It is an effective and economical ad- ditive. Sulphites decolourise the an- thocyanin pigment present in food; hence it is not used in grape crush and squashes. Instead sodium benzoate is used which retains the colour. Mango jam

4.2.6.1 High Concentration Household preservatives – vinegar RI6XJDU (acetic acid) and ascorbic acid (in Sugar is used to preserve fruits. Preserving lemon) are used for preservation. fruits in honey to avoid spoilage is a well known practice. Nowadays jams and jellies 4.2.6 Preservation by High prepared from fruits have a high concen- Osmotic Pressure tration of sugar and it acts as a preserva- The principle of osmosis is used to pre- tive. Pectin, acid and sugar are essential to serve jams, jellies and pickles. In this prepare jam. Jam or jelly are prepared by process, water tends to draw out from adding commercially prepared pectin and 4 Food Prese rvation Methods 80

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it also reduces the cooking time. Jellies are Preparation of jam: clear substances made of fruit juice or the • Fruits like apples are cooked with skin extract of a fruit. and made into pulp with the strainer Sugar acts in the following ways: for making jam • Sugar draws the water out of food • Equal quantities of sugar and pulp are therefore making it unavailable for taken to make jam. microorganisms. • After it is cooked, it is transferred to • As a result of water loss, microbial a sterilized bottle and allowed to cool. metabolism is stopped. Test for doneness for jam • Hence, the growth of microorganisms Sheet test – the mixture is allowed to drip is stopped from a large cool spoon. If the syrup Preparation of jelly: forms a sheet instead of two separate • Under-ripe fruits are used, because the drops, the jam is done. pectin content is high and good acidity Bubble test – when the end point reaches, is essential for a good jelly. big bubbles can be seen throughout the • Pieces of fruit are completely immersed jam. in water and cooked for 10–20 min- Plate test – set a plate in the freezer for utes. Hard fruits like guavas need to be some time. Put the jam and tilt the cooked for 45 minutes. plate slowly. The jam should come • After the fruit is cooked, it is strained down as a whole mass forming “U” without disturbing the fruit pieces. shape. Water should not separate out. • The fruit extracts contain pectin Fork test – dip the fork into the jam or which determines the addition of jelly. Jam of correct consistency forms sugar. When the level of pectin is high, a sheet between the needles of the fork. it needs more sugar but requires less Honey boiling time. Honey is a natural preservative in its orig- • Rapid boiling facilitates rapid evapora- inal state and was one of the earliest pre- tion, which avoids strong flavour and servatives used by ancient civilizations. darkened colour. It has a high concentration of sugar that • Then the jelly is poured in bottles or draws out the water out of yeast or bacte- moulds, and allowed to set without any ria cells which contaminate the food. disturbance. 4.2.6.2 High Concentration RI6DOW Foods are also preserved by the principle Case study 1 of osmotic pressure in salting and pick- After a grand marriage function, 50 ling. Most commonly used preservative is bananas, 5 kgs of tomatoes and 3 kgs sodium chloride. Required quantity may be of lime were left unused. Suggest added to slow down or prevent the growth ways to preserve these food items. of microorganisms or enough to permit lactic acid fermentation to take place.

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Sometimes, food is heated along with pickling agent so that it gets saturated with it. Pickles may be broadly divided into three groups: Sweet pickles e.g., tomato sweet pickle, mango sweet pickle. Sour pickles e.g., mango pickle, lime pickle. Fermented pickles e.g., cucumber pickle, cabbage pickle, chilli pickle, meat and sausages. Salted mangoes and cucumber The important preservative agents in pickles are salt, vinegar, sugar, oil, spices and condiments. Each has a specific Activity 3 role in preservation. Cut a lemon into two. On one half, add some salt and leave the other as it is. Leave it aside for a week. Note the changes.

Sodium chloride preserves the food by the following principles: • It causes the high osmotic pressure and hence plasmolysis occurs. • It dehydrates foods by drawing out and tying up moisture, as it dehy- Mango pickle drates microbial cell. • It ionizes to yield the chlorine ion which is harmful to organisms. • It reduces the solubility of oxygen in the moisture. • It sensitizes the cell against carbon dioxide. • It interferes with the action of pro- teolytic enzymes. Pickling: In pickling, food is placed in edible liquids like brine, vinegar or vegetable oil Lemon pickle which inhibit or kill microorganisms.

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avakai and chilli pickle, mustard flour helps in the prevention of the growth of spoilage organisms in the food. Case study 2 Turmeric powder, tamarind, chilli During harvest festival season, to- powder, asafoetida, fenugreek seed, cin- matoes are available in abundance. namon and cloves are usually bacterio- How can we make use of this? static. Ground pepper corn and all spices are less inhibitory than cinnamon and cloves. Extracts of these plants have been Salt: shown to be inhibitory to Bacillus subtilis Salt is employed to control microbial pop- and E. coli. Allicin is the active principle ulation in foods such as butter, cheese, in onions and garlic that kills bacteria and cabbage, olives, cucumbers, meats, fish acts against fungi. and bread. There are four methods of salt curing; dry salting (fish), brimming (vadu manga), low salt fermentation (chilli pickle, sauerkraut from cabbage) Bacteriostatic effect – prevents the and pickling (lime pickle). Sodium chlo- growth of bacteria (i.e., it keeps them ride or common salt is used primarily as a in the stationary phase of growth) preservative and flavouring agent. Bactericidal effect – means that it kills bacteria (cidal-killing) Vinegar: Vinegar is a natural preservative. Vinegar is made from a two step process. The first Oil: process involves the carbohydrate being In addition to salt and several spices, oils converted into alcohol by fermentation. are used in making pickles. Spice mixtures The second step is its conversion to an and oil are added to the fruit or vegetable. acetic acid. The acetic acid in vinegar kills It is allowed to ferment for a month or so. microbes and stops food spoilage. Pickling The fermentation process renders fruits is a common method of using vinegar as a soft and the fruit take on the additional preservative. It is also used to improve the aroma and flavour of the spices. Aerobic flavour of foods. bacteria and mould growth are prevented by covering the top with oil. Properly pre- Spices and condiments: pared and stored pickles can last upto a These havebacteriostatic effect (slowing the year or more without spoilage. growth and multiplication of microbes). The essential oil of spices is inhibitor of microorganism. The inhibitory effects of the spices differ with the kind of spice and the microorganisms being tested. Mustard flour and the volatile oil of mustard, for example, are very effective against Spoiled pickle Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In pickles like

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film package, removing air from inside, DO YOU KNOW? and sealing the package. This technology is Any part of pickle which sticks out of oil widely used all over the world in the pack- gets acted by yeast decreasing the acid aging of milk and milk products, juice etc. level. Once this acid level goes down, the bacteria starts acting on the pickle, making it slimy and slippery. This is how pickles get spoilt. Facts! China is the largest apple producing Latest techniques in food preservation country in the world. In banana cultivation, Tamil Nadu 4.2.7 Food Irradiation tops the other states in India. Food irradiation is a process of food preservation in which food is exposed SUMMARY to ionizing energy – radio isotope cobalt 60 and cesium-137. The electromagnetic • Millions of fruits and vegetables radiation suppresses the growth of most are produced each year and they microorganisms. are lost due to poor processing and preservation. Hospitalized patients, who have • Hence all fresh foods have to be pre- compromised immune systems and astro- served to avoid spoilage. nauts in space, consume irradiated foods. • Preservation ensures increase in shelf More than forty years of scientific research life of foods, the quality, the edibility, show that this process is safe. The radiant retention of nutritive value and reten- energy kills the bacteria in the food, but it tion of original colour of food does not touch the food directly. • The principles of food preservation The uses of food irradiation are: techniques are prevention or delay • To avoid the use of harmful chemical of microbial decomposition, preven- compounds in insect disinfestations of tion and delay of self-decomposition stored products and microbial decon- of food, and prevention of damage tamination of spices. caused by mechanical causes, insects • To extend the shelf life of meat, poultry and rodents. and sea foods by killing microorgan- • Preservation methods include tradi- isms which cause spoilage. tional techniques and modern indus- • To replace the chemicals used for slow- trial techniques. ing sprouting in tubers and bulbs and • In traditional techniques curing, delay ripening of fruits. freezing, boiling, pickling and salting, etc., helps to preserve the food for 4.2.8 Vacuum Packing future use. Vacuum packing is a process that removes • Advanced techniques like vacuum air from the package prior to sealing. This packing, irradiation improves the method involves placing items in a plastic quality and shelf life of the food.

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GLOSSARY

Shelf life (PTâFTã }ÚEà) - Hazardous (Õ¤ [NÔ>Ô The period of food stuff to ·}J3HÚETG) - dangerous withstand without spoilage Edible (6ÙDÚEÔ>) - good or safe Spores 4GÜYH±Ô>Úä¤ 6E¶Ý to eat ) - useful for ¬Ù«>ã>ã Food spoilage (6D¶ Y>©Eà) - the reproduction condition where food loses its Aroma (F²IDÝ) - a pleasant smell original freshness Rancidity (8ÙYDÞ zÔ>à PT[C) Food security (2[GP±Ô¤Ý 6D¶ - development of off- flavour in x[CÜH[E 6² Y@ÞEà) - fatty foods ensuring availability of food to everyone Contamination (IT@[CEà)- Spoilage caused by environmental factors Microbial decomposition (¬Ùª- like water, dust, air, smoke. >åY@JàHTØ}GTà6D¶ Plasmolysis (x±>±Û«5KÜHE YIàM YIàM 2µ>à [M[J - ) - food is spoiled slowly Ú[EÔ¤Eà)- Removal of water 2[CEà from the micro organisms by the action of microbes Decay (H}ÜH}JT> 2¶²Eà) - be slowly destroyed

Questions

I. Choose the correct answer 3. Plasmolysis is removal of ______1. Food processing helps to increase a. moisture from micro-organism the food ______b. nutrients from food a. shelf-life c. colour c. fibre from foods b. spoilage d. Taste d. enzymes from food 2. One of the oldest method in 4. Brine solution is made from ______preserving food is ______a. salt c. acid a. refrigeration b. sugar d. alkali b. sun drying 5. Canning involves application of ____ c. pasteurization a. cold temperature d. Irradiation b. high temperature c. freezing temperature d. mild temperature

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6. Smoking is generally done to 6. Freezing helps in preserving preserve ______the food. Do you agree with the a. meat c. pulses statement? If yes, How? b. cereals d. milk 7. Enumerate the changes that occur 7. Frozen foods are stored for ______in drying process.

a. 3 months d. 12 months or III. Answer briefly (3 marks) b. 6months more 1. What is pasteurization? Pasteur- c. 9 months ization ensures complete safety of 8. Milk is pasteurized at ______the food. Justify the statement. temperature for 30 minutes. 2. How addition of sodium chloride a. 62.60C c. 62.80C acts on food to preserve it? b. 62.70C d. 62.90C 3. Explain the role of chemical 9. Preservation helps to maintain the preservatives in preserving fruits optimum qualities of food in terms of and vegetables. ______4. Use of sugar helps to preserve the food. Prove it with suitable example. a. colour c. flavour 5. List the causes of food spoilage. b. texture d. all the above 6. Write a note on different types of 10. Removal of microorganisms through freezing. usage of membrane is called ______a. filtration c. boiling IV. Write in detail (5 marks) b. asepsis d. irradiation 1. Low temperature can be used to preserve the food. Suggest a method II. Very short answer (2 marks) and explain. 1. Why is sodium benzoate used in 2. When you are preparing jam, the place of benzoic acid in jam and knowing about the end point is very jelly preparation? important. Enumerate the methods 2. How does addition of sugar act as a that will help you identify the end preservative? Write two foods where point and explain. sugar is used as a preservative. 3. Canning plays an important role 3. Write few examples for pasteurized in food preservation. Justify and food. Give the temperature and Explain the procedure for canning time used for the same. vegetables. 4. Heat treatment is given before 4. Freezing is one way of preserving freezing the food. Why? the food. Explain the points to be 5. Write any two methods where considered while preserving fruits, osmotic pressure is used to preserve vegetables, meat and poultry by food and how? freezing. 5. Explain any two types of driers

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REFERENCES 5. Subbulakshmi G and Udipi S.A 1. Mulik P (2013) Textbook of Home Sci- (2006) Food Processing and Preserva- ence for ISC Class XI and Class XII Stu- tion, New Age International Limited, dents, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Chennai. 2. Khader V (2001) Textbook of Food Sci- 6. Finedininglovers.com ence and Technology, ICAR, New Delhi. 7. Foodclubkitchen.com 3. Shakuntala M.N and Shadaksharas- 8. Food irradiation facts and figures wamy M. (2008) Foods: Facts and Prin- 9. Indianapublicmedia.org ciples, New Age International Limited, 10. Livestrong.com Chennai. 11. Modernsurvivalblog.com 4. Srilakshmi B (2006) Food Science, 12. Wikihow.com Edition III, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.

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Chapter 5 Nutrition

Learning Objectives

This chapter helps the students to travel through the world of nutrients and their impact on health of humans. It also serves to: • Be an eye opener towards the concept of nutrition • Give an understanding of macro nutrients and micronutrients • Study the role of nutrients and their vitality in human life • Enlighten the hazards of improper nutrition • Gain knowledge about the likelihood of overcoming deficiency disorders

5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.1.1 Introduction to Food is the basic necessity of life. Nutrition Science Everybody eats food and most people Definition: Nutrition is the science of enjoy it. From the beginning, scientists foods, the nutrients and their action, were curious about the food they con- interaction and balance in relationship to sumed, its passage in the body and its health and disease; the process by which effects. In the beginning nutrition was the organism ingests, digests, absorbs, mainly related to the energy needs of the transports and utilizes nutrients and dis- body from carbohydrates, proteins and poses of their end products. fats. Minerals were studied in detail when they were discovered to be important nutrients. Along with the minerals came Antoine Lavoisier is the father of the discovery of vitamins. Now nutrition Nutrition. He designed a calorimeter is an important part of our life. We have which measured the heat produced by realized that quality of our health depends the body from work and consumption upon the nourishment we provide to our of varying amounts and types of foods body. Most people eat what they like and their choice of food is not influenced by the awareness of its nutritive value. It is Nutrients are the constituents in food that always necessary to understand that a must be supplied to the body in suitable delicious dish is not necessarily a nutri- amounts. They are classified as macronu- tious one. trients and micronutrients.

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Nutrients

Macro nutrients Micro nutrients • Carbohydrates Vitamins • Proteins Minerals • Lipids/fats

Poorly nourish ed children Wellnourish ed children p Fig. 1 Poorly nourish ed children, wellnourish ed children

5.2 MACRONUTRIENTS acids. Generally but not always, the Macronutrients refer to the nutrients that hydrogen and oxygen in them are in are needed in large quantities. They are proportion to form water, hence the broadly classified as carbohydrates, pro- term carbohydrate. tein and lipids/fats. The predominant function of the carbohydrates is to provide energy 5.2.1 Carbohydrates needed by our body. Starch found in • Definition: Carbohydrates are sug- cereals and sugar in sugarcane and ars or polymers of sugars such as fruits are examples of carbohydrates in starch that can be hydrolyzed to sim- foods. ple sugars by the action of digestive • Classification:The dietary carbohy- enzymes or by heating with dilute drates are classified as:

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Carbohydrates

Free Sugars Short chain carbohydrates Polysaccharides Monosaccharides eg: Raffinose, Stachynose eg: Starch eg: Glucose Fructose Disaccharides Eg: Sucrose Lactose p )LJ &ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI&DUERK\GUDWHV

• Functions: The functions of carbohy- • Source of energy for heart muscle drates include • Excess calories through carbohy- • Carbohydrates are a source of drate is stored as fat in the adipose energy. Each gram of carbohydrate tissue. yields 4 kilo calories • Stimulates the peristaltic move- • Adequate supply of carbohydrate ment in the form of dietary fiber ensures that proteins are spared which helps in preventing heart from performing the role of giving diseases, diabetes mellitus and energy. cancer. • Major source of energy for muscu- • Food Sources: Carbohydrates are lar work. found in cereals like Rice, Wheat, • Detoxifying action and regulating Bajra, Jowar. Fruits, Honey and Jag- influence of protein and fat metab- gery are also rich sources of carbohy- olism. drates

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p Bajra p Jowar

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already built. Casein from milk, albu- min in egg and gluten in wheat, are examples of proteins occurring in foods. • Classification:The proteins are classified as: • Complete proteins e.g. Egg proteins • Partially complete proteins e.g. wheat proteins • Incomplete proteins e.g. Gelatin or zein p Jaggery • Functions: Proteins perform the fol- 5.2.2 Proteins: lowing functions; • Definition • Necessary for growth The word ‘protein’ is derived from • Wear and tear of human body is the Greek word protos meaning ‘first’. repaired Protein is the basic chemical unit of liv- • For regular supply of raw materials ing organisms and is essential for nutri- for the formation of digestive juices, tion, building of new tissues (growth) hormones, plasma proteins, hemo- and maintaining and repairing of those globin, vitamins and enzymes.

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• Each gram of protein supplies 4 Kcal of energy • Food Sources: Animal foods like Meat, Fish, Eggs and Milk are excellent sources of Proteins. Plant Sources like Pulses, Oil seeds and nuts are also good sources of Protein

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• Deficiency: Deficiency of protein causes protein energy malnutrition which covers a wide spectrum of clinical stages ranging from the severe forms like kwashiorkor and marasmus to the milder forms like growth retardation. Protein energy malnutrition is due to “food gap” between the intake and requirement. The average energy deficit in Indian children is 300kcal/day. Defi- ciency of protein is discussed in detail in p %XWWHU the section Protein energy malnutrition

5.2.3 Lipids/Fats • Definition: Lipids are organic substances soluble in fat solvents such as alcohol, ether, and chloroform but not in water. The term includes fatty acids, soaps, neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids and waxes. Oils found in seeds, butter from milk, and lard from meat, are examples of fats found in foods. p Ghee • Classification:Lipids are classified as follows

Table 1 &ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI/LSLGV Simple Lipids Compound Lipids Derived Lipids Fats and Oils Phospholipids Hydrolytic substances of simple Waxes Glycolipids and compound lipids Lipoprotein Source: Swaminathan.M 2012, Foods and Nutrition, Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company, Bangalore.

• Functions: The functions of lipids are to • Provide energy source so that pro- • Provide energy reserve and supply teins are spared for tissue growth 9 kcal/gram. and repair • Serve as a vehicle for the absorp- • Gives satiety tion of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, • Act as insulators against heat and cold. E, and K • Food Sources: Visible fat sources are But- • Supply essential fatty acids neces- ter, Ghee and Oil, Invisible fat sources are sary for growth and function Cereals, Pulses, Oil seeds, Milk and Egg.

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p Cereals p Pulses

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5.3 MICRONUTRIENTS Until the middle of the 19th century the importance of minerals and vitamins was not given adequate emphasis. It was observed that the macronutrients alone were not sufficient to promote and sustain growth. p Egg Th is led to the discovery of the micronutrients namely the minerals and vitamins which are essential for growth and maintenance. Macro minerals are those which are present at levels more than 0.05 percent in the human body. Calcium, Phosphorus, magnesium, sodium and potassium belong to this category. Other minerals present at less than 0.05 percent in the human body are defi ned as micro min- p Oil erals. Th e micro minerals are also known

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as the trace elements. Some micro miner- proper functioning of every cell als are iron, iodine, zinc, copper, fluorine, in the body. selenium, chromium, manganese, cobalt • Blood clotting: Calcium con- and molybdenum. tributes to clotting of blood. • Contraction of the muscle: 5.3.1 Minerals Calcium ions are bound by the electrostatic forces to the pro- The minerals calcium, phosphorus, iron teins inside and outside the iodine, sodium and others are found in cells and to cell membranes. various foods in combination with organic Proteins bound by calcium alter and inorganic compounds. Minerals are their configuration at the neuro necessary for body building, for building muscular junction by the nerve bones, teeth and structural parts of soft impulses causing free calcium tissues. to be released. The free cal- (i) Calcium cium bound to troponin leads • Distribution: Calcium makes up to an internal trigger and so the between 1.5 to 2 percent of body contraction of the muscle takes weight accounting for 1200-1600 place g of the adult male body. Ninety • Metabolic essentiality: Cal- percent of calcium is found in min- cium acts as a activator for the eralized tissues such as bones and enzyme renin present in gastric teeth as calcium phosphate and juice which aids the digestion of calcium carbonate. The remaining milk. 1% is found in blood, extracellular • Food sources: Calcium is present fluid (ECF), muscle and tissues. in both animal and plant foods. The • Functions: The functions of cal- richest source of calcium among cium in humans are manifold: animal foods is milk and among • Bone formation: The important minerals within bone are calcium phosphate and magnesium. There is 1 kg of calcium in the adult skeleton as a complete crystalline material with phosphate. • Tooth formation: The enamel and dentin of tooth contain considerable amounts of calcium which are dense and are present along with keratin. • Growth: It is required for growth as it forms an important part of the bones and teeth and

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the vegetable sources it is green formation resulting in osteopo- leafy vegetables. Among the green rosis. leafy vegetables, amaranth, fenu- Risk factors for osteoporosis include greek and drumstick leaves are rich • Females who are fair sources of calcium. Ragi among complexioned are at eight cereals is a rich source of calcium. times more at risk Small dried fish, nuts and oil seeds • Asian Race like gingelly seeds, betel leaf with • Family history slaked lime are also a rich source. • Prolonged dietary insuf- • Absorption: ficiency Factors increasing absorption • Poor absorption and uti- of calcium: Vitamin D, acidity of lization of calcium digestive mass, lactose, protein and • Restricted movement phosphorus are the factors which • Decreased levels of estro- favor the absorption of calcium. gen Factors decreasing absorption of • Hyper parathyroidism calcium: Oxalic acid, phytic acid, • Vitamin D sufficiency high fat diets including steatorrhea, • Osteomalacia: It is a condition emotional instability, increased where the quality of the bone is gastrointestinal mobility, lack of diminished and the quantity of exercise, ageing, caffeine and drugs the bone is not compromised. decrease the absorption of calcium • Osteopenia: It refers to the bone in the body. density that is lower than normal peak density but not low enough to be classified as osteo- Food for thought: Cola beverages and bone fractures

Drinking cola beverages which con- The strength of the bone is meas- tain phosphoric acid and often caf- ured by a bone density test using feine may increase the fragility of a CT (Computed Tomography) bones in children and adolescents. So scan or DEXA (Dual energy X ray it’s better to avoid cola drinks. Absorptiometry). The numerical result of the bone density is quantified as a “T score”. The lower the T score, • Health Problems/ Deficiency: the lower the bone density. T scores • Osteoporosis: This is a condi- greater than 1.0 are considered nor- tion associated with a loss in mal and indicate healthy bone. bone density and bone mass T scores between 1.0 and -2.5 indicate which literally means “porous osteopenia. T scores lower than -2.5 bone”. With the ageing process indicate osteoporosis. resorption predominates bone

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porosis. The difference between • Food Sources: Phosphorus is osteopenia and osteoporosis is a widely distributed in foods. Milk matter of severity of the loss of and meat are rich in phospho- bone density. rus. Whole grain cereals, legumes, • Tetany: A decrease in serum nuts, carrots and fish are also rich calcium levels gives rise to a sources of phosphorus. condition called tetany. The symptoms of tetany are severe intermittent spasms of the muscles of hands and feet accompanied by muscular pain. Twitch- ing of facial muscles occurs.

(ii) Phosphorus • Distribution: It comprises 1 percent of total body weight along with calcium. An adult human body contains about 400-700 g of phosphorus as phosphates. Bones and teeth contain 85 percent of phosphorus and soft tissues contain15 percent of phosphorus. • Functions: • Calcium Phosphorus ratio: Nutri- • Formation of bone and teeth along tionists recommend that a Ca:P with calcium and magnesium. ratio between 1:1 to 2:1 should be • Formation of phospholipids provided by the total diet. which are integral parts of cell • Deficiency: Phosphorus is so structure. ubiquitous in various foods that • Constituent of co enzymes like near total starvation is required coenzyme I and co – carboxylase. to produce dietary phosphorus • Integral constituent of DNA and deficiency. Inadequate phospho- RNA (nucleic acids) and nucle- rus intake is expressed as hypo- oproteins. phosphatemia which manifests • Buffering of acid or alkali in the form of anemia, anorexia, excesses to maintain normal muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets, pH. osteomalacia, general weakness and • Temporary storage and transfer increased susceptibility to infection. of the energy derived from met- (iii) Iron abolic fuels. • Distribution: Iron content of nor- • As part of enzymes needed for mal adult man is estimated to be the metabolism of carbohy- about 4 grams. Iron is distributed drates, protein and fats. as 60% in the circulating hemoglo-

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bin, 5% myoglobin, various heme • Low iron status, and non heme enzymes (5%). • Low heam iron intake. The remaining iron is found in Factors decreasing the absorption body storage as ferritin (20%) and of iron: hemosiderin (10%) the two major • Binding agents like fiber, phos- iron storage proteins. phates, phytates and oxalates, • High calcium intake, In developing countries estimated • Achlorohydria (low gastric acid) prevalence of anemia is 39 per- • Infection cent in children and 42 percent • Gastrointestinal disease. in women. In Asia 12.8 of mater- • Functions: Iron has varied signif- nal mortality deaths are caused by icant functions in human body. anemia. They include: • Transport and storage of oxygen where each gram of hemoglobin • Forms of dietary iron contains about 3.34 mg of iron. Heme iron: Heme iron is the iron • As myoglobin iron is required associated to the protein globin to for oxygen storage in muscle. form hemoglobin and is found in • Iron acts as a cofactor of enzymes. flesh foods only • It is a component of cell enzyme Non heme iron: This form is pres- systems that oxidize glucose and ent in all plant sources in addition other energy yielding nutrients. to 60% of animal sources. • Production of immune cells that attack foreign bacteria invading the body. • Positive iron balance is neces- Heme absorption varies from 15-35 sary for continued growth. % depending on the iron status of the • To build reserves for physio- consumer. Non heme iron absorption logic stress during adolescence can vary widely from less than 1% for both boys and girls. to more than 90% but usually in the • Necessary for brain develop- range of 1-20%. ment, cognitive function, the synthesis and breakdown of neurotransmitters. • Absorption: Several factors favor and inhibit iron absorption • Food sources: Factors favoring absorption of Rich sources of iron are cereals, Iron: millets, pulses and green leafy veg- • Body needs, etables. Of the cereal grains and • Ascorbic acid, millets bajra and ragi are very good • Animal tissues, sources of iron. Other sources of • Pregnancy, plant foods include manathakali

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leaves, rice flakes, mint, soya bean, cow pea, gingelly seeds and dates. Animal food sources include red meat, and fishes like herring and mackerel.

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Causes: Low iron intake, blood loss, malabsorption chronic diseases, obesity

Signs of Iron Deficiency • Fatigue • Muscle weakness, • Deficiency • Pale color Iron Deficiency anemia: When • Decreased resistance to infection there is an insufficiency of iron for • Spoon nails(Koilonchyia) the formation of hemoglobin, the • Angular stomatitis RBC’s become pale and small. The • Dizziness resulting anemia is called hypo- • Dimness of vision chromic and microcytic anaemia • Insomnia which is the most common form • Headache of anaemia throughout the world affecting women mainly in their reproductive years, infants and children.

Regular consumption of iron rich foods, vitamin C rich foods, seasonal fruits and p Normal RBC vegetables can definitely prevent anemia.

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Activity 1 Prepare recipes using low cost iron rich food sources for breakfast kunch and dinner for an adolescent girl with anemia

(iv) Iodine • Distribution: It is one of the essential micronutrients required for normal growth and development of human brain and body. Human body contains a total of 15-20 mg of iodine. Thyroid gland contains 75% of iodine and is an essential constituent of thyroxine the active cient quantities to produce normal principle of thyroid gland quantity of thyroxine. It also arises • Functions: Iodine though required from eating foods (goitrogens) that in small quantities is needed to per- inhibit the synthesis of thyroxine. form the following functions • Synthesis of thyroxine which regulates growth, development and reproduction. • Helps the thyroid hormones to increase and regulate the processes of brain function • Enables the thyroid hormones to regulate the conversion of carotene to active vitamin A. • Food sources: Marine fish and eggs are good sources REMEMBER of iodine. Based on the dietary pattern and analysis of raw foods, iodine 21st October is Global Iodine content of various regional diets Deficiency Disorder Day range from 170-300 μg/ day • Deficiency: It covers a collection of disorders at all stages of human Cretinism: A congenital disease growth and development. resulting from a lack of iodine and Goiter: Goiter is the enlargement thyroxin secretion characterized by of thyroid gland which results when physical deformity, dwarfism, men- iodine is not available in suffi- tal retardation and often goiters. 5 Nutrition 100

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Dietary improvement: Salt iodiza- zinc is found in the outer fiber rich tion remains the most cost effec- part of the kernel. tive way to deliver iodine to both humans and livestock and is cred- ited with eradicating iodine deficiency.

Case study 1 Margret is having a swelling in her neck which makes it difficult for her to breathe and swallow food. The enlargement is soft and does not pain. 1. What is the condition she is suffering from? 2. What is the nutrient deficient in her food? • Deficiency: The clinical manifes- 3. Suggest some foods for her quick tations of severe zinc deficiency recovery in humans are growth retardation, dermatitis, hair loss, diarrohea, increased infections, delayed (v) Zinc wound healing, loss of appetite, • Distribution: Zinc is the most hypoguesia (diminished taste) dys- important intracellular trace guesia (altered taste) hyposmia element. An adult human contains (diminished smell). Decreased zinc 2g of zinc of which 60% is in skele- intake is associated with increased tal muscle, 30% in bone and 4-6% is risk of low birth weight and preterm present in zinc. delivery. • Functions: The functions of zinc include 5.3.2. Vitamins • Important constituent of Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and enzymes like alkaline phospha- also water-soluble vitamins C and B group tase and carbonic anhydrase. are found in foods. These are needed for • Required by protein kinases that participate in gene expression. • Also a component of metallo- enzymes. Fat Soluble Water Soluble • Food sources: Meat, seafood and A, D, E, K B complex group liver are good sources of bioavail- and C able Zinc. In cereals most of the

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growth, normal function of the body and • Food sources: In the animal foods normal body processes. vitamin A is present in the form of retinol which are identified to be liver, cream, butter and egg yolk. 5.3.2.1 Fat Soluble Vitamins Liver oils of fish like cod, halibut (a) Vitamin A: The vitamin A compounds and shark are the richest sources include retinol, retinal and retinoic of vitamin A. The main contribu- acid. Because it has a specific function tors of beta carotene are the yellow in the retina of the eye and because it and green vegetable fruit sources is an alcohol it was given the name ret- of carotene- carrots, papaya, inol. Beta carotene is precursor of vita- mango, sweet potatoes, spinach min A and is found in large quantities and broccoli. in vegetables and fruits. • Functions: Vitamin A performs the following functions: • Vitamin A is essential for vision in normal and dim light. • Formation and maintenance of healthy functioning epithelial tissue. • Glycoprotein and mucoprotein synthesis • Cancer prevention • Prevention of degeneration of myelin sheath • Normal bone formation and reproduction.

• Deficiency: Decreased Vitamin A intake leads to vision problems Eyespot Chlamydomonas Phototactic or reinhardtii Photophobic • Night blindness: People suf- Response fering from night blindness cannot see objects in dim light

Retina • Xerosis Conjunctiva: The conjunctiva is dry, thickened, Rod and Cone Light Sensing Photoreceptor Cells for Vision wrinkled and pigmented. This

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT is due to the keratinization of CORNEA Light-Sensitive Light Sensing Ganglion Cells for Biological the epithelial cells. Clock • Xerosis Cornea: This manifests in the form of corneal Homo sapiens dryness which gives the cornea

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a dull hazy and lusterless of vitamin A rich food, improve- appearance. ment in household food security • Bitot’s spots: These are grey- and availability of vitamin A rich ish or glistening white plaques foods and a periodic massive dose occurring in the conjunctiva of vitamin A. usually triangular in shape and are found in children. INTERESTING FACT

UNICEF-supported Vitamin A sup- plementation programmes have been reaching children aged 6 to 59 months across the globe. They have improved the immunity of children and their chance of survival has increased from 12 to 24 per cent.

Activity 2 Suggest simple dietary tips to enhance the intake of Vitamin A for school • Keratomalacia: When Xerosis children of the conjunctiva and cornea is not treated it may develop into the condition called ker- (b) Vitamin D: Vitamin D is known to be ato malacia which is character- a prohormone of a sterol type and the ized by necrosis, ulceration and synthesis of active form of vitamin D bacterial invasion of cornea is known as the 1,25 – dihydroxycho- leading to the total destruction lecalciferol which is accomplished by of the eyeball and eventually the combined action of skin, liver and total blindness. kidneys. • Functions • Maintains balance with para- WHO in 2013 has estimated 44 percent thyroid hormone to stimulate of South Asians suffer from Vitamin A the active transport of calcium deficiency and it has been identified as and phosphorus. a major public health problem. • Acts on the bones promoting calcification. • Facilitates the absorption of • Prevention of vitamin A deficiency calcium and phosphorus from The strategy should be a combina- the intestines. tion of long term nutrition educa- • Involved in widespread basic tion programme, enhanced intake cell processes with targets in

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brain, kidney, liver, skin, reproductive tissues. • Food sources: Vitamin D is present only in some foods of animal origin. Certain marine fishes and fresh water fishes are known to be good sources of vitamin D. The most important sources are egg yolk, butter, cheese, milk.

women of child bearing age and in those who consume poor cereal diets deficient in vitamin D and • Deficiency: Vitamin D deficiency calcium. Besides it is found among occurs in children who are not ade- those who stay indoors all day and quately exposed to sunlight. It is seldom go out in the sun. characterized by inadequate min- eralization of the bone. In children (c) Vitamin E: Vitamin E is the generic the condition is known as rickets name for a group of vitamins, three and in adults it is called Osteoma- of which –alpha tocopherol, beta lacia. tocopherol and gamma tocopherol display the greatest biologic activity. Rickets: In rickets there is soft- Of these three, alpha tocopherol is the ening of the skull bones and the most significant form of Vitamin E head is enlarged, elongated and • Functions flattened on the vertex. Softening • Vitamin E a major antioxidant of the ribs, sinking of the chest, which reduces the incidence of beaded junctions of the ribs with heart diseases. cartilages (rickety rosary), pigeon • It is essential for normal repro- chest, knock knees and bow legs. duction in man. Deformities of the long bones • It acts along with selenium in spine, pelvis, muscles, and feet are reducing the body’s require- observed. Dentition is delayed. ment for each other. Osteomalacia: It is the adult • It plays a vital role in the counterpart of rickets. It occurs in immune function of the body.

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• Food sources: Vegetable oils, nuts • Functions: The major functions and whole grams are the richest of Vitamin K though not many are sources of vitamin E (eg. Wheat listed as follows: germ oil). It is present in small quan- • Vitamin K is essential for blood tities in lettuce, grasses and embryos clotting. of many seeds. In general, plant • Required for the synthesis of foods are richer sources of vitamin blood clotting factors by the E than animal foods. liver. • Vitamin K is vital to maintain normal levels and activation of blood clotting factor like prothrombin, • Food Sources: The major dietary source of vitamin K is Phyllo Quinone which is present in high concentration in most vegetables like cabbage, spinach and cauliflower. Animal food sources include cheese, egg yolk, and liver.

• Deficiency: Vitamin E deficiency has been associated with irritability, edema and hemolytic anemia among infants. Also Muscular dys- trophy is common to all species in which there is degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle with vitamin E deficiency.

(d) Vitamin K Vitamin K occurs in two forms. 1. Phylloquinones (vitamin K1) - plant source and dietary form of vitamin K 2. Menaquinone (vitamin K2) - synthesized by intestinal bacterial flora.

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• Deficiency: It manifests in the form deficiency of thiamin causes beri of defective blood clotting. Low beri in human beings. The Philip- levels of prothrombin and hemor- pino word beri beri means “I Can’t” rhage are seen in severe forms of refers to the lack of neuromotor deficiency. coordination in persons with the disease.

5.3.2.2 Water Soluble Vitamins (a) Thiamin (B1): Thiamin is the first dry member of the B complex vitamins which is essential to the body in its coenzyme form. Beri Beri • Functions: The coenzyme of thiamin is Thiamin Pyro Phosphate (TPP). Thiamin is useful in our wet body for the following functions • It enhances growth in human beings.

• It plays an important role as p )LJ 7\SHVRI%HUL%HUL a coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism Beri Beri is of two types: dry and • Maintenance of nerves in nor- wet type. In dry beri beri the mus- mal condition. cles become progressively wasted, • Food sources: Good food sources weak and walking becomes dif- include lean pork, beef, liver, whole ficult. If not treated the patient or enriched grams and legumes. becomes bedridden and will die. In wet beri beri edema is present which involves the face, trunk and serous cavities. Palpitation and breathless- ness are present. The heart becomes

• Deficiency of thiamin: The discovery of thiamin provided the answer to the puzzle of a nutritional problem called beri beri. The

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weak and death occurs due to heart • Deficiency: The deficiency of failure. Infantile beri beri is seen in riboflavin (ariboflavinosis) leads many South East Asian countries to glossitis (swollen and reddened where the diets consist mostly of tongue), swollen lips, cheilosis “polished rice”. (inflammation of the corners of the mouth, are some of the com- (b) Riboflavin (B2): Riboflavin is a sta- mon symptoms observed. Further ble vitamin which is resistant to acid, deficiency states are marked by heat and oxidation. But it is unstable chronic conditions like tubercu- in the presence of alkali and light. losis, prolonged fevers, malab- • Functions: sorption, Hyperthyroidism and The two coenzymes of Riboflavin malignancy. Flavin Mono Nucleotide (FMN) and Flavin Adenine Dinucleo- tide (FAD) perform the following functions • Formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow. • Regulates the functions of hormones in carbohydrate metabolism. • Present in the retina in the free form which gets converted to a compound which stimulates the optic nerve. (c) Niacin: Niacin formerly known as nic- • Release of energy from glucose, otinic acid was obtained by the oxida- amino acids and fatty acids. tion of nicotinic acid. Apart from the • Food sources: Good sources of food sources, Niacin is also obtained riboflavin are milk and milk prod- from tryptophan (60mg) an essential ucts, eggs, liver, whole or enriched amino acid which can be converted grains and green leafy vegetables. into niacin (1mg). • Functions: Two coenzymes of Nia- cin Nicotinamide Adenine Dinu- cleotide (NAD) Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP) are required for: • Release of energy from all energy yielding nutrients like carbohydrate, protein and fat. • Normal functioning of the skin, intestinal tract and the nervous system.

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• Synthesis of protein and fat Consumption of diets rich in corn for the formation of DNA and can create amino acid imbalance as RNA. corn is rich in leucine and deficient • Food sources: Whole cereals, in tryptophan. The typical features pulses, nuts and meat are good of pellagra are loss of weight and sources of Niacin. Groundnut is increasing weakness. Non- specific rich in Niacin. Milk is rich in Tryp- signs like anorexia, nausea, diges- tophan the precursor of Niacin in tive disturbances and emotional the body. changes like anxiety, irritability and insomnia may be present.

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• Deficiency: Deficiency of Niacin causes Pellagra which is the 3D (Dermatitis, diarrohea, dementia or depression) disease leading to the fourth D (Death).

Dermatitis

3D's Diarrohea Death

Dementia

(d) Pyridoxin e (B6): Pyridoxine exists p Fig. 4 Pellagra or 3D disease in the body in three forms: Pyridoxal,

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Pyridoxine and Pyridoxamine. Pyri- • Food sources: The rich sources of doxal 5 phosphate is the co-enzyme folate are fish, mutton, liver, egg, form of pyridoxine. chicken, green leafy vegetables • Functions: Pyridoxal 5 phosphate and pulses. acts as a coenzyme in protein metabolism. Its functions include • Amino acid transport. • Essential for the growth of infants. • Food sources: Good food sources include grains, seeds, liver, kidney and other meats.

• Deficiency: Deficiency of folic acid causes megaloblastic anae- • Deficiency: Clinical Symptoms mia. Megaloblasts appear in bone of pyridoxine deficiency have not marrow and peripheral blood. been clearly defined. Some types Poor dietary intake of folic acid, of angular stomatitis (cracking at low absorption, increased losses, the corners of the lips) and cer- increased requirements, infes- tain types of anaemia have been tation, infection and drugs also reported due to decreased intake cause folic acid deficiency. Symp- of pyridoxine. toms include weakness, tiredness, (e) Folic acid: The term folic acid was dyspnea, sore tongue, headache coined to as it was first extracted from and palpitation. Folate deficiency dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach. • Functions: The different functions of folate include: • Normal growth and division of all cells. • Maturation of red blood cells. • Vital role in the metabolism of some amino acids.

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during pregnancy can result in • Deficiency: Inability to produce neural tube defects like spina the intrinsic factor which binds bifida and anencephaly. cyanocobalmin leads to perni- (f) Cyanocobalamin (B12): The vitamin cious anemia. The red blood cells is named as cyanocobalamin because are macrocytic and the count is of the presence of cobalt and cyanide often less than 2.5 million. Symp- in its structure. It can be absorbed toms include soreness and inflam- in the body only in the presence of mation of the tongue, paresthesia Intrinsic Factor (IF). (numbness and tingling) in fingers • Functions: Physiological func- and toes, demyelination of the tions and biochemical functions white fibres of the spinal cord and of cyanocobalmin are: in severe cases degeneration of the • Maturation of erythrocytes spinal cord. • Synthesis of myelin (white Other B complex vitamins include sheath of lipoprotein) that sur- biotin, pantothenic acid which do rounds many nerve fibres. have their vital functions as coen- • Increase in White Blood Corpus- zymes in various biochemical func- cle (WBC) count and platelet. tions of the body • Stimulation of appetite and general wellbeing of the people. (g) Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid): Ascorbic • Cures neurological symptoms acid is the chemical name of vitamin of pernicious anemia. C which can be synthesized from glucose but humans depend on their diet • Food sources: Cyanocobalmin for vitamin C as they do not have an is synthesized by bacteria and is enzyme gulonolactone oxidase which found in foods of animal origin. catalyzes the conversion reaction. Liver is the richest source of cya- • Functions: Functions of vitamin nocobalmin. Meat, fish, kidney, C include: brain and eggs are good sources of • Collagen formation of bone, cyanocobalmin. teeth, cartilage, skin and scar tissue. • Formation of dentin layer of tooth • Wound healing. • Activation of calcitonin, gas- trin, oxytocin, thyrotropin, vasopressin. • Drug detoxification • Regulation of cholesterol, maintenance of the blood vessel structure and antioxidant effects.

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• Conversion of inactive form of folic acid into its active form • Reducing agent to keep iron in its ferrous form to facilitate iron solubility. • Adrenal cortex function. • Enhances calcium absorption. • Food Sources: Citrus fruits like orange, lemon, tomatoes, guava, watermelon are good sources of Scurvy Vitamin C

Scurvy leg

• Deficiency: Scurvy the most severe form of vitamin C deficiency arises mainly due to faulty cooking habits and inadequate intake of fruits and vegetables. The clinical features of scurvy are characterized by gingivitis (bleeding gums) petechiae Scurvy (small hemorrhagic spots), arthral- gia (pain in the joint), depression, 5.4 WATER postural hypotension, delayed Water: Water is defined as an essential wound healing. Main deficiency nutrient because it is required in amounts symptoms in infants include tender that exceed the body’s ability to produce it. bones, cessation of bone growth, All biochemical reactions occur in water. anaemia and pyrexia. It fills the spaces in and between cells and

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helps form structures of large molecules • Overall water balance: The aver- such as protein and glycogen. In human age adult processes 2.5 litres to 3 adults total body water accounts for about litres of water each day. 70 per cent of the lean body mass. Water enters the body in three • Distribution: In an adult male of forms: 70 kg body weight, 70, percent of • Water taken in as water or in water that is 30 litres is found in other beverages intracellular fluids. Of this about • Preformed water in food 4 litres are found in bones. The • Metabolic water produced by remaining 30 percent of water is cell oxidation extra cellular fluid found in 3 litres Water leaves the body in the follow- of plasma and 8.5 litres of intersti- ing ways via the tial fluid and one litre of transcel- • Kidneys Skin lular fluid which includes saliva, • Lungs Faeces pancreatic juice, aqueous humor and cerebrospinal fluid. Water imbalance: Water can be depleted • Functions: Water performs the fol- in the body due to reduced intake caused lowing functions in the body by unavailability of water, inability to • Controls body temperature obtain water and swallow it. Increased • Transports nutrients and waste losses of water are also experienced due to • Dissolves important substances hot environment, hyperventilation, pro- in tissues and cells longed vomiting and diarrhea, kidney dis- • Dissolves medications orders and diabetes insipidus. • Lubricate the cushion joints • Water deprivation: Dehydration • Protect the spinal cord and of body occurs when water is not other sensitive tissues taken in adequate amounts to make • Get rid of wastes through uri- up for the water loss. It occurs in nation, perspiration, and bowel severe diarrhea and vomiting. Evi- movements. dence of dehydration manifests in the form of sunken eyes, dry • Requirements: the requirement tongue, loose and inelastic skin. of water depends on person’s age, Simple water deprivation also weight and life style. Adults should causes loss of sodium and potas- consume 1 litre of water for every sium. The subject should be given 1000kcal in their diet, infants water, glucose and electrolytes to should consume 1.5 litre/1000kcal. replenish his fluid levels. • Water Intoxication (water excess): Activity 3 Over hydration occurs when large How many glasses of water you take quantities of water are drunk in once a day on week days and week- a hot climate or water excretion ends? Check and find the difference by the kidneys is impaired. Water Excess causes drowsiness, giddiness 5 Nutrition 112

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confusion headache, nausea, con- 5.4 MALNUTRITION vulsions and coma WHO defines Malnutrition as “the cellular imbalance between the supply of nutrients and energy and the body’s demand DO YOU KNOW? for them to ensure growth, maintenance World Water Day is celebrated on 22nd and specific functions” March

Activity 4

Conduct a study among your class mates regarding quantity of water consumed daily,the frequency at which they consume water and the quantity consumed each time. Ask them to list out the benefits of drinking water p )LJ 8QGHUQXWULWLRQLQ&KLOGUHQLQ,QGLD

Poverty Ignorance Illiteracy

Low Birth Weight Poor Hygiene Poor Water supply

Low Protein intake Loss of Appetite Protein Energy Malnutrition

Early Weaning Large Number of Children Cirrhosis Dysentry p )LJ &DXVHVRI3URWHLQ(QHUJ\0DOQXWULWLRQ

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• Protein Energy Malnutrition The global Nutrition report 2017 It is a group of body depletion disor- states that 38 percent of Indian chil- ders which includes kwashiorkor, mar- dren are stunted and 21 percent are asmus and the intermediate stages. severely wasted highlighting that i. Marasmus: Marasmus is derived proper nutrition is the solution to from the Greek Word “Marasmos” end poverty and fight disease condi- which means wasting. Marasmus tions in our country involves inadequate intake of calories and protein. It represents simple star-

Malnutrition is the condition that develops when the body does not get the right amount of the vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients it needs to maintain healthy tissues and organ function.

Malnutrition - Infection Vicious cycle Kwashiorkor Marasmus

Indequate Dietary p )LJ 6LJQVDQGV\PSWRPVRI Intake 0DOQXWULWLRQ Appetite loss Weight loss Nutrition loss Growth failure vation. The body adapts to the stress Malabsorption Low Immunity Altered metabolism Mucosal damage of deficit in protein and calories. ii. Kwashiorkor: Kwashiorkor is a Infection (Disease) form of severe protein–energy malnutrition with sufficient calorie p )LJ 9LFLRXV&\FOHRI0DOQXWULWLRQ intake, but with insufficient protein

Table 2. 'LIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ0DUDVPXVDQG.ZDVKLRUNDURQVLJQV V\PSWRPV Kwashiorkar Severe growth retardation Low body weight Loss of subcutaneous fat Pitting edema on feet and legs Severe muscle wasting Puffiness (edema) on face (moon face) Wrinkled Skin Apathy and irritability Failure to thrive, Scaly pigmentation of skin Dehydration Loss of hair Temperature is subnormal Hair discoloration Frequent watery diarrohea and acid stools Anorexia Oedema and fatty infiltration are absent Diarrohea due to defective digestion Irritability, fretfulness and apathy Hyper pigmentation Source: www.yourarticlelibrary.com/flood/constituents/constituents-of-food-and-its-functions/64425

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consumption, and this feature dis- broadly classified as macronutrients tinguishes it from marasmus. and micronutrients. • Steps to alleviate malnutrition • Humans contract nutritional deficien- Health Promotion: cies if the nutrients are not consumed • Measures direct to pregnant and lactat- in right amounts and right proportion. ing women (education, supplement) Macronutrient deficiencies are mainly • Promotion of breastfeeding related to proteins of the body. • Development of low cost weaning food • Protein energy malnutrition results in • Educating mothers to plan and conditions like Marasmus and Kwash- space child birth iorkor which predominantly affect • Ensuring food security in the home children in their developmental years. • Ensuring clean environment • Deficiency of Minerals like calcium causes bone related disorders like Specific protection: osteopenia, osteoporosis. • Increase intake of protein and energy • Iron deficiency anemia can be pre- rich food (e.g. milk, egg, fresh fruits) vented by consumption of iron rich • Educating people towards regular foods like ragi, dates, jaggery and immunization green leafy vegetables. • Promote intake of fortified foods. • Iodine is an essential mineral to pre- Early diagnosis and treatment: vent goiter. • Baseline information • Fat soluble and water soluble vitamins • Early detection of clinical signs of are essential for the normal function- protein energy malnutrition ing of the body and their deficiencies • Regular assessment of body mass index lead to multiple deficiency disorders. • Biochemical and laboratory inves- • Fat soluble vitamin deficiencies are tigations. predominantly related to vision, bone Rehabilitation: health, child birth and blood clotting. • Hospital treatment • Water soluble vitamin deficiencies can • Nutritional rehabilitation services lead to diseases like beriberi, pellagra, (NRC i.e. Nutritional Rehabilitation scurvy, megaloblastic anemia and perni- Centers) cious anemia. • Follow up care • Water the universal solvent is also considered as a nutrient SUMMARY • Water dehydration and intoxication • Nutrients are essential for providing can also lead to fatal consequences. nourishment to the body. They are

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ICT CORNER

Step: 1 Type the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code with your mobile to access website. Step: 2 Click on “Nutri Guide” tab and you can find various nutrients like Vitamins, Minerals Proteins. Step: 3 Now Click on the Vitamins and you can find different types of Vitamins. Step: 4 Click on Vitamins button and a new screen will open with Vitamin chart with Biochemical, RDA, Dietary Sources Signs & Symptoms. Explore Biochemical, RDA, Dietary Sources, Signs & Symptoms of all the Vitamins.

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Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4

WEBSITE LINK:

http://218.248.6.39/nutritionatlas/home.php

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GLOSSARY

Anaemia (4KÚEZ@T[>): Deficiency in Inflammation ( Ô>Ý): The reaction of the circulating haemoglobin red blood tissues to injury, characterized by cells or packed cell volume. swelling, redness and pain.

Antioxidant (3Ù}3ÔCÙØ): A Intrinsic factor ( 2>Ô>TK~) : substance that prevents oxidation Mucoprotein in gastric juice which eg:tocopherols prevent oxidation and facilitates absorption of vitamin B12. therefore deterioration of fats due to Kwashiorkor (¤PTZJTß>ß): A form rancidity. of malnutrition that is characterized Bitot’s spots (ØCTØ}å®ã>ã): Grey, by nutritional edema with shiny spots on the conjunctiva resulting dyspigmentation of skin and hair. from Vitamin A deficiency. Marasmus 6Cà 4[NÜ®): A form of Cheilosis (>[CPTÞÜ®Ù): Lesions of the malnutrition that is characterized lips and the angles of the mouth. by nutritional atrophy, severe, chronic calorie deficiency and severe Dehydration (ßÜZHTÔ¤): Excessive loss of water from body due to diarrhea, malnutrition. vomiting. Nutrient (7ØCÖ@Ú«): Chemical substance in foods which nourishes the body. Dementia }YIåJT): Deterioration or loss of memory, reasoning power Oedema (6Cà ßÔZ>TÜ®): Presence characterized by confusion and of abnormal amounts of fluids in disorientation. intercellular space, resulting in swelling. Dermatitis (YCßIØ}Ø}æ): Inflammation of the surface of the skin. Prothrombin (®ZKTÚKTÝå): Factor in blood plasma for blood clotting. Gingivitis (Hà5² Ô>Ý): Inflammation of the gums

Glossitis (FTÔxà 9äH©Ý 2Oäz) : Inflammation of the tongue

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Questions

I. Choose the correct answer III Answer briefly 3 marks 1. Malnutrition means over nutrition 1. List any three functions of fats and ______2. Give the food sources of a vitamin a. Optimum nutrition which causes clotting of blood b. Under nutrition 3. Give any two functions of a vitamin c. bio nutrition which prevents pernicious anemia d. balanced nutrition 4. What is megaloblastic anaemia? 2. Rice is a rich source of ______5. What are the clinical signs and a. Protein c. fat symptoms of 3D disease? b. carbohydrate d. vitamins IV Write in detail 5 marks 3. An Example of complete protein is 1. Give the causes of malnutrition in ______children in India. a. Egg c. zein 2. Malini is unable to see in dim light. b. wheat d. meat What has caused this deficiency in her 4. Goitre occurs due to the deficiency of and what can she do to prevent the ______progression of this disease. a. Calcium c. Iodine 3. Neela is feeling tired, restless, and b. Iron d. phosphorus has less concentration in class. What 5. Moon face is observed in ______is the condition she is suffering from a. Marasmus .Suggest the reasons and some foods b. Kwashiorkar to improve her condition. c. Keratomalacia 4. Hari had a fall from the stairs and his d. Xerosis cornea wound in the leg is not healing. What nutrients would help him to recover II. Very short answer 2 marks quickly? 5. How is water distributed in the body? 1. What is Protein Sparing action? How many glasses of water should you 2. Rama is having bow legs and knock drink per day? knees. What is the deficiency condition she is suffering from? 3. Why do people living in hilly regions suffer from iodine deficiency? 4. What is dehydration? 5. Suggest any two nutritious recipes for a child with marasmus

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REFERENCES

1. Mahan K.L and Stump E., (2017) Food, 9. www.depressivedisorder.blogspot.in/ Nutrition and Diet Therapy, Edition 2013/01/vitamin-b2-depression-help. XIV, Saunders Company Limited, html Philadelphia. 10. www.pinimg.com/originals/73/a9/ 2. Joshi. S.A. (2009) Nutrition and Dietet- 95/73a9957236625f2d90db6cf56bdc1225. ics Edition III, Tata Mc Graw Mill Pub- jpg lishing Company Limited, New Delhi. 11. www.i.pinimg.com/736x/77/f8/9d/ 3. Srilakshmi. B, (2014) Dietetics Edition 77f89d14bede057524c74eea6d- VII, New Age International Publish- 63ce8b--healthy-skin-eating-healthy.jpg ers, Chennai 12. www.ridhelp.com/wp-content/up- 4. Srilakshmi. B, (2016) Human Nutri- loads/2016/12/foods-with-vitamin-D- tion, Edition II, New Age International 310x165.jpg?theia_smart_thumbnails_ Publishers, Chennai. file_version=3 5. Swaminathan.M (2012), Foods and 13. www.tapnewswire.com/wp-content/up- Nutrition, (2012), Bangalore printing loads/2016/08/sources-of-vitamin-e-1.jpg and publishing Company, Bangalore 14. www.google.co.in/url?sa=i&rct=- 6. Williams S.R., (2017) Essentials of Nu- j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&c- trition and Diet Therapy Edition XI d=&ved Times Mirrror/Mosby college compa- 15. w w w. i m e r g y e s o l u t i o n s . c o m / ny, United States of America . p/2018/01/every-women-should-add- 7. www.vitaship.com/blog/best-source-of- these-iron-rich-foods-list-to-their-di- calcium/ et-throughout-iron-foods-list.jpg 8. www.thefitindian.com/wp-content/up- 16. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/flood/con- loads/2015/07/Vitamin-C-Rich-Foods. stituents/constituents-of-food-and-its- jpg functions/64425

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Family Meal Chapter 6 Management

Learning Objectives

• To provide an indepth understanding of meal management for people of different age groups. • To provide a body of knowledge relevant to the study of the role of nutrition throughout the lifecycle. • To provide an understanding about the link between nutritional needs and nutrition related problems • To identify and overcome obstacles in the provision of healthy diets for specific age groups.

6.1 INTRODUCTION to health. It reflects cultural heritage In recent times, food has emerged as a and gives a feeling of security and pleas- source of comfort and a potential threat ure. Healthy food intake is an important

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Important terminologies Health: Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1948). Nutrient requirement: It is defined as the minimum amount of the absorbed nutrient that is necessary for maintaining the normal physiological functions of the body. Calorie: A calorie is the energy it takes to raise the temperature of I gram of water to 1 degree Celsius. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The amount of energy expended daily when the body is at complete rest. Dietary Fibre: Dietary fibre delays the intestinal transit of the food consumed. Dietary fibre is important for proper bowel function, to reduce chronic constipation, diver- ticular disease, haemorrhoids, coronary heart diseases, diabetes and obesity. They protect against colon cancer. Antioxidants: Antioxidants restrict the damage that reactive oxygen free radicals can cause cellular components. They are of primary biological value in giving protection from certain diseases. Raw and fresh vegetables like green leafy vegetables, carrots and fresh fruits including citrus fruits and tomatoes have been identified as good sources of antioxidants.

part of life. Hence, it is very essential to basic food groups. The nutrient require- gain knowledge about food, its planning, ments vary with age, gender, physiologi- preparation and service. Creative meal cal status and physical activity. A balanced management for people at different age diet provides (i) 50-60% of total calories groups can add pleasure and satisfaction from carbohydrates, (ii) about 10-15% to their lives and ensure healthy living. from proteins (iii) and 20-30% from both visible and invisible fat. In addition, a balanced diet should provide other non- Vegans eat no foods of animal origin nutrients such as dietary fiber, antioxidants and phytochemicals.

6.1.1 Balanced Diet 6.1.2 Recommended Dietary A balanced diet is one which provides all Allowance (RDA) the nutrients in required amounts and The Recommended Dietary Allowances proper proportions so that the need for (RDA) presented are in estimates of nu- calories, proteins, minerals, vitamins and trients to be consumed daily to ensure other nutrients are adequately met. It can that the requirements of all individu- be easily achieved through a blend of four als in a given population are met. The

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recommended levels depend upon the bio individual as given in the availability of nutrients from a given diet. table 1 below The term bio availability indicates what is 4. Physiological: Nutrient requirements absorbed and utilised by the body. In ad- Stress are increased in conditions dition RDA includes a margin of safety, to of physiological stress such cover variation between individuals, die- as pregnancy and lactation. tary traditions and practices. The RDAs are suggested for all age groups such as 6.1.3 Steps in Planning infants, pre-schoolers, children, adoles- Balanced Diets or Menu cents, pregnant women, lactating mothers Using Food Guide and adult men and women taking into ac- Pyramid and Exchange count their physical activity. The RDA of Lists an individual depends upon various fac- Menu planning is the process of planning tors which are as follows: and scheduling intake of meals for general 1. Age: Adults require more total or specific individual requirements. The calories than a child, four food groups suggested by ICMR given whereas a growing child in unit-III (Food Science), permits an indi- requires more calories per vidual to plan a menu to achieve nutrient kg of body weight than an intake as specified by recommended die- adult. tary allowances. There are certain princi- 2. Sex: Males with high Basal ples in planning menus. They are: Metabolic Rate (BMR) 1. A good menu plan should meet the nu- require more calories than tritional requirements of each member females. of the family. 3. Activity: The type of activity also 2. Meal pattern must fulfill family needs. determines the energy 3. Meal planning should save time and requirements. The energy. activities are classified 4. Meal planning should satisfy the bud- as sedentary, moderate get of the family. and heavy based on 5. Meal plan should give maximum the occupation of an nutrients.

Table 1 &ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI$FWLYLW\ Activity Sex Sedentary Moderate Heavy Male Teacher, Tailor, Barber, Fisher man, Basketmaker, Stone cutter, Mineworker, Executive, Peon Potter, Goldsmith Wood cutter Female Teacher, Tailor, Executive House wife, Nurse, Wood cutter Servant maid

Source: Gopalan C, Sastri B.V, & Balasubramanian S.C (2007)

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6. The meal planned should consider in- Steps in menu planning dividual likes and dislikes. 7. Planned meals should provide variety. 1. Recommended dietary allowance 8. Meals should give satiety. 2. Food list 9. Menus should include available foods. i. Using ICMR tables ii. The Exchange list There are three steps involved in 3. Meal plan planning a menu Step1: Recommended dietary allowance: To plan a balanced diet the first step is to The Recommended Dietary know the recommended dietary allow- Allowance for Indians ICMR (2010) is ances for different age groups. given in the Table 2.

Table 2 5HFRPPHQGHG'LHWDU\$OORZDQFHVIRU,QGLDQV 0DFURQXWULHQWVDQG0LQHUDOV

Body Net Energy Protein Visible Fat Calcium Iron Group Particulars wt. kg Kcal/day g/day g/day mg/day mg/day Sedentary work 2320 25 Man Moderate work60 273060 30 600 17 Heavy work 3490 40 Sedentary work 1900 20 Moderate work 223055 25 600 21 Heavy work 2850 30 Women Pregnant Women55 +350 82.2 30 1200 35 Lactation +600 77.9 30 0 – 6 months 1200 25 6 – 12 months +520 70.2 30 46 μg/ 0 – 6 months 5.4 92 Kcal/kg/d 1.16 g/kg/d – 500 Infants kg/day 6 – 12 months 8.4 80 Kcal/kg/d 1.69 g/kg/d 19 5 1 – 3 years 12.9 1060 16.7 27 09 Children 4 – 6 years 18 1350 20.1 25600 13 7 – 9 years 25.1 1690 29.5 30 16 Boys 10 – 12 years 34.3 2190 39.9 35 800 21 Girls 10 – 12 years 35.0 2010 40.4 35 800 27 Boys 13 – 15 years 47.6 2750 54.3 45 800 32 Girls 13 – 15 years 46.6 2330 51.9 40 800 27 Boys 16 – 17 years 55.4 3020 61.5 50 800 28 Girls 16 – 17 years 52.1 2440 55.5 35 800 26 Source: Dietary guidelines of Indians National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, (2010).

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http://www.trbtnpsc.com/2018/05/tamilnadu-scert-new-school-books-and-ebooks-download-from-text-books-online.html www.Padasalai.Net www.TrbTnpsc.com 10 12 day mg/ Zinc sium e 30 -- 50 5 310 120 9 165 11 195 12 mg/day Magn 12 μg/day Vit. B 0.2 – 1.0 e tary 80 e folat μg/day Di 80 300 1.5 25 25 0.2 40 40 140 40 150 40 200 acid mg/day Ascorbic Ascorbic e 2.0 40 200 1 340 12 2.0 40 200 1 mg/day Pyridoxin nt e Niacin Niacin mg/day quival e mg/day Riboflavin 1 1.1 12 1.2 1.4 16 0.5 0.6 8 0.9 1.1 1.3 15 1.6 +0.3 +0.4 +4 2.5 mg/day e n e Vit. A μg/dVit. Thiamin tinol β-carot 600 4800 600 4800 950 7600 400 3200 600 4800 e R Sedentary work Moderate workModerate workHeavy Sedentary work 1.4 1.7 1.6 2.1 18 21 Moderate workModerate workHeavy WomenPregnant 800 6400 +0.2 1.1 +0.3 1.4 1.3 +2 1.7 14 2.5 16 60 500 1.2 Lactation 0 – 6 months 6 – 12 months +0.2 +0.3 +3 2.5 0 – 6 months -- -- 0.2 0.3 710 μg/kg 0.1 6 – 12 months 350 2800 0.3 0.4 650 μg/kg 0.4 45 -- 1 – 3 years 4 – 6 years7 – 9 years 600 4800 0.8 0.7 1.0 0.8 13 11 1.6 0.9 120 100 100 70 8 7 FRQW¶G 5HFRPPHQGHG'LHWDU\$OORZDQFHVIRU,QGLDQV Dietary guidelines of Indians, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, (2010). Hyderabad, Nutrition, of Institute National Dietary Indians, guidelines of

Man Table 2 Group Particulars Women Infants Children Boys 10 – 12 years Girls 10 – 12 years 1.0 1.2 13 1.6 160 9 Girls 13 – 15 years 1.2 1.4 14 2.0 210 11 Boys 13 – 15 years 1.4 1.6 16 2.0 Girls 16 – 17 years 1.0 1.2 14 2.0 235 12 Boys 16 – 17 years 1.5 1.8 17 2.0 Source:

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Step 2: Food list and carbohydrate content. All foods of Food list is the list of quantities of various exchange lists make a specific contribution food groups to be included in the diet so to a good diet. Food exchange lists help in that it is balanced and can meet the RDA. manipulation of protein, calories and other This can be done by: nutrients. • Selecting food from all the four food Step 3: Meal plan groups. The foods that are listed are converted • Deciding the quantities of the selected into recipes and distributed in various as multiples of portion sizes. meals like breakfast, lunch and dinner. Food list can be prepared either by My Plate helps individuals to make better using ICMR tables or exchange lists. food choices and eat healthfully. It illus- i. Using ICMR tables trates the food groups using a familiar To make menu planning more con- mealtime visual. venient ICMR has suggested the portion size and balanced diets for adults and for different age groups. The portion sizes are given in terms of raw food. ii. The Exchange Lists The Exchange Lists are the basis of a meal planning. Food exchange lists are groups of measured foods of the same calorific value and similar protein, fat p Fig 1 My Plate

Table 3 3RUWLRQ6L]H$QG1XWULHQW&RQWHQW Portion Energy Protein Carbohydrate Fat Food Groups G Kcal g g g Cereals and millets 30 100 3.0 20 0.8 Pulses 30 100 6.0 15 0.7 Egg 50 85 7.0 - 7.0 Meat/chicken or fish 100 100 9 - 7.0 Milk(ml) and milk product 100 70 3.0 5 3.0 Roots and tubers 100 80 1.3 19 - Green leafy vegetables 100 45 3.6 - 0.4 Other vegetables 100 30 1.7 - 0.2 Fruits 100 40 - 10 - Sugars 5 20 - 5 - Fats and oils 5 45 - - 5 Source: Dietary guidelines for Indians, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, (2011).

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Table 4 ([FKDQJHOLVW Preparation Quantity of one serving Calories 1. Cereals Uppma 1cup 270 Idli 2nos 150 Dosa 1no. 125 Kichidi 1cup 200 Wheat porridge 1cup 220 2. Pulses Plain dhal ½ cup 100 Sambar 1cup 110 3. Vegetables With gravy 1cup 170 Dry 1cup 150 4. Non-vegetarian Mutton curry 3/4 cup 260 Chicken curry 3/4 cup 240 Keemakofta curry 3/4 cup 240 Fish fried 2 big pieces 190 Prawn curry 3/4 cup 220 5. Savoury snacks Bajji or pakora 8 no’s 280 Besankapura 1 no. 220 Chat(dahipakori) 5 pieces 220 Samosa 1 no. 200 Masala dosa 1 no. 200 6. Chutneys Coconut/ groundnuts/ til 2tbsp 120 Tomato 1tbsp 10 Tamarind(with jiggery) 1tbsp 60 7. Sweets and desserts Besanbarfi 2 small pieces 400 Rice puttu ½ cup 280 Halwa (kesari) ½ cup 320 Srikhand ½ cup 380 Sandesh 2 no’s 140 8. Beverages Tea (2tsp sugar + 50 ml toned milk) 1 cup 75 Coffee(2tsp sugar + 100 ml 1 cup 110 Cow’s milk (2 tsp. sugar) 1 cup 180 Lassi (2 tsp. sugar) 1 cup/glass (200ml) 110 Cold drinks 1 bottle (200ml) 150 Source: Dietary Guidelines for Indians - A manual, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad, India (2010).

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Table 5 6DPSOH0HDO3ODQIRU$GXOW0DQ 6HGHQWDU\ Meal time Food group Raw Cooked recipe Serving amounts Breakfast Milk 100ml Milk or ½ cup Tea or 2 cups Sugar 15g Coffee 1 cup Cereals 70g Breakfast item Pulses 20g Lunch Cereals 120g Rice 2 cups Pulkas 2 no’s Pulses 20g Dhal ½ cup Vegetables 150g Veg-curry ¾ cup Milk 100ml Curd ½ cup Tea Cereals 50g Snack Milk 50ml Tea 1 cup Sugar 10g Dinner Cereals 120g Rice 2cup Pulses 20g Pulkas 2nos Vegetables 150g Dhal ½ cup Milk(curd) 50ml Vegetables ¾ cup Vegetables 50g Fruit 100g Seasonal 1 medium Source: Dietary guidelines of Indians, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, (2010).

Nutrition Portfolio 1. Describe your choices within each 2. Compare the foods you eat daily using food group from day to day and in- the food guide pyramid and make a clude realistic suggestions for enhanc- note of which food groups are usually ing the variety in your diet. over or under represented

Activity 1 Word Scramble 1. RAEBD ...... A baked product. 2. CIER ...... A cereal. 3. RPAEGS ...... Fruit used to make wine. 4. NEGOAR ...... Fruit rich in vitamin c. 5. CMUCPAIS ...... Green pepper. 6. JLBARNI ...... A vegetable. 7. TYRPLOU ...... meat of domesticated birds 8. GRUTOY ...... Milk product 9. GAUSR ...... Sweetener 10. NDMAOL ...... a nut

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Growth and Development Vegetarians use meat replacements The growth and development is accompa- made of textured vegetable protein nied by a number of physiological changes (soy Protein) which include changes in body size and body composition, changes in the gastro intestinal system, excretory system and circulatory system. Nutrition is crucial and proper dietary Folic acid is also called pteroylglu- modifications are vital during this period. tamic acid, a deficiency of which Immunization results in macrocytic anaemia. Malnutrition during infancy leads to a higher incidence of infant mortality. Besides malnutrition,infection causes mortality. 6.2 NUTRITIONAL NEEDS Immunization protects the children against DURING DIFFERENT disease. Table 6 below presents the immuni- STATGES OF HUMAN zation schedule for infants and children. LIFE CYCLE Good nutrition is essential for the 6.2.1 Nutritional Needs of growth and development that occurs dur- Infants ing an infant’s first year of life. As an infant’s Infancy is a period of rapid growth. The mouth, tongue, and digestive tract mature, development during infancy is more rapid the infant shifts from being able to only than during at any other period in the life suckle, swallow, and take in liquid foods, time of an individual. such as breast milk or infant formula, to

Table 6 1DWLRQDO,PPXQL]DWLRQ6FKHGXOH 1,6 IRU,QIDQWV&KLOGUHQ

Soon after birth Hepatitis B 1st dose, OPV 1st dose, BCG 6 weeks Hepatitis B 2nddose,DPT 1stdose,OPV 2nd dose 10 weeks DPT 2nddose,OPV 2nd dose 14 weeks DPT 3rddose,OPV 4th dose 6 weeks, 10 weeks and 14 weeks OPV 5thdose,Hepatitis B 3rd dose 9 months to 12 months Measles 15 to 18 months MMR 16-24 months DPT, OPV 1st Booster 2 years Typhoid vaccine 5 – 6 years DPT, OPV 2nd Booster DPT- Diphtheria, Pertussis, And Tetanus: OPV-Oral Polio Vaccine; MMR- Measles, mumps, and rubella Source: https://mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/245453521061489663873.pdf

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being able to chew and receive a wide vari- E sources for older infants include green ety of complementary foods. leafy vegetables, vegetable oils and their Energy: Infants need energy from food for products, wheat germ, whole-grain breads, activity, growth, and normal development. cereals and other fortified or enriched grain Energy comes from foods containing car- products, butter, liver, and egg yolks. bohydrate, protein, or fat. A general indi- Vitamin K cator of infant consuming an adequate kil- Sources of vitamin K include infant formula, ocalories per day is the infant’s growth rate green leafy vegetables, pork, and liver. in length, weight, and head circumference. Vitamin C Carbohydrate Breast milk and infant formulas are major The major type of carbohydrate nor- food sources of vitamin C. Additional mally consumed by young infants is lac- vitamin C sources include vegetables tose, the carbohydrate source in breast (e.g., tomatoes), fruits (e.g., citrus fruits, milk. Lactose-free infant formulas, such papaya, and strawberries), and regular as soy-based infant formulas provide car- fruit and vegetable juices which are natu- bohydrates in the form of sucrose. In later rally high or fortified with vitamin C. infancy, infants derive carbohydrates from Vitamin B additional sources including cereal and 12 An infant’s vitamin B stores at birth gen- other grain products, fruits, and vegetables. 12 erally supply his or her needs for approx- Protein imately 8 months. Infants consuming Breast milk and infant formula contains appropriate amounts of breast milk from protein. The complementary foods such mothers with adequate B12 stores or infant as meat, poultry, fish, egg yolks, cheese, formula receive adequate amounts of this yogurt, pulses, cereals and other grain vitamin. Complementary foods such as products provide adequate protein. meat, egg yolks, and dairy products pro- Fat vide this vitamin later in infancy as well. Breast milk and infant formula are impor- Calcium tant sources of lipids, including essential An infant can obtain sufficient calcium by fatty acids, during infancy. consuming adequate amounts of breast milk Vitamin A or infant formula. Older infants can obtain Breast milk and infant formula are major additional calcium from complementary food sources of vitamin A. Additional foods such as yogurt, cheese, cottage cheese sources of vitamin A or carotenes for (paneer), fortified or enriched grain prod- infants consuming complementary foods ucts, some green leafy vegetables (such as include egg yolks, yellow and dark green turnip and greens), and tofu. leafy vegetables and fruits e.g., spinach, Iron greens, sweet potatoes and liver. Sources of iron for infants include breast Vitamin E milk, infant formula, meat, liver legumes, Infants receive vitamin E from breast whole-grain breads, cereals, or fortified milk and infant formula. Other vitamin or enriched grain products, and dark

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green vegetables. Heme iron is found to metabolize protein, fats, and carbohy- primarily in animal tissues, including drates. Under normal circumstances, the red meat, liver, poultry and fish and non- water requirements of healthy infants who heme iron is found in breast milk, infant are fed adequate amounts of breast milk formula, cereals, or other grain products or properly reconstituted infant formula legumes, fruits and vegetables. Infants are met by the breast milk or infant for- receive most of the iron in their diets as mula alone. non heme iron. 6.2.1 Breast Feeding Tofu, or bean curd, is a popular food derived from soya. It is a staple ingredient Infants who are exclusively breast fed for in Chinese cookery and is a good source the first 6 months of life grow well and of protein, containing all eight essential breast feeding is beneficial not only during amino acids. It is also an excellent source this period but also during later years of of iron and calcium and the minerals man- life. The infant is put on the breast within ganese, selenium and phosphorous. half an hour after a normal delivery. American Academy of Paediatrics(2005) Zinc firmly adheres to the position that breast- Infants obtain zinc from breast milk, feeding ensures the best possible health as infant formula, meat, poultry, liver egg well as the best developmental and psy- yolks, cheese, yogurt, legumes, and whole- chosocial outcomes for the infants grain breads, cereals, and other fortified Colostrum: During first two or three days or enriched grain products. colostrum is secreted in small quantities Sodium of about 10-40 ml. The composition of Healthy, full-term infants consuming pri- colostrum is as follows: marily breast milk or infant formula of standard dilution receive a relatively small amount of sodium but an amount ade- Table 7 &RPSRVLWLRQRI&RORVWUXP quate for growth. Nutrient Quantity / 100 ml Fiber Energy (k cal) 58 Breast milk contains no dietary fiber, and infants generally consume no fiber in the Fat (g) 2.9 first 6 months of life. As complementary Calcium (mg) 31 foods are introduced to the diet, fiber Phosphorus (mg) 14 intake increases. Dietary fiber is found in legumes, whole grain foods, fruits, and Iron (mg) 0.09 vegetables. Protein (g) 2.7 Water Lactose (g) 5.3 Infants’ water needs are met from consum- Carotene (IU) 186 ing breast milk, infant formula, and com- Vitamin A (IU) 296 plementary foods. Water is also formed in the body in chemical reactions occurring Source: Guthrie (1989)

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Colostrum contains an interferon Table 8&RPSDULVRQ2I+XPDQ0LONDQG like substance which has strong antiviral &RZ¶V0LON activity. It contains a B12 binding protein Nutrient per Human Cow’s making it unavailable for the growth of 100 ml milk Milk E-coli and other bacteria. It also contains Water (g) 88 87.5 antibodies against viral infection. Energy (k cal) 65 67 Advantages of breast feeding Protein (g) 1.1 3.2 Breast feeding is the simple and best method of feeding and has the following Carbohydrate (g) 7.4 4.4 advantages Fat (g) 3.4 4.1 1. Nutritional factor Calcium (mg) 28 120 The composition of human milk is best Phosphorus (mg) 11 90 suited for infants. In human milk the pro- Iron (mg) – – 0.2 tein content is lower but the content of carbohydrate, namely lactose is higher. The Carotene (μg) 137 174 fat content is comparatively less. The pro- Thiamine (mg) 0.02 0.05 tein is present as lactalbumin which is bet- Riboflavin (mg) 0.02 0.19 ter digested than the protein in cow’s milk. Vitamin C (mg) 3 2 Lactose provides natural sweetness and also helps in absorption of calcium and iron. Fat Caseinogen lactalbumin 1.2 3.1 though less is highly emulsified and therefore ratio better digested. When compared to animal milk, breast milk provides higher amount of 3. Immunological factors: vitamin C. Similarly calcium in breast milk The following factors in breast milk pro- though less when compared to cow’s milk is vide passive immunity. better absorbed by the infant. The composi- a. Macrophages: They can digest bac- tion of human milk is best suited for infants. teria and also develop immunity The table 8 below shows the comparison of against infectious diseases. Human milk and cow’s milk. b. Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes produce 2. Hormones and growth factors: antiviral substances like interferon. Breast milk is a rich source of hormones c. Lactoferrin: It is an iron binding like Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), protein that inhibits the growth of thyroxin, insulin and prolactin. It also E.coli and other bacteria. contains growth regulating factors, growth d. Enzymes: Breast milk also sup- promoters and growth modulators. plies enzymes like lipase, amylase and lactoperoxidase which increase digestibility and also destroy the DO YOU KNOW? harmful microorganisms. August 1-7 is the World Breast Feeding e. Immunoglobulin: They are defen- week sive proteins which include all types of antibodies.

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4. Economic factors 2. The mother is on steroids, antico- Breast milk is the most economical food agulants or radioactive drugs. for the baby. Even after accounting the 3. Insufficient milk secretion. extra food cost required by the mother, 4. Death of mother. breast milk is cheaper than any other type of artificial feed. Solid food added to an infant’s diet is 5. Psychological factors called beikost Breast feeding is essential for a healthy, happy and emotional relationship between the mother and the infant. 6.2.1.2 Complementary 6. Natural contraceptive Foods and Weaning Breast feeding prevents the onset of Foods another pregnancy and also prevents Milk provides all the food a baby needs breast cancer. for at least the first four months of life. As 7. Other advantages: babies gain weight and grow older they a. Infants jaw is more fully developed. need a more varied diet. The change over b. Breast milk is microbiologically from milk to more solid food is called sterile. weaning. The idea of weaning is the process c. Human milk is always fresh and at of gradual introduction to a wide range of the right temperature. ‘non milk’ foods to infants in addition to d. It is convenient to administer at breast milk. Weaning the baby from breast any time. or bottle feed starts by four months. e. Breast fed babies have better cogni- Stages of Weaning tion and IQ later in life when com- Weaning is a transition from breast milk pared to bottle fed babies. or formula milk to solid foods. It is divided $UWL¿FLDOIHHGLQJ into the following stages: → Though breast milk is the best milk and STAGE I- Babies are usually ready there can be no substitute for it, there are to start on solid foods between 4-6 certain circumstances during which the months → infant needs to be given artificial feeds. STAGE II- 6-9 months → STAGE III- 9-12 months Reasons Stage I 1. Illness of short duration like fever, Babies cannot chew and the first weaning or severe illness like tuberculosis foods need to be similar in consistency to and heart disease. milk. Cereals such as rice or wheat flours mixed with milk is a suitable first weaning food. Food should be the same tem- Premature Infants are perature as their usual milk feed. Mashed, born before 37 weeks of gestation pureed, starchy vegetables made to the same consistency are also suitable foods.

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e.g.potato, carrot. Foods should be salted ingly if one is mixed with another. Egg or sweetened. Babies should have 600ml of may be mixed with formula cereal or breast or infant formula milk daily along vegetable. with the weaning foods. → The child can be fed with a spoon until the baby gets used to an adult method Stage II of feeding. Babies get used to spoon feeding and will → Give freshly prepared food. take more solid foods. They can begin to → Food should be given between breast have the same foods as the rest of the fam- feeds. ily, but in mashed or pureed form. They are → The temperature of the food should able to chew foods at six months, so can be not be hot or cold. given hard foods to chew. These are called finger foods. These include foods such as raw soft fruits and vegetables, raw strips Supplementary Foods of carrot, cooked green beans and soft Foods that are regularly fed to the infant, banana. Foods with increased quantity, dif- in addition to breast-milk, providing suf- ferent texture and stronger tastes should be ficient nutrients are known as supplemen- encouraged. tary or complementary foods. These could be liquid foods like milk or semi-solid Stage III foods in the case of gruels or porridge At this stage babies will probably eat solid or solid preparations like rice, which can foods in addition to 500-600ml breast be given to children over the age of one milk or infant formula after nine months. year. Wide variety foods should be given with a range of textures, because the baby Types of Supplementary Foods can cope up with food that is lumpier in texture. Liquid Supplements → Milk: The frequency of breast feeding Important points to be is reduced to 3 to 4 times a day and considered while introducing cow’s milk is substituted in 6 months. supplementary foods Cow’s milk is diluted with water in → Introduce only one food at a time. the proportion of 2:1 for the first feed. → Allow the infant to become familiar Sugar can be added to increase taste with the food before trying to give and calories. another. → Juice of Fresh Fruits: Small quantities → Fruit juice should be fed only by cup of fresh fruit juices should be given in not by bottle. the 3rd and 4th month of the infant. In → When the baby is able to chew, gradu- early stages fruit juice is diluted with ally substitute finely chopped fruit and water and only a couple of teaspoons vegetables usually at 8 to 9 months. are fed and the amount is gradually → Variety in choice of foods is important. increased. → Infants may object to eat some foods → Soup from Green Leafy Vegeta- by themselves but will take them will- bles: Green leafy vegetables can be

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substituted as an alternative if fruits Activity 2 are not available. Guess the nutreints thar are present Solid Supplements in the foods listed below Mashed Foods: Mashed food should be given around the 7th and 8th month along with the liquid supplements for the infant. → Cereal and Starchy Gruels: Mashed cereals are rice, wheat and ragi which are usually eaten as porridge with the addition of vegetable oil. → Vegetables: Cooked, mashed vegetables like potato, green leafy vegetables and carrots can be introduced to get vitamins and minerals in the diet. → Fruits: Fruits should be stewed and sieved. Sugar and lime can be added for flavor. → Non Vegetarian Food: Egg yolk is given as good source of protein and it is usually introduced in soft cus- tards. Egg white is not given until the infant is 10 months old, as it causes allergic manifestations. Minced, cooked meat or boiled fish with salt can be given.

Case study 1 Kavitha has a 6 month year old baby. Outline an appropriate schedule for her to use as a guide for adding solid foods to her baby’s diet during the first year of life. What foods are not appropriate at this age?

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Activity 3 between one to six years. The child becomes more active and the social and Prepare a weaning food using the fol- environmental influences have a great lowing ingredients - impact on their food behaviour and eating pattern. The need for nutrients is Dhal increased as growth and development Sugar Ragi Rice Wheat continues. Nuts Oils Jaggery Millets Growth Pattern Pulses Grains During the second year, the increase in height is about 10 cm and weight gain is 2 to 2.5 kg. After two years annual gain in height and weight is only 6 to 7 cm and 1.5 to 2 kg respectively. However, there is a wide variance in the physical development of children. → Pulses: Pulses along with cereals in the As growth proceeds, changes occur form of porridge can be given. Pulses and in a) proportion of water, b) muscle tis- meat preparation can be given alternatively sue, c) fat deposits and d) skeletal struc- Unmashed: When the infant starts ture. The body water gradually decreases developing teeth, it is the time to give and there is addition of adipose tissue and lumpy foods, cooked cereals and pulses minerals to the bones. solids like idly, idiappam, bread, chap- Nutritional Needs During pathi and semi solids like rice and dhal. Preschool Vegetables can be chopped and boiled into small pieces. As the child grows, it Energy is better to give fruit segments instead The energy needs for the child is deter- of juice. Fruit provides bulk in the diet mined by his basal metabolism and activ- and is good for bowel movement. ity. If the preschool child is not given proper complementary foods and supple- Problems of Weaning mentary foods, it may lead to protein and → Obesity energy malnutrition. → Underweight Protein → Choking Protein is a vital dietary component for → Food allergy pre-schoolers, as it is needed for optimal 6.3 NUTRITIONAL NEEDS growth. Enough protein should be con- OF PRESCHOOL AND sumed every day for proper growth and SCHOOL GOING development. CHILDREN Fat The rapid growth during infancy is Adequate fat is required to provide the followed by a generally slow growth extra calories and reduce bulk in the diet.

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Minerals Dietary Guidelines Calcium is needed for bone and teeth min- Transition from an infant diet to a regular eralization and maintenance. The amount adult diet should be smooth and gradual. of calcium a child needs is determined in Factors that need to be considered while part by the consumption of other nutri- planning a diet for a preschool child are: ents, such as protein, phosphorus and • The food should be interesting and vitamin D, as well as the child’s rate of attractive. For example, chapattis, growth. poori and bread slices can be cut into Iron requirement during childhood interesting shapes to make eating is needed for growth and for increase in interesting for a child. the haemoglobin concentration. Dietary • The diet should include enough quan- lack of iron accompanied by hookworm tity and quality of different nutrients. infestation can lead to anaemia. Zinc is They should be encouraged to have essential for proper development. It is milk every day. Milk can be given with needed for wound healing, proper sense of delicious flavours. taste, proper growth, and normal appetite. • Plenty of fruits and vegetables are needed for proper elimination. 30%–50% of aneamia in children and • Fruits are given raw or in the form of other age groups is caused by iron deficiency simple desserts. (World Health Organization 2007). Vitamins DO YOU KNOW? The incidence of Vitamin A deficiency is Food Jags- Patterns of eating in which high. The recommended intake for B vita- very few food items are eaten with the mins is based on the energy intake. The exclusion of all the others for a long pe- dietary intake of vitamin C for pre-school- riod of time ers is the same as for adults i.e., 40 mg/day

Table 9 %DODQFHGGLHWIRUSUHVFKRROFKLOGUHQ Quantity(portions) Food groups g/portion 1-3 years 4-6 years Cereals and millets 30 2 4 Pulses 30 1 1 Milk (ml) 100 5 5 Roots and tubers 100 1 1 Green leafy vegetables 100 0.5 0.5 Other vegetables 100 0.5 1 Fruits 100 1 1 Sugar 5 3 4 Fats / Oils (visible) 5 5 5 Source: Dietary Guidelines for Indians - A manual, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad, India (2010) 6 Family Meal Management 136

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• Unripe bananas and apples should not be given as they are difficult to chew and may choke the child. • Candies and sweets should be in moderation. Foods like tea and coffee should not be given as they are more stimulating to the system. • Foods should be seasoned so that they taste better and the child takes it well. • Fried foods and concentrated foods should not be given as they are diffi- p Fig 2 Bitot’s spot cult to digest. • The Child should never be forced to eat more than what he can take and the atmosphere should be peaceful, pleasant and lacking distraction. • People feeding the child should not show dislike of any food in front of the FPO child; this may lead to the rejection of the food by the child. • Regularity of meals is essential. • Food preferences of the child should be taken into consideration. p Fig 3 Keratomalacia Nutritional Problems among Pre-Schoolers Nutritional Needs during School Age Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) (6-12 Years) The primary cause of malnutrition is a faulty and inadequate diet. Besides diet Bitot’s spots, kertomalacia in preschool and socioeconomic factors, various envi- children. ronmental factors aggravate the dietary deficiencies. These include chronic infec- The school-age, six to twelve years, tion, poor environmental sanitation, poor has been called the latent time of growth. The insanitary living conditions and poor per- rate of growth slows down and body changes sonal hygiene. The diseases that represent occur gradually. The slow rate of growth dur- extreme forms of PEM are ing this period result in a gradual decline in i. Kwashiorkor food requirement per unit of body weight. ii. Marasmus, and Energy iii. Marasmic Kwashiorkor Energy needs vary with growth rate, body Vitamin-A deficiency size and physical activity. The require- Inadequate dietary intake of vitamin A or ment for calories increases during school its precursor (E-carotene) is exhibited as age.

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Food Requirements DO YOU KNOW? A natural increase in appetite is respon- Adiposity rebound is a phenomenon of sible for an increase in food consump- normal growth, occurring at approxi- tion. Parents should encourage the child mately 6 years of age which is when a to eat appropriate portion sizes, eating a child’s body fat increases. variety of food to meet their nutritional requirements.

Protein Importance of breakfast Girls require more protein than boys because • Children who skip breakfast do not they are reaching menarche. The protein make up for the nutrition and energy requirements are slightly higher for girls needs and tend to perform poorly in than boys between 10-12 years. academics(NIN, 2003-2004) Minerals • Eating breakfast is a healthy habit. Calcium requirements are more to meet • An ideal breakfast should have all 4 the need for skeletal development. They basic food groups. need to take 2-3 glasses of milk. Iron Dietary Guidelines for School requirement is further increased by rise in Children the haemoglobin concentration. • Nutritional requirements should Vitamins meet their activity, growth and spe- Vitamin-A requirements of children is cial requirements during sickness and 600μg. Vitamin-C requirements are 40mg. injury. Vitamin B complex requirements increase • Menus should provide dishes that are with calorie needs. The RDA of vitamins quick to eat, nutritious and variety is A and C are same as adult RDA. needed.

Table 10 %DODQFHGGLHWIRU6FKRRO*RLQJ&KLOGUHQ Quantity(g) 7-9 years 10-12 years Food groups g/portion Boys Girls Cereals and millets 30 6 8 10 Pulses 30 2 2 2 Milk (ml) 100 5 5 5 Roots and tubers 100 1 1 1 Green leafy vegetables 100 1 1 1 Other vegetables 100 1 2 2 Fruits 100 1 1 1 Sugar 5466 Fats / Oils (visible)5677 Source: Dietary Guidelines for Indians - A manual, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad, India (2011)

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5. One fruit or vegetable salad may be in- DO YOU KNOW? cluded every day. Food insecurity means having limited 6. Variety should be present. or uncertain availability of nutritional- 7. Preferably the food packed should ly adequate and safe foods or a limited be different from that prepared for ability to acquire appropriate foods. breakfast. 8. The dishes should be packed in the right consistency so as to avoid leakage or • Weather conditions should also be food becoming dry during lunch which considered-in hot season more of liq- may not be appetising to the child. uid should be included. 9. Following are two examples of a packed • Snacky meals should be given at inter- lunch. vals which can be easy to handle. • Vegetable peas pulao, onion raita, • Fruits and dry fruits can be given for boiled egg, banana. snacks. • Vegetable dhal rice, amaranth porial, soya gravy, and butter milk. 6.4 PACKED LUNCH: GUIDELINES Activity 4 FOR PREPARING NUTRITIOUS PACKED Match the following: LUNCH FOR SCHOOL Vitamin A tomato CHILDREN Calcium lemon Packed lunch has become a necessity for Iron carrot school children as it is not possible to have lunch at home. Packed lunch is a lunch in Vitamin D liver a tiffin box to be eaten by the child while Vitamin C milk away from home. Lycopene sunshine vitamin Points to be considered while 2. List out the junk foods that are planning packed lunches are: liked by school going children 1. It should meet one third of the day’s nutritional requirements. 2. It should include food from all the four food groups though the number 6.5 NUTRITIONAL of dishes may be less. REQUIREMENTS 3. Food stuffs providing good quality DURING ADOLESCENCE protein like egg, milk or milk products Adolescents is the period between child- like paneer or curd would improve hood and adulthood. It is a period of rapid overall protein quality in combination growth after infancy and it reaches its peak with vegetable protein. between 11th to 14th years for girls and 13th 4. At least one serving of green leafy veg- to 16th years for boys. Adolescence require etables should be included. more food for the following reasons:

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a. this period (teenage) is spread mass and accrual of additional lean body almost over a decade, mass during the adolescent growth spurt. b. it is characterized by rapid increase When protein intakes are consistently in height and weight, hormonal inadequate, reductions in linear growth, changes, sexual maturation and delays in sexual maturation and reduced wide swings in emotion, accumulation of lean body mass may be c. development of critical bone mass seen. is essential during this period as Fat and Essential Fatty Acids this forms the ground for maintain- The human body requires dietary fat and ing mineral integrity of the bone in essential fatty acids for normal growth later life, and development. The intakes of total fat d. the pattern and proportion of var- and saturated fat should not exceed RDA. ious body components like body water, muscle mass, bone and fat Calcium increase during the entire child- Calcium needs during adolescence are hood and adolescence to reach greater than they are in either childhood adult values by about 18 years. or adulthood because of the dramatic increase in skeletal growth. Milk provides Adolescent girls are at greater the greatest amount of calcium in the diets physiological stress than boys because of of adolescents.Ragi, green leafy vegeta- menstruation. Their nutritional needs are bles, milk and milk products are excellent of particular importance as they have to sources of calcium. prepare for motherhood. Iron Nutritional Needs of Iron is vital for transporting oxygen in the Adolescents bloodstream and for preventing anaemia. Good nutrition is critical during the teen- For both male and female adolescents, the age years to ensure healthy growth and need for iron increases with rapid growth development. A healthy diet must meet and the expansion of blood volume and the changing nutritional needs of a grow- muscle mass. The onset of menstruation ing teenager. imposes additional iron needs for girls. Energy Zinc Calorie needs is influenced by activ- Zinc is important in adolescence because ity level, basal metabolic rate, increased of its role in growth and sexual matura- requirements to support pubertal growth, tion. Males who are zinc deficient expe- development and energy expenditure. The rience growth failure and delayed sexual energy requirements for boys are more development. than that of girls. Vitamins Protein Vitamin A is important for normal vision Protein needs of adolescents are influ- and plays a vital role in reproduction, enced by the amount of protein required growth, and immune function. The most for maintenance of existing lean body obvious symptom of inadequate vitamin A

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consumption is vision impairment, espe- Dietary Guidelines for cially night blindness. The low intake of Adolescents fruits, vegetables and milk and dairy prod- Diet in adolescents is very significant ucts by adolescents contributes to their because it influences the nutritional status less than optimal intake of vitamin A. later in life. Vitamin E is well known for its anti- – Adequate well balanced nutritious oxidant properties, which become increas- food should be taken to prevent ingly important as body mass expands dur- obesity or under nutrition. ing adolescence. Fortified breakfast cereals – An adolescent girl should take and nuts are good sources of vitamin E. enough calcium rich foods in her Vitamin C is involved in the synthesis of diet to increase bone density and collagen and other connective tissues delay the onset of osteoporosis. – Should not miss breakfast. Fibre – Junk food should be avoided. Dietary fibre is important for normal bowel – Avoid empty calorie foods such as function, and plays a role in the prevention carbonated beverages. of chronic diseases, such as certain cancers, – Iron rich foods may be included in coronary artery disease, and type 2 diabe- the diet to prevent anaemia. tes mellitus and reduces the risk of obe- – Calorie and protein rich foods sity. Increased intake of fruit, vegetables, should be taken to support the and whole grains increases the fibre intake. growth spurt. Adolescents who skip breakfast or do not – Include fruits and vegetables in the routinely consume whole grain cereals are diet to meet the vitamin, mineral at high risk for having an inadequate con- and fibre requirement. sumption of fibre.

Table 11 %DODQFHG'LHWIRU$GROHVFHQWV 1XPEHURISRUWLRQV 10-12 Years 13-15 Years 16-18 Years Food groups g/Portion Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Cereals & millets 30 8 10 11 14 11 15 Pulses 30 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 Milk & its products100555555 Roots & tubers 100 1 1 1 1.5 2 2 Green leafy veg.100111111 Other vegetables100222222 Fruits 100111111 Sugar 5 665456 Fat/oil (visible)5 7789710

Source: Dietary Guidelines for Indians, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, 2011.

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– Home based diets are best for children’s growth. How to promote increased fruit and – Adolescents need to be encouraged vegetable intake: to do physical activity particularly – Add fruit purees and mixes outdoor games. Physical activity into yogurt, milkshakes and regulates appetite. pudding – Grate vegetables and add to batter DO YOU KNOW? and dough while making idlies, dosas and chapattis Dysphagia means difficulty in swallowing – Mix vegetable purees into soups and noodles. Nutrition Related Problems • Acne Vulgaris • Anaemia Activity 5 • Obesity • Eating Disorders Reflect on your food choices as teen- i. Anorexia Nervosa ager. Do you think your meal choices ii. Bulimia Nervosa were balanced and varied? What could iii. Binge Eating Disorder you have done to improve your nutri- • Predisposition to Osteoporosis tional habits at that time?

DO YOU KNOW? 6.6 NUTRITIONAL NEEDS Competitive foods are less nutritious, OF ADULTS such as high- fat, high-sugar snacks, When an individual reaches adulthood, soda and other sweetened beverages body growth especially in terms of height and these foods competes with healthier and body status stop to a certain extent, food choices for consumption. but tissue breakdown and repair of body tissues continue even among adults. Therefore adequate amount of essential nutrients need to be provided for main- Difference between Appetite and tenance of physical and mental health in Hunger adults. – Appetite is defined as any of the instinctive desires necessary to Energy-Kilocalories keep up organic life, especially There is a gradual loss of functioning the desire to eat. body cells and reduced physical activity – Hunger is defined as a craving or so adults generally require less energy urgent need for food or a specific intake as they grow older. The basic nutrient due to lack of food. fuels required to supply these energy needs are primarily carbohydrates with moderate fat.

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Protein calcium only 20-30% is absorbed and this The RDA for an adult necessities a protein is facilitated by vitamin D. A desirable intake of 0.8g/kg of body weight making intake of phosphorus is recommended. the total protein. This amount of protein The elemental Ca:P ratio in the diet should provides about 13-15% of the total calorie. be maintained at 1:1. Carbohydrates Iron About 50-60% of the total diet calories The loss of iron through sweat, gastroin- should come from carbohydrate foods, testinal tract and urine is estimated to be with the majority being mostly complex 14 mg/kg body weight. Apart from this carbohydrates such as starches. Easily women have additional loss due to men- absorbed sugars may also be used for struation. Thus the iron requirements for immediate energy. women are more than men. Fat Vitamins It provides a back-up energy source. Studies have revealed that 600 mg of reti- Sufficient fat makes food taste better, aids nol daily would be sufficient to maintain appetite and provides needed kcal to pre- a normal serum vitamin A level. The vent excessive weight loss. requirement for B Vitamins is based on Calcium and Phosphorus calorie intake. Requirement of folic acid In adults, calcium is required for replac- among Indians is 200μg.A daily intake ing calcium lost from body through of 20 mg vitamin C is sufficient to main- urine, feces, sweat and bile. Of the dietary tain ascorbic acid status. Since 50 percent

Table 12 %DODQFHG'LHWIRU$GXOWV6HGHQWDU\0RGHUDWH+HDY\$FWLYLW\ Activity Sedentary Moderate Heavy

S. Portion Man WomenManWomenManWomen No Food Groups g/Day Number Of Portions 1. Cereals And Millets 30 12.5 9 15 11 20 16 2. Pules 30 2.5 2 3 2.5 4 3 3. Milk 100ml 3 3 3 3 3 3 4. Roots And Tubers 100 2 2 2 2 2 2 5. Green Leafy Vegetables 100 1 1 1 1 1 1 6. Other Vegetables 100 2 2 2 2 2 2 7. Fruits 100 1 1 1 1 1 1 8. Sugar 5 4 4 6 6 11 9 9. Fats/ Oil Visible 5 5 4 6 5 8 6

Source: Dietary Guidelines for Indians A Manual, NIN, Hyderabad (2011).

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vitamin C is lost during cooking 40 mg of Wholesome nourishment before preg- vitamin C per day is recommended. nancy has a greater impact on the long term health on the mother and foetus. A Nutritional Problems for an well nourished foetus enters life with good Adult physical and mental health. • Osteoporosis • Anemia Physiological Changes in • Chronic Disease Pregnancy • Diabetes Mellitus Foetal development is accompanied by • Underweight many physiological, biochemical and hor- • Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) monal changes which influence the nutri- • Poor Nutritional Status ent needs and the efficiency with which the Many of the health problems of older body utilizes them. The changes include adults are not only due to general aging i. Increased basal metabolic rate (BMR) but also due to states of malnutrition. Due to foetal growth the BMR increases. ii. Gastro intestinal changes Gastro intestinal motility diminishes Malnutrition Physical and psychological which may result in constipation. disturbances iii. Hormonal changes Emotional distress and low economy imposed on the family members During pregnancy there is increased

Poor Concentration secretion of the following hormones: i) Aldosterone ii) Progesterone iii) Thyroxin iv) Parathormone. Emotional distress Absenteeism from work iv. Changes in body fluid Poor economical status The blood volume expands by 50 percent and this increased amount of blood p &ŝŐ͘ϲ͘ϰഩDĂůŶƵƚƌŝƟŽŶ is required to carry nutrients to the foetus and remove metabolic wastes from the 6.7 NUTRITIONAL foetus. REQUIREMENTS OF PREGNANT AND v. Altered renal function Increased blood volume and increased LACTATING WOMEN production of waste products like creati- Nutrition requirements increase tre- nine, urea and other wastes due to foetal mendously during pregnancy and lacta- and maternal metabolism produces a high tion owing to the physiological changes. glomerular filtration rate (GFR). vi. Weight Gain during Pregnancy DO YOU KNOW? Less than half of total weight gain resides in the foetus, placenta and amniotic fluid. Primipara – A woman having her first Women with desirable body weight is 12.5 child kg ranging between 11-13 kg.

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6.7.1 Nutritional Needs DO YOU KNOW? during Pregnancy In addition to the RDA for an adult Pica refers to the compulsion for persis- women the nutritional needs increase tent ingestion of unsuitable substances during pregnancy. that have little or no nutritional value like starch, clay and chalk. Energy Energy requirement during pregnancy is increased because of the additional energy ii. to build the iron store in foetal liver required for growth and activity of foetus, to last for at least 4-6 months after growth of placenta and maternal tissues, birth. This is because the baby’s increase in maternal body size and steady first food milk is deficient in iron. rise in BMR. Iodine Protein Due to increase in BMR, iodine needs are An additional protein intake is essential for: also enhanced during pregnancy. – Growth of the foetus. – Development of placenta Zinc – Enlargement of uterus, mammary Deficiency of zinc adversely affects the glands outcome of pregnancy. Zinc deficiency – Increased maternal blood volume leads to foetal mortality, foetal malfor- – Formation of amniotic fluid mations and reduced intra uterine growth rate. Fat Sodium ICMR expert committee has suggested Normal sodium intake without restric- an intake of 30g of visible fat/day during tion is advised during pregnancy. Sodium pregnancy. is restricted when there is oedema or Calcium hypertension. Additional calcium is needed for the Vitamins growth and development of bones as well An additional allowance of Vitamin A is as teeth of the foetus and also for the pro- needed during pregnancy. Vitamin D is tection of calcium resources of the mother essential as it enhances maternal calcium to meet the high demand of calcium dur- absorption. Vitamin K is required for syn- ing lactation. thesis of prothrombin which is essential Iron for normal coagulation of blood. A liberal The requirement of iron increases from vitamin K level in the mother’s blood is 21mg/day to 35mg/day during pregnancy. helpful in preventing neonatal haemor- The increased requirement is due to rhage. Vitamin C, pyridoxine, and vitamin i. expansion of maternal tissues B12 needs are increased during pregnancy. including red cell mass, iron con- Folic acid tent of placenta and blood loss Folic acid is essential for increased blood during parturition. formation i.e. haematopoiesis and for

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synthesis of essential components of 850 ml of milk is produced daily. However, DNA/RNA which increase rapidly during the milk secretion continues to increase growth. in the early periods of lactation up to six months and then gradually decreases. Problems during Pregnancy Therefore the nutrient requirements are • Nausea and vomiting given for the two periods in lactation i.e. • Constipation 0-6 months and 6-12 months. • Heart burn • Oedema and leg cramps Energy • Pica The lactating mother requires additional • Anemia energy for the production of milk. Based • Pregnancy induced hypertension (PIH) on the optimal output of 850 ml/day, the • Gestational diabetes additional allowance is recommended during first six months of lactation. Lactation Protein Adequate nutrition for the mother during Due to production of milk, protein lactation is also of vital importance as the requirement also increases. infant is dependent on mother’s milk for its nutrition for the first few months of Fat life. Inadequate nutrition during lactation The total fat in breast milk is not influ- is reflected on both the quality and quan- enced by the mother’s diet. The fat tity of milk secreted. also provides energy density to meet the higher energy requirement during Physiology of lactation lactation. The Table 13 below gives the summary of Calcium hormonal control of lactation. The requirement for calcium doubles dur- Nutrient Needs during ing lactation. Lactation Iron ICMR nutrient recommendations for a Since most mothers have lactational lactating mother are based on the com- amenorrhea, it results in saving of nearly position of breast milk and the fact that 1mg iron per day which otherwise would

Table 13 6XPPDU\RI+RUPRQDO&RQWURORI/DFWDWLRQ S. No. Hormone Source Function 1 Estrogen Ovary Stimulates breast development 2 Progesterone Placenta Prepares breast for milk production by changing glandular cells to secreting cells 3 Prolactin Anterior pituitary Stimulates milk production 4 Oxytocin Posterior pituitary Facilitates release of milk from alveolus

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have been lost due to menstruation. There are considered to increase milk pro- is a marginal increase in the iron intake. duction. Studies carried out on nursing Vitamins mothers have revealed that extra amounts The additional need of vitamin A during of body building foods like fish and mut- lactation is based on the amount secreted ton increase the secretion of breast milk. in the mother’s milk. As the calorie and Lactating mothers are also given special protein requirements increase during lac- preparations containing ajwain and fen- tation, the requirements of B vitamins ugreek seeds, which supply iron, protein, also increase correspondingly. Ascorbic calcium and B- complex vitamins. acid content increases during lactation. 6.8 NUTRITIONAL NEEDS Galactogogues AND CHALLENGES Galactogogues are foods that help to pro- DURING OLD AGE duce more milk. Garlic, milk and almonds Individuals above the age of 60 years con- stitute the elderly. Health and well-being of the elderly is given more importance and has paved way for a specific field of study called “Geriatric Nutrition”. Case study 2 Jeni is pregnant. She comes for nutri- Aging tion counselling. Explain to her the Aging is an irreversible biochemical change six nutrients that are required in that occurs throughout an individual’s life larger amounts during pregnancy cycle and continues until death. In old Describe their special roles and sug- age, the nutritional status is determined gest four food sources for each. by the state of nutrition of an individual’s cell. Conditions like dietary deficiency,

Table 14$%DODQFHG9HJHWDULDQ'LHW)RU3UHJQDQWDQG/DFWDWLQJ0RWKHU'RLQJ6HGHQWDU\ :RUN S.No Food group Pregnant mother Quantity (g) Lactating mother Quantity (g) 1 Cereals millets 300 330 2 Pulses 60 90 3 Milk(ml) 500 500 4 Roots and tubers 100 100 5 Green leafy vegetable 150 150 6 Other vegetable 100 100 7 Fruit 200 200 8 Sugar 20 20 9 Fats and oil(visible) 30 30 Source: Dietary Guidelines for Indians - A manual, NationalInstitute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad, India, (1999)

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improper digestion and absorption, insuf- Fat ficient distribution of nutrients, accumula- The fat requirements are also reduced, tion of excess waste products lead to poor corresponding to the energy require- nourishment of cells. ments. The intake of saturated fats and With increasing age, cell function- cholesterol should be less and unsaturated ing is slowed down and their response fat should be used in cooking. to hormones and synthesis of enzymes Minerals decreases. These changes are associated Calcium needs increases during old age with a decrease in the number of function- due to increasing mobilization of calcium ing cells. Since the cells are interdepend- from bones and incidence of osteoporosis. ent, if one cell dies, others of the same or During old age 1000mg of calcium is rec- different organ lose their ability to func- ommended per day because of the follow- tion resulting in malfunctioning of the ing reasons. organ. This in turn gradually affects the – Limited availability of calcium total body functioning leading to death. from foods NUTRITIONAL NEEDS DURING – To compensate age related bone loss OLD AGE and to improve calcium balance – To prevent fractures and tooth decay Energy – To compensate decreased efficiency The calorie intake should be adjusted to of calcium absorption maintain weight. The energy requirement decreases due to the following reasons: Aging does not affect iron needs. a. Decreased physical activity Hence iron needs are same as that for b. Reduction in lean body mass and adults. Mild anaemia may affect the health increase in adipose tissue of old people due to inefficient circulation. c. Decrease in resting metabolic rate Therefore iron intake should be adequate by 15-20 percent due to changes during old age. in body composition and physical Vitamins inactivity Vitamin A requirements remain the same Protein i.e., 600 μg of retinol. Inadequate expo- The protein requirements do not change sure to sunshine may affect vitamin D lev- during old age. It is the same as adults i.e. els. The antioxidant vitamins such as vita- 1g/kg of body weight. min E, carotenoids and vitamin C have Carbohydrate been identified to promote health of the Since the calorie requirement is reduced, elderly. Vitamin B6 requirements are also the carbohydrate content should also increased due to gastritis which interferes be proportionately reduced. Due to with absorption. impaired glucose tolerance and gastro- Besides these various nutrients, intestinal disturbances like constipation, water should be consumed in plenty as such emphasis should be on taking complex or as fluids like buttermilk, fruit juice and carbohydrates. soups. Intake of sufficient fluids reduces

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Table 15 6DPSOH0HQX

Time Food Items Early morning Milk/tea/coffee Morning Idli/dosa Tomato chutney or vegetable sambar Fruit-1 slice Mid-morning Butter milk/soups/boiled eggs/ fruit salads Lunch Rice, sambhar, greens kootu, vegetable poriyal Evening Fruit yogurt/boiled sundal/custard Dinner Idiyappam/ idly/ dosa,vegetable stew/dhal,fruit. Bedtime Milk the load on kidneys and relieves from con- • Malnutrition stipation by stimulating peristalsis. • Constipation • Diabetes Mellitus Nutrition Related Problems of • Cardiovascular disease Elderly Iron deficiency anemia is a serious The elderly are at risk of poor nutrition public health problem throughout Central due to economic pressure, poor dentition, America, Like in India, Rice a staple food aging tissues and inadequate diet, which in Central America. It is typically pol- may be compounded with the incidence ished and rarely iron-fortified. of chronic disease. The commonly preva- lent nutrition related problems among the 6.9 DIETARY aged include: MODIFICATION • Osteoporosis DURING OLD AGE • Obesity • Anaemia

Case study 4 Mr. Ram is a healthy, active 82-year- old man. He exercises regularly and Case study 3 enjoys variety of foods. Recently he An adult is on a limited budget and has started putting on weight. He has poor vision and constipation. says he eats exactly the same amount Knowing that fresh fruit and vegeta- of food he ate when he was 30 years bles are often expensive, what sugges- young. What dietary guidelines tions would you make for your client would you suggest to prevent con- to meet the suggested servings of five stipation and additional unwanted fruits and vegetables per day? weight gain?

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Table 16 0RGL¿FDWLRQRI'LHW)RU(OGHUO\ Dietary modificationse R asons Foods must be soft and easily chewable Problems of dentition -fallen teeth or dentures Foods should be easily digestible Decreased production of digestive enzymes Restricted fat in diet, inclusion of Poly unsatu- Susceptible to heart diseases rated fatty acid (PUFA) Foods rich in fibre should be given To prevent constipation, reduce cholesterol levels. Also to prevent colon cancer Coffee, tea, cold beverages should be restricted May result in insomnia Foods rich in calcium such as is milk should To compensate bone loss and prevent be given osteoporosis Green leafy vegetables can be given liberally Source of nutrients like: iron riboflavin, folic acid, vitamin c, antioxidants, carotene, and fibre Familiar foods should be included (others Unfamiliar or changes in the food pattern- may difficult to digest) lead to Psychological problems-depression and New foods are difficult to accept anxiety Clear soup can be given at the beginning of the Aids digestion meal Small and frequent meals should be given instead Favours complete digestion, prevents distress of 3 heavy meals Glass of milk can be given before sleep Induces sleep Heavy meal-lunch Sleep is less likely to be disturbed Light meal-dinner Too many sweets with lots of fats and sugar Too much of sugar may cause fermentation, discom- should be avoided fort-due to indigestion and causes tooth ache and increases cholesterol level. May lead to obesity Plenty of fluids To prevent constipation and dehydration

Activity 6 3. When the growth period declines, energy needs and the need for certain Debate on the importance of vegetari- nutrients declines. an and non vegetarian diet 4. Nutrition for children and teens should focus on a balanced diet, with activi- SUMMARY ty levels factored in, whereas in adults, 1. An individual’s needs for nutrients and both young and old, it is imperative to energy change over the life span. focus on preventing diet-related health 2. The need for nutrients increases during problems. periods of growth such as infancy, ad- 5. Healthy dietary practices and habits and olescence and during pregnancy. regular physical activity can help reduce

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the chance of premature death and from infancy to the elderly years and increase the chance of vitality. evaluates the role of nutrition in the 6. This chapter emphasises the role of promotion of health at every stage of healthy diet, in the human life cycle the life cycle, identified.

GLOSSARY ]DX]LX¯ to the tissues and carbon dioxide from Allergy - (;áPT[I) A highly sensitive reaction of the body to certain substances, the tissues to the lungs. such as pollen, that are present in Heme iron - (£Ý4±Ý®Ö@Ú«) Heme iron is amounts that do not affect most people. derived primarily from hemoglobin and myoglobin in animal protein sources. Amenorrhea - ITEMÔxå[I) is a condition in which there is an absence of Hemorrhage - (¤±ÜZHTÔ¤) It is a rapid menstrual periods in a woman. loss of blood, usually due to a ruptured blood vessel, or a rapid loss of resources or Edema - (ßÚZEÔ>Ý) It is a swelling, usually of the legs, feet, or hands due valuable people. to the accumulation of excessive fluid Immune - (ZFTÞ8ßÜ®) It is protection in the tissues. against a particular disease by particular substances in the blood Fortification - (IÜ[H YH±Ô¤Eà) It refers to the practice of deliberately Junk food - (« E 6D¶>ã) It is food increasing the content of an essential containing high levels of calories from micronutrient. sugar or fat with little fiber, protein, vitamins or minerals. Glomerular filtration rate (xNIÄàæ P}Ô>Ø©ÝxEÝ) is the test to measure Mashed foods - (IzÚE 6D¶>ã) To level of kidney function and determine crush foods(e.g. boiled potatoes) into the stage of kidney diseases. a smooth, evenly textured mixture. Gruel - (>×z) It is a thinner version of Nausea - (¤IØCà) A feeling of sickness in porridge that may be more often drunk the stomach marked by an urge to vomit. than eaten and may not need to be cooked. Yog hur t - (Eß) It is a prepared food having Haemoglobin - (£ZITÔZNTå) It is a the consistency of custard, made from protein of red blood cells that contains milk curdled by the action of cultures, iron and carries oxygen from the lungs sometimes sweetened or flavoured.

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ICT CORNER

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QUESTIONS

I. Choose the correct answer 1. Nutrients are a. chemical substances or compounds in foods that have specific metabolic functions II. Very short answer 2 Marks b. foods that are necessary for good 1. Define balanced diet. health 2. What is My Pyramid? c. metabolic control substances such 3. What are food exchange lists? as enzymes 4. Define RDA. d. foods use to cure diseases. 5. Define weaning 2. Which of the following foods has the 6. List any two problems in weaning highest iron content to help to meet 7. What is the importance of weaning? the need for increased iron during 8. Define Osteoporosis pregnancy? 9. List any two snacks for an aged man a. Lean beef c. Orange juice with dentures. b. Liver d. Milk 10. What are the protein requirements of an adult? 3. The increased need for vitamin A 11. Define Low Birth Weight infant. during pregnancy may be met by in- 12. Draw the food plate. creased use of foods such as 13. How can constipation be prevented? a. chicken c. citrus fruits b. egg white d. carrots III. Answer briefly 3 marks 4. Fat is needed in the child’s diet to supply 1. List any three factors to be considered a. minerals in planning packed lunch for school b. water soluble vitamins going children? c. amino acids 2. What are the common nutrient related d. essential fatty acids problems among adolescents? 3. What essential nutrients would you suggest 5. Iron deficiency is associated with for the growth of bones in osteoporosis? a. scurvy c. anemia 4. How can an individual reduce the risk b. rickets d. pellagra of chronic disease? 6. The basic biological changes of old age 5. Explain any three problems during preg- include nancy a. an increase in the number of cells 6. If a pregnant women approaches you b. decreasing need for water for diet counselling what dietary mod- c. an increased basal metabolic rate ifications would you recommend? d. a gradual loss of functioning cells 7. List the guidelines to be followed in and reduced cell metabolism planning a diet for a lactating mother?

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8. Why does the energy requirement de- 8. What dietary counselling would you crease during old age? give a mother for the nutritional prob- 9. What are the causes of malnutrition lems faced by her 4 year old son? during old age? 9. Explain the nutritional requirements 10. Distinguish between functional foods for school going children? and nutraceuticals. 10. Explain the nutrient requirements of adolescents? IV. Write in detail 5 Marks 11. Explain in detail about the nutrition- 1. Explain the steps involved in the plan- al problems and requirements for an ning of diet. adult. 2. Give the RDA for an adolescent girl. 12. Explain to a pregnant mother why 3. Outline the nutritional requirements the nutrient requirements increase of infants duringpregnancy? 4. Discuss on different types of supple- 13. What reason would you give a lactat- mentary food? Enumerate the import- ing women for increased nutrient intake? ant points to be considered in weaning. 14. Plan a day’s menu for an elderly person. 5. Suggest liquid supplements that can be 15. What dietary advice would you give given for an infant belonging to a low for an elderly person? income family. 16. What are the nutritional needs for the elderly? 6. Give any two supplementary foods 17. Suggest five packed lunches for Selvi, prepared using local ingredients who is in standard VI. 7. A preschool child Ram does not eat 18. Inadequate nutrient intake during fruits, vegetables and egg. He dislikes adolescence will lead to health conse- sundal also. What are the nutritional quences in adulthood. Explain. problems he is likely to face?

REFERENCES 1. Breast Feeding and use of Human 5. Gopalan C., Ramasastri BV. and Balasu- Milk. Journal of American Academy of bramanian SC. (2000) Nutritive Value Paediatrics, 115 (2), 496-506. of Indian Foods. Revised and updated 2. DeBruyne KL, Pinna.B and Whitney. by BS. JarasingaRao, Y.G. Deosthale (2015) Nutrition and Diet therapy, and K.C. Pant. National Institute of Eighth edition. Wadsworth Centage Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Learning. Research, Hyderabad, India. 3. Devadas, RP. (1995) Dietary Guide- 6. Guthrie AH. (1989) Introductory lines, Avinashilingam Deemed Uni- Nutrition. St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/ versity, Coimbatore. Mosby College Publishing. 4. Garrow.JS., James.WPT., Ralph.A., 7. Joan. WG. Angela. M. and Michelle.H. (ED) (2000) Human Nutrition And (2012) Oxford Handbook of Nutri- Dietetics., 9th edition, London, Church tion and Dietetics. Oxford University ill livingstone. Press.

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8. Mahan LK and Escott –Stump .S (2004) 15. Williams SR and Schlenker ED. (2011) Krause’s-Food nutrition and diet ther- Essentials of Nutrition and Diet Ther- apy, 2nd edition, WB Saunders. apy, fifth edition, Times Mirror/Mosby 9. Mann.J., Truswell.A.S. (2007) Essen- College Publishing. tials Of Human Nutrition, 3rd edition, 16. Williams SR, (2001) “Basic Nutri- published by Oxford University Press. tion Diet Therapy” Harcourt (India) private limited publishers, 11th ed., 10. National Institute of Nutrition. (2011) Delhi. Dietary Guidelines for Indians A Man- 17. World Health Organization (2007) ual, NIN, Hyderabad. Conclusions and recommendations 11. Robinson.CH, Marilyn RLr., Chenoneth of the WHO consultation on preven- LW. and Garinch AE. (1986). Normal tion and control of iron deficiency and Therapeutic Nutrition. 17th ed. in infants and young children in MacMillian Publishers. London. malaria-endemic areas. Food Nutr 12. Roth. SL. (2011) William’s Essential Of Bull., 28: S621–S627. Nutrition And Diet Therapy, 10th edi- 18. http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2012/ tion. Elsevier / Mosby. 11/15/best-foods-for-iron_n_2130411. 13. Sohi.DA. (2011) Textbook For Nutri- html tion, P.V. publishers, New Delhi. 19. https://mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/ 14. Srilakshmi.B (2014) “Dietetics”, New Age files/245453521061489663873.pdf International (P) Limited Publishers.

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Family Resource Chapter 7 Management

Learning Objectives

This chapter will enable the students to: • Know about resource management and its importance • Understand the types of resources • Gain information about values, goals, and standards • Learn about the process in decision making

7.1 INTRODUCTION its individual members. Management of The first contact for every individual in family allows us to overcome our indi- this world is her/his family. The family is vidual limitations. Through the combina- a socially recognized unit of people united tion of individual efforts and resources, together by marriage, kinship or legal ties. we achieve far more than what we could Management in the context on the family do independently. Most families are not is the natural outgrowth of human asso- aware of all the resources at their disposal, ciations and interactions. Its ultimate aim the quality and quantity of resources that is to provide for optimal development of each family has, varies. 7 Family Reso urce Management 156

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7.1.1'H¿QLWLRQDQG&RQFHSW 4) Controlling 5) Evaluating and are dis- of Family Resource cussed below in detail. ManagemenT 1. Planning Resources can be defined as anything we Planning is very important to the success use to achieve what we want (our goals). of management process. It is basically In other words, they are the materials working out ways or course of action to and human attributes which satisfy our achieve the goals. Planning can be habit- wants. ual or conscious. The concept of management involves planned use of resources directed towards the achievement of desired ends. This involves the weighing of values and the making of series of decisions. In home management, a home in which goals (ends) are being attained with some degree of satisfaction may be considered as well managed home where management is practiced in an orderly manner. Home management is the vital factor in every family contributing to the overall health, happiness and wellbeing Planning involves thinking through and higher standard of living for the the possible ways of reaching a desired family members. In simpler terms, home goal. It also involves developing a sequence management is defined as the mental proof actions within an overall organizational cess of utilising the available resources to structure. achieve what you want in life. The entire task from beginning to Figure - 1 indicates that manage- its completion must be viewed in whole. ment is a process involving activities, If the paths leading to the goals are easy through which action is initiated and to see, the choice of the best plan can resources are used for achieving a goal. be made quickly. When the path is hard For this purpose, certain guidelines in the to see due to some obstacle, the planner form of values, goals and standards can must find ways of overcoming them. As be formulated by every manager. For sure children do not have enough experience, attainment of desired goals it becomes they can get the help of an experienced essential to plan, organise, coordinate adult to plan. The final act in planning is and control all the activities, so that the arriving at a decision. ‘It is the gate that resources are not wasted. releases action’. Management Process: Good planning requires the use of Management process consists of five steps the powers of thinking, memory, obser- 1) Planning 2) Organizing 3) Directing. vation, reasoning and imagination. These

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p Fig. 1 Management Process powers, make it easier to plan and to meet • There should be a balance between the situations in everyday living. For example amount of resources available and the the following points should be borne in demands or needs. mind while planning a birthday party. • The decision should be made accord- 1. The place or the venue of the party. ing to individual situations. 2. Number of invitees • The plan should be realistic. 3. Menu • The plan should be flexible. 4. How much money are we going to spend? Types of Plan: 5. When are we going to have the party? While planning, the following points should Repeat use plan Single-use plan be considered.

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Single-use plan is one that is devel- and instruction to the subordinate staff. oped for a specific function, event or It is, in fact, the process of supervising, activity with the anticipation it will not guiding and motivating the employees be used again. While repeat use plan is in order to get the best out of them. By one that is developed in the anticipa- performing the directing function, the tion, it will be modified and frequently human resource manager will also be able used in similar situations, for similar to get the whole –hearted support and demands or events or to resolve like co-operation of all his subordinate staff. problems. Sequencing is a phase of the This help in the effective attainment of the planning component of management enterprise objective. process in which all tasks necessary to 4. Controlling achieve the goal are placed in a logical Controlling is carrying out the plan. order; the standards for each task are This step calls for flexibility in think- established. ing. At times new decisions are required which may result in changes in plan. For Activity 1 example: when the menus are planned for • Identify and record the repeat use meals, if certain things are not available plans you use frequently and list the during shopping a fresh decision need sequence of activities that take place. to be made. The different phases of con- • List any two single-use plans you trolling are have developed and identify the • Energising: This is initiating and function, situation or event for sustaining the action. The individ- which the plan was developed. uals who are involved in doing a particular task must be energized in 2. Organizing order to get results. In spite of hav- Organising involves the performance of ing a good plan, sometimes imple- the following tasks. menting the plan would become difficult. Here, the energizing func- a. Division of work among employees tion would act as a catalyst. (assignment of duties) • Checking: This is a quick step by b. Delegation of authority (transfer of step evaluation of the progress of a official rights by a superior to his plan. To go to school on time one subordinate) has to get the clothes, the meals and c. Creation of accountability (the sub- books ready, which need checking ordinate, to whom work has been of time at all stages. assigned and authority has been • Adjusting: Adjusting is done in delegated, is made answerable for the plan if there is a need for fresh the progress of work). decisions to be taken. This should 3. Directing be done taking into account the Directing the human resource does not problem in hand and the resources mean the process of issuing mere orders available. Getting into action,

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7.2 VALUES, GOALS AND What is the role of management STANDARDS process in your daily life? 7.2.1 Values The management process is a tool Values, Goals and Standards are impor- used to achieve your goals. Through tant factors in the management process. its use you are better able to attain Values are the key to all motivating factors your desired quality of life. Through in human behavior. Value, as a concept is the management process you can vague and subjective although it is very identify the demands being placed important to an individual. Values grow upon the resources (skill, time and out of human desire and interest. Values money). This knowledge is then used differ in cultures. The family has the for effective allocation and use of re- major responsibility for fostering values sources and to lead a more satisfying among the members. The term “value” and successful life. signifies the meaning or definition of worth that is attached to any object, con- keeping the resources mobile and dition, principle or idea. Values provide knowledge of what is to be done are a basis for judgement, discrimination and all important in this step. analysis and it is these qualities that make intelligent choices possible between alter- 5. Evaluating natives. Thus, values are the fundamental This is a checking up process, which may forces that force or motivate human activ- help one move forward. The efficiency ities and endeavors. of the process and the quality of the end product are to be checked. When there According to Gross and Crandall is clear cut objectives it becomes easier (1980) a value is always important to the to evaluate the entire process. The suc- person who holds it. It is desirable and cess or failure of the plan must be evalu- satisfying. It has the ability to develop in ated on the basis of the set goals. In case self-creative way and it tends to endure. of failure the demerits of the plan may be It is a concept of the desirable, explicit noted and rectified while making further or implicit which governs our choice of plans. Evaluation can be general or more methods, modes or goals. detailed. The following are the motivat- Thus management in the home is ing values of human behavior-comfort, a dynamic force in day to day living and health, ambition, love, desire for knowl- is the administrative side of family liv- edge, technological satisfaction, play, art, ing. The steps in the management pro- religion. cess are interdependent and interrelated for efficient, effective and dynamic use of 7.2.1.1&ODVVL¿FDWLRQRIYDOXHV resources which leads to the proper man- • Intrinsic or Instrumental: An intrin- agement of the house, whereby goals are sic value is one that is important and achieved to attain maximum satisfaction. desirable simply for its own sake. It is

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worthy of being sought for itself alone. objective or purpose to be attained. They Honesty, co-operation, creativity, are specific ways of realizing the values beauty, discipline, respect etc. are some one hold. of the intrinsic values in management. Definition: Goal is defined as an On the other hand, instrumental objective, condition or something you values are ways of reaching intrinsic desire to achieve or attain at any given or end values, sometimes called goal period or time. values. Therefore, they form the basic values leading to another. Planning, At present, your goals are to com- skills, order and efficiency and tech- plete your courses and obtain higher degree nological satisfaction are examples of so as to get job in your chosen profession. instrumental values. As each of these goals are achieved, new • Factual and Normative Values: The goals, will emerge leading to other higher other classification of values as factual goals in your life. or normative brings out the difference Goals, like values, play an impor- between the factual values that exist, tant role in your life. Values give mean- regardless of their level of desirability ing to your life. Goals on the other hand, and the normative values that have an point the direction you want your path ethical basis. The factual values also to follow. Thus, it can be said that val- called descriptive, generally are based ues and goals are inter-related. Values are on people’s preferences and desires. the vehicles and goals are the highways The normative are ethical values, you use to attain your desired quality of which carry the idea of right or wrong. life. Some examples of factual values are 7.2.2.1 Types of Goals honesty, religion, loyalty, faithfulness. Goals are classified under the following heads. Activity 2 They are classified: • What are your five highest val- I) According to the number of groups: ues? Describe how these values are i) Individual goals are established by shown in your interaction within an individual for himself. These are your family sphere. based on his own values. He puts in efforts for their achievement and receives satisfaction to himself, for 7.2.2 Goals example scoring 70% marks in the Goals are important factors in the man- examination. agement process. Goals are the desires ii) Group goals are established by the that individuals or families are willing group. These are based on the some to work for. They are more definite and of the common values and interests clear than values because they are to be of the group members, for example, accomplished. They are tangible things, achievement of 100% result of the objects, ends or purposes. Goal is an class at the S.S.L.C. examination.

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II) According to duration for achieve- several months or years. For exam- ment of goals ple, to complete your graduation Throughout life each individual and you will require few years. each family is always seeking some iii) Long term goal objectives. The duration in achieving this goal According to duration for is long. Classification differs from achievement, goals are classified as the other two, in regard to the time short-term, intermediate and long- period, the degree of specificity term goals. and the extent of active imple- i) Short-term goals mentation involved in attainment. In short term goal, the period of Long term goals are those you attainment of goal is short. Example have set for yourself in the distant is to successfully complete the future. course of study. Since the achieve- Long term goals may include ment is anticipated in the near one or more of the following – get- future, these goals usually involve ting a good job in chosen pro- a time period of six months or less. fession, getting married, owning ii) Intermediate goals home or farm. Intermediate goals are nothing but 7.2.36WDQGDUGV the link connecting between short Standard is a scale of measurement of val- term and long term goals. They have ues. According to Nickell and Dorsey definite characteristics and serve a (1970), standards are a set of measure purpose in your life time achieve- of values stemming from our value pat- ment. The time duration involved terns, determining the amount and kind in intermediate goals is longer than of interest in something and the satis- short term goals. Achievement of faction we receive. Standards serve as a these goals is measured in terms of measure or criterion for measurement of objects or ways of doing things. There are standards that apply to a single situation or area such as standard of food or dress or conduct. Standards set the limits one will accept in working towards a goal. Desired quality of life Gross and Crandall classify standards as (1) conventional and (2) flexible. Long term Goals i) Conventional Standards: Intermediate Goals Conventional standards are those

Short term Goals that are traditional and accepted by

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standard of cleanliness, we can take Key concepts in understanding an example of cleaning and dusting motivation within the person and the furniture twice a day. This can be family are values and standards and the standard of any family. If an unex- closely related concept of goals. pected guest arrives and there is dust • Values give meaning to your life. visible, the homemaker is apt to say ‘I • Values are a prime motivating force in did not dust today’. all management. ii) Flexible standards: • Values is a dominant term Flexible standards can be changed Goals are closely related to both values and to suit different situations; they give standards in initiating management. They greater freedom of choice. Adjusting sten from values and are influenced by family standards to changing condi- standards. Each exerts an influence on the tions is an example of the need to have other two. Goals are indicators of values. For flexibility in one’s standards. example, the goal of owning one’s home may Interrelationship between goals, values be one expression of the value of security. and standards: Using kitchen as a selected Standards are specifications of values. They area of the house, the concept of values, measure the degree of influence of a value. goals and standards can be illustrated as Standards set the limits one will accept in follows. working towards a goal.

1) Value Goal Standard (Cleanliness) (Well maintained house) (Cleaning standards)

2) Value Goal Standard (Health) (Maintaining good health) (Set standards of food, Exercise)

Ph.D in Home Mgt. (P.G.) Values give Msc.in Home Mgt. meaning to life Graduation Bsc. Goals give direction to life XI & XII

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problem is clearly defined and ana- Education lysed the ultimate decision would not V be effective. For e.g. planning household activities, purchasing labour saving devices, selecting clothing for the family. 2. Identifying the Alternatives Decision making will be effective only G S when one identifies possible alternatives. The choice of best selection of Getting higher Good Efforts degree in commerce alternatives requires thorough knowledge about the availability of resources and their limitations. 3. Analysing the Alternatives 7.3 DECISION MAKING After identifying the alternatives, one Management occurs when there is some should think of the consequences of problem to solve, some choice to make. each alternative systematically to find The various steps in the management pro- out the relevant one, considering the cess are really a series of decisions, based goals, values and standards. upon our previous experiences. Therefore, 4. Selecting an Alternative decision making is the heart of the man- After analysing the problem one agement. A decision can be defined as should carefully select from the pos- a course of action consciously chosen sible alternatives. Evaluation plays a from the available alternatives for the very important role in this selection. purpose of desired result. So the role of Choosing the best from the several decision making in management involves possible alternatives will be helpful in knowing and actually applying essential solving the problem. information in problem situations of day to day life. Thus it is used to achieve goals 5. Accepting the Consequences of the and assessing standards. Decision This is the ability to assess and accept Management is a mental pro- the consequences of the decision for cess which involves a series of decision making future decision. It is the evo- making. lutional process. The process of evaluating the alternatives is based on your 7.3.17KHVWHSVLQGHFLVLRQ goals, values and standards. This expe- making process are: rience would indicate the final out- 1. Defining the Problem come of the decision making. It creates It involves the recognition of the prob- self confidence in people and gives lem. It needs relevant information to feedback to make effective decisions in identify and define it first. Unless the the future.

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throughout his life. They are routine, repetitive actions related to daily activities. Once it becomes a habitual choice, the resultant action is quick and spontaneous.

• Central Decision Central decision has many supporting decisions to complete the whole task e.g. purchasing a house is a central decision. This leads to look out for p Fig. 3 Steps in Decisi on making other supporting decisions like trans- portation facilities, community facilities, savings etc. 7.3.2 Types of Decisions • Economic Decision There are different types of decisions It is based on allocation and exchange namely individual decision, group deci- process relating to resource use. sion, habitual decision, central decision, This decision needs the allocation of economic decision, technical decision and human and non-human resources to decision making due to experience and attain a goal. It reveals the allocation knowledge. of resources among the combination • Individual Decision of goals that will bring about the It is the decision pertaining to an indi- greatest degree of satisfaction. vidual e.g. education. Individual decisions are more quickly made. The deci- • Technical Decision sion making of an individual revolves This decision involves a decision, around the values, goals, standards which will enable the best combina- and roles the individual assures in the tion of resources to achieve the stated relevant set of frame work. goal. • Group Decision Decisions must be made based It is made from the collective action on past experiences and knowledge. of several individuals each of whom This helps a person to become more has distinct values, goals, stand- efficient and skilled in decision mak- ards and role perception. It is a dif- ing process. ficult process and a slow process. Role conflicts would emerge in this 7.4 FAMILY RESOURCES situation. Resources can be defined as anything we • Habitual Decision use to achieve what we want (our goals). It is the lowest level of decision. In other words, they are the materials Once an individual is trained to do and human attributes which satisfy our systematic work, he will follow that wants.

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7.4.1 Types of Resources d. Abilities and skill: These are inherited and acquired. These may Types of Resources include skills like cooking, decorat- ing, gardening. Each individual has particular abilities with which he/ 1. Human Resources 2. Non-human she can achieve his/her goals. These Resources skills can also be developed by sys- a. Knowledge a. Money tematic learning and practice. b. Time b. Material goods e. Attitude: These are opinions or feel- c. Energy c. Community ings a person has towards a thing facilities d. Abilities & Skill which may hinder or help in achiev- e. Attitude ing his goals. A positive attitude may help a person achieve what he wants 1. Human Resources: These are the ca- whereas a negative attitude may hin- pacities and characteristics of an indi- der her in achieving what she wants. vidual. These can be used only by the 2. Non-human Resources: These are tools person who possesses them. They have and assets that families have at their dis- the high potential to achieve what we posal to achieve what they want. These want and many a times may not be cul- are available for everyone to use. A per- tivated or made available. Most of the son works hard and earns money to be time, families underestimate these re- used by him and his family. He/she may sources and are unaware of them. buy material goods or land from this a. Knowledge: It is important to be aware money and may build a house on this of things to be able to achieve what land. Community facilities like banks, we want. If we want to buy a T.V. we post offices, parks, and library. These need to know what features to look are tangible and are more identifiable. for, brands available. This will help in a. Money: It is the pivotal resource buying a better quality product. which can be exchanged to buy b. Time: It is constant for everyone, 24 material things, commodities and hours a day. The way a person man- services. It can also be used for ages and uses her time is her per- future use and thus gives a sense of sonal choice. A student may finish security to the family. all the work before going to play; b. Material goods: These include another may waste his time watch- durable goods or perishable goods ing television or talking on the cell used and owned by a family in phone. their everyday use. Land, house, c. Energy: This is both mental and furniture and vehicle are examples. physical power of a person. To These help to make life easier and achieve goals, one needs to plan, more comfortable for all family organise and finally implement members. Durable goods like land the plans. This would require both can also help families to earn or mental and physical energy. save money. If vegetables are grown 7 Family Reso urce Management 166

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on land, the family can save money 3. All resources are inter-related. on buying vegetables or sell these A resource cannot be used in isolation. vegetables to earn money. If a homemaker has to go to the market, c. Community facilities: These are she will use her knowledge, skill of bar- those facilities which are common gaining, time, energy, money, market and for all members of a community. transport to achieve this goal. Parks, libraries, post office, police 4. Resources can be substituted. and fire protection, banks, hospi- One can exchange one resource for tals, transport facilities, roads, rail- another. A family uses time, skill and ways, electricity, water supply, mar- energy of a servant and gives her money kets, community centres and ration in exchange. Similarly, material goods can shops are examples of community be bought in exchange of money. One can facilities. All families can avail exchange knowledge by paying tuition these facilities without directly fees. paying for them but indirectly paying for them through taxes. 5. All resources need to be managed. Since all resources are limited, they need to be utilized properly, otherwise they Activity 3 may be wasted. Time and energy have to • Develop a plan to study for your be managed by work simplification tech- examination. niques, proper postures and labour saving • Identify all of the resources you devices. would use to complete this plan. • Classify each resource as to whether 7.5 TIME AND ENERGY it is material or human. MANAGEMENT • Does this plan use more of one Many activities are performed throughout classification than another? Why? a day. Some of the activities like eating, cooking, exercising, sleeping, bathing and entertaining are also carried out along 7.4.2 Characteristics of with work related activities but all these Resources are to be completed within the available 1. All resources are useful and all help to time that is 24 hours. If energy will not be achieve goals. rebuilt from time to time the work would One cannot call energy or time as a resource cease. The capacity needed to perform if it is wasted or not used. If a piece of land these activities is called energy. is lying vacant, it is not a resource, only Energy is the capacity to do the when a family grows vegetables on it, does work. It means that just as available the land become a resource. time as a resource is limited, we also 2. All resources are limited. have limited amount of energy. So There is a limit to a person’s knowledge, we can say that within limited time skill, energy, material goods and money we must finish all our work with our available to the family. limit ed energy.

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Time and energy are the resources performing these activities is fixed and available to all the individuals. These two cannot be delayed or changed. resources are very closely interlinked. 3. Estimating time required for per- Each one affects the other. Although forming each activity: In the list that is energy available to each one is different prepared in step-1, allot time required but the time available is equal i.e. 24 hours for performing each activity. Going to in a day. If the work is needed to be fin- school may take between 7 -10 minutes ished properly and on time, it is needed to or 1 hour. School time may be 5-6 hours. make best possible use of time and energy. Fill in all other works which can be done In other words one must learn to manage within a short time in between all the time and energy properly. other activities with fixed activities. 4. Balancing: Balancing is the adjustment of time for each of the activities. This is the most difficult task. After allotting time to each of the activities, you might find that the total time required by you to do all the work is more than 24 hours. This is done by the identifying the time needed for various activities in a day and allotting the time for each activity based on their priority.

Activity 4

Classify the following activities into flexible and inflexible activities. 7.5.1 Steps in Time-Planning Dusting, Mopping, Cooking food, 1. Listing all the activities: List activities Stitching clothes, Going to school, that have to be performed on a partic- Washing clothes, Going for shop- ular day. These can be eating, sleeping, ping, Preparing lunchbox for chil- going to school, school time and com- dren, to attend a marriage ceremony, pleting homework. Ironing clothes 2. Grouping flexible and inflexible activities: Separate the activities into two types. Those which are flexible 7.5.2)DFWRUVWKDWLQÀXHQFH like going to market for shopping. The effective time timing and day for shopping can be management changed as the situation demands and • Make a time schedule which can be can be delayed to the next day. The easily followed. other set of activities are those which • Make a time schedule which is prac- are inflexible, like going to school, tical and flexible and can be changed music or dance classes. The time for easily in emergencies.

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• Think of an alternative plan of action needed to perform different household for emergency. tasks. They are mental effort, visual effort, • Allow for rest and leisure time manual effort, torsal effort and pedal activities. effort. • Combine activities (Dovetail) for bet- During the day, different types of ter time utilization of time. activities are performed requiring different amount of energy. Activity 5 i. Heavy activities like running, jog- • Develop a time schedule for the ging and mopping requires large coming week. Use this manage- amount of energy. ment tool (time schedule) for the ii. Moderate activities like sweeping, week. Note on the time schedule ironing and cooking require aver- for the week the use of your time age amount of energy. resource and the factor that created iii. Light activities like reading, watch- the change. ing T.V. and listening to music need • Record the use of energy resources very little energy. for each day for one week. 7.6 :RUN6LPSOL¿FDWLRQ Work simplification is making work easier. 7.5.3 Energy Management According to Nickell and Dorsey (1959), “it Energy management is a difficult task as is the conscious seeking of simplest, eas- the energy expenditure for various activ- iest and quickest method of doing work. ities depends on the individuals physical ”It aims at accomplishing more work with and mental health. Various efforts are limited amount of time and energy.

Work smarter not harder

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Home-making involves various laying a dining table in a formal way, espe- types of activities which are most of the cially when the mother is working outside time tedious, monotonous, time consum- home, she can just keep food items on the ing and involves various types of skill. table and members in the family can help Most of the work if done without much themselves. skill and under pressure would lead to unhappiness or frustration. To manage the house one should know the best way of doing each household activity. To do the work easily one should know why, how, when, who and where a work should be done. Dr. Marvin Mundel (1985) has given five factors (classes of change) that influence the character of work. They are: 1. Change in hand and body motions DELEGATE Work can be simplified by using each part of the body properly and economically. AUTOMATE This can be achieved by, SIMPLIFY 1. Keeping body parts in alignment ELIMINATE 2. Using muscles effectively 3. Doing the work in rhythmic motion 4. Developing skill in work. 5. Change in material 2. Chang e in equipment and work This refers to the change in the raw ingre- arrangement dient to get the same final products. For Using labor saving devices, planning work example, instant Vada mix or Dosa mix surfaces at proper height, depth and width can be used to prepare the same final with proper tools and adequate storage product, at the same time requirement for space and lighting will improve the effi- pre-preparation of Vada or Dosa from raw ciency of work. materials can be reduced. 3. Change in production sequence 7.7 Money Management When there are lot of household activities Among all the resources that are available to be accomplished, time and energy can to the family, the most important one is be saved by simplifying the work through money. Money plays an important role in combining the tasks and eliminating the life of man as an instrument through unnecessary steps. which he can satisfy his physical, mate- 4. Change in finished product rial and mental needs. The income and Simplification of work could be achieved expenditure pattern of the family decides by changing the standards or expecta- the family’s standard of living and its place tions of the finished product. Instead of in the society.

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7.7.1 Concept of Income Income is the inflow of money, goods and services. Family income is one of the concept of income. It is defined as money or purchasing power earned by family members during a specific period of time and goods and services received or created in that time by the family eg. goods like vegetables from kitchen garden, services like doing household chores, teaching children etc. Family income can be classified as: 1. Money income 2. Real income 3. Psychic income 1. Money income Money income is the cash available to a family from any source, over a period of time. The period can be daily, weekly, monthly or yearly. It is obtained in the form of a currency, bank draft or cheques.

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Money income is tangible and is used for 7.7.2 Factors Affecting purchasing goods and services for the Income of a Family family. The sources of money income are Several factors affect income generation given below. such as: a. Skills and talents: If a person has Sources of money income tailoring skills, they can start a bou- tique, while a knowledgeable home- • Salary • Rent maker can conduct bakery classes • Bonus • Profits and generate income. • Wages • Cash gifts b. Time and energy: A person with time and adequate energy would be • Dividends from• Interest from able to supplement his income by shares banks doing additional work. • Pension • Investments c. Interest in job: A higher interest in • Lotteries the job increases efficiency which in turn helps in career advancement 2. Real income through promotions and results in Real income is the stream of goods a higher salary. and services available to a family over a d. Location of home: Living in a period of time. Real income is derived remote area may lead to lesser job from properties and possessions owned opportunities as compared to Cos- by a family, skills, efforts and abilities of mopolitan cities where there are the family members and also from com- more job opportunities. munity facilities. These goods and ser- e. Investments/assets: The more a vices may be available to a family either person invests, the more interest directly through direct contribution of can be earned. Other assets like family members or by community facili- property/ land also help in generat- ties or indirectly when some medium of ing income through rent. exchange, usually money is involved. 3. Psychic income: It is that flow of satisfaction that arises out 7.8 EXPENDITURE AND of everyday experiences, derived largely BUDGET MANAGEMENT from use of money and real income. It Happiness of the family is secured by income is intangible, subjective and is the most use or expenditure. The outflow of money is important income in terms of quality called expenditure. After earning money, a of living. Psychic income depends on family spends it on their various needs, basic the skills of family members in utiliz- necessities such as food, clothing and shel- ing their money and commodities judi- ter. After their needs are fulfilled, the family ciously. Satisfaction derived out of flow- desires to have comforts and luxuries, which ers obtained from the plants at home is an makes the family members more comfort- example for psychic income. able. All these expenses are referred to as

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expenditure. Expenditure provides the satis- 7.8.2 %XGJHWLQJ faction of life for the members of the family. The common planning device for the use of money is the budget. It is a care- 7.8.1 Factors Affecting fully prepared spending plan based on the ([SHQGLWXUHRID)DPLO\ actual family income. It is a plan based on 1. Income: In low-income groups, a major previous experience, present needs and portion of income is spent on food future expectations. A budget is always whereas in high income groups only prepared for a fixed period of time gen- %50 of their money is spent on food. erally for a month. Budget is a guide to 2. Family size: Expenses on food, clothing, realistic spending aimed at avoiding over and education is more in larger families expenditure. as compared to small sized families. 3. Family composition: In the expanding 7.8.2.1 Importance of stage of the family more money is spent EXGJHWLQJ on education and clothes while in the • Budget acts as an intelligent guide to contracting stage, more expenses are spending. incurred on medicines. • It enables a family to have an overall 4. Family status: Influenced by the social view of their income. circles they move in, a considerable amount • Budgeting facilitates adjusting irregu- of cash may be spent by some families on, lar income to regular expenditure. maintaining a number of cars, designer • Budgeting helps people to discuss their clothes, entertainment, luxury items. needs and set their own priorities on them. 5. Type of family: In a joint family, money is saved on rent and childcare. • It helps one to cut unnecessary expenditure. 6. Family values: Some people give more • It helps one to be free from debts. value to education and prefer spending • It helps one to live within one’s income. more on books. Those giving more • It encourages conscious decision mak- importance to religion spend more on ing which may help in including long religious activities. term goals in the budget. 7. Location: There is less expense in small • It relieves the family members from towns as compared to that in cities. If worries of future. the school or office is nearby, less money • It forces one to decide what one wants is spent on transport. most out of life. 8. Skill, knowledge and an interest to • It provides for future saving. save: A homemaker with her knowledge, Its success depends upon its being skill and interest in culinary arts can simple, realistic, flexible and suited to the prepare exotic dishes at home and thus family or individual for whom it is made. reduce her expenditure. 9. Access to community facilities: 7.8.2.27KH/LVWRI%XGJHW Community facilities help save expenses. Items A person using a library need not spend It is necessary to list the chief budget items money on buying books. to make sure that each item is attended to

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Steps in preparing the budget for a family are given below.

STEP List commodities and services needed by the family members 01 throughout the budget period.

Estimate the cost of desired items. Total each classification 02 for budget estimation. Past records are helpful.

Estimate and total expected income from all sources for the 03 budget period.

Set aside a definite sum as emergency fund as well as for goal 04 oriented savings and insurance.

Bring expected income and expenditure in balance. 05

Check the plan if it is realistic. 06

p &ŝŐ͘ϱഩ^ƚĞƉƐŝŶƉƌĞƉĂƌŝŶŐďƵĚŐĞƚ in the expenditure plan while portioning iv. Education the income. Each family may have their v. Transport own way of listing the items. vi. Personal Expenses (Sundries) The chief budget items include: vii. Household Expenses viii. Savings i. Food ii. Clothing 7.9 SAVINGS AND iii. Housing INVESTMENTS Money from the present income that is collected and put aside for future con-

M sumption is known as savings. Savings I 7% 15% of a month is the difference between the M - Miscellaneous CL G income and expenditure of that month. 20% G - Grocery 8% E - Education Families should make sure that they save C - Call Bill EL - Electricity CL - Clothing EL I - Investment Activity 6 19% E C 25% 6% • Find out what are the saving options available to a family.

EXPENSES • Find out how to open a bank account.

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by cutting down their wasteful expendi- 7.9.1 Important Avenues of tures. The following figure shows the Investment importance of savings and various institu- When the savings are made to grow, it is tions for savings and guidelines for selec- called investment. There are various ave- tion of those institutions. nues of investment. They are:

1. Bank Accounts Savings Account Current Account 2. Post office Savings Account Recurring Deposit Scheme Post Office Time Deposit Scheme

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3. Provident Fund General Provident Fund Contributory Provident Fund 4. Life Insurance Scheme LIC (Whole Life Policy) Medical Insurance Scheme Endowment Policy 5. Units of Unit Trust of India 6. Shares and debentures 7. Bonds 8. Chit Funds 9. Real Estate 10. Gold, Silver Jewellerys

7.9.1.1 Banks computerization and networking of some An investor deposits his savings in a bank of the banks, their services have become account which earns him a nominal rate faster and customers can operate their of interest. Besides banking, the banks account from any of its branches. This is offer a series of diverse financial ser- called core banking. These are the main vices such as loans, credit cards, ATMs accounts used for depositing money in a (Automatic Teller Machines). With the bank.

1. Savings Account • An individual can open this account either singly or jointly. The minimum balance amount required in an account with nationalized banks is 500/- and 1000/-* with cheque book facility. This amount may vary in private banks. • The deposit can be made as and when the investor desires. With- drawals are done with the help of cheques or withdrawal slips. A passbook is also provided for the record of deposits (credits) and withdrawals (debits). • Advantages of paying through cheques: Cheques are considered safe method because 1) Cheques are deposited directly into the payee’s account. 2) Currency is not handled directly by either the payer or the payee. 3) Cheques are an unquestionable proof of having paid or received a payment.

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2. Current Account • This account is suitable for business persons who would like to keep their money in safe custody and withdraw or make pay- ments as and when required. • There is no limit to the number of withdrawals. A person can withdraw his money any number of times. • No interest is paid in this account. • The bank charges for the services of keeping the money safe and offering it whenever required. 3. Fixed Deposit • A certain amount of money is deposited in the bank for a fixed Account period. • The interest rate varies with the period of investment. The interest rate is higher than that of the ordinary savings account. • After the stipulated period, the principal amount and the total interest is paid to the investor. • An investment up to 1 lakh for 5 years qualifies for tax rebate. 4. Recurring Deposit • This is an ideal form of savings for those having salaried income with a view to inculcate a regular saving habit. • A fixed amount of money (core money) is deposited every month (only once, between 1st -10th). At the end of the term the amount is paid.

Activity 7 • Find out what is the minimum sum 7.9.1.2 3RVW2I¿FH of money needed to start a bank Post offices are situated in every locality account. and are found even in remote areas. There • Find out details on specimen sig- are various post office schemes, each hav- nature card, withdrawal slip, pay in ing its distinct advantages. slip, cheque.

1. Post Office Saving • For opening of new account the introduction of depositor is nec- Accounts essary by a responsible person. • This is simple account involving a minimum deposit of 50/- • A cheque book facility is available; subject to a minimum balance of 500/-* in the account. • Maximum amount allowed in a single account is 1 lakh * and 2 lakh in a joint account. However, there is no limit for group/ institutional account. • The rate of interest is 4 %* per annum.

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2. Post Office Recurring • Any individual (a single adult or two adults jointly) can open an Deposit Scheme account. • Minimum: Rs.10/- and multiples of Rs.5/- thereafter. Maximum: No limit. • Maturity period: 5 years. • Rate of interest 7.1% per annum with effect from 01.07.2017 • One withdrawal up to 50% of the balance allowed after one year. • Premature closure allowed after three years. • Interest earned is deductible under Section 80L of I.T. Act. 3. National Saving • These can be purchased by an adult for himself or on behalf of a Certificate minor, jointly by two adults, a minor and a trust. • Certificates in denominations of 100/-, 500/-, 1000/-, 5000/-, and 10,000/- may be purchased from any post office, either directly or through authorised agents. • Minimum 100/- can be invested. There is no limit on amount of investment. • Period of maturity is 6 years. • Interest rate is 7.8%* per annum, (w.e.f 01-07-2017). • Deposit qualifies for tax rebate. • Premature withdrawals are not allowed. • Certificates can be kept as collateral security to get loan from banks.

Case study 1 Kumar is a Private company employee. He gets a salary of Rs.10000/- per month. His Salary is spent in meeting out the various needs of the family like food house rent Education of the children clothing etc., Kumar’s wife keeps asides small amount of money from his salary every month. Kumar’s salary is income and the money spent on various items is his expenditure. What is the amount kept aside by Kumar’s wife called? What is the need of keeping aside this money? What can be done with this money? Fulfilling needs of the family meeting emergencies, maintaining a good standard of living She has to deposit a fixed amount in each month.

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1. General Provident • It is compulsory only for government employees. Fund • 10% of basic salary is contributed in the provident fund. • The employee can take loan from this fund and can return the loan in easy instalments every month, deducted from his/her salary. • At the time of retirement, the person gets this money in lump sum and pension. • Get tax rebate on amount invested. • Rate of interest is 8.5%. 2. Contributory Provident • This is compulsory for private and semi-private company Fund employees. • In this both employee and the employer contribute certain percentage of money. On retirement, the employee gets his/her part of contribution in a lump sum but he/she gets employers’ contribution in instalments as pension. • Eligible for tax rebate. 3. Public Provident Fund • This is a statutory scheme of central government framed under the provisions of the Public Provident Fund Act, 1968. Such account can be opened in any Head Post Office, any branch of the State Bank of India and selected branches of other Nationalized Banks. • This is a 15 year scheme and the rate of interest is 8.8% • Only one Public Provident Fund account can be opened by any adult in his/her names or as guardian of a minor. • Invested amount can be minimum 500/- and maximum 1, 00,000/- in a financial year. The financial year starts from year ending 31st March.

7.9.1.4 Insurance LIC has a variety of schemes to choose Insurance is provided by private as well as from. These schemes cater to all categories government institutions. Life Insurance of people and to their diverse needs. Some Corporation is provided by government of the popular schemes are given below: of India. It is a means of providing against loss caused by natural or man-made fac- 7.9.1.5 Shares tors. It is the most popular method of Shares are a fractional part of the capital securing the future. of a company. When a company wants to

1. New Money Back Plan- • This is a participating non-linked plan which offers an attractive (20 years) combination of protection against death throughout the term of the plan. • Also there is periodic payment on survival at specified durations during the term.

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• This unique combination provides financial support for the family of the deceased policyholder any time before maturity and lump sum amount at the time of maturity for the surviving policyholders. • This plan also takes care of liquidity needs through its loan facility. • In case of Life Assured surviving to the end of the specified durations 20% of the Basic Sum Assured at the end of each of 5th, 10th and 15th policy year. • In case of Life Assured surviving the stipulated date of maturity, 40% of the Basic Sum Assured along with vested Simple Rever- sionary Bonuses and Final Additional Bonus, if any, shall be payable. 2. Term Policy- • These are a protection plan which provides financial protection to AnmolJeevan and the insured’s family in case of his/her unfortunate demise. AmulyaJeevan - II • Death Benefit: In case of unfortunate death of the life assured during the policy term Sum Assured shall be payable. • On survival to the end of the policy term, nothing shall be payable. 3. Medical Insurance • One year temporary medical assurance is provided to the insured. • This policy needs to be bought every year. • It has the benefit of 100% tax rebate and provides insurance cover for any hospitalization, major operation or illness. Some conces- sion is given if the scheme is purchased for the whole family. develop, they float shares to the public. 7.9.1.6 Units When a person buys shares she becomes Mutual fund is a public and private sector part owner of the company. She will then financial institution which offers various share both profit and loss of the company. schemes for attracting investments from The profits are called dividends. public. It issues units to the investors (unit • A person can get high rate of interest, holders) and invests the collected amount if the company is making profits. in securities. Each unit is of 10/-. • Dividends are tax-free. Profit and losses are shared by the • There is a risk of losing money, in case investors in proportion to their invest- the company goes in a loss. ment. Mutual fund is required to be reg- • Investor may not be able to find a suit- istered under SEBI (Securities Board of able buyer for his/her shares or may India), before it can collect funds from not get a good price. public. SEBI protects the interest of inves- Debentures tors and regulates the securities market. A debenture is an instrument of debt. • Open end fund-scheme is available for Debenture holder is a creditor to the com- subscription and repurchase on a con- pany who loans funds to the company for a tinuous basis. These do not have a stip- period of time against a fixed rate of interest. ulated maturity date.

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• Close end fund- these schemes have SUMMARY a stipulated maturity period. Fund is • Management is a process involving open for subscription only for a speci- activities, through which action is fied period of time. initiated and resources are used for • Investors have an option to sell back the achieving a goal. units to mutual fund at the NAV (Net • Planning, organizing, controlling and Asset Value) market value of assets. evaluating are essential for effective • Tax rebate is available under some management. schemes such as ULIP (Unit Linked • Values, Goals and standards are Insurance Plan and Pension Plans). important factors in the management • There is no limit on investment in process. Values are the key to all moti- some schemes. vating factors in human behaviour. • Units can be pledged as security for Goals are the desires that individu- loans. als or families are willing to work for. • Unit holders can switch from close end Standards are a set of measure of val- to open end schemes. ues stemming from our value patterns, • Some schemes may have high risk determining the amount and kind of and high rate of interest. On the other interest in something and the satisfac- hand, some schemes have fixed rate of tion we receive. interest but no risk. • Management occurs when there is • Dividends are tax free. some problem to solve, some choices 7.9.1.7%RQGV to make. A decision can be defined as a course of action consciously chosen Bonds are also debentures which are from the available alternatives for the issued by government or Government purpose of desired result. Company. On liquidation (closing) of the • Effective management involves careful company, the creditor is secured. use of resource. Resources can be defined 7.9.1.8&KLW)XQGV as anything we use to achieve what we want (our goals). In other words, they This is an easy and simple device where a are the materials and human attributes group of people join as committee and agree which satisfy our wants. They include to contribute a fixed sum every month. human resources such as a. Knowledge Chits are taken out once every month. b. Time c. Energy d. Abilities and skill Chits are taken out once every month. The e. Attitude and Non Human resources promoter gets the first collection and after such as a. Money b. Material Goods c. that, whosoever gets his name on the chit Community facilities. drawn, gets the money.

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GLOSSARY

Attribute - (HÙ®>ã) A quality or A pleasure and satisfaction that characteristic of someone. someone get from doing their job Sequence -(P [@) Coming after or next Debenture -(>CåHÚKÝ) A type of loan series. Standard - (PTâÔ[>ÚEKÝ) A level of quality Delegation -(2>TK ;ÜH[CÜ®) The Value -(IEZFJÝ) A major influence on assignment of any responsibility a person’s behavior and attitude. Intrinsic - (6ãNTßÛE) Essential Flexible - (YFxâPTG) Able to change Fringe -(Ý®) An outer edge, margin Decision Making - (ßITÚEà) Is the Psychic Income - process of identifying and choosing and ( IG[L¶E±ÝP±PTÞ) - alternative based on the values.

QUESTIONS

I. Choose the correct answer 5. Heart of the Management is 1. The planned use of resources to achieve a) Decision Making c) Evaluating the desired goal is b) Planning d) Directing a) Management c) Standard 6. Non-human resources is b) Values d) Goal a) Knowledge c) Money 2. The process of basically working out b) Skill d) Attitude ways or course of action to achieve 7. Circle the source of money income goals is known as ____ a) Salary c) Skill a) Organizing c) Planning b) Cash gift d) Pension b) Implementing d) Evaluating 3. The steps in the management process to II. Very short answer (2 marks) carry out the plan is called _____ 1. Define management a) Planning c) Directing 2. What is planning? b) Controlling d) Organizing 3. Differentiate between human and non-human resources 4. The link between short term and long 4. What are community resources? term goal is 5. What is energy management? a) Intermediate goals 6. What is the meaning of work simplifi- b) Interest goals cation? c) Individual goals d) Short term goals

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7. Mention the name of decision where a IV. Write in detail (5 marks) person is doing a systemic work? 1. Discuss the interdependence and 8. List the various types of simplifying work inter-relationship of the various steps 9. What is ‘organizing’ in the process of involved in the process of management. management? 2. Explain the process of decision mak- III. Answer briefly (3 marks) ing with a suitable example 1. List the steps involved in any manage- 3. Discuss the importance of ‘planning’ ment process for good home management 2. What are the different phases in con- 4. How does ‘controlling’ help in the trolling? proper management in any home situ- 3. Explain the importance of ‘evaluation’ ation. Explain with a suitable example in the management process 5. What are the different types of goals? 4. List the various steps involved in deci- 6. What is meant by keeping accounts? sion making process What are its uses? 5. What do you understand by ‘decision 7. Explain different methods of main- making’? taining household accounts 6. List the various steps to be kept in 8. Give an account of the guidelines that mind while making a time plan. you will keep in mind while making 7. As a student how would you manage sound investments. time? 9. A person in IT Company wants to save 8. List four ways of supplementing in- his monthly income and avail insur- come ance. Suggest some strategies to avail 9. Differentiate between real income and insurance and save his income. psychic income 10. Plan your daily schedule according to 10. State four advantages of savings the concept of work simplification and 11. Suggest 3 practical tips to save energy rest periods. 12. Sheela is a homeworker. Suggest her 11. What advice would you give to a mar- some ways to control expenditure to ried women who is finding difficult to manage her family. manage work at home?

REFERENCES 3. Nickell and Dorsey P. (1959) Man- Books: agement in Family Living 3rd Edition Newyork; Chapman & Hall London. 1. Gross and Crandall (1963) Manage- 4. Patricia.W, (1976) Household Equip- ment for modern families 2nd Edition ment Selection and Management, Appleton- Century-Crofts Inc, Newy Houghton Miffin Company, Boston. York. 5. Premavathy.S, Sonia.B, Preeti.M and 2. Marvin Mundel (1985) Motion and (2005) An Introduction to Family Re- time study: improving productivity 6th source Management, CBS Publishers edition Prentice-Hall & Distributors, New Delhi.

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6. Swanson, (1981) Introduction to Home 9. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/ management, B. Macmillan Publishing home-management/human-manage- Co. Inc, New York. ment-resources-human- and-non-hu- 7. www.brainkart.com/article/Home- man-resources/47785 management---Values--Goals-And- 10. www.familyresourcemanagement.org/ Standards_2142/ services/work-simplification/ 8. www.familyresourcemanagement.org/ services/steps-in-decision-making/

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Chapter 8 Communication

Learning Objectives

This chapter will help the students to: • Understand the principles and process of communication • Develop effective skills in communication • Know the barriers in communication • Learn about the various methods of communication and appropriate teaching aids • Know the recent trends in communication

Strategy

FPOIdea Teamwork

Plan People Productivity Facts

Communication - the human con- 8.1 INTRODUCTION nection- is the key to personal and Communication plays an effective and career success essential role for running the show of any formal or informal teaching-learning

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process. In many ways, teaching is com- ideas, opinions or emotions by two or municating and in this sense good teach- more persons”. ers are always good communicators. It According to Edger Dale “Communication is also equally true for the learners. He is defined as the sharing of ideas and feel- who learns well is the one who partici- ing in a mood of mutuality”. pates well in the communication process. Good learners are always good receivers and responders. In this way, communication, as a vehicle or tool for running the What is communication? slow of teaching-learning act, must always be treated as a two-way process in which • Communication plays a key both the source (teacher) and the bene- role in all aspects of life. ficiary (learner) of teaching interact well • Communications means: for the proper realization of the teach- Contact (information ing-learning objectives. However, for this exchange) between people, the proper interaction, teachers and students exchange of thoughts, ideas are required to acquire the art and tech- and meanings. nique of good communication. • It is important to send signals (words, gestures) which can be understood by the sender and Literarily the word “communica- recipient. tion” means “to connect”, to share or exchange.

Why we communicate? We communicate to: Meaning of Communication • Share our ideas and opinions The term communication is • Provide feedback to others derived from the Latin word “com- • Get information from others munis” which means to make com- • Gain power and influence mon”. Communication, therefore • Develop social Relationships is the exchange of thoughts, mes- • Maintain self-expression and sages, information, etc, by way of speech, signals or writing. our culture

8.1 DEFINITION OF According to Theo Haiman defined, COMMUNICATION “Communication is the process of passing According to W.H Norman and Summer information and understanding from one “Communication is an exchange of facts, person to another.”

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8.1.1 Functions of ■ Debate and discussion Communication The promotion and exchange of facts Communication as a human activity to facilitate agreement or to clarify always serves a function. Functions of differing view points on public issues. communication refer to how human use The supply of information needed to language for different purpose. foster greater popular interest and involvement in all local, national and ■ Information international matters of common The collection, storage, processing interest. and dissemination of news, data, pictures, facts and messages, opinions ■ Cultural Promotion and comments required in order to The dissemination of cultural and understand and react knowledgeably artistic products for the purpose of to personal, environmental, national preserving the heritage of the past, the and international conditions, as well as development of culture by widening in to be in a position to take appropriate individuals horizons, awakening his decisions. imagination and stimulating his aesthetic needs and creativity. ■ Socialization The provision of a common fund of ■ Entertainment knowledge which enables people to The diffusion through signs, symbols, operate as effective members of the soci- sounds and images of drama, dance, ety in which they live and which fosters art, literature, music, sports, games social awareness thereby permitting etc. for personal and collective recre- active involvement in public life. ation and enjoyment. ■ Motivation ■ Integration The promotion of the immediate and The provision to all persons, groups ultimate aims of each society and the and actions of access to the variety of stimulation of personal choices and messages which they need in order to aspirations, the fostering of individual know and understand each other and or community activities, geared to the to appreciate others living conditions, pursuit of agreed aims. viewpoints and aspirations.

Information ■ Information

Integration Socialization ■ Socialization ■ Motivation

Functions of ■ Debate and Discussion Entertain Motivation ment Communication ■ Education

Debate ■ Cultural promotion Cultural and Promotion Discussion ■ Entertainment Education ■ Integration

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8.1.2 Importance of sufficient. Repetition and over-expla- communications nation are likely to destroy the actual meaning and importance of the message. Moreover, the reader may feel disturbed by receiving a long message. Understanding Strengthening Relationships The principle of simplicity: Message should be given using simple and famil- Relieving Stress iar words. Vague and technical words Increasing Confidence should be avoided. Simple words are easy to understand and help the receiver to respond quickly. Happiness The principle of Timeliness: Communication is a means to serve a specific purpose. If communication is made in time, communication becomes effec- Activity 1 tive. If it is made untimely then it may Form a chain with 10-20 students. become useless. Convey a message from first person The principle of Compass: The com- to the last through whispering. Fi- munication net should cover the whole nally ask the last person to say loud- organization. The concerned people must ly the message he/she received from know “What exactly they need and “when the previous person. Now ask the they need it. And an effective communi- first person to read the message from cation will serve such. paper and see how it is changed and The principle of Integrity: Com- conveyed. munication should consider the level of people, principles & objectives of an organization to create a network or chain. Such network will provide a better field of 8.2 PRINCIPLES OF internal and external communication. COMMUNICATION The principle of clarity: A message should be clear free from distortion and 8.2.1 Process of noise. A vague message is not only a bar- communication rier to creating effective communication Sender/Encoder but also causes the delay in the commu- The person who sends message, in class- nication process and this is one of the room oral communication, the encoder most important principles of effective is teacher, and in written communication communication. writer is the encoder. Teacher uses combi- Principles of Brevity: Communication nation of words, gestures, symbols, graphs should be brief i.e. just necessary and and pictures.

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Source Encoding Channel Decoding Receiver

Feedback

Activity 2 Write any five phrases or statements you use daily. How will you convey it to your class teacher and your friend? How does it vary?

S. No Concept TeacherFriend 1 2 3 4 5

Message or signal medium by sender (teacher) to transmit The information shared between sender and the instructional contents. receiver. For good communication, the cen- Feedback tral idea of the message must be clear. Thus, The response or reaction of the receiver the teacher must decide what to communi- to a message. Communication is effective cate keeping in mind the context and how the only when it receives some feedback as it receiver (Students) will interpret the message. completes the loop of communication. Medium/Channel 8.3 METHODS OF The sensory route through which encoder COMMUNICATION will communicate his message to the decoder. The medium can be print, elec- 1. Verbal Communication tronic, or sound. The choice of medium Verbal communication is one way for may be dependent on contextual factors, people to communicate face-to-face. relationship between the sender. Some of the key components of verbal communication are sound, words, Receiver /Decoder speaking and language. The person to whom the message is being 2. Written communication sent. Receiver (Student) may be a listener Written communication means commu- or a reader depending on the choice of nication by means of written symbols.

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Written Communication Verbal Communication

Electronic Communication

Visual Communication

Body Language

3. Electronic communication 8.3.1 Teaching Learning Electronic communication can be re- Methods ferred to as any communication that re- Lecture Method: quires the use of technology. For example: Video conference, Electronic mail 1. It is one of the oldest methods of (E-Mail), Voice mail, Facsimile (Fax), teaching Cellular phone and Paging system. 2. It refers to the teaching procedure involved in the clarification or 4. Visual communication explanation to the students of some Visual communication is a process of major ideas. It places more emphasis sending & receiving messages. Com- on the presentation of the content. munication of ideas through visual 3. In this method teacher is more active images. and the students are passive. In this 5. Body Language method question answer procedure is Th e process of communication through used to keep the students attentive in sending and receiving wordless messages the class. is known as Non verbal communication. 4. This method is used to clarify matter, Such messages can be communicated to expand content and motivate the through gesture, body language or pos- students. ture, facial expression and eye contact.

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Drill and practice method It promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice. “It refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more sophisticated learning tasks or physical education games and sports.

Rote Learning • Rote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization. The or pain in the body which can cause a major practice involved in rote learn- block in effective communication. ing is learning by repetition by which 3. Semantic problem – this problem students commit information to mem- arises from the choice of words used to ory in a highly structured way. convey a message. 4. Syntactical problem – caused by how Discovery Methods a sentence is structured. A method in which thoughts are synthe- 5. Psychological problem – when peo- sized to perceive something that the indi- ple are nervous, or reluctant to speak vidual has not know before. or preoccupied with other problems, The learner get directly involved then this causes a barrier to commu- in learning. Learning is a result of the nication. learners own insight, reflection, and 6. Social noise – when preconceived experience. ideas are strong and if an individual is influenced by the unchangeable soci- etal input, then these will cause prob- 8.4 BARRIERS TO lem to communication. COMMUNICATION Noise represents any internal or external interference in the communication pro- Activity 3 cess. It can be caused by • Select any two different group set- 1. Physical Noise – is the outside inter- tings such as a meeting and a social ference that blocks the communica- activity. tor / receiver from receiving the mes- • What was your role in each one? sage. This noise can be from any loud • Describe the extent of your par- speaker, music system, fan in the room, ticipation in each running water etc., • Can you recall any communica- 2. Physiological noise – any impairment tion barriers? like deafness, tooth removed, headache

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Overcoming the barrier to effective communication

Improve Provision for communication skills Complete Knowledge feedback

Overcoming the FPObarrier to Control over emotion Appropriate channel effective communication

Avoiding physical Confidence distraction

8.5 COMMUNICATION have different kinds of students in SKILLS his class. So it is job of the teacher to create interest in their mind towards a subject and remove any fear of the student.

2. Effective Body language This is the most powerful communication skill that a teacher must possess. Good presentation skills include a possitive body language that 7Cs of Communication will help the lecture become more interactive and interesting for the 1. Candid 2.Clear 3. Complete students. 4. concise 5. concrete 6. Correct 7. Courteous 3. Sense of Humour A good sense of humour keeps the Communication skills is the ability to use students active and interested in there language (receptive) and express (expres- class. Lack of humour makes the lec- sive) information. Effective communica- ture boring tion skills are a critical element in your 4. Understanding the Students career and personal lives. Teachers should support students to 8.5.1 Importance of communicate openly. There should be Communication a dialogue rather than a monologue 1. Positive Motivation between the student and teacher while This is one of the important things they solve any kind of problem in the that a teacher must possess. He always classroom. 8 Communication 192

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The Four communication skills 8.5.2 Steps to Successful Communication 1. Thinking 2. Listening

Qualities of good 3. Speaking 4. Nonverbal Communicator • Good Listener • Aware of Nonverbal Commu- Good Communication Skills nication • Good Memory • Making eye contact while communi- • Positive and Empathetic cating with people is important because • Open minded it shows you are listening to them. • Not swearing and shouting because it can be intimidating • Not chewing gum while having a con- Tips for Improving Communica- versation with someone tion Skills • Not texting while speaking to some one • Don’t use clichés as it will make them think your ignorant • Brevity • Always trying to speak clearly and • Sincerity use words everyone can understand • Don’t praise yourself • Make positive facial expressions • Avoid argument • Listening to the person you are speak- • Be tactful ing to • Silence • Have a relaxed body language • Enunciation • Don’t speak over other people Clear, Loud, Syllables, Flexibility • Do keep to the point when explaining of tone something

FACIAL GETTING STARTED EXPRESSION TONE OF VOICE BODY LANGUAGE

Approach from the Establish & maintain Speak slowly & Avoid sudden front eye contact clearly movement Smile Be friendly & Use a gentle & Be open & relaxed Identify yourself relaxed relaxed tone of Remain calm & Use the person’s Always remember voice confident to provide name smile & laughter go Convey an easy reassurance If posible be at a long way going manner Use gestures such eye level Be patient and as pointing supportive Give visual clues

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Activity 4 Now we have studied about communication skill. Let’s have an exercise. This is a three minute quiz. Take a paper and do as per the instructions given below. 1. Read everything before you do anything. 2. Write your name in the upper top left-hand corner of this page. 3. Circle the word “name” in sentence two. 4. Draw five small squares in the upper right-hand corner. 5. Put an X in each square you have just drawn. 6. Put a circle around each square. 7. Sign your name under the title of this page. 8. After the title, write, “yes, yes, yes.” 9. Underline sentences number seven and eight. 10. Put an X in the lower left-hand corner of this page. 11. Draw a triangle around the X you have just made. 12. Stand up and (loudly) call out your first name. 13. On the back of this page multiply 5 times 4. 14. Draw a circle around the word “top” in sentence four. 15. On the reverse side of this paper add the numbers 25 and 100. 16. Count out in your normal speaking voice from one to 10. 17. If you are the first person to get this far, say, “ME, ME, ME!” 18. Using your pencil, punch three small holes at the bottom of this paper. 19. If you think you have carefully followed these directions, stand up, turn around and whisper, “I have carefully followed the directions.” 20. Now that you have finished reading the directions carefully, do only sentences one and two. Sit quietly until everyone else if finished.

8.6 TEACHING AIDS improve reading and other skills, illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact, or idea and relieve anxiety, fears, or boredom since many teaching aids are like games. Definition of teaching aid are the aids used by the facilitator to help him/her in facilitating his/her lesson effectively. 8.6.1 Characterstics of Good Teaching aids • They should be meaningful and purposeful A teaching aid is a tool used by teach- • They should be accurate in every aspect ers, facilitators or tutors to help learners • They should be simple

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• They should be cheap 8.6.2&ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI • They should be improvised as for as Teaching aids possible On the basis of characteristic of the • They should be large enough to be material used in the process of teaching properly seen by the students for whom aid classifications as mentioned below: they are meant Audio-aids: Audio-aids help in developing • They should be up-to-date the listening skill of a learner. Audio-aids • They should be easily portable are those aids which can be only listened. • They should be according to the men- Examples, of such types of aids include, tal level of the students. radio, gramophone, tape recorder, audio- • They should motivate they learners tapes, walkman and headphones etc., Visual-aids: Aids which require the Uses of Teaching Aids: involvement of learners visual senses are • To help children improve reading called visual aids. Examples, of such types and comprehension skills of aids include viz. graphic aids, 3d-aids, • Illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact, display boards and print material etc., or idea Audio-Visual aids: In these aids both • Relieve anxiety, fears or bore- the listening (ears) and viewing faculties dom, since many teaching aids (eyes) are involved. Such aids include tel- are like games. evision programmes, video films, motion • To stimulate interest, display pictures, synchronized audio slide pro- can call attention to products or jectors, computers and computer-assisted practices. instructions etc., • To encourage student’s partici- Projected: Projected refer to those aids pation – displays may be studied where a bright light is passed through a and discussed by students as a transparent picture by means of a lens and part of class activity an enlarged picture is thrown or projected • To help children to communicate on the screen or the white wall. Eg: film- ideas visually strip projector, slide projector, overhead projector, TV/VCR etc., Non-Projected: Non-Projected aids refer to those aids which do not require projector elec- Importance of Teaching aids tricity or projection screen. Such materials can • Motivation be simply shown, can be hanged or touched. • Clarification Eg: Chalkboard, Whiteboard, Flannel board, • Increase the vocabulary Magnet board, Charts and Wall-Charts, • Save time Posters and Pictorial Materials, Models etc., • Avoid dullness Dr.Edgar Dale has classified and • Direct experience arranged audio-visual aids in a procto- rial form called “Cone of Experience”

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The primary source of contact between iii. Verbal and Symbolic Experiences: the individual and external world and Such experiences are those which any intellectual activity depends on expe- the pupils gain through word-oral riences coming through senses. Even or written. This type of experiences mental activities such as concentration, are very abstract and occur at con- reflection, conception, imagination, asso- ceptual level. E.g. verbal illustra- ciation, recollection etc., have their basis tions. This type of experience can in sensory experiences. Mind like stom- not be properly followed at the ach, works on what it is fed. This feeding initial stages of child-learning so comes through senses. The raw material at initial stage more emphasis be for mental activity is provide by laid on direct and representative experiences. i. Direct Experiences: Such experiences are gained by the pupils The above cone represents the material through excursions and trips etc., used for audio-visual instructions. ii. Representative Experiences: This The theory of audio-visual instruc- type of experiences are less con- tion needs that education must make crete but are quite useful. This learning permanent and experiences usa- type of experiences are provided ble. The advocacy for the use of new mate- by models, specimens, film strips, rial for improving instructions is based on radio etc., the fact that the verbalistic learning is out

In the picture below are shown various experiences

(Abstract) High Text/Verbal symbols Information Pictures/Visual symbols Audio/Recordings/Photos

Motion Pictures

Cognitive Exhibits Skills Field Trips

Demonstrations DEGREE OF ABSTRACTION Dramatized Experiences Motor Skills & Attitude Contrived Experiences Low (concrete) Direct - Purposeful Experiences

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience

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of date and the complexity of the time has Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as the made our school curriculum very much internet, or a private Local Area Network heavy as the present day knowledge has (LAN), by referencing a Uniform Resource developed tremendously. We need new Locator (URL) that identifies the site. ways to adjust ourselves to the changed circumstances and the trends towards realistic learning.

Activity 5 Prepare a poster for your school cultural event

8.7 RECENT TRENDS IN COMMUNICATION – WEBSITE, EMAIL, MULTIMEDIA, Uses of websites E-LEARNING There are millions of websites on the inter- Website: is a collection of related web pages, net. They are used for almost every con- including multimedia content, typically ceivable purpose including business, per- identified with a common domain name, sonal and entertainment purposes. Some and published on at least one web server. of the more common purposes of websites A website may be accessible via a public are described in the following section.

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ass drawing, contests, craft, essays and What is Website? poems A connected group of pages on the 3. Indiaeducation – Indiaeducation. world wide web regarded as a sin- net is a educational site that primarily gle entity, usually maintained by me focuses on students of class 10th and person or organization and devoted class XX. This site provides help with to a single topic or several closely re- various subjects of class X and Class lated topics. XII dealing with all science, commerce and arts. For X standard class, the site deals with all the CBSE and • Presenting information ICSE issues focusing on the syllabus, • Storing information examination tip, exam stress, ideal • Browsing and searching for information prospects after class X, objective and • Improving productivity faqs. • Making decisions 4. Few of the best education websites for • Communication with people children in India like- Pitara.com, es- • Media sharing iksha.com, dimdima.com, ekidzee. • E-Commerce com, indiaedu.com, vidyaonline.net, • Education babloo.com • Downloading information Email: Electronic main (email or e-mail) Best Education Websites in is a method of exchanging messages India for Children between people using electronic devices. Email messaging facility, e-mail can be There are plenty of websites for children read instantly. in India that specifically help children to deal with the educational system in India. Find out the list of best Indian educational websites for children. 1. Kidswebindia – kidswebindia.com Is an educational website for children of all age group. This website focuses on most of all issues of Children. The website has resources and materials even for the age group 3 years. (For Best Free Email Accounts Example: Puzzles, Dental care, Nurs- 1. Gmail (www.gmail.com) ery rhymes) 2. Outlook (www.outlookmaill.com 2. Chandamama – chandamama.com Is 3. Yahoomail (www.yahoomail.com an educational website too as it helps 4. Rediff (www.rediffmail.com) children understand so much about 5. Aol Mail (aolmail.com) Indian culture, ancient Indian histo- 6. Yandex mail (www.mail.yandex. ry and tales. Additionally the website com) also has various learning section such

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Uses of Email • Information interchange How to create Email account • Brain Storming and problem solving For Example • Record keeping 1. Go to www.gmail.com • Group work 2. Click create account • Staying in touch professionally 3. Signup form will appear. Follow • Staying in touch socially the directions and enter the re- • Transmitting Documents quired information Multimedia: is content that uses a combina- 4. Review Google’s terms of ser- tion of different content forms such as text, vice and privacy policy, click the audio, images, animations, video and inter- check box, then click next step. active content. Multimedia contrasts with 5. Here, you’ll have an opportunity media that use only rudimentary computer to set up recovery options. Re- displays such as text-only or traditional covery options are helpful if you forms or printed or hand- produced material. forget your password or if someone tries to access your account. Text: If you don’t want to set up re- • A broad term for something that con- covery options at this time, click tains words to express something done • Text is the most basic element of mul- 6. Your account will be created, and timedia the Google welcome page will • A good choice of words could help con- appear. vey the intended message to the users

Email first entered limited use in the 1960s and by the mid 1970s had taken the form now recognized as email

What is an Email Message? An email message is a text typically brief and informal, that is sent or received over a computer network. While email messages are usually simple text messages, attach- ments (such as image files and spreadsheets) can be included. An email Message can be sent to multiple recipients at the same time. Examples of an Email? The general format of an email address is local-part@domain, and a specific example is [email protected]. An address consists of two parts. The part before the @ symbol (local-part) identifies the name of a mailbox. This is often the username of the recipient, E.g. jsmith

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Advantages Text Graphics • Convenience Multimedia • Speed • Inexpensive • Printable Audio Animation Video • Reliable • Global • Generality

• Used in contents, menus, navigational Disadvantages buttons. Video: • Misdirection • Is the technology of capturing, record- • Interception ing, processing, transmitting, and • Forgery reconstructing moving pictures. • Overload • Video is more towards photo realistic • Junk image sequence / live recording as in • No response comparison to animation • Video also takes a lot of storage space. So plan carefully before you are going to use it Audio: • Produced by vibration, as perceived by the sense of hearing • In multimedia, audio could come in the form of speech, sound effects and also music score Animation: • The illusion of motion created by the What is Multimedia? consecutive display of images of static Derived from the word “Multi” and elements “Media” • In multimedia, animation is used to • Multi: (Many, Multimedia) further enhance / enriched the experi- • Media: Tools that is used to repre- ence of the user to further understand sent or do a certain things, delivery the information conveyed to them. medium, a form of mass communi- Graphic: cation – newspaper, magazine / TV. • Two-dimensional figure or illustration • Distribution tool & information • Could be produced manually (by presentation – text, graphic, drawing, painting, carving, etc.,) or by voice, images, music and etc., computer graphics technology.

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• Used in multimedia to show more clearly what a particular information Advantages is all about (diagrams, picture) • User friendly interface • Easy and quick to operate Why use multimedia in the • Meaningful and easy of use classroom? • Interactivity • The significance of presentation • It provides high quality vide, and speaking skills image, audio • The importance of research, planning, and organization skills • The impact and importance of dif- Disadvantages ferent media • Techniques for synthesizing and • Time consuming analyzing complex content • Very expensive • Complex to create • Memory storage very high Multimedia usage • It is not always easy to configure • Advertising /Catalogs • Product showcase / Demonstration • Education / Training • Reference and Data dissemination • Communication • Commerce • Presentations • Entertainment and Gaming

Different types of multimedia E-learning: A learning system based • Online: a product that needs to com- on formalized teaching but with the municate with distant resources and help of electronic resources is known as sometimes distant users (websites, E-learning. mobile services) Definition: Instructional content or • Offline: a self-contained product, learning experience delivered of enabled does not communicate with any- by Electronic Technologies (ong & Wang, thing outside its immediate environ- 2003) ment (CD, DVD, Blu Ray, Multimedia kiosks) Electronic Learning • Hybrid: Has elements of both on-and (E-Learning) offline products, such as some com- Technology-assisted learning and teach- puter games ing (online and in class)

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• Asynchronous What is E-Learning Technology? • Instructor-led group • Encompasses a broad range of • Self-study application of technology • Self-study with subject matter expert • Refers to using information and • Web-based communications technology to: • Computer-based (CD-ROM) • Support the process of learning • Video/audio tape • Support communication in education %HQH¿WVRI(/HDUQLQJ • Evaluate learning activities • Focuses on needs of learner, not ability • Manage resources of trainer • Create educational materials • Flexibility of learning • Effective use of time for both employee & trainer Content is delivered using various • Economies of scale for all parties media such as text, images, animations, • Technology can expand reach and streaming videos, and audio range of traditional learning faculties Types of e-Learning Advantage and Disadvantage • Purely online –no face to-face of E-Learning meetings • Blended learning – combination of Advantages online and face –to-face • Just-in-time learing • Synchronous • Standardised learing • Self-paced learing Choosing the right eLearning • Flexible means of asssessment Methods: Factors and Elements • No travel costs • No classroom accommodation • Cost-effective

Video Classrooms Interactive e-lessons Disadvantages

Virtual Classrooms Instructor-led • Requires computer access • Requires internet access Online discussions Electronic simulations • Requires basic computer skills Mobile Learnings • Does not suit all learners

Self-Paced • Development cost of good- quality bespoke material can be high • Not all material may be com- patible with underlying learning management system

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Classroom Vs E-Learning Approach

Classroom E-Learning

Classroom 1. Synchronous 1. Unlimited 2. Limited capacity 2. 24*7 availability 3. Single learning path 3. Multiple learning methods Content • Textbooks/Library • Digital library • Video • On Demand • Collaboration • Multimedia / simulations • Powerpoint presentations / • Synchronous & Asynchronous Transparencies etc., communication etc.,

SUMMARY experience put forward by Edgar dale tells Communication is a process of sharing or us what type of learning experiences and exchanging information ideas, thoughts mode of teaching and learning will prove and feelings between the source of commu- advantageous to what type of learners in a nication (a teacher) and the receiver (a stu- given teaching – learning situation. dent) or known media (verbal or non-ver- Multimedia approach to instruc- bal). The six elements or components tion calls for the judicious use of a num- involved in a properly maintained two way ber of sensory impressions or media in communication process are the source, relation to the existing teaching - learn- contents or message, media or channel, ing situation in such a combination that the receiver, response or feedback and the results in the attainment of the predeter- barriers of communications The cone of mined objectives in the best possible way.

GLOSSARY

Decoding – (¤MÔ>à); to discover the Symmetric – (@IÖKTG) It divides itself meaning of information given in a secret among the various or complicated way. Web – (4[DJP[M) Network of websites Encoding – ¤Ø© to put information ( ): Website - (4[DJENÝ) Network of web in the form of a code. pages Feedback – A process in which (åÀØCÝ): www – 6M>NTJP[M World wide web a system regulates itself by monitoring ( ) its own output. E-mail – (åG×@à) Electronic mail LAN – 6ã´ßH¤P[MåGà Local Multisensory materials – (HàP[>ÜHØC ( ) YHT±Ø>ã involving more than one Area Network sense. Pronunciation, translations are URL – 4[DJEN ¯>P Uniform examples. Resources Locator

Internet – 4[DJÝ) Network of Networks

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Questions I. Choose the correct answer 1. Communication means ______(a) Knowledge (c) Connect (b) Technology (d) Skills 5. Message should be given using simple 2. Face to Face communication ______and familiar words is the principles of (a) Visual (c) Electronic ______(b) Verbal (d) Written (a) Brevity (c) Clarity (b) Simplicity (d) Timeliness. 3. ______help in developing the listening skill of the learner 5. Linear model is ______(a) Audio aids ______(b) Visual Aids (a) One directional (c) Audio Visual aids (b) Two directional (d) Projector (c) Multi directional 4. ______Experiences are (d) None of the above gained by the pupils through excursions Very short answer (2 marks) and trips 1. Define communication (a) Representative Experience 2. What is the best method for classroom (b) Verbal Experiences teaching? (c) Direct Experience 3. Write a qualities of a good communicators (d) Symbolic Experience 4. Write a 7C’s of Communication 5. Millions of websites on the ______5. What are verbal and non verbal com- ______munications? Illustrate with example (a) E-Learning (c) Media 6. Gives some examples of non-projected (b) E-Commerce (d) Internet aids 6. ______is a combination of 7. What is website? text, graphics, sounds and animation 8. LAN and URL – Expand it (a) T.V (c) Multimedia 9. How to create a E-Mail? (b) Mail (d) Internet 10. What are the benefits of E-Learning 7. Which of the following is not a mass III. Answer briefly (3 marks) method of communication 1. Why we communicate ? (a) Radio (c) Computer 2. Write in the importance of communication (b) Exhibition (d) Farm visit 3. List out the communication skills 8. Which of the following are the barriers 4. What are the uses of teaching aids of effective communication 5. What is E-Learning technology (a) Noise (c) Distance 6. Why use multimedia in the classroom? (b) Language (d) All of the 7. Discuss the different barriers in com- above munication

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8. Explain the methods of communication REFERENCES 9. What are the characteristics of good 1. Mangal, S.K, Uma Mangal, Essential of teaching aids? Educational Technology, PHI learning IV. Write in detail (5 marks) private limited, New Delhi., 2009 2. Jagannath Mohanty, Modern Trends 1. Explain in details about the functions in Educational Technology Neelkamal of communication Publications, Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi., 2004 2. What are the principles of communication 3. Sharma. R.A., Essentials of Educational 3. What do you know about Edgar Dale’s Technology., Meerut., 2005 cone of experience? Which drawing a 4. Venkatasubramanian. V., Technology sketch of the cone, discuss the type of communication and A.V. Aids in Ex- experiences helpful in the process of tension Education., New Century teaching-learning Book House (P) Ltd., Chennai, 2000 4. Discuss in details about the various 5. Aggarwal J.C., Essentials of Educa- principles of good communication tional Technology, Teaching learning, 5. Write the advantages and disadvantag- Innovations in Education., Vikas pub- es of E-Learning lishing house Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi., 6. Discuss in brief the various methods 1997 of communication carried out in dif- 6. Raja Sekar.S., Computer Education., ferent situation Nelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi., 2005 7. Meenakshi Sundaram. A., Educational Technology, Kavyamala publishers., Dindigul., 2008

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Personality Development and Chapter 9 Life Coping Skills

Learning Objectives

This chapter deals with: • Meaning, definition and determinants of personality • Self awareness and self esteem • Stress management and problem solving • Decision making • Coping with depression, fear, shyness, loneliness • Anger, verbal abuse, failure and criticism

variety of acquired habitual traits) Build Your Personality blended or organized in a characteristi- Be Confident …Be Strong…. cally unique manner that determines the Belief In Your Self mode of behavior and adjustments to the YOU CAN DO IT………. environment.

The term Personality has been de- 9.1 INTRODUCTION rived from Latin word ‘Persona’ Personality refers to the totality of what which means facial mask worn by a person is which includes all traits roman actors on stage. (Physical, Psychological as well as a

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9.1.1'H¿QLWLRQRI Characteristics of personality Personality • Personality is self-consciousness “Personality is the dynamic organization • It is dynamic within the individual of those psycho • It is the product of heredity and envi- physical systems which determine his ronment unique adjustment to his environment.” • It is adjustable or modifiable –(G. W. Allport,1937) • It is unique “Personality is that which permits a • It is integrated and functions as a whole prediction of what a person would do in a • It is assessable given situation.” –(R.B.Cattel,1950) 9.2 DETERMINANTS OF Personality is the embodiment of PERSONALITY physical, emotional, social, mental, moral The personality of an individual may be influ- and other traits of a human being. Each enced by various factors such as the biologi- letter of the word “PERSONALITY” cal, Sociological and Psychological factors. implies its meaning as follows. The major factors and their sub components that determine and influence P Perception capacity personality are given in figure 1.

9.2.1 Biological factors E Emotional maturity There are three biological factors playing a great role in personality development. R Responsiveness to the situation They are 1. Physique S Sociability 2. Chemique 3. Nervous System O Originality

N Neutrality FACTORS OF PERSONALITY

A External appearance Biological Sociological Psychological

L Leadership feeling Physique Home Intelligence Chemique School Altitude Nervous I Integrated system Society Motivation Culture Interest

T Tendency Emotion

Y Young (in thinking) p )LJ )DFWRUVLQÀXHQFLQJSHUVRQDOLW\

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1. Physique: Height, weight, physical • Number of children in the family. appearance, physical strength, gen- • Educational and socioeconomic sta- eral health, physical deformities and tus of parents abnormalities are the factors that can influence the personality of an School individual not directly but indirect- School factors responsible in shaping the ly. For example: The child who is personality of the children include: short of stature and who is physically • Discipline of the school handicapped may develop a feeling of • Opportunity available for various cur- inferiority. ricular and co curricular activities. 2. Chemique: Chemique means the ef- • Size of the school fects of the endocrine glands on the • Organizational climate of the school. personality development. For exam- • Personality of the teachers ple: Thyroid gland secretes thyroxin which controls rate of growth which in Society turn is relates to the personality of an The society circumstances and the envi- individual. ronment also play a vital role in deciding 3. Nervous System: Sensory organs de- one’s personality. pends upon the w ell developed quality of the nervous system. These sensory Culture organs are the gateways of knowledge. An individual’s personality is also deter- For example: Quickness of adjustment, mined by the culture in which they are the readiness of acquiring new modes reared. of responses, our reasoning and thinking all depend on the efficiency of the 9.2.3 Psychological factors nervous system. Intelligence, motivation, attitude, emotion and interest are some important psy- 9.2.2 Sociological factors chological factors Home, school, society and culture are the most important sociological factors 9.3 SELF AWARENESS involved in personality development. “Awareness” is about noticing and being Home aware about things around you in the The following factors from the home can world. Self awareness is having a clear per- affect the personality of an individual ception of one’s own personality including strengths, weakness, thoughts, beliefs, • Broken home, separated (or) divorced motivation and emotions. parents, alcoholic parents, quarrel- some parents. Self awareness also is defined as • Over ambitious parents the capacity to recognize one’s own feel- • Parental preferences on the sex (male ings, behaviours, and characteristics – to or female) of the child understand cognitive, physical and emo- • Step parents tional self at a basic level,

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Self Awareness tips:- Self awareness practice for the first time can be difficult but it can be achieved by 12 weeks or regular self assessment to become a successful individual.

9.3.1 Why is self-awareness Activity 1 important? Self Awareness worksheet The importance of self –awareness is as Fill out this worksheet together to follows: build awareness of strengths, weak- • Build your self esteem and confidence nesses for following • To live your values and realize your I am strong in these areas: ______dreams ______• Make priorities based on what is I struggle with:______important to you ______• To change your way of living My favourite thing about school is:____ • To choose a suitable career which will ______satisfy you • To give more of yourself to others • Benefit you and others in relationships 9.4 SELF ESTEEM 9.3.2 How can you become Self-esteem is the personal value, self-re- more self aware? spect and self -worth that an individul • Write down your goals and keep track places on themselves of progress. 9.4.1'H¿QLWLRQ • Websites • Self help Books “Self Esteem is the satisfaction or dissatis- • Self analysis faction with oneself” (James – 1980) • Meditation • Be your own life coach • Asked your family & friends • Get regular feedback at work • Beliefs and Values Self Awareness worksheet Fill out this worksheet together to build awareness of strengths, weaknesses for following 9 Personality Development & Life Coping Skills 209

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“Self-esteem is the judgment or a crucial role in forming a positive, healthy opinion we hold about ourselves. It’s the view of the self. extent to which we perceive ourselves to Physical Appearance be worthwhile and capable human beings.” (Coopersmith, 1967) Physical characteristics such as hair, figure, height weight, skin colour may also 9.4.2)DFWRUVLQÀXHQFLQJ influence the self-esteem of an individual Self Esteem Self Belief Self esteem or self image of adolescents is A person who has high confidence levels based on six domains as shown in figure 2. may learn things quickly, trust that they can complete tasks to a good standard and this subsequently may boost their self esteem. 7DVN3UR¿FLHQF\ Feedback Family friends and Environment This includes the skills required for per- others forming tasks and the ability to complete the task. Task proficiency influences the personality of an individual Task Factors of self Achievement Proficiency Esteem Feedback Friends and others Positive & Negative messages and feedback from friends and others may boost or break Self Physical an individual’s self-esteem. Belief Appearance 9.4.3 Types of Self-Esteem High Self-Esteem – Feeling positively p )LJ )DFWRUVLQÀXHQFLQJ6HOI(VWHHP about yourself, your actions and your future. Low Self-Esteem – Feeling negatively Family Environment about yourself, your actions and your future. Family is the first school for an individual. A childs life is mainly influenced by the family environment; it is the primary Improving our self esteem source of social development. Each family • Say “stop” to your inner criticism is different from the other, as it is com- • Use healthier motivation habits posed of different members. Each varies • Take a 2-minute self-appreciation in its social and economic conditions with break different background • Write down 3 things in the evening that you can appreciate Achievement about yourself Academic achievement and achievement • Do the right thing of one’s goals related to their hobbies play

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Self Esteem can be classified as HIGH SELF-ESTEEM and LOW SELF_ESTEEM SELF ESTEEM

HIGH SELF-ESTEEM LOW SELF_ESTEEM 1. Worthy of living 1. Poor risk taker 2. Self confident 2. Afraid of competitions or challenges 3. Accept themselves unconditionally 3. Non-Assertive 4. Seek continuous self-improvement 4. Lack initiative 5. Have peace with in themselves 5. Shyness 6. Enjoy good interpersonal relationship 6. Lack self-acceptance 7. Tolerate frustrations well 7. Blame others for their short comings 8. Assertive 8. Low aspiration 9. Willing to take calculated risks 9. Indifferent to needs of others 10. Self directed 10. Indecisive

Activity 2

About Me I was really happy when______Something that my friends like about me is ______I’m proud of ______My family was happy when I ______In school, I’m good at ______Something that makes me unique is ______

9.4.4 Motivation 'H¿QLWLRQ The Word motivation comes from the Motivation is defined as “Acts that arouse, Latin word ‘motum’ which means ‘move’, sustain and direct behaviour. ‘motor’, and ‘motion’. That is ‘to put into • It helps to sustain the attention in one’s action or to move’. efforts or task • Restlessness to achieve the goal stops after the goal is reached A continuous flow in shape of a cycle named motivational cycle is explained in figure 3.

Need A need is lack or deficit of some necessity. It’s a state of physical deprivation that

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Incentive Motivation Cycle Environment that activates, directs, and Need maintains behaviour is called incentive. It can be anything as long as it has either positive or negative value in motivating behaviour. For example: behaviour like Goal Drive eating food is an incentive that reduces the drive of the person caused by the need to fulfill his hunger. The reduction of behaviour then cuts off and restores balance in an organism. Incentive Goal The reduction of tension in the body can be considered as the goal of any motivated p )LJ 0RWLYDWLRQDOF\FOH behaviour. Let’s go back to the example of a hungry man. A hungry man eats food, and his body restores to a balanced condition. Needs Wants This then reduces the tension. This reduction of tension as a result of an energized activity is called goal. Once the goal has been completed, the organism is again ready Tensions Actions Satisfaction for another goal-motivated behaviour.

9.4.4.1 Principles of Motivation causes tension. The tension caused when Maslow’s Theory of Motivation the person is deprived of basic necessities of life as food, water, and sleep, causes imbalance. For any goal directed behavior, need is the first condition or stimulating factor. Drive Need leads to drive, which is the second step towards achieving goal. Drive can be defined as the state of tension or arousal produced by need. It is the state of height- p 0DVORZ ened tension leading to restless activity and preparatory behaviour. For instance, Maslow describes how motivation devel- when person is hungry and/or thirsty, he ops stage by stage from purely physiolog- seeks to reduce this drive by eating and/or ical drives to complex social purpose, as drinking. described in the figure presented below:

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7.Self Actualisation Individuals and his needs 6.Aesthetic needs

5.Achievement needs

4.Esteem needs

3.Love and belongingness needs

2.Safety needs

1.Physiological needs

1. Physiological needs: The basic physi- bother about them, derives pleasure in ological desires are food, water, shelter, beauty and nature. etc., They are the most basic and fun- 7. Self-Actualization Needs: Need for damental human needs. self-fulfillment, self-expression, ful- 2. Safety Needs: It arises on account of fillment of potentialities, working out future expectations. For example, in- one’s own mental personality. surance against future, keeping a bank balance, investing in LIC. 9.5 STRESS MANAGEMENT 3. Love and Belongingness Needs: Need Stress is a body’s response to any physical, for affection, praise, warmth, accep- emotional or mental in life. tance, approval, affiliation. Stress leads to:- 4. Self-Esteem Needs: Need for achieve- 1. Physiological discomfort ment, status, self-respect, self-confidence, 2. Some kind of emotional unhappiness feelings of strength and adequacy. 3. Strained relationships with other people 5. Achievement Needs: Needs for understanding implies knowledge of relationships, process, the integration of knowledge into broad structure etc. thus achievement needs are related to intellectual domination and cognitive competencies. 6. Aesthetic needs: This is concerned with appreciation of order and beauty. One whose lower order needs are fully satisfied or known that he need not

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9.5.1 'H¿QLWLRQ • A stiff neck and/or tight shoulders. “Stress is defined as the pressure expe- • Back pain. rienced by a person in response to life • Fast breathing. demands. (Selye – 1956) • Sweating, and sweaty palms. • An upset stomach, nausea, or diarrhoea. 9.5.2 Stress Management 9.5.5 Techniques to manage Stress Management is the ability to main- stress tain control when situations, people and events make excessive demands. Stress There are many simple techniques that management means many things to dif- may prove useful in the management of ferent people because everyone has their stress as shown in figure 4 own way of dealing with stressors. • Remove yourself from stressful situation 9.5.3 &ODVVL¿FDWLRQRI6WUHVV • Don’t overcome yourself, talk to some- Stress may be classified in the following one freely manner:

CLASSIFICATION OF STRESS

EUSTRESS DISTRESS HYPER HYPO

Positive stress: Negative stress: stress due to stress due to stress due to stress due to overload-too much underload positive events like negative events of work monotonous or functions boring work/tasks

Each letter of the word “Stress” is S a Stand Back (Remove yourself from stressful situation) T a Take a deep breath (Think about the choice that is best for you) R a Relax (Read a book, take a bath ,listen to music) E a Exercise (Get that stressful energy out) S a Sleep (Take a nap or rest for a while) S a Speak (Talk to someone)

9.5.4 Effect of stress • Relax yourself on the body • Avoid extreme situations Stress has various harmful effects of the • Indulge in physical activity body. They include • Manage your time Figure 4- Technique in stress management • A fast heartbeat. • Get more sleep • A headache.

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Techniques of stress management

Listening Travel Hobbies Music

Playing with Laughing Meditation fun filled Games

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Activity 3

Read through the situations below and each one that you experienced within the last year. Mark whether the situation led to good stress or bad stress Good Stress Bad Stress I experienced (Situation (Situation made you Situation this within motivated you feel overwhelmed the last year to prepare and and worried most of do your best) the time). 1. Meeting new people

2. Being peer pressured

3. Fighting with friends or siblings

4. Failing a test

5. Giving a presentation

6. Engaged in several activities

7. Parents arguing

8. Feeling left out

9. Moving

10. Being teased

If you ticked the “bad stress” box more than three times, you might be experiencing stress overload. Talk to a trusted adult

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Case study 1 Sumithra has been studying for her final examination which is to be held next day morning. She studies till 1 a.m. in the night. Unable to concentrate any more, she sets the alarm for 6 a.m. and tries to go off to sleep. As she is very tense, she keeps toss- ing and turning in bed. Images flash through her mind of not being able to secure the marks. She blames herself for fooling around with her friends and not preparing thoroughly for the examination. In the morning she wakes up with a heavy head, misses breakfast, and barely makes it in time to school for her examination. She opens the question paper, her heart pounding, hands clammy with sweat and then she feels her mind has gone completely blank. Some of you may have lived through an experience such as Sumithra’s. The challenge posed by examinations is common to all students. Some of us succeed while others succumb to life stresses. Life poses challenges all the time.

1. Suggest 3 ways to cope with that situation? “Generally people try the differ- 2. what do you infer from this case ent strategies of solving a problem study? through trial and error method”

9.6 PROBLEM SOLVING through accomplishing goal by means a set of mental operations. 9.6.1 'H¿QLWLRQ 9.6.2 Factors affecting Problem Solving is the term used for problem solving thinking or thought processes that is spe- • Poor Intelligence cifically aimed at finding Solutions to • Absence of sufficient concepts specific problems. This process contin- • Wrong thought habits ues on spectrum from conceiving an idea • Limited vocabulary • Prejudices • Lack of awareness

“The only way to solve a problem is to change the thinking that created it.” Albert Einstein (1879–1955)

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9.6.3 Steps in Problem Solving Example: One may ask why the The steps in problem solving are as follows monitor alone was attacked by Awareness of the problem–An individ- malarial fever. The boys try to ual has to be aware of the problem. If he formulate tentative guesses to the senses that there is a problem he will know question. Perhaps the monitor vis- the way to solve it. ited someone who had malarial fever. Perhaps monitor slept without mosquito net at night, or water Example: What will happen to a stagnation near his house. boy who is absent continuously?

4. Evaluation or testing of hypothesis: 1. Recognition of the problem– The in- Hypothesis formulated is tested. dividual has to understand the problem by comparing his past experiences faced with present situation. when monitor comes back to school after recovery from malarial fever he says that there is a big Example: All the students want to pond near his house where water know what has happened to their stagnates and breeds mosquitoes. favourite monitor He also tells them that one night he did not use mosquito net because it was a very hot night. 2. Collection of data – Collection of data plays an important part in solving the problems. Data regarding the problem 5. Making of Generalisation –Finding a is collected. general principle to a particular situation is called generalization. Example: One of the boy who lives nearby is spotted and asked to go i) One should not sleep with- to the monitor house. He finds out out a mosquito net at night in that his monitor is suffering from swampy areas. malarial fever. ii) One should maintain good habits so that he/she may not 3. Formulation of hypothesis - Hypoth- be attacked by a disease. esis means “idea or suggestion put forward as a starting point for reasoning or explanation”. Hence a hypothesis may Five “I”- approaches to Daily Problem Solving be right or wrong, accepted or rejected 1. Intention - State the goal of the prob- after its validity is verified completely. lem to be solved

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2. Interest - What is the problem where 9.7 DECISION MAKING do you see the problem in the process 3. Investigate - What is the root cause? 4. Intervene - Limit the effect of the problem 5. Implement - Permanently prevent the problem from reoccurring.

9.6.4 Tips to increase our Problem Solving Skills • Dance • Workout our brain with logic puzzles • Get good night sleep • Work out to some tunes • Participate in yoga

9.7.1'H¿QLWLRQ Activity 4 According to James Stoner “Decision Problem: Write who, what, why and making is the process of identifying and how the problem occurred ______selecting a course of action to solve a ______specific problem. ______(Mathew, 2011) ______9.7.2 Decision Making ______Process What was the result ? ______Making a good decision requires patience ______and careful thought. The following steps ______serve as important guidelines for taking Write two better ways to solve the good decisions problem: 1. ______9.7.3 Factors affecting ______decision making 2. ______The following factors influence the decision How could I have prevented the making process. problem • Perception - people selectively interpret ______what they see on the basis of their interest, ______background, experience, and attitudes. In the future I will ______Hence, people’s decision will be impaired ______by wrong perception. ______• Priority - Prioritizing the personal goals, the place of family, work, our career in our 9 Personality Development & Life Coping Skills 218

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Step 1 – Define the problem. The first step towards a decision-making procedure is to define the problem. There would be no need to make a decision without having a problem. So, the first thing one has to do is to state the underlying problem that has to be solved.

Step 2 – Develop alternatives. The situation of making decision arises because there are many alternatives available for it. Hence, the next step after defining the main problem would be to state out the alternatives available for that particular situation.

Step 3 – Evaluate the alternatives. The most important stage of the decision-making procedure is to analyze each alternatives. The advantages and disadvantages of each option has to be criti- cally assed. Rating each option with a numerical digit would also help in the filtration process.

Step 4 – Choose and finalize the alternative. The evaluation process would help in clearly looking at the available options and deciding the most suitable alternative

Step 5 – Implement the solution. The next obvious step after choosing an option would be implementing the solution.This is a very crucial step because all the people involved in implemen- tation of a solution should know about their implications. This is very essential for the decision to give successful results.

Step 6 – Monitor the solution. Just making a decision and implementing it, is not the end of the decision-making procedure. It is crucial to monitor your decision regularly once they are im- plemented. At this stage, you have to keep a close eye on the progress made by implementing the solutions.

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priority list is of most importance while Activity 5 making good decisions. • Acceptability - Those who implement the 3 good choices I would like to make decision must accept it both intellectually this week…. and emotionally. 1. ______• Resources - Available resources helps to ______make decisions fastly. 2. ______• Judgment - Practical stratergies helps ______in improving decision making process. 3. ______9.7.4 Qualities of Good decision makers • Evaluate circumstances, consider 9.8 COPING MECHANISM alternatives. Coping Mechanisms can also be described • Use critical thinking skills. as “Survival Skills”. They are strategies that • Able to make decisions under pressure. people use in order to deal with stresses, • Problem solving attitude. pain and natural changes that we experi- • Opposed to a “that’s not my job” ence in life. approach. Coping involves managing taxing 9.7.5 Practical tips to help in circumstances, expending effort to solve decision making life’s problems and seeking to master or Stick to your mission reduce stress. 1. Set a time limit 2. Avoid decision fatigue We experience a range of emo- 3. Control what you can control tions through out our lives. Some 4. Understand whether the decision can good, some not so good. Our be- be reversed haviors are usually a result of how 5. Make a daily decision quota we handle our emotions. If we are able to handle our emotions positively behavior will be positive. Decision making tips • Take necessary time • Be sensitive to timing time 9.8.1 Coping with Depression • Write it down Depression is an emotional state of low • Look for a good decision mood and aversion to activity that can • Involve others affect a persons thoughts, behavior, feel- • Commit to it ings and sense of well being. Depression is • Be confident an illness characterized by persistent sad- • Listen to facts and feelings ness and a loss of interest in activities that you normally enjoy, accompanied by an

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contribute to onset of depression include genetics, changes in hormone levels, certain medical conditions, stress, grief or difficult life circumstances.

Symptoms of Depression A depressed person will experience any of the following symptoms. WHO reports that 7.5% Indians suffer from mental disorders. Around inability to carry out daily activities, for at 4.5% of India’s least two weeks. population suffer from depression, Cause of Depression 38 million Indians suffer from anxiety Depression is more than just feeling down. disorders. Research tells us that the other factors Source: Times of India Feb 25, 2017

SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION

BEHAVIOUR FEELINGS THOUGHTS PHYSICAL

Not going out anymore Sad I’m a failure Tired all time Not getting things done Guilty It’s my fault Sleep problems at home/school Irritable I’m worthless headaches Withdrawing from close Unhappy Life is not worth living Sick family and friends Lacking in Weight loss confidence

2007 - 50 40% 15% 2016 -344 NEARLY 40% OF STUDENTS 15% REPORT THAT DEPRESSION NUMBER OF STUDENTS FELT OVERWHELMING HAS AFFECTED THEIR ACADEMIC SCREENED DURING NATIONAL ANXIETY AT SOME POINT PERFORMANCE DEPRESSION IN LAST 12 MONTHS SCREENING DAY

National Depression Screening Day

2015-16 -10,564 40% 2016-17 - 12,961 NEARLY 40% OF STUDENTS BU BEHAVIORAL FELT SO DEPRESSION IN THE MEDICINE STUDENT LAST 12 MONTHS THAT IT VISITS WAS DIFFICULT FOR THEM TO FUNCTION

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9.8.1.1 Steps to overcome • Engage in voluntary activities to keep Depression you active • Break tasks down into small steps • Set realistic goals challenge negative • Focus on your positive experiences thoughts • Avoid isolation by connecting with • Improve diet and also take Omega 3 people. supplement • Find a hobby and exercise daily. • Have a regular sleep time. • Use self relaxation techniques like deep breathing exercises

Omega 3 is an Essential Fatty Acid which has positive effect on mood. present in fish,pumpkinseeds and sunflower seeds.

Activity 6 How I Feel

I Feel :

Happy Mad Sad Glad

Worried Excited Bored Scared

Annoyed Upset Sick Nervous

I Feel this way because:

This is what I did about it:

Something else I could have done is :

Ask for help Take deep breaths Walk away

Do something else Tell an adult Talk to a friend

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9.8.2 Coping with Fear fears related to self or status. They are afraid of facilitating, being ridiculed and of being “different”. Types of Fear • Fear of Failure • Fear of Judgment • Fear of Success • Fear of Speaking • Fear of not being able to make a living • Fear of Rejection • Fear of losing everything • Fear of people and public places

Fear is an unpleasant emotion that is pre- Aware techniques for programmed into animals and humans overcoming Fear as an instinctual response to potential A - Accept the Fear danger. Fear is the emotion we experi- W - Watch the Fear ence when the automatic nervous system releases adrenaline energizing the system A - Act normal for fight or flight. R - Repeat the steps “Fear is discrimination learning. It E - Expect the best provides us with information as to what object is dangerous and what delightful. The common fears expressed in Activity 7 babyhood include those related to loud noise, animals, dark room, high places, being alone, pain and strange person places and objects. Older children have

Six basic fear Symptoms of fear

Fear of poverty Sweating Fear of criticism Hot flushes or chills Fear of old age Difficulty in breathing Fear of Seperation Choking Sensation Fear of Death Rapid heart beat and Group Discussion pain in chest Discuss different fearful situation faced by higher secondary school children.?

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9.8.3 Shyness Effective strategies to overcome shyness 1. Act confidently 2. When you meet someone focus all your attention on the other person. 3. Try new things even if they make you anxious 4. Be mindful 5. Talk freely 6. Engage yourself in any activity. Shyness is a psychological state that causes a person to feel discomfort in social situ- • Feeling mind has gone blank ations in ways that interfere with enjoy- • Trembling ment or that cause avoidance of social • headache contacts altogether. American Psychological Association 9.8.4 Loneliness (APA-2012) defined Shyness as the tendency to feel awkward, worried or tense during social encounters, especially with unfamiliar people.

Shyness is the fear of negative judgment and introversion is a pref- erence for quiet minimally stimulating environment.

Loneliness is a complex and usually 9.8.3.1 Causes of shyness unpleasant emotional response to isolation. Loneliness typically includes anxious • Less Chances to meet people or less feelings about a lack of connection or com- interaction with them. munication with other beings, both in the • Insecurity / lack of confidence. present and extending into the future. • Overprotection. • Criticizing / criticism of – child in 9.8.4.1 Symptoms of Loneliness front of others • Physical Symptoms - aches and pains 9.8.3.2 Symptoms of Shyness • Mental health conditions - increased • Blushing (cheeks turn red), feeling anxious risk of depression, anxiety, panic attacks • Heart beats fast • Low Energy - tiredness or lack of • Sweating motivation

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9.8.4.2 Causes of Loneliness 9.8.5 Coping with Anger • Lack of social skills • Lack of interest in other people • Lack of empathy • High self criticism • Failure to disclose information about themselves • Lack of sense of community 9.8.4.3.Coping with Loneliness 1. Think about what is making you lonely. 2. Talk freely 3. Take time to develop personal inter- Anger is a normal, usually healthy emo- ests that you may not have had time tion. But when it turns destructive it can for before. affect the very quality of our lives. Anger 4. Make new connections can be caused by external events, for 5. Try a new recreational activity. Exer- instance getting angry with your friend cise and physical activity will increase or colleague and internal which is often your energy and help you to feel better triggered by unhappy memories or by about yourself. worrying and brooding. 6. Work on developing relationships with others. Avoid impulsive, desperate and clingy behaviours that tend to drive others away. Anger is a strong accompaniment 7. Work on your listening and communi- to depression cation skills. -Kim & Park -2009 8. Present a positive image.

Activity 8 Who can I call when…. I’m feeling lonely: ______I need some company: ______I need someone to talk to: ______I need someone to encourage me to get out of the house and do something fun: ______I need someone to remind me to follow my self care plan: ______

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9.8.5.1 Causes of Anger Activity 9 Anger can be triggered due to many fac- Draw a picture of what you look like tors as given below: when you’re angry • Rejection by parents • Rejection by peers • Lower levels of academic achievements • More mental health intervention 9.8.5.2 What happens in your body - when you get angry? (i). Your heart pounds (ii). Your breathing changes (iii). Your muscles get tense (iv). Your face gets red (v). There’s a knot in your stomach (vi). There’s a lump in your throat (vii). Release of the hormone Adrenaline Anger is a difficult feeling. When you’re angry, you might do bad things that What’s something you say only when you wouldn’t do if you were happy. But you’re angry? did you know that it’s normal to feel ______angry from time to time? It happens to ______everyone ______Good way to release anger ______• Get some exercise ______• Practice controlled breathing ______• Find or do something funny ______• Listening to music ______• Repeat self calming statements ______ANGER MANAGEMENT ______• Think before you speak . In the ______heat of the moment it is easy ______to say something but later we ______will regret ______• Spend time out ______• Identify possible solution ______

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9.8.6 Verbal Abuse Emotional abuse • Verbal abuse • Using words to mistreat or injure another person Stalking Repeated following, harassment or threat- ening on an individual to frighten or cause him or her harm

9.8.6.2 Effects of Verbal Abuse • Can effect one’s self image psychologi- Verbal abuse is a way of attacking (or) cal and emotional ways negatively defining another person using • Leads to low self esteem, fear depres- words or silence – as a weapon. It can take sion, bad eating habits, sleeping prob- a variety of forms ranging from loud rants lems and irritability to passive – aggressive remark • Can cause students to fail school due to fear, What is Verbal Abuse? • Substance abuse, or in very extreme Verbal abuse occurs when someone cases, death ! uses language, either spoken or writ- The cycle usually goes in the follow- ten, to cause harm to an individual. ing order as shown in figure 5 and will repeat until the conflict is stopped, aban- 9.8.6.1 Types of Abuse doning the relationship or some form of intervention. Physical abuse Intentional infliction of bodily harm or 9.8.6.3 Cycle of Abuse injury on another person

2.Incident:-Verbal, 1.Tension Building emotional 3.Reconciliation 4.Calm and verbal abuse

Tension Increasing Anger Abuser Incident is Breakdown of Blaming apologises “Forgotten” Communication Arguing Gives excuses No abuse is Victim becomes Threats Blames victim taking place fearful Intimidation Denies the abuse occurred

p )LJ &\FOHRIDEXVH 6RXUFHKWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNLF\FOHRIDEXVH

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9.8.6.4 Helpful Tips for 9.8.7 Failure Overcoming Verbal Abuse – Tip 1: Stop the Cycle: When Someone abuses (either verbally or physically), it usually becomes a cycle. Verbal abuse has to be stopped is to break that cycle Tip 2: Leave the situation: The verbal abuse can be stopped by just walking away from the situation without saying anything. Failure is a lack of success in achieving Tip 3: Report it to the higher Authorities: something especially in relation to a par- Verbal abuse at home, school or any other ticular activity. places should be reported to some trust 'H¿QLWLRQ worthy adult, head of the institution or any Making mistakes does not mean you’re social group that will address the situation a failure. It just means you’re trying and “It’s important for everyone – young or learning in life old, male or female, – to learn how to stop verbal abuse. No individual should accept Example of an Effect and cause of failure that sort of attack from anyone, not even from their own parents.

Activity 10

How Can you tell if someone is being bullied? This Chart can help you decide if it’s bullying or something else. Joking Around: One Time Thing: * Everyone is having * Someone is being 9.8.7.1 How to Overcome fun mean on purpose failure * No one is getting * It’s a reaction to a hurt strong emotion or feeling The following nine powerful habits will * Everyone is * It happens once participating and doesn’t repeat enable an individual to cope with failure equally itself Conflict: Bullying: 1. Just accept how you feel * Two people with a * Repeated, unwanted balance of power aggressive 2. Remember you are not a failure just that have a fight behaviour towards argument or someone because of a set back disagreement * Someone is being hurt on purpose 3. Be constructive * A Solution can * Can be social usually be found verbal, physical or 4. Find Inspiration cyber 5. Move forward 6. Take action plan 7. Improve you self esteem

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Tips to overcome failure is shown in Criticism is the practice of judging the figure 6 merits and faults of something.

Altitude People who accept criticism are Attitude Gratitude the one’s who are genuinely interested in self improvement.

Vision Success Aptitude Types of Criticism 1. Factual Criticism Criticism can be factual, pointing out Consulting Fortitude right and wrong facts. Coaching Example: No, it is Tuesday, not Monday 2. Evaluating criticism p )LJ 7LSVWR2YHUFRPHIDLOXUH Criticism can also be evaluative, pointing out good and bad. This is trickier, Vision- think positive of the situation you as it assumes the critic’s values are face, Attitude- have a relaxed attitude, similar or superior to those of the crit- Altitude- Aim high to achieve, Gratitude- Be icized person. greatful for the situation, Aptitude- be ready Example: Don’t look at me like that ! to learn from that situation, Fortitude-ability to withstand adversity (unfavourable fortune), Coaching- prepare yourself to overcome worst How to accept Criticism situation also, Consulting- discuss with trust- • Stop your first reaction able persons.These tips will lead to success. • Remember the benefit to get feedback 9.8.8 Criticism • Listen for understanding Criticism is defined as negative com- • Say thank you mentary about something or someone. • Ask questions to deconstruct the feedback • Request time to follow up

Summary • Personality refers to the totality of what a person is which includes all traits (Physical, Psychological as well as a variety of acquired habitual traits) blended or organized in a

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characteristically unique manner that • Young people of this generation determines his modes of behavior and undergo a lot of stress due to the var- his adjustments to the environment. ious challenges they face. Managing • Factors such as self awareness, moti- stress effectively will enhance health vation and self esteem help to enhance as well as academic performance. Fur- the personality of an individual. There ther simple techniques to solve prob- are various simple techniques that are lems also enhances personality and addressed in this chapter to boost an improves the quality of life of an indi- individuals overall personality. vidual.

GLOSSARY

Perceive – (6DK) To become aware or realize Ridicule – (ZP}Ô[>JTG) To mock Frustration – (9ITäLÝ) feeling of being Empathy – (HÖ@TÚETHÝ) understand and upset or dissatisfied share the feelings of others Proficiency – (L[I)skilled Volatile – (8à 3JTxL, >~Ô> ¯}JTEH}) liable to Prejudice – (HTKHØ@Ý) an opinion not change unpredictably (E[M©) based on reason or experience 11.Intervention-act of becoming involved Attitude – (2ª¤¯[L) a way of thinking intentionally in a difficult situation Aversion – (YP²Ü®)strong dislike Harassment - «å®²ÚEà) behaviour Instinct – (6ã´Dß¶) inborn tendency that troubles someone or ability

Questions

I Choose the correct answer 1. ______means the effects of the endocrine glands on the personal development. (a) Physique (c) Nervous system 3. Childs life is mainly influenced by the (b) Chemique (d) sociological factors family environment; it is the primary 2. The society circumstances and the source of ______environment play a vital role in deciding (a) Social development one’s ______(b) Physical development (a) Self-esteem (c) loneliness (c) Psychological development (b) Self-awareness (d) Personality (d) mental development

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4. ______is a stress due to positive 11. People who accept ______are the events like functions. one’s who are genuinely interested in self (a) Eustress (c) Hyper stress improvement (b) Distress (d) Hypo stress (a) Awareness (c) criticism 5. ______is a process of identifying (b) loneliness (d) personality and selecting a course of action to solve 12. ______is the ability to maintain problem control when situations, people and (a) Criticism (c) sorting ideas events make excessive demands (b) Decision making (d) self esteem (a) Personality development 6. ______is a complex and usually (b) Self esteem unpleasant emotional response to (c) Stress Management isolation (d) Motivation (a) Loneliness (c) Anger 13. ______is a psychological state (b) shyness (d) Fear that causes a person to feel discomfort 7. ______is a intentional infliction in social situations. of bodily harm(or) injury on another (a) Loneliness (c) Criticism person (b) Depression (d) Shyness (a) (b) emotional abuse 14. ______is a normal, usually healthy (c) Verbal abuse (d) stalking emotion 8. ______is a lack of success in (a) Loneliness (c) Shyness achieving something especially in (b) Anger (d) Self awareness. relation to a particular activity 15. ______is an unpleasant (a) Failure (b) loneliness emotion (c) shyness (d) depression (a) Fear (c) shyness 9. What does this cycle relate to? (b) Loneliness (d) failure II. Very short answer (2 marks) Needs Wants 1. Define Personality 2. List the determinants that affects personality Tensions Actions Satisfaction 3. Define Motivation 4. Define Stress (a) Behavior (c) goal 5. Write any two points about the impor- (b) Motivation (d) Satisfaction tance of self awareness? 10. ______is about noticing stuff in the 6. Define self-awareness. world 7. What are the types of self-esteem? (a) awareness (c) criticism 8. Define self-esteem. (b) loneliness (d) personality 9. What is meant by failure? 10. What is meant by problem solving?

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11. Define decision making 13. Ragu is depressed because he failed in 12. What is meant by depression? his exam. How can you motivate him? 13. What is fear? Write in detail (5 marks) 14. Define Shyness 15. Define Loneliness 1. Explain in details about the determinants of personality? III. Answer briefly (3 marks) 2. Describe factors influencing self es- 1. Sensory organs are gateways of knowl- teem edge. How do these sensory organs 3. Explain Maslow’s Theory of Motivation help in personality development? 4. Ragini is a 23 year old budding soft- 2. What are the characteristics of person- ware Engineer. She is given a stressful ality? project. Even during weekends she is 3. Draw and write about the Motivation entangled with work alone. As a friend cycle suggest her some relaxation techniques 4. Write about the effect of stress on the to overcome the stress on her physical body and mental health. 5. Write five “i” approaches to daily prob- 5. Explain the steps in problem solving lem solving 6. Ram wants to do higher studies but his 6. What are the qualities of good decision parents asks him to go to work. As a makers? colleague how would you guide him to 7. What are the symptoms of fear? take decision regarding his career. 8. What are the causes of loneliness? 7. What are types of abuse? Explain it 9. What are the causes of shyness? 8. What are the symptoms of loneliness? 10. Write the cycle of abuse? 9. Sunitha always keeps herself isolated 11. How do you motivate a student to from her friends she sits, eats alone score high marks? and feels lonely. Find out the reason 12. Suggest 3 ways to help in making effec- and help her to overcome loneliness. tive decisions

REFERENCES 5. Cheema, D.S. (2007), Personality De- 1. Agarwal, J.C. (2004), Psychology of velopment, Chandigarh: Abhishek Learning and Development. Delhi:- Publications Shipra Publications. 6. Dhirendra, P. Singh. (2007), Education 2. Allport, G.W. (1937), Personality: A and Personality Development. APH Psychological Interpretation, New Publishing Corporation. York: Henry Holt and Company 7. Dodiya and Jignesh (2013), Emo- 3. Braj Kumar Mishra.P.H (2016), Delhi, tional Psychology Delhi: Cyber PHI Learning Private limited. publications. 4. Catell, R.B. (1950), Personality: A sys- 8. Eysenck, H.J.(1970), The structure of tematic, Theoretical and factual study, Human Personality, London: Methuen Newyork: M.C.Graw Hill and Co

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9. Mangal, S.K (2008), General Psycholo- 13. Nagarajan. K, Psychology of Learn- gy New Delhi: Sterling Publishers pri- ing and Human Development, (2010), vate limited. Chennai, Ram publishers. 10. Mathew, U (2011), Decision making 14. Nagarajan. K, Educational Psychology, Essay (2003), Ram publishers 11. Meenakshi Sundaram. A, Kavyamala 15. Robinson. S, An Introduction to Ed- Publishers, (2014) Dindigul Chinnala- ucational psychology, (2007), Eswari pattu, (2005) Krubha Publisher 12. Morgan and King, (1976), Introduc- 16. Vaidyanathan. P.V. (2010) Managing tion to Psychology, Tata Mc Graw Hill the unmanageable child, Delhi, Pea- cock books.

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GLOSSARY

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Haemoglobin £ZIT¤ZNTå

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Marasmus 6Cà4[NÜ®

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Prejudice HTKHØ@Ý

Prenatal Stage I>ÜZH²Ô¤¯äHØC>TMÝ

Prestigious IÜ®Ô>

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Shelf life PTâFTã}ÚEà

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Swelling Ô>Ý

Teleconferencing YET[MÚYETCß®

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Transition ITäLÝ

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Yoghurt Eß

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HOME SCIENCE – Class XI List of Authors and Reviewers

Domain Expert Varalakshmi Rajam S Co-ordinator Dr. Anna Rangini Chellappa Associate Professor and H.O.D., Thangamuneeswari M. Associate Professor and H.O.D., Department of Clinical Nutrition and B.T. Assistant Department of Home Science, Dietetics, SCERT, Dr. Ambedkar Govt Arts College, Ethiraj College for Women, DPI Campus, Chennai. Vyasarpadi, Chennai. Egmore, Chennai Ramalakshmi M.M. ICT Co-ordinator Reviewers Headmistress Ruby Packiam P. Dr. Kanjana K Govt Hr. Sec. School, B.T. Assistant Associate Professor and H.O.D., Mittanamalli, PUMS, K.K. Nagar, Dept. of Nutrition and Dietetics, IAF, Avadi, Chennai. Tiruttani Block, Tiruttani Dist. P.S.G College of Arts and Science, Ramanabai G. Coimbatore. P.G.Assistant Dr. Sheila John Sarojini Varadappan Girls Hr. Sec School, Associate Professor and H.O.D., Poonamallee, Chennai. Women’s Christian College, Seenithai R Nungambakkam, Chennai. P.G.Assistant Chennai Girls Hr. Sec. School, Authors Rotler Street, Chennai. Dr. Maria Margaret Concesso Associate Professor Dr. Jeris Pretima V.P. Department of Home Science, P.G.Assistant Women’s Christian College, Chennai Girls Hr.Sec. School, Nungambakkam, Chennai. Nungambakkam, Chennai. Dr. Annette Beatrice D Deivalakshmi S. Associate Professor P.G.Assistant Department of Home Science, Sacred Heart Girls Hr. Sec. School, Women’s Christian College, Srivilliputtur, Viruthunagar Dist. Nungambakkam, Chennai. Dr. Muthu Meenakshi R Vijayalakshmi Priya Y P.G.Assistant Associate Professor TELC girls Hr. Sec. School, Usilampatti, Department of Home Science, Madurai Dist. Queen Mary’s College, Chennai.

Art and Design Team

Chief Co-ordinator and Creative Head Srinivasan Natarajan

Layout Udhay Info Illustration Muthu Kumar R Santhosh Kumar S. Adaikkala Stephen S. In-House QC This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M. Gopu Rasuvel Elegant Maplitho paper. Rajesh Thangappan Gokula Krishnan Printed by offset at: Co-ordination Ramesh Munisamy

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