The Moral Treatment of Domesticated Dogs in Art and Society

By the Good Grace: The Moral Treatment of Domesticated Dogs in Art and Society

Vicki Hamilton BA Fine Art (Newcastle) BFA (Hons. 1) (Newcastle) MFA (Newcastle)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Fine Art

This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship

July , 2019 University of Newcastle, NSW

Statement of Originality

I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo.

______Vicki Hamilton

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…. i

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….………………………………....………. ii

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… v

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1

Chapter One: Dogs without Souls: Early Religious and Philosophical Ideas …………………………….. 5

Early Religious Traditions and Human-Animal Relationships …………... 6 a) Animal Sacrifice ………………………………………………………………..… 7 b) Religious Dominion …………………………………………………………….. 9

Early Philosophical Ideas ………………………………………………………………….. 11 a) Moral Status: Soul and Virtue………………………………………………. 11 b) Aristotle and Animal Soul…………………………………………………….. 12 c) The Romans and Animal Soul………………………………………………. 14 d) Hierarchy and Soul………………………………………………………………. 17 e) Good and Evil Animals…………………………………………………………. 20

Christian Dominion…………………………………………………………………………… 21

Allegorical Relationships representing Good Dogs/Good People ……… 23

Chapter Two: Early Mistreatment of Dogs ……………………………………………………………………... 31

Exploiting Dogs Cruelly…………………………………………………………………….. 31 a) The Renaissance…………………………………………………………………. 31 b) Violence and Cruelty to Animals…………………………………………. 37 c) Use of Dogs Aggressive Characteristics……………………………….. 39 i. Hunting……………………………………………………………….…. 39 ii. Dog Fighting………………………………………………………….. 43

More Sympathetic Treatment…………………………………………………………. 46 a) Dogs as Pets………………………………………………………………………… 49 b) Pedigree Dogs……………………………………………………………………… 53

Chapter Three: A Better Life for Dogs: Compassion and Empathy ………………………………………… 57

The Enlightenment: Compassion and Empathy ………………………….…… 57

Contemporary Society and the Argument for Animal Rights ………..…. 64 a) Morality and Human Behaviour………………………………………..… 65 b) Developing Ideas regarding the Rights of Animals…………….… 65 c) Rethinking Ideas of Dominion……………………………………………… 68 d) Contemporary Rights for Animals……………………………………….. 69

Organisations for the Protection of Dogs and Other Animals ………….. 72

Chapter Four: Contemporary Issues in Greyhound Racing: Death in the Fast Lane ………………. 74

Evidence of Cruelty in Greyhound Racing in Australia……………………… 75

Opposition to the Banning this Sport……………………………………………….. 79

Arguments against the Industry’s Position……………………………………….. 81

The Response of Artists……………………………………………………………………. 84

Chapter Five: Continuing Forms of Exploitation: ‘A Dog’s Life’ ……………………………………….…….. 95

Dogs as Experimental Resources…………….………………………………….……. 98

Dogs as Military Resources………………………………………………………………. 100

Street Dogs………………………………………………………………………………………. 109

Fighting Dogs…………………………………………………………………………………… 112

Dogs as Throwaways………………………………………………………………………… 115

The Pet Industries……………………………………………………………………………. 118

Puppy Farms……………………………………………………………………………………. 120

Chapter Six: ‘Man’s (or Women’s) Best Friend’: Towards Harmonious Human-Dog Relationships ………………………………………………………………………………………...... 124

Dogs in Popular Culture: A New Allegory ……………………………………..… 125 a) Dogs assisting Humans ………………………………………………….…… 130 b) Owning Dogs: Mutual Benefits ……………………………………….…. 133 c) The Companionship of Dogs ……………………………………………... 135 d) Artists and their Dogs ……………………………………………….……….. 137

Chapter Seven: Dogs in Art: Contemporary Issues of Representation ……………………………….…. 143

Animals used as Art Objects ………………………………………………………….… 143

Use of Animal parts in Art ……………………………………………………………….. 151

Modification of Dogs’ Features ……………………………………………………..… 155

Forging an Art Practice……………………………………………………………….. 158

Conclusion and Recommendations ..……………………………………………………………………………………… 162

Appendix 1: Animals in War Zones ………………………………………………………………….…………………..…. 165

Appendix 2: Early War Dogs …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 166

Appendix 3: Dogs assist to heal with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ………………………………….... 168

Appendix 4: Organisations for the Protection of Animals in Australia ……………………………………. 169

Appendix 5: Vicki Hamilton’s previous relevant art projects …………………………………………………… 173

Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 179

Acknowledgments

I formally would like to thank the University of Newcastle for supporting me by way of a scholarship during my research. Whilst there are many who have provided extraordinary technical and personal support during the course of my PhD for which I grateful. I wish to first thank my supervisors, Associate Professor Pam Sinnott and Dr Andre Brodyk for their early assistance, and Dr Faye Neilson for her support in the last year of my research, proof reading my exegesis and assisting with finalising my candidature. I would also like to thank my fellow student John Heaney for kindly providing a peer review of the exegesis.

I wish express my deepest gratitude to Emeritus Professor Elizabeth Ashburn who has supported me from the first day to the last day of my candidature, guiding me through the muddy waters of philosophy and the rich world of research. Her continuous patience, encouragement and generosity with her time, has deepened my sense of purpose, propelling me on this important journey.

On my journey I have had support from many sources. Sharon Taylor, the ceramics technician has provided much valued advice regarding materials and hands on help with loading and unloading kilns. Michael Garth, the sculpture technician and Giselle Penn, technician for fibre have provided invaluable advice and assistance. I would also like to thank my brother Peter for building a specialised plinth to support one of my art pieces.

Thank you to the University of Newcastle Gallery staff, who have provided professional assistance promoting and setting up ‘By the Good Grace’ exhibition.

List of Figures

Figure 1 Albrecht Durer Adam and Eve, 1504 ….………………………………………………………..… 10 Figure 2 One of Odysseus’s men being turned into swine.5th B.C (Archaic) ………….……… 15 Figure 3 The Year of the Dog, 2018 ……………………………………………………………………………… 23 Figure 4 Hunting Scene, Tomb of Ineni, ca.1550-1470 B.C. …………………………………………. 24 Figure 5 Game of Hounds and Jackals Dynasty 12, ca 1814-1805 B.C. …….………………….. 24 Figure 6 Vanity Sounds the Horn and Ignorance Unleashes the Hounds Overconfidence, Rashness, and Desire (from The Hunt of the Frail Stag), ca. 1500–1525 ………... 25 Figure 7 Old Age Drives the Stag out of a Lake and the Hounds Cold, Heat, Anxiety, Vexation, Heaviness, Fear, Age, and Grief Attack Him, (from The Hunt of the Frail Stag), ca. 1495–1510 ……………………………………………………………………………... 26 Figure 8 Gold finger-ring set with a hessonite garnet intaglio of a deeply cut representation of 'Sirius', the dog-star …………………………………………………………… 27 Figure 9 Speculum humanae salvationis, Manuscript Hs 2505 ………………………………….... 28 Figure 10 Pieter Aertsen, Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms, 1551………………... 32 Figure 11 Sir Anthony Van Dyck, The Five Eldest Children of King Charles, 1637………….…. 33 Figure 12 Di Puccio Pisano (Pisanello), The Vision of Saint Eustace, 1438 .…………………….. 34 Figure 13 William Hogarth, Four Stages of Cruelty: First Stage, 1751 ………………………..….. 37 Figure 14 Carracci Annibale, Two Children Teasing a Cat, 1587……………………………………... 38 Figure 15 Thomas Hewes Hinckley, Rats Amongst the Barley Sheaves, 1851……………….… 39 Figure 16 Brooch in the Form of a Dog Attacking a Boar, 2nd Century……………………….….. 40 Figure 1 7 Gaston Phoebus - Le livre de chasse, 1387-1389 ……………………………………………. 41 Figure 18 Frans Snyders, The Boar Hunt, ca 1650s ………………………………………………………… 41 Figure 19 Marie-Rosalie Bonheur, Barbaro after the Hunt. ca 1858 …………………………..….. 42 Figure 2 0 George Stubbs, A Couple of Foxhounds, 1792 ………………………………………………… 42 Figure 21 Bearbaiting, 14th Century ………………………………………………………………………………. 44 Figure 22 Staffordshire pottery figure of a bear baiting, ca 1810 to ca 1820 …………………. 44 Figure 23 Johann Christof Merck, Ulmer Dogge, 1705 …………………………………………………... 45 Figure 2 4 William Brodie, Greyfriars Bobby, 1872 ………………………………………………………….. 46 Figure 25 Briton Rivière, Requiescat, 1888 …………………………………………………………………….. 47 Figure 2 6 Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, The Old Shepherd’s Chief Mourner, 1837…………….... 48 Figure 27 Filippo Palizzi, Sleeping Shepherd and His Dog, 1850-1855 …………………………….. 49 Figure 2 8 Chous, Apulian (Greek), 360-350 BC ……………………………………………...... 50 Figure 29 The Nereid Monument, Greek Frieze 390-380 BC …………………………………….….… 50 Figure 30 Man and Dog, 8th to 7th ca BC Mesopotamia ………………………………………………….. 51 Figure 31 Mon Seul Desir (My Sole Desire) ca 1500, from The Lady and the Unicorn series …………………………………………………………………………………………………….……… 52 Figure 32 Girolamo Pompeo Batoni, Charles, 3rd Duke of Richmond, Lennox and Aubigny, 1755 ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53 Figure 33 Gaynor Ostinelli and Paul Priest, Bulldog, 2010 ……………………………………………… 54 Figure 34 Vicki Hamilton, Gene Pool, 2018 …………………………………………………………………….. 55 Figure 35 Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Victoria, Princess Royal, with Eos, 1841 ……………….. 59 Figure 36 Joseph Wright of Derby, An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump, 1768 ………… 60 Figure 37 Comte de Buffon, Study of American Wildlife, 1749-1767…………………………….… 61 Figure 38 Louis Mare’chal, A Macaque, 1793 ………………………………………………………….…….. 63 Figure 39 Vicki Hamilton, Performance Puppies, 2019 .……………………………………………….…. 71 Figure 40 Official Greyhound Colour Chart …………………………………………………………………….. 74 Figure 41 Poster on Animal Liberation Queensland website, 7 July 2016 ……………...... 76 Figure 42 Poster in favour of the Greyhound Racing Ban, appearing on an online petition, 2016 ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77

Figure 43 Poster from Occupy for Animals! Website …………………………………………………….. 78 Figure 44 Sarah Regan-Snavely, Prey Drive 1, 2011 ……………………………………………………….. 84 Figure 45 Martin Usborne, Where Hunting Dogs Rest - Galgo 4, 2014 …………………………… 85 Figure 46 Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Eos, 1841 ……………………………………………………………… 86 Figure 47 Julie Brunn, Afternoon Nap, 2017 ………………………………………………………………….. 87 Figure 48 Vicki Hamilton, Ready, 2017 …………………………………………………………………………... 90 Figure 49 Vicki Hamilton, Set, 2017 …………………………………………………………………………….…. 90 Figure 50 Vicki Hamilton, Go, 2017 ………………………………………………………………………………... 91 Figure 51 Vicki Hamilton, Speed, 2017 ……………………………………………………………………….….. 92 Figure 52 Auguste Rodin, The Cathedral, 1908 ………………………………………………………………. 92 Figure 53 Vicki Hamilton, Outcast, 2019 ………………………………………………………………….…….. 92 Figure 54 Vicki Hamilton and dogs, Wag Tail Park, 2019 (detail) ………..…………….…………… 93, 154 Figure 55 Poster for Fight Dog Meat of dogs in Indonesia on their way to slaughter …….. 98 Figure 56 Laika first dog in space 1957………………………………………………………………………….. 99 Figure 57 Image of a Beagle used in experimental research …………………………………………. 100 Figure 58 The Jennings Dog / The Duncombe Dog / The Dog of Alcibiades, 2nd Century … 101 Figure 59 Edna Rose (case from original sculpture) Jet of Iada, 1949 ………………………….… 102 Figure 60 Digger – photograph, 1918 ……………………………………………………………………………. 103 Figure 61 Sarbi – Australian Army explosive detection dog with her handler Warrant Officer Class Two David Simpson ……………………………………………………………………. 104 Figure 62 A United States soldier and his war dog …………………………………………………….…… 105 Figure 63 Colin Self, Guard Dog on a Missile Base, No.1, 1965 .………….……………………….…. 106 Figure 64 Scooby, British Military Dog, Jordan Desert ………………………………………….………… 107 Figure 65 Vicki Hamilton, Grace, 2018 …………………………………………………………………………… 108 Figure 66 Blue faience tile with black outline drawing of man leading a dog, from Thebes, Upper Egypt, 19th or 20th Dynasty (1295 BC - 1069 BC) …………………… 109 Figure 67 John Corcoran, Man’s Best Friend, 2004 ………………………………………………………… 110 Figure 68 Bill Traylor, Dog walking Man, ca 1930 …………………………………………….……………. 111 Figure 69 Bill Traylor, Two dogs Fighting, ca 1930 ……………………….………………………………… 113 Figure 70 Vicki Hamilton, Rocky, 2018 …………………………………………………………………………… 113 Figure 71 Vicki Hamilton, Champ, 2018 …………………………………………….…………………………… 114 Figure 72 Stephen Gallagher, Bran, 2017…………………………….…………………………………………. 115 Figure 73 Vicki Hamilton, Bag of Babies, 2017………………………………………………………….……. 116 Figure 74 Vicki Hamilton, Princess, 2017………………………………………………….…………………….. 118 Figure 75 A-Young Lee, Bumble Bee, ca 2010 ………………………………………………………………… 119 Figure 76 William Wegman, Seated Figure, 1996 ………………………………………………………….. 120 Figure 77 Vicki Hamilton, Bling and her Babies, 2017 ……………………………………………………. 121 Figure 78 Tom Mosser, A Golden Retriever at the Museum, 2013 …………………………………. 125 Figure 79 Wallace and Gromit, characters created by Nick Park ……………………………….…… 127 Figure 80 Official logo for Iron Jack Lager ………………………………………………….…………………… 128 Figure 81 Joseph Beuys, Coyote: I like America and America likes me, 1974 ……….…………. 130 Figure 82 “Ouch Blog: Assistance dogs: How to spot them”, BBC News, July 9, 2014 …… 131 Figure 83 Vicki Hamilton, Lores guide dog at work, Umina 2015 ….………………………………… 131 Figure 84 Alley Brentwood, Last Connection 1 Trust, 2013 ……………………………………………. 134 Figure 85 Lucien Freud, Double Portrait, 1985-86 ……………………………………………………….…. 136 Figure 86 William Hogarth, The Painter and his Pug, 1745………………………………………..……. 137 Figure 87 Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, The Connoisseurs: Portrait of the Artist with two Dogs, before June 1865 …………………………………………………………………………………. 138 Figure 88 Pablo Picasso, Las Meninas after Velazquez, 1957 …………………………….…………… 139 Figure 89 Lucian Freud, Eli, 2002 …………………………………………………………………………………… 140 Figure 90 Vicki Hamilton, Lily, 2019 …………………………………………………….…………………………. 141

iii

Figure 91 Marco Evaristti, Helena, 2000 ……………………………………………….……………………….. 144 Figure 92 Wim Delvoye, Live pig being tattooed …………………………………………….……………… 145 Figure 93 Andy Feehan, Minnesota, ca 1977….………………………………………………………………. 145 Figure 94 Sun Yuang and Peng Yu, Dogs That Cannot Touch Each Other, 2003………………. 146 Figure 95 Guillermo “Habacus” Vargas, You are what you read (Eres Lo Que Lees) October, 2007 ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 147 Figure 96 Guillermo “Habacus” Vargas, You are what you read (Eres Lo Que Lees) October, 2007, close up of dog ………………………………………………………………………. 147 Figure 97 Brydndis Snaebjornsdottr and Mark Wilson, Nanoq: Flat Out and Bluesome, 2006 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 148 Figure 98 Angela Singer, Hedgerow, 2010-14 ………………………………………………………………… 149 Figure 99 Katinka Simonse, Fifi ….…………………………………………………………………………………… 150 Figure 100 Ondrej Brody and Kristofer Paetau, Dog Carpets, 2007……………………….………….. 151 Figure 101 Kate James, Security Blanket, 2006 ………………………………………………………………… 152 Figure 102 Olly and Suzi, Cheetah Interaction, Namibia …………………………………………………… 153 Figure 103 Vicki Hamilton, Pugnacious, 2019 …………………………..……………………………………… 156 Figure 104 Vicki Hamilton, Misery, 2019...... 156 Figure 105 Vicki Hamilton, Despair, 2019 ………………………………………...……………………………... 156 Figure 106 A-Young Lee, Title unknown ca. 2010 ………………………………………………….…………. 157 Figure 107 Vicki Hamilton, Fifi – Dogs Bodies, 2019 …………………………………………………………. 158 Figure 108 Horrie the Wog Dog, Memorial Garden, Corryong, Victoria ………………….………… 166 Figure 109 Sergeant Stubby, photograph ……………………………………………………………….………… 167 Figure 110 Vicki Hamilton, Mountain Pigmy Possum, 2007………………………………………..…….. 173 Figure 111 Vicki Hamilton, Banner …………………………………………..………………………………………. 174 Figure 112 Vicki Hamilton, Stamped Out, Tile Installation ………………………..………....………….. 174 Figure 113 Vicki Hamilton, Flux, 2013 ……………………………………………………..………..…………….. 175 Figure 114 Vicki Hamilton, Bad Bunny, 2011 ……………………………………………………..…………….. 175 Figure 115 Vicki Hamilton, Hanging by a Thread, 2013 …………………………..……………………….. 175 Figure 116 Vicki Hamilton, Pathway to Extinction installation ……………………….…………………. 176 Figure 117 Vicki Hamilton, Indirect Impact installation …………………………….……………………… 177 Figure 118 Vicki Hamilton, Show Girl, 2017 …………………………..……………………………………….... 178

Abstract This research uses the focus on the relationship between domesticated dogs and humans in order to generate ethical studio practice and guidelines for the exhibition of art works. Conflicting ideas about the appropriate treatment of domesticated dogs are revealed through investigation into the interactions between humans and dogs. Here, a belief in human supremacy is shown to often negate the basic acknowledge that dogs have rights as sentient beings.

This investigation has elicited a number of guidelines that are applicable to human relationships with dogs whether in the treatment of dogs or in their representation. When humans or artists utilise the innate qualities of dogs, the relationship can be considered exploitative. Such use should not just benefit the human, it should also not the dog, as the welfare of dogs should not be overruled by human needs and desires. Accordingly, this exegesis researches early philosophical views, which allowed ill-treatment of dogs and examines the artistic representation of dogs by specific artists and groups throughout Western art history. Historical ideas around the character of dogs have been challenged through contemporary philosophical concepts, which outline the rights of dogs and demonstrate the need to rethink unethical attitudes towards dogs, which are historically or religiously based.

Introduction

‘By the Good Grace’ represents my journey as an artist to develop a studio practice exploring the human love, hate or indifference shown towards domesticated dogs. To do this, I have investigated the work of other artists as well as conducting research into human attitudes towards dogs, so that this knowledge is able to generate guidelines for my own practice. My aim has been to create figurative sculpture and installations, which express the impact of interactions between humans and dogs and question cruel practices. I have considered how art has exposed conflicting ideas around the treatment of dogs and consequently reflect on the arguments that may thwart any cruel treatment by humans. Artists have the power of representation and this power can be used to foster compassionate and supportive approaches, to reveal new ways of understanding the experience of dogs and acknowledging their moral status.

This research has investigated why cruelty towards dogs occurs and the role of art in reflecting this. New arguments have been developed to counter any unfair treatment of dogs from the viewpoint that the rights and desires of humans are not above the welfare and value of other species. I have researched the current representation and treatment of dogs in order to generate an art practice that represents the dog as a subject with rights.

My aim has been to stress how empathy and compassion can lead to human-dog relationships that are mutually beneficial, and to provide examples of how ‘man’s best friend’ does not necessarily have to lead a ‘dog’s life’. I have explored how a positive relationship between humans and dogs benefits both parties, and how artists need to respect the integrity of the dog to engender this mutual benefit. I have considered how this type of respect contributes to the development of worthwhile human qualities such as kindness, empathy and affection.

This course of study is a further development of my previous art practice, where I focused on how artwork could reveal the harm done to non-human species through negative human interventions. This research centred on the responses of contemporary artists to the effects of potentially damaging human interventions on the environment and the consequent effects on critically endangered animal species, even to the extinction of such species. ‘By the Good Grace’ again traces negative human actions, but intends to develop more positive human responses through my artwork. There is a need for perspective in the consideration of art works that use animals, particularly dogs, as subject matter. This would suggest the importance of guidelines for artists, to ensure that the welfare of the dog is respected.

Dogs have been systematically abused by humans in being treated cruelly, killed when they have served their purpose, exploited solely for financial gain, starved, beaten or brutalised. This is a

moral issue in relation to human behaviour. In contemporary society, the right of dogs not to be treated in these ways is enforced, and extreme cases of cruelty are now prosecuted under the law.

I have explored why some humans have been, and still remain, so cruel to dogs. How have artists been involved in relating to animals through their art practice? What are the current implications for artists of the human-dog relationship? How can these ideas generate outcomes in my own practice? I have explored these questions through examining the work of certain artists and the nature of the treatment of animals in their time.

If human-dog relationships are informed by the provision of respect for the dog, then society bestows an acceptable ethical model for both the treatment and representation of the relationships between the human and dog species. The ideas of contemporary philosophers, such as Peter Singer, Tom Regan, Raymond G. Frey and Michael Fox, critique any negative human treatment of vulnerable creatures, such as dogs, that experience suffering at the hands of humans. Prevailing notions of human dominance and the contemporary rethinking of animal rights, as a model for human-dog relationships, have been contrasted and surveyed.

I have considered the evolution of the domesticated dog from its wild beginnings as a wolf, as this research traces the historical treatment and representation of dogs. Accordingly, my research is fixed on domesticated dogs, rather than on wild dogs. The case for the treatment of dogs is further developed through their domestication, exploitation and ideas of dogs as part of human property, which have made dogs extremely dependant on the human environment.

I have examined the historical basis of the development of human treatment of animals, to identify how this is reflected in art and how it continues in current relationships, specifically between dogs and humans. When dealing with contemporary relationships between humans and dogs, I have concentrated on examples in Western societies and traditions, while examining the ways that artists have represented dogs. How have the changing ideas around this treatment shaped artists’ approaches to the representation of dogs? Earlier representations of dogs have been influenced by the philosophical ideas of their period and depicted in many ways through religious traditions, as allegories, status symbols, as forms of property and as companions to humans. I have investigated some of these current conventions in a discussion of contemporary art practices, and within my own art practice.

My art practice is figurative and sculptural. Where possible, I will use three-dimensional art works in this exegesis as well as examples of painting, prints, photographs, craft and images from

popular culture to clarify my arguments. The strong decorative Western traditions that have represented dogs, often aesthetically, as objects, are considered in this research. These works often stylise the physical characteristics of dogs, as romanticised interpretations of their innate qualities, such as loyalty, and are often sentimental in intent. My work uses mainly ceramic material, and opposes the traditional romantic representation of the dog. Instead, I have embodied my work with an interpretation of the experience of the dog as an individual, sentient being.

I have used ceramic and bronze materials to bring forth feelings of the compassion and empathy possible in human-dog relationships. To embody the characteristics of certain dogs, I have utilised the quality of my materials, such as the precious nature of porcelain, the robust qualities of stoneware, toast and earthenware and resilience of bronze. Through my art practice, I aim to arouse compassion and empathy towards the dog. When dogs are viewed just as property, rather than as humble, loyal, charismatic individuals with the capacity to suffer, their rights are considered unimportant. I have traced how different ways of depicting the nature of dogs and their relationship to humans was developed primarily from a hierarchical perspective of the dominance of humans over other species. To understand where the idea of a hierarchical human dominance over the natural world and animal species was derived, the first three chapters are based on a historical review of art and theory, exploring early philosophical ideas about the relationship between humans and the animal kingdom. Here, I accessed the writing of Aristotle in relation to hierarchy and the animal soul, the claims of Christian dominion over animals and the allocation of good and evil spirits to animals and the use of dogs as allegory, which I have developed in my studio practice.

The final three chapters concentrate on contemporary art practice and dog-human relationships. I explore how contemporary human beings continue to develop and exploit the innate qualities of dogs, to make the species amenable to multiple human needs. Writers Yi-Fu Tuan, Margo Demello and Paul Shepard, point out that this is not necessarily in the best interests of dogs. The perspectives of these writers and activists reveal how this exploitation results in positive and negative relationships between humans and dogs. These ideas form the basis of a critique of the use of animals in contemporary art. Despite the existence of many good personal relationships between artists and dogs, sometimes artists’ representations of other species fail to acknowledge the current ideas of animal rights. Artists such as Sun Yuan and Peng Yu, Ondrej Brody and Kristofer, Paetau and Katinka Simonse have taken these new ideas to affect their use of animals in art and in particular the representation of dogs.

In the final chapter, I have examined contemporary forms of positive dog-human relationships, where both dogs and humans may enjoy mutual benefits. This has included exploring the function of specially trained assistance dogs and the complex role of the companion dog, which is reflected in my art work “Lily”.

I hope to contribute to new knowledge in the fine arts and identify what makes a morally defensible representation of the relationships between dogs and humans, to create powerful depictions of such interactions in sculpture, ceramics and installation. I wish to remind other artists to respect the moral welfare of dogs in their representation, rather than unthinkingly support any cruelty toward them, through developing strong guidelines for art practice.

When I began this studio project the issue of systemic cruelty in the Greyhound Racing Industry was raised, and has had a strong impact in motivating my studio research. This contemporary confrontation between issues of cruelty and human desires, and indifference to suffering, became pivotal to my research and formed a formidable incentive to examine the past and present disrespect for a species that has been of great benefit to humanity.

The community concerns for the welfare of these dogs can be seen as a political test for the compassionate treatment of animals versus the powerful lobbies for human interests. I now refer to a quote for Mahatma Gandhi:- “The true measure of a society can be found in how it treats its most vulnerable members.” How does Australian society measure up?

Chapter One

Dogs without Souls: Early Religious and Philosophical Ideas

In this chapter I use the changing relationships between humans and dogs to clarify the scope of human responses which have ranged from fiends to friends. Fiends were considered frightening, soulless and without value or virtue. Friends were perceived to contribute to human society whether as guides, guardians, helpers, companions or role models for human behaviour. Friends were valued, fiends may not have been valued and may have been treated cruelly.

Human-animal relationships have evolved and shifted over time from animals being valued in relation to the spiritual world, to being modified to human needs and desires. This has been driven over time through human ideas of ‘nature’. To understand how the treatment of domesticated dogs and their relationship to humans have developed, and what results from these behaviours, I briefly describe the early traditions, moral theories and religious beliefs which continue to inform our current attitudes to animals. In particular, those ideas regarding the treatment of domesticated dogs and how artists have related to these ideas, inform this chapter, where early thought regarding the treatment of animals, to the dawn of the enlightenment will be developed.

Some earlier societies perceived animals as either being ‘good’ or ‘evil’.1 While some utilised animals in ritual sacrifice to honour their ancestors and tribal cleansing,2 others sacrificed them to appease their gods.3 Christian relationships with animals, through the ascendancy of humans was generally one of dominance. Zoroastrian and Christian concepts developed ideas about the treatment of perceived ‘unclean’ animals for reasons of health and hygiene.4 Such past traditions have heavily influenced attitudes to animals, which even today result in negative consequences for these creatures. For example, views that regard cats as evil (black cat crossing your path is believed to be bad luck) or dogs as unclean persist to this present time.

1 A. De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations” in Sacrifice in Religious Experience, ed. Albert I. Baumgarten (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 134. 2 Robyn Dixon, “Criticism of S. Africa ritual opens a divide,” Los Angeles Times, Johannesburg, February 9, 2007. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-feb-09-fg-bellow9-story.html (accessed June 26, 2015) 3 Jim Mason, “Animals: From Souls and the Sacred in Prehistoric Times to Symbols and Slave in Antiquity” in A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 38. 4 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,”138.

Early Religious Traditions and Human-Animal Relationships

Totemic myths suggest that some early cultures saw animals as the first beings on earth and as such they were thought to be ancestors and teachers and therefore of great worth.5 American first nation Pawnee chieftain Letakots-Lesa stated in 1904 that in the beginning wisdom and knowledge were with the animals and humans learnt from them,6 indicating that his people saw animals as the source of wisdom for the benefit of humans.

Paleolithic humans did not have the ability to actually control the animals around them and were often prey themselves. Animals were seen as having certain characteristics beyond human ability for example strength, speed and more developed capacities for instincts in hunting prey. To gain power from these animals,7 humans recorded animal images on cave walls and placing animal bones in ritual positions in chambers where humans lived.8 The image of the animals was used as decoration to imbue objects and places with power. Documenting the animals through art may have been thought to give humans power over the animal themselves and finally animal images acted as part of magical rituals.9

Gradually, the human-animal relationship shifted from humans being prey to predator, as early humans developed more sophisticated hunting techniques, technologies (spears, bows and arrows) and defence skills, such as hunting in groups. Consequently, even extremely powerful wild animals were killed to meet the needs of humans. This was perhaps the beginning of the loss of respect towards animal lives.

The ability to control other species allowed the exploitation of certain species, such as sheep, goats, horses and cattle. Archaeological evidence10 indicates that early Neolithic farmers selectively bred some animals, particularly those that were submissive, small and easy to feed,11 such as sheep and goats. Behaviourally modified animals provided food, transport or skins and in some cases companionship. While these services benefited humans, other animals that were of no use to humans, either as food or through their services, could be seen as having no immediate

5 Mason, “Animals: From Souls and the Sacred in Prehistoric Times to Symbols and Slave in Antiquity,”24. 6 Mason, “Animals: From Souls and the Sacred in Prehistoric Times to Symbols and Slave in Antiquity,” 24. 7 Tuan, Yi-Fu, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 71. 8 Linda Kalof, A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 1. 9 John Berger claims in “Why Look at Animals,” in The Animal Reader: The Essential Classic and Contemporary Writings, eds. Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 254, symbolic thought is what distinguishes humans from animals. However, most of these early representations may be symbolic, in their use of animal subjects. 10 Juliet Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 40. 11 Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, 40.

benefit. The shift from hunting animals to herding and taming animals was significant as it introduced ownership as a new human-animal relationship.12 Such animals were further behaviourally and physically modified (domesticated) for humans needs. As such they were categorised as valuable and were deemed as property,13 while wild species were afforded little value because they did not directly benefit humans.14

As the early wolf was a social animal (as wild wolves remain to this today), a particular kind of wolf15 adapted to domestication increasingly became part of human communities. The domesticated dog species canis familiaris is considered a branch of the original grey wolf species, which remains distinct from the modern wolf.16 The modification of wolf behaviour through contact with humans, developed new inter-relationships which benefitted both human and animal. Hunting together provided meat for both humans and dogs, and dogs provided safeguarding and warmth.

Animal Sacrifice

Animals gained certain importance in ancient Zoroastrian, Roman and Greek religious life through their sacrifice.17 They were worshiped for their strength and health and ‘unblemished’ animals were sacrificed for the good of the ancient human communities.18 In ancient Zoroastrian, Roman and Greek societies, animal sacrifice followed basically the same process where the meat from the sacrificed animal was often consumed by the community, while the fat, bones and head was placed on the altar and burnt as an offering to appease their gods.19 The sacrifice of a healthy domesticated animal was an important part of ritual life in many ancient communities, such as the ancient Zoroastrian, Greek and Roman cultures.

The concept of ritual animal sacrifice varied from country to country and evolved over time. However, in ancient Greece, food and wine was offered to the gods as a sacrifice, but animal

12 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books Ltd, 2007), 7. 13 Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, 40. 14 William Ellis, trans., The Politics Aristotle (New York: Prometheus Books, 1986), 6. 15 The grey wolf ancestors of the contemporary dog are believed to have been gradually attracted to humans because of their increased hunting abilities so that they became less fearful of humans and possibly joined their camps. 16 K. Dobney, G. Larson, “Genetics and animal domestication: new windows on an elusive process.” Journal of Zoology 269 (2006): 267. 17 Theo Sundermeier, “Sacrifice in African Traditional Religions” in Sacrifice in Religious Experience, ed. Albert I. Baumgarten (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 5. 18 Mason, “Animals: From Souls and the Sacred in Prehistoric Times to Symbols and Slave in Antiquity,”36. 19 Mason, “Animals: From Souls and the Sacred in Prehistoric Times to Symbols and Slave in Antiquity,”38.

sacrifice indicated the owner’s social hierarchy in the human communities.20 The sacrificial animal endorsed the status of the human in ancient society, because it was an honour to have your animal chosen above others for sacrifice.

The members of the ancient Middle Eastern religion, Zoroastrianism believed that some animals were ‘good’ and others were ‘evil’.21 Animals most commonly chosen for sacrifice were domesticated cattle, sheep and goats22 and during the ritual the priest was offered the tongue and flat bread, what was left was given to the dog which was deemed one of the most sacred animals in Zoroastrianism.23 24 Animal sacrifice was a fundamental element in ancient societies and the animal’s suffering was thought to be a religious necessity.25 Jo-Ann Shelton explains “The guilt for killing was thus resolved by placing responsibility for it on religious obligation.”26 Animals such as reptiles, felines, wolves and other predators were believed to have been created by the evil spirits and it was a valued action to kill an evil animal.27 28 Other animals such as dogs, the cockerel, the beaver and the hedgehog were considered too ‘good’ for sacrifice.29 These animals were held in high esteem because of their great use in the perceived battle against evil.30 The cockerel, was regarded important because it crowed at dawn chasing away evil spirits.31 The dog was considered particularly holy and indispensable in the battle against pollution (cleaning away human waste).32 The dog’s gaze was also believed to have the ability to cleanse, drive off demons

20 J Scheid., “Roman animal sacrifice and a system of being” in Greek and Roman Animal Sacrifice: Ancient Victims, Modern Observers, eds. Christopher A. Farone and F.S.Naiden (Cambridge: University Press, 2012), 84. 21 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,”134. 22 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,”141. The author claimed the animal was placed facing the ritual fire with its legs bound then would be struck with a heavy blow using the cudgel to either break its neck or stun the animal, then its throat was cut. It is believed it was beneficial to stun the animal first to lessen the pain and fear the animal would suffer. The innards were inedible and were buried in a pit, the skins were prepared and could be used in another ritual. Essential parts or the whole head were consecrated and in particular the tongue which was offered on a flat cake, to the god, Haoma. The fat was given to the fire, the tongue to the priest and the meat was consumed by those present at the sacrifice and the soul was offered up to the god. 23 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 141. 24 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,”140 the author claimed, if the sacrificed being was a bird or fish (which often don’t have a tongue) this was dedicated to the god Gos, the “soul of the bull”, who looks after the welfare of animals. 25 Jo-Ann Shelton, “Beastly Spectacles in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” in A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 111. 26 Shelton, “Beastly Spectacles in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” 111. 27 However, these animals were not suitable for sacrifice and such killings as a sacrifice were considered evil-worship. 28 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,”134. 29 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 133. 30 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 133. 31 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 134. 32 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 134.

and to have a connection to the afterlife.33 34 35 Hunting and killing wild animals was not deemed as a sacrifice to the gods because they were not killed in a ritual setting, using the ceremonial cudgel (wooden club) or knife.36

Importantly, religious ritual sacrifice played a role in the endorsement of human dominance over other animal species. This justified the continuation of animals suffering ritual religious slaughter, which is still practiced in contemporary societies in such countries as South Africa and Nepal.37

Early Christians used blood sacrifice to praise God. In the biblical story of Abraham being tested by God, he was instructed to sacrifice his son Isaac, but just as Abraham put the knife to the throat of his son, God instructed Abraham to slaughter a nearby sheep instead.38 As the ‘Lamb of God’,39 Jesus’s crucifixion was the ultimate blood sacrifice for Christianity and from then on, no actual blood sacrifice was deemed to be holy. Wine was then substituted for blood and bread for flesh at Holy Communion. While blood sacrifice was abandoned in Christianity, ideas of domination over species continued through their belief that animals lacked souls. 40 41

Religious Dominion

Human dominance over the natural world is depicted in Albrecht Durer’s engraving (Fig. 1) Adam and Eve. The foot of Adam represents humankind’s dominion and power over nature and natural creatures which were deemed soulless. Adam’s foot is deliberately placed on the tail of a frightened mouse preventing the mouse’s escape, which demonstrates the early notion that

33 Joseph H. Peterson digital copywrite 1995, Translated by James Darmesteter Sacred Books of the East, American Edition, 1898. Vol. IV. The Zend-Avesta. Part I. The Vendîdâd. Second Edition. 8vo, cloth, 14s. http://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd13sbe.htm (accessed November 10, 2017) 34 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations’”136. Young animals, pregnant or one suckling offspring, animals in poor condition, old or wounded were considered unsuitable for sacrifice. 35 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 136. 36 De Jong, “Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Zoroastrianism: A Ritual and its Interpretations,” 135. 37 Robyn Dixon, “Criticism of S. Africa ritual opens a divide,” Los Angeles Times, Johannesburg, February 9, 2007. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-feb-09-fg-bellow9-story.html (accessed June 26, 2015). 38 Holy Bible, New International Version, Genesis: 22:1-18. 39 Holy Bible, New International Version, John: 1:29. 40 It would be inconvenient to allocate animals with souls, as it would be considered murder to kill them for meat. 41 Humans were considered capable of making moral decisions and could accept or reject God. However, animals were considered to have no conscience and incapable of accepting God. Ecclesiastes 12:7 New International Version.

animals had less power and were believed to have no capacity to suffer. Adam represents powerful control over natural creatures, while the tiny mouse remains powerless.

Figure 1: Albrecht Durer, Adam and Eve, 1504. 25.8 x 19.76 cm. Engraving, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. 42

Christians believed that God created earth and all living creatures, plants and inanimate objects and crucially that God created humans in God’s own image and they were thus given the capacity to judge right and wrong. Christians also believed that other species were not given the ability to make moral decisions, or the capacity to praise God, and this distinguished animals from humans. These abilities were thought to put humans above animals and animals were rendered soulless. The ability to reason and to make moral decisions is thought to “…constitute a uniquely human identity,”43 thus giving humans dominion over other species and the power to use animals as they wish. However, Peter Singer claims ‘dominion’ may have meant ‘stewardship’, where humans were responsible to God for the well-being of other species under their regime.44 Here the suffering of an animal would be considered overriding to the notion of lacking a soul.

In the book of Genesis 1:28, God instructed humans to multiply and cover the earth giving humans the power to rule over all other creatures.45 Again in Genesis 1:26, the Holy Bible claimed that mankind may rule over all other living creatures:

42 Image: Detail and full reproduction, Adam and Eve, 1504, Engraving, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, reproduced for non-commercial use only. 43 Ryan Patrick Mclaughlin, “Noblesse Oblige: Theological Differences Between Humans and Animals and What They Imply Morally,” Journal of Animal Ethics 1 no. 2 (Fall 2011):134. 44 Peter Singer, Animal Liberation 2nd ed. (London: Thorsons, 1990),188. 45 Holy Bible, Genesis 1:28 New International Version

Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.46

Shepard argues, instead of humans seeing themselves as part of the natural world, they “… pretend to be the very crown of creation.”47

Early Philosophical Ideas

Moral Status: Soul and Virtue

The Christian idea that the soul was essential in human dominion over other species came from earlier Greek thought over three hundred years before Christ was born, where the conception of varying values ascribed to souls originated.48

The soul was considered the essence and naturally essential for life,49 for as Aristotle declared, “The soul is the cause and first principle of the living body”.50 He maintained that as the soul had functions there were parts to the soul,51 later identifying these as thought, the ability to express emotions and the facility of sensation (consciousness).52 While animals were born with limited functions, he deemed them to have simple souls, only humans were thought to be born with more complex souls, which had qualities that could develop into virtues. The complexity of the soul was linked to the species, or in the case of humans, the individual. For example, a God had a superior soul to all creatures, freemen had complete souls, and women, slaves, and children were ranked higher than animals and plants were ranked at the bottom as having the most simple souls.53 Therefore, Aristotle claimed that humans had more parts to the soul54 than other animals and plants. He wrote extensively on the animal soul and his ideas have survived in contemporary society in arguments around the treatment of animals.

46 Holy Bible, Genesis 1:26 New International Version 47 W.M. Schleidt and M.D. Shalter, “Co-evolution of human and canids: An alternative view of dog domestication: Homo homini lupus?”, Evolution and Cognition 9,1. (2003):63. 48 Smith, ”On the Soul,” in The complete works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984), 642. 49 Smith, “On the Soul,”641. 50 D.W. Hamlyn, trans., Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), 18. 51 Smith,”On the Soul,” 642. 52 However, in the translation by Hugh Lawson-Tangred, Aristotle: De Amina (On the Soul), (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd, 1986), 136, describes the features of the soul as, speech, locomotion and perception. 53 Smith, “On the Soul,” 642. 54 Hamlyn, Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III, 12.

Aristotle and the Animal Soul

The arguments that are made by Aristotle are described at length. They are not always consistent, but indicate how arguments still made regarding the inferiority of animals in the eyes of humans are often based on a selective or flawed basis. Aristotle claimed that the four elements of fire, air, water and earth must be present in order for any creature to have sensation, which provoked movement.55 He claimed that plants had simple souls because they consisted of only one element, earth and had no intellect or sensation.56 Furthermore, plants had no body to act out potential, have the ability to move or have the sense of perception through touch. However, he acknowledged that plants as well as animals had the sense of perception for nutrition.57

For Aristotle, an animal must consist of all four elements and have all the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch as well as intellect, to be a complete soul. Without all these sense and elements, they could not have a soul.58 Slaves, women, children and animals were considered to have ‘incomplete’ souls, even though they had all of the elements and senses. It was deemed that they lacked intellect.59 The mind and soul were the one entity for Aristotle, the soul was the source of emotions and the mind was the source of intellect.60 It can be noted that while animals are equipped with all the particular senses that assist in their specific survival, in some cases, animals have superior senses to those of humans. For example, dogs have superior sight and hearing. Aristotle, however still claimed animals lacked intellect and they were deemed to have incomplete souls.

Taste is the palpable sense of touch and is one of the essential five senses. “Touch is not a single sense, but many…”61 and through the tongue taste allows animals to discriminate whether the object was nutritious or rotten62 and through the tongue communicates pleasant or unpleasant, taste and texture, in order to perceive the qualities of the nutriments.63 The tongue can perceive many qualities, moist, dry, rough, smooth, hot and cold. Aristotle argued that four of the senses,

55 Hamlyn, Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III, 12. 56 Smith,”On the Soul,” 692. 57 Hamlyn, Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III, 12. 58 Smith,”On the Soul,” 691. 59 Smith,”On the Soul,” 691. 60 Smith,”On the Soul,” 642. 61 Hugh Lawson-Tancred, trans., Aristotle: De Anima (On the Soul) Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd, 1986), 183. 62 Smith,”On the Soul,”642. 63 Smith,”On the Soul,” 692.

touch, sight, hearing and smell were external and found in all animals that move. However, touch was valued as an internal sense connected to the soul.64

Thus, Aristotle claimed that sensation was an important part of the soul,65 where knowledge was gained through the tactile experience. The faculty of sensation distinguished humans and animals from non-animals – plants, rocks, water, fire and air - because they had no bodily consciousness. He claimed that sensation was a major component to having a soul and that is was common in all animals.66 He argued “…that sensation is generated in the soul through the medium of the body.”67 Aristotle stated “Touch also perceives pleasure and pain and there is also wanting: for this is a desire for that which is pleasant.”68

For Aristotle, the experience of touch, when expressed, can be seen as a desire. Desire is an important emotion that drives life. For example, hunger and thirst urge animals to eat and drink in order to survive. Survival is a desire of all animals and is linked to sensation, for no creature wishes to feel pain, as pain indicates injury or sickness which could result in death.

Aristotle claimed that desire is an emotion (passion) expressed and experienced through the faculty of sensation. “Those living things which have touch also have desire.”69 This emotion exists in all animals that experience sensation. Aristotle points out “…for where there is sense- perception, there is also both pain and pleasure and where these, there is of necessity also wanting” (desire).70

Aristotle maintained that emotions were a part of the natural matter that makes up animals.71 Thought, which involved imagination, also needed the body as a condition of its existence and could not be expressed or conveyed without the assistance of the body.72 For Aristotle the mind created thought, and the thought passed through the soul, creating emotion and provoking physical movement. The soul had to use the body to express emotions.73

64 Smith,”On the Soul,” 694. 65 Smith,”On the Soul,” 642. 66 d’ A.W. Thompson, trans., “History of Animals,” in The complete works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984), 778. 67 J.I. Beare, trans., “Sense and Sensibilia,” in The complete works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984), 693. 68 D.W. Hamlyn, trans., Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III, (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 15. 69 D.W. Hamlyn, trans., Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III, (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 15. 70 D.W. Hamlyn, trans., Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III, (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 12. 71 Smith,”On the Soul,” 642. 72 Smith,”On the Soul,” 642. 73 Smith,”On the Soul,” 642.

An emotion, for example fear, caused conscious and unconscious reactions. The conscious action is expressed by the rapid beating of the heart moving blood through the body in order to flee when danger is present. However, the same physical reaction can occur when there is no present danger, making the fear irrational.74 Either way, emotions provoke changes in the body causing movement. This concept of movement being a part of the soul was first conceptualized by two Greek, pre-Socratic philosophers, Democritus and Leucippus, who implied that atoms were the soul. Their view was that atoms were constantly moving and caused humans and animals to move creating locomotion.75 Thus, breathing was seen as a characteristic of life and evidence of having a soul.76

If the animal experienced sensation and movement, Aristotle declared animals must have a soul, even if it is incomplete.77 All animals feel changes in their body through sensation and emotion and act accordingly. In the case of fear, the animal’s reaction would be to fight or flight. In summary, while Aristotle argued that animals had incomplete and simple souls, he identified many aspects of behavior that are held in common between animals and humans. These concepts persist in the work of later philosophers who based ideas of animal rights on their commonalities.

While the ancients accepted sensation and emotion as part of the animal experience, aspects of this thinking were challenged later by Descartes who claimed that animals were more like machines, acting on instinct.78 Ideas of soul and intellect in animals gradually led to animals being judged as ‘good’ or ‘evil’, ‘clean’ or ‘unclean’ and these concepts were fundamental in the moral consideration of an animal’s welfare.

The Romans and Animal Soul

Animals had a significant place in Roman society and this was illustrated in the treatment of them in mythical stories and the prevailing beliefs about animals’ souls. In some Roman myths animals were seen as purer than humans.

74 Smith,”On the Soul,” 643. 75 Smith,”On the Soul,” 644. 76 Smith,”On the Soul,” 644. 77 Smith,”On the Soul,” 643. 78 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books Ltd, 2007) 98.

In ancient Rome, mythical stories of animal-human relationships coexisted with debate derived from Greek philosophy. In Plutarch’s myth, Moralia the witch Circe was reputed to conquer intruders and her enemies by feeding them drugged food and wine, then turning them into various species of animals. Figure 2 is an ancient bronze representation of the myth, where creatures were created as half human half swine.

Figure 2: One of Odysseus’s men being turned into swine.5th B.C (Archaic) Case Bronze, 1.27 x 4.76 0.95 cm Walters Art Museum, Baltimore USA.79

Odysseus then appealed to Circe to return all men to human form, from the animal form. Circe insisted that Odysseus convince her that all men wished to return to human form, so she gave the hog Gryllus the power of speech so he could speak for himself and on the behalf of other men.80 Gryllus refused the offer, preferring to stay as an animal living in abundance of ‘good things’.81 He believed animal virtues were natural and that human virtues were contrived.82 83 Gryllus knew Odysseus had ulterior motives for confronting the witch and pleading her to return the men to human form. Humans were liable to corruption, but animals remained pure.84 The

79 Walter Art Museum, Baltimore USA collection 54.1483 available under Creative Commons License https://art.thewalters.org/images/art/large/l_ps1_541483_lft_dd_t13.jpg (accessed December 15, 2017) 80 Stephen T Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” in A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 169. 81 J. Donald Hughes, “Hunting in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” in A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007),70. 82 Hughes, “Hunting in the Ancient Mediterranean World,”70. 83 This provides strong commentary on the insincerity in humans. 84 In the myth, the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, were orphaned twins, protected and suckled by a female wolf, which made them strong.

moral status of animals was believed by ancient Roman philosophers, such as Pythagoras, who maintained animals possessed rational souls85 and were repositories of reincarnated human souls,86 through his belief in the transmigration of souls between animals.87 Pythagoreans believed when a human died the soul could pass into an animal or even a plant.88 For this reason Pythagoras’s teachings were concerned with spiritual and hygienic welfare for humans rather than the suffering of animals. This evidences another aspect of Roman belief in animals being able to be transposed or blended with humans.

Plutarch claimed that every creature had a soul and to have a soul confirmed the possession of some mental faculties,89 claiming that it was not possible to have sensation without thought.90 While Plutarch agreed with Pythagoras, that animals91 were rational beings, he also sanctioned the killing of animals ‘in pity and sorrow’ and believed eating meat as an ‘unfortunate necessity.’92

Another Roman philosopher, Alexander declared that “…nature implanted a sovereign mind in every soul.”93 He supported the notion that animals had some degree of rationality by naming accounts of animals showing skill, which he claimed was evidence of logic.94 For example, the construction of a spider’s web requires problem solving skills.95 96 Lucretius supported the notion that animals were capable of emotions and their lives were important to them.97 While there is no consistent set of beliefs by ancient Romans about animal souls, the attitudes and treatment of animals in Rome showed a willingness to see animals as having virtues that humans lacked, or at best having commonalities with humans.98 However, these ideas were not as influential in the treatment of animals as the idea of a natural hierarchy.

85 Hughes, “Hunting in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” 69. 86 James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 152. 87 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 157. 88 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 156. 89 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 170. 90 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 170. 91 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 156. 92 Hughes, “Hunting in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” 69. 93 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 169. 94 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 168. 95 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 168. 96 Philo warned against Alexander’s idea that animals possessed rationality as he believed it was a sin against God as only humans had the capacity to reason, in Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 169. 97 Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” 168. 98 Current ideas in popular culture endorse the courage and fidelity of dogs.

Hierarchy and Soul

While Aristotle’s ideas about animal souls were strongly argued for many centuries, his more enduring support for hierarchical structures still holds influence today. In Aristotle’s Politics, Nicomachean Ethics and On the Soul he attempted to answer questions of why some living beings should be treated differently from others. Aristotle states, “nature does nothing in vain”99 and that humans were given speech for a reason, to rule over other ‘lesser’ humans and animals.100 He maintained that because humans had speech, they were more social than other species101 and this ability could gain virtue as well.102 Speech allows a way of communicating thoughts and knowledge and the exchange of ideas leads to discussion, which builds the foundation of argument, to be drawn upon to make moral judgements. Furthermore, humans perceive pleasure and pain and could express this experience through speech; expressing what is just and what is unjust, good and evil. This was thought to be beyond the power of animals.103

Order was an important aspect of both Greek and Roman civilizations. They considered that to be able to maintain order in a society and thus create a successful civilization certain groups of humans existed to rule over other species and ‘lesser’ humans. Consequently, hierarchy was used to rank the importance, and subsequent treatment, of individuals in their societies.

Aristotle’s views were based on a social hierarchical system; freemen at the top, followed by free women and children, then slaves, domesticated animals and finally wild animals.104 When animals were tamed or domesticated, he deemed this a virtuous act as they became property and were valued as an asset.105 Similarly, the virtuous act of offering an animal for sacrifice, benefited the community and would increase the owner’s status.106 The many bas relief carvings, images on clay vessels and animal shaped vessels depicting the uses of animals and, in particular, the sacrificial parade of domesticated animals, shows how important this value was to the community.

99 Carnes Lord, trans., Aristotle The Politics (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984), 37. 100 H. Rackman, M.A. trans., Aristotle in Twenty-three Volumes XXI Politics (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1932),11. 101 Lord, Aristotle The Politics, 40. 102 William Ellis, trans., The Politics Aristotle (New York: Prometheus Books, 1986), 6. 103 Ellis, The Politics Aristotle, 6. 104 Aristotle claimed non-Greeks were by nature more prone to slavery and the Asians are more prone than the Europeans. Ellis, The Politics Aristotle,), 3. 105 Ellis, The Politics Aristotle, 26. 106 This hierarchical system, mostly, often holds today, particularly when considering the moral treatment of animals.

Aristotle claimed that humans had the concepts of thought, justice, virtue and order, which made them the intrinsic rulers over the natural world.107 He stated, “…mankind always acts in order to obtain that which they think good.”108 As humans have the ability to reflect and have forethought, this made them superior to other species.109 He considered that these characteristics were innate in humans. However, he believed that it took time and education to bring the character to maturity and thus to gain virtue.

Virtue here meant moral ‘goodness’. Aristotle claimed there were: -

… two kinds of virtue, intellectual and moral, intellectual virtue in the main owes its birth and growth to teaching (for which reason it requires experience and time), while moral virtue comes about as a result of habit.110

Habit was developed through choices and subsequent actions made by an individual, which were deemed virtuous or non-virtuous. Aristotle claimed that “We are adapted by nature to receive virtues, and are made perfect by habit.”111 Virtue was underpinned by the choices made by the individual. It is easy to make the wrong decision because we pursue the pleasant rather than the painful.112 Aristotle stated:-

…for man, when perfected, is the best of animals, but, when separated from law and justice, he is the worst of all; since armed injustice is the more dangerous, and he is equipped at birth with arms, meant to be used by intelligence and virtue, which he may use for the worst ends.113

A slave is born a slave and this could not change,114 so Aristotle consequently believed that slaves did not have the capacity to gain virtue. They were categorised along with domestic animals as they were both trained to be useful and were thus valued as property. Wild animals had no capacity for moral guidance or to develop the ability to judge moral issues. Aristotle maintained that animals were not given more capabilities or characteristics than was needed to perform their functions. This was where human societies and the natural world differed. In the natural world,

107 Lord, Aristotle The Politics, 57. 108 Benjamin Jowett, trans, “Politica” in The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. Richard McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941), 1127. 109 Ellis, The Politics Aristotle,), 2. 110 W.D. Ross, trans., “Nicomachean Ethics” in The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. Richard McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941), 952. 111 Ross, “Nicomachean Ethics,” 952. 112 Ross, “Nicomachean Ethics,” 955. 113 Jowett, “Politica,” 1130. 114 Jowett, “Politica,” 1132.

nature shaped animals to perform certain functions in the environment. With the lack of human influence, they would follow their instincts (passions) which did not result in virtuous acts. 115

Earlier, Socrates advocated for private property to be treated as common property so that freemen’s families, slaves and animals could be a resource to other members of the community, which improved their status in society.116 Aristotle disagreed. He argued that the communal approach to individuals would encourage abuse and 117 that this was not for the common good of the free community. Consequently, freemen of the community were ranked higher than free women and children, who were ranked higher than slaves, and domesticated animals were ranked higher than wild animals and this was the law of nature. Aristotle considered that:

Some persons think that the power of the master over others is due to his superior knowledge, others disagree and argue that it is the law (manmade law) that makes one man superior over another. But in nature there is no difference.118

A successful community identified individuals as components of society, where each component had a place and a role to play. In order to be of benefit to all, each component needed to operate efficiently. One component could not exist without the others. Freemen of high repute by nature were thought to be more expert at leadership than women, so men were deemed superior to females.119 For the man guiding was more valuable and had superior knowledge (described as being alive) than those men being guided, who were described as being an ‘animated instrument’ (property), and were consequently deemed of less worth.120

In this system, domestic animals were only categorised as property. So that tamed animals that were under the control of humans, such as dogs, were thought to be of more value to the community. They were trained by humans to be used for specific purposes, which was judged a virtuous act on the part of humans. Consequently, the human received virtue and the animals gained value as this act also changed the status of the animal into something useful. When wild creatures obeyed their instincts,121 they could not be trained and this rendered them useless to society, as they bestowed no moral value on humans. Human good was viewed as paramount.

115 Ross, “Nicomachean Ethics,” 955. 116 Jowett, “Politica,” 1129. 117 Lord, Aristotle The Politics, 57. 118 Ellis, The Politics Aristotle, 6. 119 Lord, Aristotle The Politics, 52. 120 Ellis, The Politics Aristotle, 6. 121 Lord, Aristotle The Politics, 41.

Good and Evil Animals

The biblical story of Noah’s Ark points out the importance of other animals. Noah, his family and other animals were told to have lived together afloat on the Ark for forty days as the planet flooded, leaving all remaining creatures to drown, cleaning the earth of evil.122 The central concept portrayed in the story was the survival of God’s creatures to preserve a diversity which benefited humans. Benefits were the major motivation for humans in the protection and nurturing of animals.

In Genesis 9:3 it is quoted that every moving thing has been provided by God for humans to eat.123 However in Leviticus 11:1-47 cloven hooved animals that chew cud, camels, rabbits and rock badgers, fish with no fins or scales, birds and animals that consume ‘secondary material’ are believed unclean must not be eaten. Leviticus 11:13-19 lists birds that are unclean and must not be eaten:

And these you shall detest among the birds; they shall not be eaten; they are detestable: the eagle, the bearded vulture, the black vulture, the kite, the falcon of any kind, every raven of any kind, the ostrich, the nighthawk, the sea gull, the hawk of any kind, the little owl, the cormorant, the short-eared owl, the barn owl, the tawny owl, the carrion vulture, the stork, the heron of any kind, the hoopoe, and the bat.124

Categorising animals and birds as ‘unclean’ may have been initiated because it was not healthy or hygienic to eat them in this climate and location. This is again a reason for classifying and treating animals differently, but this instance differentiates between species. Religious rules regarding animals disrupt the animal-human relationship and may promote fear, mistrust and, in some cases, disregard for these creatures. These attitudes towards animals have become deeply embedded into culture.

In Muslim tradition if humans are licked or come into contact with dog’s saliva they need to be ritually cleansed.125 126 Muslims are restricted in making close bonds with dogs because dogs are

122 Holy Bible, Genesis 6-8, Christian Bible Reference , New International Version https://www.christianbiblereference.org/story_NoahsArk.htm (accessed May 21, 2019) 123 Holy Bible, Genesis 9:3King James Version 124 Holy Bible Leviticus 11:13-19 English Standard Version (ESV) http://amazingdiscoveries.org/C- deception-unclean_animals_pig_fish_mammals (accessed March 8, 2016) 125 Paul Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human (Washington D.C.: Shearwater Books, Island Press, 1996), 150. 126 To the contrary, in Medieval times according to Albert the Great dogs were thought to cure wounds with their tongue, stated in Irven M. Resnick, “Good Dog/Bad Dog: Dogs in Medieval Religious Polemics,” Enarriato, 18, 2013: 74.

thought to be unclean.127 This notion also limits the use of dogs in their culture.128 In the teaching of the Quran, Muslims are led to believe that dogs should not be kept as pets so some believers are fearful of dogs. The Prophet, said, "Whoever keeps a dog, his good deeds will decrease every day by one qeeraat (a unit of measurement), unless it is a dog for farming or herding."129 In another report, it is said:

... unless it is a dog for herding sheep, farming or hunting." (Reported by al- Bukhaari) and The Prophet, peace be upon him, said: "Angels do not enter a house wherein there is a dog or an animate picture." (Reported by al- Bukhaari).130

However, the Quran teachings forbid cruelty and mistreatment of other creatures, as:

A prostitute was forgiven by Allah, because, passing by a panting dog near a well and seeing that the dog was about to die of thirst, she took off her shoe, and tying it with her head-cover she drew out some water for it. So, Allah forgave her because of that.131

Christian Dominion

Religious concepts, rituals and rules that developed and became embedded into culture were often accepted as truth, which over time have influenced humans’ ideas on nature and natural creatures. Being kind to an animal is still generally deemed virtuous and132 the benefit for humans is greater than that to animals.

During the Middle Ages the cruel domination of animals by humans was common. Nevertheless, there was also some compassion for animals.133 St. Francis of Assisi (1181/1182-1226) preached for humans to be kind to all other animals, as they were also God’s creatures.134 However, in the

127 Resnick, “Good Dog/Bad Dog: Dogs in Medieval,Religious Polemics,” 70-97. 73.http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.newcastle.edu.au/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=2ac26f7f- e585-4a8e-8fad-b7dcf659aefa%40pdc-v-sessmgr05 (accessed April 5, 2019) 128 Janet M. Alger and Steven F. Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars” in Animals and War: Studies of Europe and North America, ed. Ryan Hediger (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 79. 129 Huda, Learn Religions, “Islamic views regarding dogs: Loyal companions, or unclean animals to be avoided? ” http://islam.about.com/od/islamsays/a/Dogs-In-Islam.htm (accessed February 25,2016) 130 Islam, “Islamic views regarding dogs: Loyal companions, or unclean animals to be avoided?” 131 Islam, “Islamic views regarding dogs: Loyal companions, or unclean animals to be avoided?” 132 Worshippers of the Muslim faith believe their kindness will be rewarded and Allah will forgive sins. 133 Lisa J. Kiser, “Animals in Medieval sports, Entertainment and Menageries,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, ed. Bridgette Resl (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 126. 134 G.K Chesterton, St. Francis of Assisi,(London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1964), 9.

later medieval period during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, theologians and notably Franciscan scholars lacked interest in naturalism, to the point of contempt towards animals.135

Philosophical thought fostered deeper examination of humans in nature and their relationship with animals, when early medieval Dominican scholar Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was influenced by Aristotle’s theories on nature. The Aristotelian concept of “soul as considered the first principle of each living creature”136 still held in the medieval period.137Aquinas accepted the Aristotelian philosophical classification of the soul in its various forms, although he did not believe animals had the capacity to suffer as humans do.138 It was recognised that animals experienced pain and suffering, however this was not thought to be a moral problem in the medieval period because animal suffering was thought to be part of the divine order of things.139 As Aquinas wrote: “…man uses them without any injustice, either by killing them or by employing them in any other way”.140 Aquinas articulated a metaphysical vision that portrayed animal suffering as unavoidable and a morally irrelevant feature of the universe.141 However, he seems to acknowledge that animals do have a form of reason which allows them navigate their natural environment.142

Pieter De Leemans et.al. claimed that the natural philosophers of the medieval period acknowledged that animals and humans shared similar physiology and parts of soul, and thus suffered the same kinds of passions.143 Yet, as it was claimed that humans were created in God’s image, they alone possessed the ability to reason. This capacity to reason provided humans with free will and they could act in opposition to their natural instincts, unlike other animals.144 This reflected the medieval concept that animals lacked intellect,145 and the thread of this concept has been woven into human consciousness, which still exists today. When philosophers examined human’s natural, organic characteristics they could not disregard the similarity of humans to other animals.146

135 Pieter De Leemans, Matthew Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, ed. Bridgette Resl (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 173. 136 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 157. 137 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 157. 138 Derek Joseph Wiertel, “Classical Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering” Theological Studies 78, no.3 (2017):666. 139 Wiertel, “Classical Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering,”666. 140 Wiertel, “Classical Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering,”667. 141 Wiertel, “Classical Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering,”663. 142 Wiertel, “Classical Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering,”666. 143 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 153. 144 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 153. 145 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 154. 146 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 154.

Medieval philosophers acknowledged that ‘reason’ alone was not enough to explain human nature.147 Aristotelian ideas of perception, emotion, habit, instinct and cognition, capacities humans share with animals, were categories employed to help understand humans in nature,148 which gradually became more significant in the study of the human soul.149 The medieval definition of science was intertwined with philosophy and could not be separated.150 Albeit, it was widely agreed that the fundamental distinction between animals and humans was that animals lacked intellect and were not rational.151 At the same time, the symbolic representation of dogs, as aspects of human behaviour existed is many cultures dating back in time. For example, the Chinese Zodiac, consisting of twelve animals first appeared in the Zhan Guo period 5th Century BC.

Allegorical Relationships: Good Dog/ Good People

Figure 3: The Year of the Dog, 2018152

The twelve animals are the dog, rat, horse, pig, tiger, monkey, goat, ox, rooster, snake, rabbit and dragon, each representing positive qualities and behaviour of that particular animal.153 The year 2018 was celebrated by the Chinese as the Year of the Dog, (Fig. 3). These qualities and

147 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 154. 148 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 154. 149 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 161. 150 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 155. 151 Albertus Magnus, On Animals. A Medieval Summa Zoologica, trans. K.F. Kitchell Jr and I.M. Resnick, 2 vols (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 1411. 152 Dogtime. com http://cdn1-www.dogtime.com/assets/uploads/2017/12/2018-year-of-the-dog- chinese-zodiac-2.jpg (accessed February 15, 2018) 153 No author, “The Chinese Zodiac”,Department of Washington Education website,However,no one knows the exact dated, but the Chinese zodiac was officially identified during the Han Dynasty (206 B.C – 9 A.D.).

behaviours are supposed to reflect that of the human born within the given period. The quality of the dog symbolises human qualities such as loyalty, honesty, friendliness and with strong morals and the ethics.154 This symbolic charting of the years has continued over centuries155 in the Chinese culture.

Animals have been represented as symbolic or mythical creatures and often infused with symbolic meaning as an allegory for the purpose of moral lessons and to represent human qualities and behaviour.156 Human-dog relationships were often represented symbolically.

Figure 4: Hunting Scene, Tomb of Ineni, ca.1550-1470 B.C. Facsimile by Nina de Garis Davies (1881-1965), Tempera on paper 41.5 x110.4 cm, Metropolitan Museum, New York, [OA].157

Ancient Egyptian animal imagery using dogs were as a demonstration and embodiment of the King’s power. The above image depicts a hunting scene where a trapped wild animal is being slaughtered by the King, symbolic of a trapped human enemy.158 In this Hunting Scene (Fig. 4) the gigantic leg of the Pharaoh towers over his dog (with a collar) attacking the speared animals.

Figure 5: Game of Hounds and Jackals Dynasty 12, ca 1814-1805 B.C., Thebes,Asasif,Birabi, pit tomb CC25. Ebony, ivory 14 x 10.1 x 15.6 cm, Metropolitan Museum, New York, [OA].159

154 http://www.chinesezodiac.com/dog.php (accessed February 15, 2018) 155 No author, “The Chinese Zodiac”,Department of Washington Education. 156 In some cases, the idea that dogs represent good role models for moral behaviour still exists today, see Chapter six – popular culture. 157 https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544557?sortBy=Relevance&when=2000- 1000+B.C.&ao=on&ft=dogs+in+egyptian+art&offset=60&rpp=20&pos=74 (accessed January 15,2018) 158 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books, 2007), 23. 159https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543867?sortBy=Relevance&ft=hounds+and+j ackals+egyptian+game&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=1 (accessed January 25, 2018)

The aggressive (wild) characteristics of certain dogs were recognized for as Shepard stated, “Egyptian jackal-headed Anubis, and Artrum Egypt’s dog-headed demon, was said to devour the souls of the dead”.160 So that, dogs and wild dogs were sometimes characterised in their games, for example, Game of Hounds and Jackals (Fig. 5)161 where ten pins each with heads of hounds or heads of jackals appear in a game. Egyptians related the intricate journey to the underworld as a game of chance, thus these types of games were placed in tombs.162 163 Because of the extensive use of dogs in hunting they have long been associated with death.

Figure 6: Vanity Sounds the Horn and Ignorance Unleashes the Hounds Overconfidence, Rashness, and Desire (from The Hunt of the Frail Stag), ca. 1500–1525, Wool warp, wool and silk wefts, one place embroidered in wool yarn 299.7 x 381cm, South Netherlandish Metropolitan Museum, New York. [OA]. 164

Dogs are depicted in the tapestry Vanity Sounds the Horn and Ignorance Unleashes the Hounds Overconfidence, Rashness, and Desire (from The Hunt of the Frail Stag) (Fig. 6). This image allegorically represents various flaws in human character, such as overconfidence, rashness and desire. These flaws are personified by the hounds and can be recognised both as characteristics or canine behaviour as well as human behaviour. The moral of the image is that ignorance and youthful impetuous results in the loss of innocence or the death of the more frail or vulnerable.

160 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 63. 161 The axe blade shaped playing surface is set on four bulls’ legs with fifty-eight holes. 162 Metropolitan Museum New York collection, available through Open Access [OA]. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543867?sortBy=Relevance&ft=hounds+and+jac kals+egyptian+game&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=1 (accessed January 25, 2018) 163 In the ancient religion Zoroastrianism, dogs were believed to have a connection with the afterlife as stated earlier in this chapter. 164 Metropolitan Museum, New York collection, available through Open Access [OA]. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/468327?sortBy=Relevance&deptids=17&ft =dogs+as+symbols&offset=40&rpp=20&pos=60 (accessed January 18, 2018)

Figure 7: Old Age Drives the Stag out of a Lake and the Hounds Cold, Heat, Anxiety, Vexation, Heaviness, Fear, Age, and Grief Attack Him, (from The Hunt of the Frail Stag), ca. 1495–1510. Wool warp, wool and silk wefts 92.4 x 88.9cm, South Netherlandish, Metropolitan Museum, New York. [OA]165

In this second image from the Death of the Frail Stag, the hounds are labelled as if they are bearers of the possible distresses of old age – cold, heat, anxiety, vexation, heaviness, fear, age and grief. The dogs In Old Age Drives the Stag out of a Lake and the Hounds Cold, Heat, Anxiety, Vexation, Heaviness, Fear, Age, and Grief Attack Him, (from The Hunt of the Frail Stag) (Fig. 7) where the dogs ravage the deer as it travels from life to death and is labelled with human emotion that is related to human aging. The dogs thus attack the old huntsman through their symbolic attack on the stag.

Many other ancient societies deemed dogs to have a gentler connection to the afterlife or underworld. The ancient Greeks had the notion that the dog-headed, “Hermanubis” was seen to be a guide for humans to the underworld.166 Dogs were not only connected with negative aspects, such as the underworld or death. They were often identified and depicted with positive qualities, inherent to dogs, such as dogs acting as guides.

165 Metropolitan Museum, New York collection, available through Open Access [OA]. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/468697?sortBy=Relevance&deptids=17&ft =medieval+symbolic+art&offset=240&rpp=100&pos=295 (accessed January 18, 2018) 166 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 62.

Figure 8: Gold finger-ring set with a hessonite garnet intaglio of a deeply cut representation of 'Sirius', the dog-star, engraved on the collar in Greek characters, 1754. By Johann Lorenz Natter, height 2.2cm. British Museum.167

This idea of a dog as a guide is indicated by ‘Sirius’ the dog star, portrayed as a ring in (Fig. 8) Sirius is the sky’s brightest star so that mariners can plot their course by it. This ring is a later representation of a Greco-Roman (1st century B.C.) an unfinished oval intaglio engraving.168 Shepard stated the guide star was “probably an adaptation of the tracking hound.”169 This aspect of dog behaviour is beneficial to humans and shows their contribution to human life.

Animals were often considered a blank slate on which humans embodied symbolic meaning could be set for the purpose of moral lessons. Scholars used the characteristics of animals as symbols of character to moralise about human behaviour.170 Many of these behaviours attributed to animals were either invented or solely for the purpose of a predetermined allegory.171 The study of animals was not significant for philosophers and theologians concerned with reason, will and immortality,172 however images of animals were extensively used to illustrate moral lessons.

In the early medieval period, people held that animals allegorically represented good and evil. This superstition of animals representing good and evil continues today in the many negative human responses to black cats as ‘evil’ and bad luck and ‘the black dog’ of depression.

167 British Museum Collection, London. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license. https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=752 39&partId=1&searchText=1978,1002.1069&page=1 (accessed February 20, 2018) 168 Museum of Fine Arts collection, Boston https://www.mfa.org/collections/object/gem-with-head-of- dog-star-sirius-242710 ( accessed May 31, 2019) 169 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 62. 170 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 154. 171 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 154. 172 De Leemans and Klemm, “Animals and Anthropology in Medieval Philosophy,” 155.

For Medieval theologians, the interest in animals was limited to their application as symbolic representations.173 Bestiaries were viewed as an important didactic tool of instruction which aided the illiterate174 in understating church ideology. However, artistic depiction of animals began to change during the thirteenth century when allegorical and naturalistic representations of animals coexisted for some time and in some cases within the same image.175

Figure 9: Speculum humanae salvationis, Manuscript Hs 2505, University and State Library, Darmstadt, Germany176

The above image (Fig. 9) demonstrates human domination over animals and the power of good over evil. The first image depicts a solider being blessed by Jesus, the next image shows the solider, with Jesus’ blessing slaying a large Satanic being. The third image features a Dragon being fed by a King, while Satan feeds himself. The fourth image depicts the soldier controlling a bear and a leopard with his hands on the neck and feet pinning the animals to the ground, this is displaying humans’ domination over nature.

Not all of this medieval animal imagery has to be interpreted as symbolic177 and not all animal imagery that appeared in the margins of holy texts had relevance to what was featured in the text,178 as the symbolic meanings were often ambiguous and changed over time.179 The continued use of animal imagery showed that by the later Middle Ages, animals not only had symbolic meaning but were amusing and pleasurable to look at.180 The complexity of human-animal

173 Bridgette Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, ed. Bridgette Resl (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 180. 174 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 184. 175 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 180. 176 ( der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Darmstadt), fol. 26 verso und 27 recto.> http://tudigit.ulb.tu- darmstadt.de/show/Hs-2505 (accessed April, 23 2018) 177 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 200. 178 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 201. 179 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 183. 180 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 201.

relationships continued to evolve during the Middle Ages. Animal imagery was still applied to carry symbolic meaning and this period introduced mythical creatures, such as the Unicorn and the Dragon. These types of illustrations ‘represented the growing interest in naturalistic observations of animals’.181 Later in this period there was the gradual emergence of ‘emotional identification with animals.’182 In this period humans started to become aware that animals were capable of suffering pain.

Medieval people believed animals acted as conduits with supernatural powers able to assist Saints to carry out acts of good and to punish sinners.183 An example of a dog being seen as a conduit of good is in Medieval French legend, Guinefort, a French greyhound was left to guard its master’s infant son but on the master’s return he found an upturned crib, the infant missing and the dog with bloody jaws, with sudden rage he killed the dog. Only later he found the child safe and a dead viper nearby.184 The dog’s courageous deed and consequent death was recognised by local society, which gave rise to the dog being locally named Saint Guinefort protector of infants.185

In these early periods artists continued to reflect their times through their representation of dogs and other animals. Such images are strongly influenced by symbolic intent, allegory and intrinsic worth. In this next period of history, ideas about the low value of animals produced cruelty and ill treatment towards dogs. Some artists recorded this abuse while other offered more compassionate images.

Contemporary ideas about the treatment of dogs are rarely discussed in this secular age in terms of soul. However, ideas about the hierarchical structure of the world continue to resonate today. This concept was developed in Greek thought and solidified in many religious dogmas. At the same time, there is a thread that can be identified through allegory that permits the transfer across the human-dog dimension of recognition of many of the qualities inherent in dogs, such courage and loyalty.

181 Resl, “Beyond the Ark: Animals in Medieval Art,” 198. 182 Bruce Boehrer, “Introduction: The Animal Renaissance,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Renaissance, ed. Bruce Boehrer (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 26. 183 Sophie Page, “Good Creation and Demonic Illusions: The Medieval Universe of Creatures,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007),45. 184 Page, “Good Creation and Demonic Illusions: The Medieval Universe of Creatures,” 47. 185 Colin Dickey claims in “A Faithful hound; How a dog came to be recognized as a Saint” Lapham’s Quarterly, June 18, 2013, since the 1960’s the Vatican is still making enquiries in to the story about Guinefort.

The emergence of naturalism in the twelfth century, and the interest in animals’ physiology, gradually granted animals a more prominent position in the human-animal relationship. This shift is explored in the development of animal rights in Chapter 3.

In the next chapter the terrible history of the abuse of dogs as inferiors and mere property is examined.

Chapter Two Early Mistreatment of Dogs

In the previous chapter I identified ideas about the status of animals in regard to possession of a soul and their place in society. In this chapter I explore a dark period in the negative treatment of dogs, followed by an indication of the more sympathetic understanding provided by artists.

Animals have been embedded in human society for fourteen thousand years186 and from the earliest period have been represented in art as well as in popular culture. Dogs have been valued as a source of transport, food and of clothing, and demonstrate a very close relationship with humans. Dogs have been depicted as entertainers, warriors, hunting auxiliaries, guards, herders and companions. Dogs have many kinds of interactions with humans. The negative as well as the positive relationships between the two species is examined here, but during the period from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment dogs were treated as property answerable only to their owner. Consequently, this was a time often typified with cruelty and neglect.

The projection of human experience on to the depiction of dogs is an indication of the close bonds between humans and dogs, for dogs’ contributions to human well-being is valuable and varied. Domesticated dogs have learned to trust humans and positive treatment of domesticated dogs can result with the dogs demonstrating loyalty and affection towards their owners. However, when dogs are ill-treated they lose this trust and may respond aggressively towards any human. Thus, the friendly nature of dogs can be altered or distorted by human actions. Through human deeds, the human-dog relationship can result in negative or positive outcomes for the dog and these have been depicted in many artworks. When humans ill-treat a dog by way of violence or actions which solely benefit the human to the detriment of the dog, the relationship may be considered as negative. Positive relationships recognise the unique qualities of dogs and result in a relationship that benefits both humans and dogs equally.

Exploiting Dogs Cruelly The Renaissance The role of animals during the Renaissance period progressively expanded and this deepened human-animal relationships within European culture.187 The exploration of new lands, which

186 James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 4. 187 Bruce Boehrer, “Introduction: The Animal Renaissance,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Renaissance, ed. Bruce Boehrer (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 2.

brought back descriptions of exotic creatures enlivened philosophical debate and the study of the natural world. In some cases, exotic animals were transported back to Europe to add to the popular menageries of the wealthy.188

French philosopher, Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) disagreed with his contemporaries when they claimed animals to be lesser in virtue, for he believed animals to be virtuous stressing their ‘uncorrupted moral virtue’189 and thus should not be dominated by humans. This argument was in opposition to the Aristotelian concept of hierarchy and virtue that can be fundamental in the ideas of humans in nature and their relation to dogs.

The earlier depiction of domesticated animals as sacrificial animals or symbols of courage, ‘good’ or ‘evil’ started to shift during the Renaissance. Animals were now represented as property or as a commodity.190 For example domesticated livestock and game were portrayed in artworks to represent wealth and plenty.

Figure 10: Pieter Aertsen, Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms, 1551. 115.6 x 168.9cms, Oil on panel. North Caroline Museum of Art.191

It was only the wealthy that could eat well and enjoy the bounty of nature. The Meat Market and the Holy Family Giving Alms, by Pieter Aertsen 1508-1575 (Fig. 10) portrays butchered beasts, dead birds, animal parts surrounding a head of a cow with a hopeless gaze staring out of the

188 Greek philosopher, Theodore Gaza translated Aristotle’s zoological works into Latin, which made the works more widely available to European scholars. 189 Stefano Perfetti, “Philosophers and Animals in the Renaissance,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Renaissance, ed. Bruce Boehrer (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 148. 190However, the notion of low status humans being unvirtuous continued to be represented in art. 191 North Caroline Museum of Art collection http://www.bridgemanimages.com/en- GB/search?filter_text=NCR3576758&filter_group=all&filter_region=AUS (accessed May 15, 2018)

image. This highly realistic representation of animals and animal parts, ready for sale, symbolises the abundance and wealth of property. 192 193

Until the Renaissance, animals such as dogs were mainly featured in artworks as symbols representing human virtue and status, however dogs became bearers of the status of their owners as they became considered as valued property.

Figure 11: Sir Anthony Van Dyck, The Five Eldest Children of King Charles, 1637 Oil on canvas, 163.2 x 198.8 cm, Royal Collection Trust, London194

In The Five Eldest Children of King Charles (Fig. 11) the large dog is in a submissive pose, while the young prince shows his courage, power and fearless domination with his hand on the head of his large, fearless dog.

The portrayal of animals as symbols in religious and mythological artworks became less important with the emergence of the anatomically correct rendering of animals. Renaissance art challenged previous animal imagery with the faithful, naturalistic depiction of its subjects. Artists attempted to reproduce real life onto the canvas, or into stone and bronze. This is true of the work of Pieter Aertsen (Fig. 10) and Antonio Di Puccio Pisano (Pisanello) 1395-1455 (Fig. 12).

192 Norbert Schneider claims in Still Life Painting in the Early Modern Period, this style of painting represented the temptations of the flesh. 193 Norbert Schneider, Still Life: Still Life Painting in the Early Modern Period ( Koln: Taschen, 1999), 34,41. 194 Royal Collection Trust, London, Public domain https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/404405/the-five-eldest-children-of-charles-i (accessed January 16,2018)

Figure 12: Antonio Di Puccio Pisano, The Vision of Saint Eustace, 1438. Egg tempera on Wood 54.8 x 65.5 cm, National Gallery of London.195

Pisanello’s The Vision of Saint Eustace (Fig. 12) is an early example of a hunting scene where dogs, deer, birds and horses were painted anatomically correctly, as the nobility commissioned artworks to show their power and wealth to society. Hunting scenes in particular were a popular theme; depiction of hunting parties and their catch were hung on the walls of powerful land holders.

The plague spread during the Renaissance and because the extent of deaths, violence and death became a part of everyday life. Anxiety around disease and sudden death, the pursuit of pleasure and the breakdown of traditional values were fundamental in the human-animal relationship and may have contributed to the violence against animals in this period.196 Ironically rats were not deemed to be responsible for or associated with the spread of the plague,197 but stray dogs and cats were believed unclean and thought to carry the plague. Consequently, they were hunted and slaughtered in their thousands.198 Brutality towards animals was common in this period, particularly the torturing of cats and dogs for amusement. However, dogs of the aristocracy were free of persecution and deemed clean because they were someone’s property.199

195 National Gallery of London collection, available under Creative Commons License https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/pisanello-the-vision-of-saint-eustace (accessed May 15, 2018) 196 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books Ltd, 2007), 92. 197 Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (NY/London: Penquin Group, 1984), 92. 198 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 88. 199 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 88.

During the sixteenth century the human-animal relationship evolved further with pet-keeping becoming well established in aristocracy and urban middle-class societies, where the animal’s main value (benefit) was companionship.200 The dog was the most popular pet in Western culture during the Renaissance,201when the dog became less of a worker and more of a valued companion. However, outside of the home the dog continued in the role of hunter, rat catcher and as entertainment in animal-baiting exhibitions.202

Humans are dominant, when the human-animal relationship is conceived as a hierarchal relationship. However, humans could also be victims of animal aggression when humans are at a disadvantage for example humans swimming in crocodile infested creek or swimming with sharks, this is when they become prey.203

Humans have generally positioned themselves above other animals, considering themselves at the top of hierarchical structures in the animal kingdom and consequently able to kill or unnecessarily restrict the animal’s movement if they are believed to be a danger. Jared Piazza suggests that human perception of harmfulness is of equal, if not greater significance, than patiency (the capacity to experience pain or pleasure) and agency (usually defined in terms of intelligence or cognitive ability) when dealing with the moral standing of animals,204 particularly when the animal is unfamiliar.

Human behaviour can be influenced by the perception of the degree of the animal’s capacity to be harmful, so that large, fierce looking dogs are avoided and quiet dogs may be subject to human bullying.205 Consequently, the perception of an animal’s harmfulness may reduce humans’ level of moral consideration, because humans do not see themselves as prey and reject the idea of being consumed206 or harmed. Thus, in hierarchical relationships, animals may be considered by humans just as property or as a resource. In these circumstances, the relationships between humans and animals relies on human actions which may impact negatively on the animal. Under the law, acts of human abuse of animals can be problematic to prosecute because some of these

200 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 88. 201 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 88. 202 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 88. 203 Old people and children could be vulnerable to attack by dogs. 204 Jared Piazza, et.al, “Cruel nature: Harmfulness as an important, overlooked dimension in judgements or moral standing.” Cognition 131 (2014): 120. 205 Piazza, et.al, “Cruel nature: Harmfulness as an important, overlooked dimension in judgements or moral standing,” 108. 206 Erika Cudworth, “Killing animals: sociology, species relations and institutionalized violence.” The Sociological Review 63 (2015): 1.

actions can be justified207 by the belief in the ‘natural’ dominance of human beings or the perceived potential for harm to humans. As humans are primarily concerned with the safety of their kind.208

Moreover, the domesticated dog may suffer from human dominance and negative actions. Through domestication, dogs have learnt to be dependent on humans for food, water and shelter. Fidelity is a strongly developed characteristic of the domesticated dog and this can leave them especially vulnerable to cruelty, exploitation and abuse by humans. For, as J. Topal et.al points out that:-

A dogs’ bond to humans is analogous to child-parent and chimpanzee-human attachment behaviour, because the observed behavioural phenomena and the classification are similar to those described in mother-infant interactions.209

Consequently, the dog’s attachment to caring human action sustains the dog’s fidelity. However, when acts of cruelty are perpetrated towards dogs (including beating, burning, choking, shooting and raping),210 this can break a trusting bond, but the dog may remain faithful.

Such acts must be seen as cruelty, by the human dominating and overpowering the animal.211 Studies of human-animal relationships show that when humans commit violence to animals this indicates a propensity for generalised aggression.212 Violent criminals who drown, rape or harm animals, as children or teenagers, were thought more likely to continue to commit acts of interpersonal violence into adulthood.213 This can be a consequence of such childhood abuse to animals, either witnessed or perpetrated, where “aggression or cruelty is directed against a perceived weaker being.”214 Acts of violence and cruelty to animals can often lead to future crimes against both humans and animals.

207 Rebecca L. Bucchieri,“Bridging the Gap: The Connection between Violence against Animals and Violence against Humans.” Journal of Animal Law, 11, May (2015): 121. 208 Piazza, et.al, “Cruel nature: Harmfulness as an important, overlooked dimension in judgements or moral standing,”120. 209 J. Topal, J. Miklosi, V. Csanyi, A. Doka, “Attachment Behaviour in Dogs (Canis familiaris): A new Application of Ainsworth’s (1960) Strange Situation Test”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 112(3), Sep (1998): 1. 210 Clifton P. Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence”, Crime Law Society Change, 55 (2011): 463. 211 C. Hensley and S. Tallichet, “Childhood and adolescent animal cruelty methods and their possible link to adult violent crimes, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24 (2009): 156. 212 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,”462. 213 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,”463. 214 Bill C. Henry and Cheryl E. Sanders, “Bullying and animal Abuse: Is There a Connection?” Society and Animal, 15.2 (2007): 108.

Violence and Cruelty to Animals

Figure 13: William Hogarth, Four Stages of Cruelty: First Stage, 1751.215 Etching and engraving, 38 x 32 cm. Tate Museum, London.

William Hogarth (1697-1764) depicts adolescents inflicting cruelty to animals and birds in his Four Stages of Cruelty (Fig. 13). His images suggest that the callousness of criminal behaviour is cultivated by the society that they grew up in.216 However, he suggests that the desire to be cruel may be innate in humans.217 This series of etchings represent how individuals’ acts of violence shows the progression of abuse from animals to humans, and that such cruelty may result in the moral breakdown of society.

Acts of cruelty may inhibit the development of empathy in a human individual.218 Aristotle saw that immoral acts and suffering were not for the common good of the community and would lead to chaos and destruction. The only way for the damage to be repaired was remorse, then punishment. Those watching this cruelty may experience a loss of empathy for animal pain and

215 Tate Museum, London collection, available under Creative Commons Licence http://images.tate.org.uk/sites/default/files/styles/grid-normal-12- cols/public/images/william%20hogarth%20%20the%20four%20stages%20of%20cruelty%3A%20the%20re ward%20of%20cruelty%201%20february%201751.jpg?itok=KYB-Yafh (accessed April 22, 2017) 216 Jenny Ulgow, Hogarth: A Life and a World, (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), 500. 217 Ulgow, Hogarth: A Life and a World, 500. 218 Bill C. Henry and Cheryl E. Sanders, “Bullying and animal Abuse: Is There a Connection?”109.

suffering. Even small children can treat animals cruelly, if not given instruction to relate to animals with care.

Figure 14: Carracci Annibale, Two Children Teasing a Cat, 1587.219 Oil on Canvas, 66 x 88.9 cm. Metropolitan Museum, New York. [OA].

An intentional act of violence towards an animal is a reflection of the morals of the person committing the abuse. Annibale’s Two Children Teasing a Cat (Fig. 14) shows two children using a crayfish to torture a cat. Both children are actively involved, with one holding a crayfish as it painfully clamps the cat’s ear and the other looks on with pleasure. The painting clearly reveals that the children have little empathy for the suffering of the cat, indicating the lack of moral consideration for the welfare of animals in this period.

The moral behaviour of children is often a reflection their domestic environment. Two Australian studies, “The relationship between bullying and animal abuse behaviour in adolescents: the importance of witnessing animal abuse”220 and “An investigation into the association between the witnessing of animal abuse and adolescents’ behaviour toward animals”,221 found adolescents who witnessed animal abuse were significantly more likely to be a perpetrator of abuse,222 in particular when the “observed abuser was a parent, sibling, relative or friend”.223 Humans who suffer childhood abuse by violent or dominating humans can also behave cruelly or commit acts of revenge, against family pets.224 Threatening to hurt a pet can be used to control a partner in an abusive relationship.225

219 Metropolitan Museum, New York http://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/ep/web- large/DP243404.jpg (accessed April 22,2017) 220 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,” 455. 221 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,” 455. 222 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,” 455. 223 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,” 455. 224 Bucchieri, “Bridging The Gap: The Connection Between Violence Against Animals and Violence Against Humans,”124. 225Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,” 456.

Clifton Flynn’s findings suggest that perpetrators of animal abuse themselves feel victimized and need to exert power over a perceived weaker being.226 Thus, misdirected anger can be inflicted on dogs, as the abuser cannot direct their anger appropriately with humans because if they do so they may suffer from violent repercussions. Therefore, they may seek a helpless surrogate. Consequently, abuse against dogs can condition a dog to act aggressively, thus perpetuating a circle of violence.

Use of Dog’s Aggressive Characteristics

Hunting

Humans have always exploited the qualities and behaviours of certain dogs. There are varying degrees of use of the abilities of different breeds, which in turn influences the perceived value of these breeds. However, dogs that assist in human projects still may suffer a degree of misuse. For example, while hunting dogs were often valued for their abilities, they could be mistreated. Aggressive qualities in dogs were conditioned in order for them to fight other dogs and go to war.

W.M. Schleidt et.al. suggests using dogs to hunt was one of the fundamental turning points in human evolutionary history, increasing human’s prospect of long-term survival.227 In varying degrees, humans have used dogs’ fine sense of sight, smell, hearing, their instinctive characteristics and their willingness to please. Alertness, agility, intelligence and patience are valued qualities in hunting dogs.228 The innate characteristics of each dog breed are amplified and directed for use in specific types of hunting, using different dog breeds for certain parts of the chase.

Figure 15: Thomas Hewes Hinckley, Rats Amongst the Barley Sheaves, 1851. Oil on Canvas, 84.5 x 102.2 cm. Metropolitan Museum, New York.[OA]. 229

226 Flynn, “Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence,” 458. 227 W.M Schleidt and M.D, Shalter, “Co-evolution of human and canids: An alternative view of dog domestication: Homo homini lupus?” Evolution and Cognition 9,1. (2003): 57-72. 228 Scott Linden, “Top Dog,” Outdoor Life, 222, 9 October, 2015. 229 Metropolitan Museum, New York, Public Domain http://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/ap/web- large/DT7414.jpg accessed (February 15, 2016).

Thomas Hinckley’s (1618-1706) Rats Amongst the Barley Sheaves (Fig. 15) depicts the terrier breed’s innate hunting abilities and their propensity to aggressively chase down and kill rats unsupervised or without human encouragement.230 These dogs were valued as swift hunters, reducing the rat population, thus helping to preserve the harvest and incidentally reducing the spread of the plague.

Figure 16: Brooch in the Form of a Dog Attacking a Boar, 2nd Century Champlevé enamel, bronze, gold, 3 x 5 x 1.1 cm, Roman. Metropolitan Museum, New York. [OA]231

Working with dogs to hunt game has been undertaken for centuries and for the Romans, hunting was an activity equated with battle. In Figure 16 a depiction of a dog attacking a boar in a costume brooch may have been worn to reflect the human’s expertise in hunting and revelling in the brutality of the hunt.

Dogs, such as sight hounds, are still used to chase down game. They are primarily using their keen sight; scent hounds track down game primarily using their heightened sense of smell; terriers and dachshunds will go underground to flush out small animals; spaniels track and flush out game; pointers and setters point to the location of their prey and retrievers fetch dead game.232 Knowledge of the dogs’ abilities is an important factor to ensure a successful hunt and to minimise injury, as the dogs are deemed valuable property. Often the hunt proceeded in co-operation with different breeds of dogs and horses.233 In the medieval period, employing dogs and horses was believed the noblest means of hunting, as hunting on foot was for the lower classes.234

230 This quality is still evident in the terrier breed today. 231 The Metropolitan Museum, New York, Public Domain https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/465206?sortBy=Relevance&deptids=17&ft =unicorn+in+medieval+art&offset=0&rpp=100&pos=56 (accessed January 17, 2018) 232 Linden “Top Dogs,”64- 67. 233 Marcelle Thiebaux, “The Medieval Chase” Speculum 42, (1967): 260. 234 Thiebaux, “The Medieval Chase,” 260.

Figure 17: Gaston Phoebus - Le livre de chasse, 1387-1389 Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France. Ms. Fr. 616 de 235

Hunting hounds were tended by servants and regarded as valuable property, so consequently they were comparatively well fed and housed. Figure 17 shows servants grooming hunting dogs, depicting a strong sense of hierarchy that indicates the status of the human (servant) and the value of the dog. Individual lead hounds were prized for their tracking abilities and were highly regarded as an efficient hunting auxiliary.236 While hunting in packs was a most effective approach, dogs were often violently killed or seriously injured during the hunt. Hunting is dangerous for dogs as well as their quarry.

Figure 18: Frans Snyders, The Boar Hunt, ca 1650s. Oil on canvas, 172 x 239 cm. The Art Gallery of NSW.237

235 National Library of France collection https://www.facsimilefinder.com/assets/uploads/OriginalDocs_old/301/gaston-phoebus-le-livre-de-la- chasse-facsimile-edition-02.jpg (accessed February 15, 2018) 236 Thiebaux, “The Mediaeval Chase,”260. 237 The Art Gallery of NSW collection, permission granted under Section 40 (Copyright Act, 1968) https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/works/239.2005/ (accessed 6 February, 2018).

Frans Snyders (1579-1657) shows the brutality of the hunt and animal suffering in The Boar Hunt (Fig. 18). Portraits of the hunt, such as The Boar Hunt, were hung in the houses of the wealthy and the aristocracy. The absence of humans in this painting indicates that they are the observer, although they have instigated this hunt. This sets humans above the barbaric scene, much like watching the slaughter in an ancient Roman arena as mere bystanders of staged ‘savage’ animal behaviour. In this scene, dogs caught under the boar could have been seriously injured.

Figure 19: Marie-Rosalie Bonheur, Barbaro after the Hunt, ca 1858. Oil on canvas, 96.5 x 130.2 cm. Philadelphia Museum of Art.238

Marie-Rosalie Bonheur’s Barbaro after the Hunt (Fig. 19) depicts an exhausted dog, tied up on a short chain with his head lowered in a submissive pose. The short chain does not allow the dog to lie down and rest or reach water. The setting of the painting is at the back of the property, perhaps near the kitchen where other utilitarian items are kept. This portrays an attitude to the dogs as another piece of property, put out of sight after their required function is performed. The soft coat of the dog is well rendered giving the dog an appeal to a gentler aspect of Barbaro, and the dog’s posture urges the viewer to reach out to the dog with a sympathetic hand.

Figure 20: George Stubbs, A Couple of Foxhounds, 1792. Oil on canvas, 101.6 x 127 cm. Tate Museum, London.239

238 Philadelphia Museum of Art collection, permission granted under “Fair Use” terms. https://www.philamuseum.org/images/spacer.gif ( accessed April 12, 2018) 239 Tate Museum, London, available under Creative Commons license. http://www.tate.org.uk/art/images/work/T/T01/T01705_10.jpg (accessed February 15,2018)

The breeding of hunting dogs was a popular and financially rewarding pursuit during this period for example George Stubbs’ painting A Couple of Foxhounds (Fig. 20) depicts two prized foxhounds in a formally posed portrait. This painting depicts a male dog, with a female dog in a submissive non-aggressive posture representing prized hounds as breeding stock. A painting of this kind acts as a symbol of wealth and status, for only the rich and nobility could afford to commission such works. The paintings also acted as a kind of advertisement for the breeder, demonstrating the quality of his dogs. Perhaps these dogs remain nameless because they are purely breeding hounds.

Dog Fighting

In the Medieval period and the Renaissance, the status and wealth of an individual was dictated by the type of sport they engaged in. While the aristocracy and the wealthy engaged in horse racing and hunting using horses and dogs,240 in low status communities cock-fighting, dog fighting, bearbaiting and bullbaiting241 were regarded fitting amusement. Amongst the organised sports involving animals was the accepted brutal and cruel treatment of animals for amusement, such as cutting tails off live pigs as trophies and poking birds’ eyes out. In a popular game in France, individuals were blindfolded and sent into the pig pen with sticks to beat the animal to death and then the pig was butchered.242 The unfortunate victims in these games were poultry and other livestock that were property and believed to possess no intellect or sensation.243 244 Animals considered to possess poor intellect were cruelly slaughtered. In some cases, bullbaiting (bulls are attacked by a group dogs) would take place before the bull was slaughtered.245 246

240 This idea still exists in contemporary times. Members of a low socioeconomic group engage in greyhound racing. 241 Lisa J. Kiser, “Animals in Medieval sports, Entertainment and Menageries,” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, ed. Bridgette Resl (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007), 125. 242 Kiser, “Animals in Medieval sports, Entertainment and Menageries,” 119. 243 James Serpell claimed in In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986) 34. Public trials and executions were also popular as entertainment. In Europe the act of bestiality was tried publically and resulted in both human and animal being executed for acts of sodomy by hanging or being burnt at the stake. 244 In Britain the act of bestiality and sodomy became a capital offence in 1534. 245 Kiser, “Animals in Medieval sports, Entertainment and Menageries,”118. 246 They believed the brutality would tenderise the meat. Kiser, “Animals in Medieval sports, Entertainment and Menageries,”118

Figure 21: Bearbaiting, 14th Century. British Library Board, London, Add. 42130, fol. 161r.54.247

In this early depiction of the savage treatment of animals for human entertainment, Bearbaiting (Fig. 21) shows dogs antagonised by humans with a long stick to increase aggression. Animals were seen as possessing no intellect and were often provoked to be the aggressor. The dogs depicted in this image were of more value than the bear, as the bear is chained to a peg in the ground and is wearing a metal muzzle to limit the bear’s capacity to harm the dogs. The men on the left encourage this cruelty as a form of entertainment. Animal-baiting, where tethered animals were attacked by dogs was widespread amusement throughout England and Europe during the medieval period and Renaissance.248 It was a source of community entertainment, where people of all classes would gather ‘celebrating old traditions’.249

Figure 22: Staffordshire pottery figure of a bear baiting ca 1810 to ca 1820. Pearlware, enamels, earthenware, height 29 cm. Ref: 3403250

247 British Library Board collection online http://explore.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?ct=Next+Page&pag=nxt&indx=21&pageNum berComingFrom=1&frbg=&vl(488279563UI0)=any&indx=1&fn=search&dscnt=0&scp.scps=primo_central _multiple_fe&tb=t&vid=BLVU1&mode=Basic&ct=search&tab=primo_central&srt=date2&dum=true&vl(fr eeText0)=folio%20161r%2C%2054.&dstmp=1537768534623 (accessed December 18, 2017) 248 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 89. 249 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 89. 250 John Howard, the Antique English Pottery Specialist http://www.antiquepottery.co.uk/gfx/lg_657675.jpg (accessed October 10, 2018)

The Staffordshire figurine (Fig. 22) demonstrates the lack of consideration for the suffering of animals, particularly when they were subjects for these types of amusements. The mantle ornament reflects the popular theme of brutality to animals that persisted during the Renaissance and into the early Enlightenment.

The propensity for high levels of aggression at the bequest of their owners, can be conditioned251or bred into a dog. Similarly, certain acts of cruelty and abuse toward dogs to heighten the dog’s aggression are still used for the purpose of dog fighting today. To prepare dogs for public fighting they are held in isolation from other dogs and people, starved of food and water and physically abused by their human keepers,252 in order to earn income or status for the owner. Such dogs were selected and tested for their willingness to fight. Because of their size, upper body strength and strong jaw Pit Bulls were the usual breed to be used in organised pit dog fighting.253 Pit Bulls are a result of cross breeding bulldogs with terriers, which were originally bred for blood sports in the 1800s. Pit Bulls and American Pit Bulls (amongst other breeds) have been banned in Australia since 1995.254 However, as Claire Harvey points out, Pit Bulls are the most abandoned dog breed languishing in animal shelters in Australia now.255

Figure 23: Johann Christof Merck, Ulmer Dogge, 1705. Oil on canvas, 127 x 157 cm. Jagdschloss Grunewald Hunting Lodge, Berlin.256

251 For the purposes of clarification, I will use “conditioning” as a negative term to train and “training” as a positive term to train a dog each resulting in different outcomes. 252O. Yilmaz, F Coskun and M Ertugrul, “Dog Fighting: A nasty work” Research Opinions in Animal & Veterinary Sciences, 5(5) (2015):221. 253 Yilmaz, Coskun and Ertugrul, “Dog Fighting: A nasty work,”221. 254 Tasmania Government, Department of Premier and Cabinet, Restricted Breeds FAQs, accessed July 17, 2018. www.tas.gov.au. 255 Claire Harvey,”Shelters are full of Pit Bulls for a good reason,” The Daily Telegraph, September 10, 2017. 256Jagdschloss Grunewald Hunting Lodge Berlin. Web Gallery of Art. Open Access. https://www.wga.hu/detail_s/m/merck/ulmerdog.jpg (accessed February 5, 2018)

The mastiff type breed was highly valued as a fighting dog from ancient Roman times until today and were often portrayed heroically unaccompanied in artworks. Ulmer Dogge (Fig. 23) is an example of a valued fighting dog, depicted with a wide collar as an indication of the dog’s strength and the human’s ownership, so that the dog’s strength was viewed as a reflection of the owner’s power. But although the dog was valued, it had to endure cruel mutilation to increase its chance of succeeding. The dog’s ears have been excised, so the opponent cannot pull the dog down by the ears during a fight. The strong, confident posture of the dog is echoed by the oak trees in the background, where he stands alone on barren, beaten, dirt ground amongst scattered broken twigs which indicates that this area may have been used for dog fighting. Dogs were mutilated in hunting, forced to fight bears and other dogs, and public torture of dogs meant no regard or kind treatment.

The Renaissance and the early Enlightenment perceived the gradual emergence of “emotional identification with animals” 257 and this awareness grew steadily into and beyond the next era.

More Sympathetic Treatment

Figure 24: William Brodie, Greyfriars Bobby, 1872. Bronze, height approx. 65 cm. Cnr of Candlemaker Row and George IV Bridge, Edinburgh.258

Consideration for animal suffering and appreciation for the qualities of dogs also emerged from the Renaissance. The art of the period indicates that there were elements of a growing compassion towards dogs so that the depiction and memorialisation of a dog’s capacity to suffer and to express grief is illustrated in the story of Greyfriars Bobby in Edinburgh, where the little

257 Boehrer, “Introduction: The Animal Renaissance,” 26. 258 Image taken August, 2011 by Vicki Hamilton.

Skye Terrier guarded his master’s grave from 1858 until the dog’s death in 1872. He only left to eat his midday meal, which was signalled by the one o’clock gun.259 260 Greyfriars Bobby (Fig. 24) represents the value humans have for loyalty, particularly in a dog.

Figure 25: Briton Rivière, Requiescat, 1888. Oil on canvas, 158.7 x 225 cm. The Art Gallery of NSW.261

A strong bond can form between a warrior and his dog. A representation of this relationship is demonstrated in the sentimental painting by Briton Rivière (1840-1920), Requiescat (Fig. 25) expresses the loyalty of a faithful companion, who may have accompanied the knight in battle. The subdued light reflects the sombre setting, but also highlights the gleaming coat of the dog which is echoed by the dead knight’s shining armour. Wilting flower petals lay on the floor beside the body, indicating a life that has blossomed and passed. The lifeless human body is in stark contrast to the alert, robust energy of the dog. The dog’s eyes are earnestly focused on his master, perhaps waiting for him to wake. The slope of the dog’s back directs the eye of the viewer to the hand of the corpse; a hand that instructed and patted the dog, but also swung a sword. The highly realistic painting depicts the sense of loss some dogs appear to feel on the death of their master, and the human awareness of their loss.

259 Johnson, “Greyfriars Bobby.” 260Hilda Kean, Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800 (London: Reaktion Books, 1998),86. Bobby was considered a vagrant by the law, however the magistrates were impressed by his continued loyalty to his master and allowed to dog to continue to visit his master’s grave. 261 The Art Gallery of NSW collection, permission granted under Section 40 (Copyright Act, 1968) https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/works/811/ (accessed February 6, 2018)

Figure 26: Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, The Old Shepherd’s Chief Mourner, 1837. Oil on canvas, Victoria and Albert Museum. FA.93 262

The Old Shepherd’s Chief Mourner263 depicts a dog as an individual expressing character and emotion. The dog in Figure 26 is substituting for human mourners in demonstrating grief and faithfulness, which evokes sympathy in the viewer for the dog’s loss. The dog would have been a constant companion for the shepherd. The modest country setting is humble and in contrast to the richness of Rivière’s Requiescat. There are no flowers for this poor shepherd, only a withered sheath of a common scrub. The shepherd’s discarded hat and walking stick, lay on the floor under a small wooden bench. On the bench is a locked bible. These items and the dog are now superfluous. The sense of abandonment is highlighted by the beam of soft light flooding over the dog as the dog rests his head on the coffin. While these images would today be considered highly sentimental, they provide a contrast between bear baiting and companionship and show respect for the loyal relationship between dog and human.

In contemporary Western society all domesticated dogs are deemed property as they are ‘owned’ by a human. If a dog does not have a human owner it is regarded as a stray and can be legally destroyed. A dog needs to have a human owner who is responsible for damages or any injury that the dog may do.

However, while some dogs are used by their owners to indicate status, this may benefit the dogs. In this chapter I initially considered the potential harming of dogs through human action used in hunting, and the spectacle of dog fighting as a negative relationship, where dogs may be ill- treated, brutalised, traumatised, permanently injured or killed and abandoned. Some dogs that

262 Victoria & Albert Museum collection online, Public Domain. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O16452/the-old-shepherds-chief-mourner-oil-painting-landseer- edwin-henry/ (accessed July 2, 2018) 263 This artwork appears on Sir Edwin Landseer’s tomb.

are used for status, guarding, herding, and companionship, may also suffer a lesser degree of harm, while others may enjoy a mutually positive relationship with shelter, care, freedom and companionship with humans.

Figure 27: Filippo Palizzi, Sleeping Shepherd and His Dog, 1850-1855.264 Oil on canvas, 25.7 x 38.7 cm.

Even though herding and guarding dogs are deemed property, they may be valued for their abilities. This is a positive relationship as the human recognises the intelligence and capabilities of the working dog and the dog has an owner.

Filippo Palizzi’s painting Sleeping Shepherd and His Dog (Fig. 27) reflects the positive relationship between a shepherd and his faithful herding dog. Equal amount of light falls on the exhausted shepherd and his dog, giving both subjects equal value in the painting. The single flower that blooms in the background symbolises the purity of the relationship. Herding dogs are capable of attacking livestock when not supervised. This image is particularly significant, as both the shepherd and his dog appear to be sleeping. The shepherd demonstrates his trust in his dog, as he has allowed himself to sleep. His dog rests however, alert to danger.

Dogs as Pets

Pet dogs are often considered distinct from other dogs and distinct from other domestic animals. Humans have afforded pet dogs a type of sacredness or otherness,265 as some humans enjoy the dog’s companionship. Studies endorse what dog lovers have proclaimed; dogs and humans enjoy

264 Tutt’Art website https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ah UKEwiSt9CfsbfTAhWFppQKHRaXBz8QjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuttartpitturasculturapoesiamus ica.com%2F2016%2F01%2FFilippo-Palizzi- .html&psig=AFQjCNFPH6HQRN7P3l1FHs6QG0HhiZY3Lw&ust=1492927036356645 (accessed April 20, 2017) 265 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 141.

“mutual physiological changes during positive” 266 dog-human interaction. Dogs have been house pets for centuries.

Figure 28: Chous, Apulian (Greek) 360-350 BC. Ceramic vessel, height 20.32 cm. British Museum.267

A variety of dog breeds have been depicted in domestic scenes of ancient Egypt, which implies that Egyptians had pet dogs.268 Greeks and Romans were also fond of dogs and kept them as pets inside the home, in particular an early type of Maltese dog.269 As depicted on the ceramic vessel (Fig. 28), the dog is being teased by a child with a tortoise tied to a string.

Figure 29. The Nereid Monument, Greek Frieze 390-380 BC. Marble width 115.6 cm. British Museum.270

266J. S. J. Odendaal and R. A. Meintjes, “Neurophysiological Correlates of Affiliative Behaviour between Humans and Dogs,” The Veterinary Journal 165 (2003): 296. 267 The British Museum collection online. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collectionimages/AN00284/AN00284745_001_l.jpg?width=304 (accessed February 11, 2019) 268 Juliet Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals.2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/The Natural History Museum, 1999), 60. 269 Kenneth F. Kitchnell, Jr. Animals in the Ancient World from A to Z (London: Routledge, 2014), 49. 270 The British Museum collection online. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license.

The Nereid Monument (Fig. 29) is a Greek Frieze 390-380 BC that shows a group of men, one man reaching out his hand with an empty cup. The older man is in discussion with another older man, while his dog lies beneath the couch.271 Dogs and other animals were often given as ‘love gifts’ to younger men to solicit their company, which was common practice during this period.272 In some cases the dog’s upkeep was solely for the enjoyment of its company.273 This example suggests that even though dogs were property, they served utilitarian and emotional purposes274 in ancient Greek societies.

Figure 30: Man and Dog, 8th to 7th ca BC Mesopotamia, Bronze, Metropolitan Museum, New York [OA]275

A small bronze sculpture dated from the 8th to 7th century BC indicates how long a companionable relationship has existed between dogs and humans. Man and Dog, (Fig. 30) portrays a man standing with his arm over the back of the dog, holding the dog close.276 The dog sits close to the human which indicates that the trust is reciprocated as its posture expresses a composed, calm and alert dog that is happy in his master’s company.277

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collectionimages/AN00039/AN00039984_001_l.jpg?width=304 (accessed February 11, 2019) 271 Kitchnell, Jr. Animals in the Ancient World from A to Z, 53. 272 Kenneth F. Kitchnell, “Penelope’s Geese: Pets of the Ancient Greeks, Expedition, Vol. 53:3, 17. (Winter 2011) 273 Kitchnell, Jr,. Animals in the Ancient World from A to Z, 53. 274 Kitchnell, Jr., Animals in the Ancient World from A to Z, 53. 275 Metropolitan Museum, New York collection, Open Access. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/323707 (accessed January 15, 2018) 276 The man appears to be talking and gesturing with his right hand, perhaps talking to his dog while his left hand rests affectionately across the dog’s shoulder. 277 This figure is not a mere trinket, it represents a valued relationship, that may have been commissioned by the owner of the dog to keep as a memorial of his dog.

Figure 31: Mon Seul Desir (My Sole Desire) ca. 1500, from The Lady and the Unicorn series. Wool and silk, 377 x 473 cm. Musée de Cluny – Musee national du Moyen Age Paris.278

The Lady and the Unicorn Tapestries (ca. 1500) is series of tapestries illustrating the five senses, touch, hearing, sight, smell. The sixth tapestry My Sole Desire (Sixth Sense) (Fig. 31) illustrates a medieval lady surrounded by plants, trees, animals such as rabbits, birds, various types of dogs, a monkey, a lion and a unicorn along with her female servant. The small dog portrayed sitting on a cushion on a bench at the right hand side of the lady could be a pet. The two other dogs have been portrayed as a part of nature.279 This tapestry reflects the abundance of nature and beautiful objects. The lady is returning jewels to the coffer, this gesture could be interpreted as a sign of virtue, putting away beautiful things. The woman depicted in these tapestries is performing an action to epitomise the sense in question, the sixth sense.280 This piece is the only tapestry not representing a ‘sensory or empirical experience’,281 but is provoked by thought, moral reasoning or emotion.282

278 Art Gallery of NSW – On loan from Musee de Cluny https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/artboards/theladyandtheunicorn/the-tapestries/item/3p83ai/ (accessed February 27, 2018) 279 However they are wearing collars with indicate that they are owned. 280 Mark de Vitis , “Explainer: the symbolism of the Lady and the Unicorn tapestry cycle”, The Conversation. com https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-symbolism-of-the-lady-and-the-unicorn- tapestry-cycle-91325 (accessed June 7, 2019) 281 de Vitis , “Explainer: the symbolism of the Lady and the Unicorn tapestry cycle.” 282 de Vitis , “Explainer: the symbolism of the Lady and the Unicorn tapestry cycle.”

Figure 32: Girolamo Pompeo Batoni, Charles, 3rd Duke of Richmond, Lennox and Aubigny, 1755. Oil on canvas, 135.4 x 97.8 cm. Goodwood House, West Sussex, UK.283

Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond (Fig. 32) is an eighteenth century painting of a caring relationship between a human and a dog. In a luxurious, indoor setting where both dogs are on a table, the brown dog is elevated closer to the centre of the portrait. The human figure is not the centre of the painting nor is the other dog. The central figure exemplifies the dog, as an important component in the narrative. However, this remains a hierarchical scene, the dog in the background as the bottom of the pack, while the dog being patted is next in status and the human, who stands above all, is positioned at the top. The submissive posture of the dog is expressed by the angle of its head, which is looking up at the face of its master, the top dog. Both hands of the Duke affectionately pat and caress the dog’s ears. The dog reciprocates this attention with a paw resting on the left arm of the young Duke as the Duke looks out of the portrait, inviting the viewer to observe a moment of warm affection.

Pedigree Dogs

During the 19th century, pure-bred dogs were considered valuable property amongst the aristocracy and attributes to middle class society.284 In 1873 the Kennel Club was formed in

283Goodwood House, West Sussex, UK collection https://www.goodwood.com/estate/goodwood- house/the-collection/painting-collection/ (accessed January 30, 2018) 284 Hilda Kean, Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800 (London: Reaktion Books, 1998), 80.

England to ascertain the necessary characteristics to described and regulate certain breeds.285 Controlled breeding of dogs was necessary to keep the deemed characteristics of certain breeds. Breeding dogs has a long history where dogs are forced to unnaturally copulate to produce offspring to meet the requirements of a particular pedigree.286 287 288 Any pups produced that did not meet the requirements of that breed were destroyed soon after birth by hanging, drowning and decapitation.289

Contemporary breeding methods use artificial insemination if initial breeding contact is unsuccessful. Juliet Clutton-Brock considers that controlled breeding may result in a permanent loss of genetic diversity within certain dog species,290 particularly when breeders do not bring in new blood lines, in an effort to keep the breed ‘pure’. John Rossi adds that the inbreeding of dogs can increase the individual’s chance of developing recessive genetic diseases, such as heart defects, cancer, neurological disorders and skin problems.291 This controlled breeding has caused the loss of original breeds.

Figure 33: Gaynor Ostinelli and Paul Priest, Bulldog, 2010. Ceramic, dimensions unknown.292

285 Kean, Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800, 81. 286 Yi-Fu Tuan stated in Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 109, in early cases, this would be achieved with human intervention, if the dogs did not co- operate. The female would be muzzled, Vaseline applied to the vagina and put into a sling to prevent resisting. While the male dog’s member was stimulated and then the male is put onto the female. 287 Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets, 109. 288 Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets, 109. 289 Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets, 108. 290 Juliet Clutton-Brock, “The Unnatural World: Behavioural Aspects of Humans and Animals in the Process of Domestication,” in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, ed. A Manning and J. Serpell (New York: Routledge, 1994), 24. 291 John Rossi, “Our Whimsy: Their Welfare: On Ethics of Pedigree-breeding,” in Pets and People: The Ethics on Companion Animals, ed. Christine Overall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 113. 292 Studio Pottery Co. UK. website http://www.studiopottery.co.uk/images/stories/ostinelli/Ostinelli_and_Priest25.jpg (accessed April 3, 2018)

The Old English Bulldog is an example of controlled breeding, which has forced the original breed into extinction.293 294 Certain characteristics were bred out and others replaced them. This process not just creates a new breed, but loses the original over time. Bulldog (Fig. 33) is a contemporary image which illustrates the likeable character and enhanced features of the many Bulldog type breeds that have evolved from controlled breeding. These characteristics have been manipulated over centuries of breeding to please humans, and have not always been beneficial to the dog.

Certain breeds of dogs have to undergo cosmetic surgery to fit the aesthetic requirements of humans, such as tail docking and ear cropping,295 even though, these procedures are deemed as illegal acts.296 Breeders consider these practices acceptable because they preserve the character of the breed and/or enhance good health.297 Dogs use their tails to assist with balance and to communicate with other dogs. This has been recognised and tail docking has been banned in some parts of the world.298 Even though humans have manipulated dogs’ physiques to produce ‘pleasing’ features and have modified their behaviour to live in human society, dogs have not lost their innate qualities of valour, joy and fidelity.

Figure 34: Vicki Hamilton, Gene Pool, 2019. Earthenware, aluminium and wood. 100 x 40 cm, Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

293 Dan Robitzski, “The de- evolution of the bulldog”, September 25, 2017. https://scienceline.org/2017/09/de-evolution-bulldog/ (accessed March, 2019). 294 The Old English Bull dog bred fell into extinction with the passage of the Cruelty to Animals Act, 1835, when bull baiting and dog fighting became illegal. https://scienceline.org/2017/09/de-evolution-bulldog/ (accessed March, 2019) 295 Margo Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Modern Age, ed. Randy Malamud (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 85. 296 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 No 200, Section 12, 9-10. 297 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,”85. 298 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,”85.

Gene Pool is my response to the intense inter-breeding of a selection of five popular pure breed dogs; terriers, mastiffs, sight hounds, labradors and poodles. Each dog is represented by a paw of that particular breed, sitting upright on a circle of white board encased by a metal rim to refer to what might be seen on glass slide under a microscope in scientific manipulation. The metal rim represents strict human control of the breeding stock, which has existed throughout history. Breeders selectively choose from known bloodlines in an attempt to keep the breed pure and preserve known characteristics to ensure the breed meets certain deemed standards.

I modelled the five paw types then made a mould of each form, from which I have created 270 paws. The moulds started to degrade as a result of being in constant use, leaving imperfections in the art work. The imperfections, in most cases, were not remodelled. This refers to the strength of the gene pool being lessened over time, which weakens the breed rather than fortifying it. Controlled breeding can leave some dog breeds with congenital defects, which cause chronic suffering. The continual inbreeding is reflected in some of the paws, which are flawed and distorted, indicating human intervention to preserve known traits and characteristics, which can actually produce a flawed individual. Selective breeding has deprived the species of choosing the strongest of their species to mate with, which evolutionary history demonstrates would ensure the species health, strength and longevity.

The period incorporating the Renaissance and the dawn of the Enlightenment in many ways, was the worst of times and the best of times for dogs. Unregulated, cruel exploitation of dogs was balanced by an increased empathetic understanding of their suffering. Artists condemned the cruelty (Hogarth) and reflected respect (Bonheur and Landseer). This latter approach bloomed in the 20th century with the philosophy of animal rights, which established the welfare of dogs should not be overruled by human needs and desires.

Chapter Three

A Better Life for Dogs: Compassion and Empathy

The earlier ideas that underpinned the treatment of animals have been examined in previous chapters and some examples have highlighted how these ideas were depicted in art. Some of the ideas that emerged leading up to, and during, the Enlightenment were now challenged and in some cases rejected, as ill-informed or cruel. For example, Descartes’ theory that animals were comparable to windup clocks and without feelings is disputed by contemporary scholars. Accordingly, it is now considered morally wrong to treat animals cruelly or to stand by allowing them to suffer unnecessarily. Consequently, this chapter considers the development of ideas that have led to a contemporary understanding of the treatment of dogs in society, although, these changes have not been universally accepted.

In the period leading up to and including the Enlightenment, rights for animals and their capacity to suffer were based on the animals’ abilities such as mental power, speech and rationality compared to humans. However, Humphrey Primatt (1735 – 1776) rejected this view by arguing that animals suffered more than humans because they had no hope and lacking the capacity for speech meant they could not accuse their tormentors.299

The Enlightenment: Compassion and Empathy

Even during the Enlightenment the cruel treatment of some animals continued and in addition to this abuse, animals were now used in scientific experimentation. The Age of Enlightenment was a time of moral conflict, when society questioned old concepts as dictated by the church. Aided by scientific discovery, the moral issue of the treatment of animals was raised. Society became aware of how alike humans and animals were, highlighting animal’s capacity to suffer.

During the Enlightenment, Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) argued that possessing speech and rationality was inadequate criteria when awarding rights. In his view an adult dog was easier to communicate with and was more logical than a human newborn infant.300 In addition, Humphrey

299 Humphrey Primatt, A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals, published London, R. Hett, 1776, 36. In the New York Public Library collection. https://archive.org/details/adissertationon00primgoog (accessed May 27, 2018) 300 Jeremy Bentham, (1968-84), An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, eds. J.H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart, in J.H. Burns (ed.) The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham, 2 vol, (London: Athlone Press, 1968-84), 13.

Primatt (1735-1776) argued that humans did not have the right to cause suffering to animals because they did not possess the same mental capacities. He considered that the qualities of humans and animals were God given,301 adding, that animals had no choice about being an animal, as it was God’s will. It was only by the grace of God that humans were humans.302 He also argued that inflicting pain on an animal as punishment was wrong, because punishment is for rational beings who have made a choice to act contrary to what they know is right.303

German philosopher, Wilhelm Dietler (1767 – 1797) agreed with Primatt and Bentham and stated that animals should not be denied legal rights of protection just because they did not have the abilities to represent themselves in a court of law against their tormentors. He compared the inability of animals to represent themselves to the situation of that of a small child, who also can not represent themselves in a court of law. However, as it is illegal or immoral to kill or torture a child, children still retain certain rights.304 For that reason, animals have rights of protection against cruel and immoral treatment when they are seen as a part of the vulnerable in human society.

Consequently, this period saw the emergence of animal protect organisations, such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) in 1824. Compassion and empathy for humans can thus translate into the treatment of animals. Accordingly “…history’s leading humanitarians at the time were animal lovers and often pet owners.”305 Jeremy Bentham British philosopher, supported the abolition of slavery also accepted the notion that animals could suffer. William Wilberforce (1759 – 1833) British philanthropist and politician, supported the abolition of slavery and served as secretary for the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.306

301 Primatt, A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals, 47. 302 Primatt, A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals, 17. 303 Primatt, A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals, 45. 304 Andreas-Holger Maehle, “Cruelty and Kindness to the “Brute Creation” Stability and change in the Ethics of the Man-animal Relationship, 1600-1850” in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, eds Aubrey Manning and James Serpell, (London: Routledge, 1994),94. 305 James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 37. 306 Serpell stated in, In the Company of Animals: A study of Human-animal Relationships,38 that John Colam, was a contributor to the founding of the National society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Richard Martin who initiated the first Protection of animals Act also campaigned against the excessive use of the death penalty, and Henry Bergh who founded the New York SPCA in 1866 was “responsible for the first successful legal prosecution against child abuse in the famous case of “Little Mary Ellen”.

Figure 35: Sir Edwin Landseer, Victoria, Princess Royal, with Eos, 1841. Oil on canvas, 71.8 x 91.8 cm. Royal Collection Trust, London.307

The RSPCA was founded in 1824 during Queen Victoria’s reign when it became increasingly fashionable to consider animal welfare.308 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were great dog lovers and promoted caring for ‘lower animals’.309 310 Victoria, Princess Royal, with Eos (Fig. 35) was commissioned by Queen Victoria featuring their first child and Prince Albert’s favourite dog, the greyhound Eos. Moral issues regarding the suffering of animals heavily influenced the art works of the Victorian period. This awareness facilitated the rise of the anthropomorphising of animals in art, in order to express the animals’ capacity to suffer.

The notion that animals could be considered as rational, sentient beings, developed in the Age of Enlightenment.311 Albeit, sensitivity to the suffering of animals had its boundaries.312 Hunting or blood sport was thought to be a “most esteemed pastime for gentlemen”313 and recreation for royalty. It is also noted as a worthy and valuable pursuit to distract adolescents from engaging in sexual pursuits.314 So it was socially inconvenient to give rights and protection to all animals. This

307 Royal Collection trust, London. Public domain. https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/401548/victoria-princess-royal-with-eos (accessed March 20, 2018) 308 Richard. D. Ryder, Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 6. 309 James Serpell and Elizabeth Paul, “Pets and the Development of Positive Attitudes to Animals” in Animals and Human Society: Changing perspectives eds. Aubrey Manning and James Serpell (London: Routledge, 1994), 127. 310 Ironically slavery was abolished during Queen Victoria’s reign in 1833, so the awareness of animal suffering translated to moral treatment of humans. 311 Nathaniel Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals.” At the Interface/Probing the Boundaries, 84, (2012): 2. 312 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 123. 313 Roger B. Manning, Hunters and Poachers: A Cultural and Social History of Unlawful Hunting in England 1485-1640 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1993), 35. 314 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,”124.

line of thought made way for certain animals to be treated differently. Hence pets, like dogs or prized horses would enjoy more sensitive treatment than wild animals and livestock.

Figure 36: Joseph Wright of Derby, An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump, 1768. Oil on canvas, 183 x 244 cm. National Gallery, London.315

Artists also depicted animals carrying men to war, pulling wagons, hunting and being used for biological studies.316 An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump (Fig. 36) highlighted the importance of the animals in this culture. Wright has constructed a dramatic scene, revealing a wide range of individual reactions from the viewers. The artist has depicted a scientist demonstrating a vacuum by drawing out air from a glass bowl containing a rare white cockatoo, depriving the bird of oxygen. As the bird struggles for breath, the excited youth looks closer, while the two girls look away, frightened and the philosopher, in the foreground peers down at the table, in deep contemplation. The candlelight causes the glass vessel containing a skull, to glow, highlighting the likeness of animals and humans. Scientific advancement was considered more important than the suffering of non-human animals.317 So that sensitivity to animals’ intrinsic value was not always taken seriously.318 The only suffering portrayed in (Fig. 36) is that of the young girls, looking on with concern or turning away from the dying bird. Sensitivity to the suffering of animals was still considered sentimental, particularly in literature, and was only acceptable in fictional stories.319

The need for the utilisation of animals continued to out-weigh the concern for their suffering. Philosopher Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) theorised that animals were more like machines, as

315 National Gallery, London collection, C.C. License https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/joseph- wright-of-derby-an-experiment-on-a-bird-in-the-air-pump (accessed April 22, 2018) 316Matthew Senior, “Introduction: The Animal Witness” in A Cultural History of Animals: The Age of Enlightenment, ed. Matthew Senior (New York: Berg, 2007), 6. 317 This view exists in contemporary society, where animal experimentation is still carried out. 318 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 125. 319 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 125.

they acted on instinct without thought.320 He argued that animals did not have rational thought, thus were not aware of what was happening to them or could not communicate their suffering, resulting with the notion that they could not suffer.321 322

Comte de Buffon (1707 – 1788) agreed with Descartes in believing that animals acted on instinct in a mechanical way and did not have the ability of thought or reflection, only aware of what was happening in the present.323 This perceived inability to think implied that animals had no way of forming ideas and could not recognise good or evil, only pleasure and pain. He argued that humans should control nature, including the creation of new species of animals and plants and put forward the concept that humans could also control rivers and develop natural resources.324 This view questioned the dominance of religious control of the natural world, as God was not the only being that could control and steer nature.

Buffon however, expressed his awareness and opposed unnecessary animal suffering, but argued that humans were superior and had the right to use animals.325 He stated that the manipulation of nature was necessary for human progress and that these actions were morally just, because of innate human qualities.326 He maintained that nature could survive and thrive when engineered by humans and there would always be a plentiful supply of animals and plants.327

Figure 37: Comte de Buffon, Study of American Wildlife, 1749-1767.328

320 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books Ltd, 2007) 98. 321 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 98. 322 Some people still believe this is in modern culture, referring to a dog as a “dumb animal”. 323 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 84,(2012): 127. 324 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 84,(2012): 126. 325 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 84,(2012): 126. 326 Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 84,(2012): 126. 327Wolloch, “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals,” 84,(2012): 126. 328 Image of a page from Histoire Naturelle, 1749-1767. http://www.heatons-of- tisbury.co.uk/animals12b2.html accessed 21/11/2017

However, Buffon’s idea of the natural world and its creatures was ill-informed. He studied other artists’ representations of animals in paintings, sculptures, drawings engravings and examined dead animals, stuffed and preserved in alcohol, to form his theories of natural science.329 Buffon did not observe the animals he portrayed in real life, he misrepresented exotic animals in his illustrations as anatomically incorrect. Buffon and other artists at the time “…did not have access to the animal they needed to describe and draw; nor had they ever seen them.”330 For example, from Buffon’s illustrations in (Fig. 37) Study of American Wild life, it is clear that he had not seen these animals in real life.

In the seventeenth century portraits of people were often accompanied by an animal, but by the eighteenth century there was a shift to portraits of unaccompanied animals.331 Dogs and horses still symbolised power, wealth and social status and were now anatomically correct. Equestrian and hunting portraits were particularly popular during the Enlightenment. The painter, George Stubbs (1724 – 1806) in particular, demonstrated his knowledge of the anatomy and his understanding of the movement of a horse in his equestrian portraits. The human no longer dominated the portrait, animals were often depicted as the sole subject, which supports the notion that the image of the animal was of some value in itself.332 Animal portraits, in particular of dogs, were painted to represent not only the status of the owner, but the intelligence and temperament of the owner. To have a clever dog as a pet reflected the intelligence of the owner and their tastes for the refined.333 In some cases, this concept still exists today.

The structure of a portrait was important in putting weight on the pose and character of an animal subject. Madeleine Pinault Sorensen stated, “The boundaries between humanity and animality are blurred when an artist depicts the animal in a human posture and moreover, moved by human sentiment”.334

This allowed the artist to infuse the portrait with human qualities, drawing humans and animals closer through the anthropomorphised image.335 336

329 Madeleine Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800” in A Cultural History of Animals: The Age of Enlightenment, ed. Matthew Senior (New York: Berg, 2007), 170. 330Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800," 170. 331Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800,” 175. 332Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800,” 177. 333Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800,” 189. 334Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800,” 191. 335Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800,” 191. 336 The physical appearance of monkeys was an obvious parallel. A Macaque by Nicolas Mare’chal, painted in 1793 where the monkey appears to not only recognise but admire its own reflection in the mirror (human vice, vanity), or perhaps the monkey is merely curious at what he sees.

Figure 38: Louis Mare’chal, A Macaque, 1793. Bodycolour on vellum, 41.2 x 31.4 cm. Bibliotheque centrale du Museum nationals d’Histoire naturelle.337

Artists often placed animals in humanistic poses or domestic scenes, such as a dog resting in front of a fire or a mother dog feeding her pups. These scenes provoked the notion of sentimental domestic bliss. Artists also considered the fate of captive animals, imprisoned in zoos. Some artists portrayed captive animals as if they were in their natural environment, choosing to exclude the bars and fences that held them captive.

However, early zoos deprived the incarcerated animals of freedom, moreover, lack of space meant that animals could attack and even kill other imprisoned animals. This meant that many zoo animals lived in constant fear.338 The captive animals were a source of amusement and curiosity and in early zoos, their needs were very often not met. Again, the sensitivity to animal suffering was overlooked or not comprehended.

On the other hand, zoos gave artists the opportunity to observe live exotic animals as opposed to dead, motionless subjects. Observing exotic creatures helped artists to develop an intimate understanding of their ‘wild’ subjects. The observations of moving subjects of flesh and blood was reflected in the artwork and this gave rise to increased anthropomorphism in art.339 For the first time in Western art, the animals portrayed, in particular wild animals, were not merely representations but animals depicted with spirit and personality. This closeness of the

337 National Library of France, Paris, Natural History collection onelinehttps://www.google.com.au/search?q=a+macaque+by+nicolas+marechal,+1793&espv=2&biw=13 39&bih=623&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirjaO_3aTQAhVGjJQKHXc9CmAQ_AUIBigB#tb m=isch&q=art+work+of+nicolas+marechal&imgdii=mQkSUoPCMiI7uM%3A%3BmQkSUoPCMiI7uM%3A% 3B8-cSx1QL_0lLYM%3A&imgrc=mQkSUoPCMiI7uM%3A (accessed November 13, 2016) 338Pinault Sorensen, “Portraits of Animals, 1600-1800,” 194. 339 Geoff Dyer, ed., Selected Essays John Berger (New York: Vintage International, 2003), 264.

observation of animals through their image may have evoked a closer relation to the reality of humans. At the same time, the idea of domesticated animals as property continued to grow with the development of the Industrial Age. Farms grew into businesses where the treatment of farm animals was out of sight and the animal’s welfare became less important.340

Contemporary Society and the Argument for Animal Rights

In order to understand the ideas that influence contemporary artists it is necessary to describe the arguments that lead to a more compassionate view of animals.

Contemporary debate highlights the question of the moral status of non-human animals341 and consequently what rights they have. This can be seen as an extension of the moral debate on abortion342 where a foetus, while having no agency or autonomy, can be considered to still have rights. Consequently, there is an argument that non-human animals may not possess agency or autonomy or moral worth yet may have some rights.

Morality requires us to treat two beings the same way unless there is something appositely different to justify treating them differently.343 For example, an inanimate object, such as a rock is different to a creature of flesh and blood, like a dog, so each should be treated differently. While non-human animals and humans are structured differently, but have many commonalities. Mammals, for example, have an internal skeleton, nervous system, muscles, blood and skin, as humans do. Humans even share similar organs, such as, brain, lungs, heart, kidneys and liver. Genetic analysis shows many commonalities, to around ninety-five percent, between humans and apes.344

Are animals sufficiently like humans to warrant moral status345 and if so, how much status? 346 Or are animals adequately different from humans that we can treat them as we like?347 Scholar and

340 Most consumers do not want to know about the killing of animals to provide meat, much less the living conditions. 341 Hugh La Follette, ed. Ethics in Practice: An Anthology 2nd ed. (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 104. 342 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104. 343 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104. 344 Kate Wong, “Humans and other Primate Pervade the Genome, Genome comparisons reveal the DNA that distinguishes Homo sapiens from its kin, Scientific American, September, 2014. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/tiny-genetic-differences-between-humans-and-other- primates-pervade-the-genome/ (accessed January 11, 2018). 345 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104. 346 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104. 347 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104.

independent writer Lewis Vaughn (1937 - ) states “Indirect moral consideration is granted respect or concern” 348 to an individual because of its relationship to another, this view considers animals should be granted indirect moral consideration because of their usefulness to humans,349 rather than being respected for their intrinsic value.

Morality and Human Behaviour

Humans judge moral behaviour from a human centred perspective, which narrows investigation and perhaps distorts reality. American ethologist, Mark Bekoff (born 1945) suggests using human based morality to judge animals’ morality is a mistake.350 Different species have specific functions in the environment, which can often dictate their actions and their moral behaviour.351 Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (born 1965) argue that animals have complex family and community structures which enforce certain moral behaviour that assists co-operation in the group. Elli H. Radinger (born 1951), German wolf expert, states the “In a wolf family the parents decide together…”352 for most of the actions that effect the pack. Moral behaviour is instructed through social play and they suggest that social play is necessary for the ongoing existence of the species, stating that “…morality has evolved in animals other than humans”.353 Affording rights on the basis of moral behaviour would also exclude some humans, as humans are known to act immorally in some cases. However, these people are still considered to have the right of protection from suffering.

Developing Ideas regarding the Rights of Animals

Questions have been raised by philosophers such as Michael Fox (born 1940), Peter Singer (born 1946), Tom Regan (born 1938), and Raymond G. Frey (born 1941) about how we treat non-human animals. In particular they are concerned by the plight of mammals and birds that are used for

348 Lewis Vaughn, Doing Ethics: Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues, 3rd Edition (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 2013), 544. 349 Vaughn, Doing Ethics: Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues, 544. 350 Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce, Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 9. 351 Bekoff and Pierce, Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals, 9. 352 Simon Caterson “Lessons from the wild we need to learn” The Sydney Morning Herald, Books (Review) of “The Wisdom of Wolves: How Wolves Can Teach Us To Be More Human” by Elli H. Radinger, May 25, 2019. 353 Bekoff and Pierce, Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals, intro Xii.

entertainment, sources of food, in biomedical experiments and for their skins.354 When most people believed these animals had no moral worth, they could be used as desired. Until recently their suffering was ignored as a ‘mechanical’ reaction.355 356 For philosophers such as Fox, Regan, Singer and Frey it is not a matter of if they have moral status, but how much moral status they have.

Fox claims that to gain full moral status, a creature must have rights and responsibilities and be a member of the moral community.357 Furthermore, the creature must have critical self-awareness and have the capacity to operate complex concepts, which would ensure them a place in a moral community.358 However Regan argues that if we were to accept such rigorous criteria of moral status, we would have to exclude human infants and intellectually disabled adult humans from moral membership.359 Regan claims that infants and intellectually disabled adults, who have been granted moral status, even though they cannot act for themselves (moral patients) and need to rely on others (moral agents) to act for them, are not dissimilar to non-human animals.360 He states that non-human animals are “subjects to a life”361: they have a life that matters to them. Marquis agrees that some animals “have serious moral status even if they do not have a hint of moral agency.”362 In this way, the study of moral philosophy can both restrict and extend inclusion in the moral community.363

Being a part of the moral community awards rights as well as duties. While some consider dogs to lack a sense of duty, to have moral standards or have interest in their lives, the law deems them to be helpless like human infants or the disabled.364 A dog relies solely on its owner for its well-being, just as a human child.365 In these terms, the dog has been raised according to the household’s moral guidelines and is thought of as an honorary member of the household and the

354 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104. 355 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 104. 356 This view has been questioned today as it is generally considered that it would not be right to torture animals and such acts are punishable by law. 357 Michael Allen Fox, “The Moral Community,” in Ethics in Practice: An Anthology 2nd edition, ed. Hugh La Follette, (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 118. 358 Fox, “The Moral Community,” 118. 359 Tom Regan, “The Case for Animal Rights,” in Ethics in Practice: An Anthology 2nd edition, ed. Hugh La Follette, (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 141. 360 Tom Regan, “The Case for Animal Rights,” 141. 361 Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 243. 362 La Follette, Ethics in Practice: An Anthology, 105. 363 Bradley D. Rowe “Animal Rights and Human Growth: Intellectual Courage and Extending the Moral Community”, Philosophical Studies in Education, Vol. 40 (2009):155. 364 Paul Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, (Washington D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1996), 309. 365 Roger Scruton, Animal Rights and Wrongs, 3rd ed. (London: Metro Books, 2000), 84.

community. This membership does not bestow the burden of duties on the dog, just as a human child but awards protection.366 Shepherd states they deserve protection367 as this protection assumes culpability when it has been violated, and a claim can be raised. Thus the concept of rights, relates to justice.368

Singer claims that animals deserve moral consideration because they can suffer and have interests369 and the claim that they must have moral agency does not come into it.370 He considers that it can be morally insupportable to apply suffering to one species over another, when one (humans) benefits from the results and the other species gains nothing.371 While animals have moral status, he questions how much and, if they should have equal status to humans. Also, how much consideration should be taken into account regarding their interests?

Frey acknowledges that such suffering is morally significant and the notion of equality is noteworthy.372 He and Singer agree that is it morally correct to “maximise the greatest happiness of the greatest number”373 and this view extends to the happiness of non-human animals, because they can suffer as humans do. Frey suggests that ‘higher’ animals such as mammals and birds merit more moral respect because they have some emotional and cognitive abilities.374 These abilities bring them closer to the human condition.375

Frey considers “Since animals are not as cognitively and emotionally complex as (most) humans, then their lives are not as rich,”376 yet he agrees there are moral limits to the way we treat animals.377 He claims that an animal’s moral status varies according to the richness of its life and that most animals’ lives are not as rich as those of normal adult humans. Consequently, he believes that they should be treated differently for they are not the same as normal adult humans, although they count morally.378 In his view, humans can use non-human animals for our own ends

366 Scruton, Animal Rights and Wrongs, 83. 367 Paul Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, (Washington D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1996), 309. 368 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 309. 369 Peter Singer, “All Animals are Equal” in Ethics in Practice: An Anthology 2nd ed. Hugh La Follette (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 110. 370 Singer, “All Animals are Equal,”110. 371 R.G. Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism” in Ethics in Practice: An Anthology 2nd ed. Hugh La Follette (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 128. 372 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 128. 373 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 128. 374 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 128. 375 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 129. 376 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 137. 377 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 138. 378 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 138.

if the benefits justify the suffering.379 380 However Frey judges the richness of the lives of animals purely from a human centred perceptive. Richness of life could be measured through the depth of experience. Comparing dogs’ experience of smell to that of humans would show that the dog’s experience is much richer than the humans’ experience. Also humans’ natural hearing capacity is much lower than that of a dog, which has the ability to hear sounds far into the distance.

The richness of life can also be measured by the capacity to enjoy life. For humans this may relate to intellectual development, love, hobbies, sporting events and so forth. However, it is difficult to measure this capacity when humans are physically or vocally unable to express their pleasure or displeasure. Yet they are still deemed to have higher moral status than dogs. Dogs can exhibit their experience of pleasure and displeasure through body language and by uttering sounds. They have the capacity to experience richness of life, however the width and depth of experience can often be limited by their master. So the richness of dogs’ lives can be subject to their master’s understanding of the needs of dogs and the respect of those needs. For example, allowing dogs to behave in an appropriate social manner, when approaching other dogs, such as sniffing each other’s tail, roll in muck or to follow a scent.

Rethinking Ideas of Dominion

Early Christian ideas of dominion were formed from the interpretation of the Holy Bible. Passages in the Old Testament urged some sensitivity toward animals, which could indicate that heedless cruelty was forbidden.381 It may be that the concept of ‘dominion’ may have meant ‘stewardship’, where humans were responsible to God for the well-being of other species under their regime.382 Though ‘domination’ was often interpreted to mean the justification of treatment which devalued animals, nature and other human beings. This interpretation may have been manipulated for human desires with the concept of dominion over-powering the idea of stewardship as conservation.

The concept of stewardship as nurture was not practiced by the early Romans who built their empire by conquest, this environment did not hold sympathy for the weak.383 Furthermore the

379 Frey, “Moral standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism,” 138. 380 Frey claims we could also use humans if there were substantial benefits and minimal suffering. 381 Singer, Animal Liberation, 188. 382 Singer, Animal Liberation, 188. 383 Singer, Animal Liberation, 189.

Romans did not destroy the lands they overcame, rather they fortified their ‘civilisation’. For example, the ‘games’ showed no compassion for certain humans and animals who were ranked as low status and were unfortunate enough to find themselves in the fighting area as entertainment. The Romans had a high regard for justice, public duty and consideration for their society,384 but their games showed that Roman society could limit moral consideration.385 386 Animals and some humans who fell short of these parameters were considered mere fodder for the games and their suffering was part of the show.387 388 389 390 With Christianity, came the concept of the uniqueness of the human species with emphasis placed on the idea of human beings having an immortal soul. The belief that only humans were predetermined to have life after mortal death, gifted human life as sacred and above the life of all other animals.391 The idea of soul widened the gap between humans and animals, where humans had an immortal soul and other animals did not.

Contemporary Rights for Dogs

Animals have the right not to suffer and to be given due moral consideration for their needs. The idea of animal rights has a long history. Pythagoras was believed to be the first animal rights philosopher392 and he venerated all animal life, refusing any association with hunting, butchery, or animal sacrifice.393 Animals are of flesh and blood with an interest in their pleasure rather than to experience pain, unlike an inanimate object such as a stone, which humans can treat as they desire.394 So it is considered immoral to cause unnecessary suffering to an animal.

384 Singer, Animal Liberation, 189. 385 Singer, Animal Liberation, 189. 386 This division can be seen today for example, humans enjoying the images of a young lamb bouncing around the field and then tuck into a lamb roast on Sunday. 387 Singer, Animal Liberation, 189. 388 Singer, Animal Liberation, 189. After the Roman Empire converted to Christianity, the games continued with the torturing and killing of non-human animals as entertainment. 389 Singer, Animal Liberation, 189. However, this declined overtime due to the lack of funds. 390 However, this practice of brutality as entertainment still exists in the form of bullfighting and dog fighting. 391 Singer, Animal Liberation, 191. 392 Stephen T Newmyer, “Animals in Ancient Philosophy: Conceptions and Misconceptions,” in A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007) 151. 393 J. Donald Hughes, “Hunting in the Ancient Mediterranean World,” in A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, ed. Linda Kalof (Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007) 69. 394 Singer, “All Animals Are Equal,”110.

Moral rights, distinct from legal rights, are granted to a human individual irrespective of race, sex or religious beliefs395 because they are subjects of life and have a life that is important to them and these considerations are equal. Peter Singer points out that: “If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration”.396

James Serpell (born 1952) argues that because dogs are perceived as having no linguistic capacity, they are seen to have no consciousness and are unable to perceive mistreatment or cruelty. When dogs are being beaten they cannot say ‘stop, you are hurting me’. This suffering can be observed, although dogs cannot speak, in the dog’s body language and this indicates their distress.

A perception is that humans are superior simply because of human intelligence.397 This can lead to a lack of moral consideration for animals. Humans’ superior intelligence does not automatically award them the moral high ground, it duty binds humans to treat other species morally, with respect and understanding for each species. Humans have the ability to reason what is moral and what is not and can perceive what is suffering and what is not. Humans have power to make moral choices which can lead to a positive human-animal relationship in which both human and animal may benefit.

The rights of human individuals exist through legal rights created by society and enforced by law. These rights can vary dramatically depending on the country, culture, race and sex of the individual.398 399 However, non-human species do not have the same legal rights as humans, as illustrated recently in the United States where an appeal was rejected by the appeals court to extend ‘legal personhood’ to a captive Chimpanzee.400 This denial of rights to non-human species extends to the domesticated dog, as humans recognise them to have no capacity to bear the responsibilities of legal rights. As dogs do not have the abilities necessary to vote and cannot improve their rights, they could be deemed ‘moral patients’. Dogs need someone to be an advocate for change on their behalf (moral agents). The idea of acting as a moral agent in the

395 Regan. The Case for Animal Rights, 267. 396 Singer, “All Animals Are Equal,”111. 397 James A. Serpell, “Having Our Dogs and Eating Them Too: Why Animals Are a Social Issue,” Journal of Social Issues 65.3 (2009): 636. 398 Regan, The Case for Animal Rights, 267. 399 For example, in Australia every Australian citizen over the age of 18 years has the right to vote. However, this was not always the case. Indigenous members of Australian society were only given the right to vote in the federal elections in 1962. Legal rights are subject to change and can be changed through legislation by eligible citizens exercising their right to vote. 400 Daniel Wiessner, “Chimpanzees have no human rights, US court rules”, Sydney Morning Herald, December 6, 2014.

ownership of dogs, no matter what role they play, is crucial and is even important in the representation of dogs by artists.

Figure 39: Vicki Hamilton, Performance Puppies (work in progress), 2019, Earthenware Clay, Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

My response to the notion that humans can be moral agent for dogs, is Performance Puppies (Fig. 39). Viewers have the opportunity to pick up and carry a ceramic pup around the gallery. However, if they do this they must take the puppy home or hand it to another responsible person, the puppy could not be returned to the puppy basket. My aim was to bestow the viewer with the responsibility of a virtual carer to highlight the importance of moral care for this vulnerable creature. To demonstrate this vulnerability each puppy has been formed with varying degrees of thicknesses, so some puppies are sturdy, while others may fracture. The earthenware pieces have been low fired so that each one has to be handled with great care or they will crack and break. The fragility of the pieces is a reminder that these creatures are sentient beings, restrict them too much and they will crack. The act of cracking emulates the result of ill treatment which may result in undesirable behavioural changes and cause long term suffering.

Each of these works are repeated moulded pieces, poured to a thickness to suit the affect I wish to create. The repetition is to signify puppies as a commodity with each puppy similar to the other, selectively bred and modified to appeal to consumers. Even though each puppy is similar I have finished each piece to render the puppy with a unique character, by altering the tail, ears and paws so each piece is a representation of an individual.

Organisations for the Protection of Dogs and Other Animals

As previously mentioned, the development of organisations for the protection of animals began during the reign of Queen Victoria such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA).401 These organisations are seen as advocates for animals and act on their behalf in the capacity of moral agents. Many of these organisations have developed into worldwide businesses covering a wide range of animal concerns, while others concentrate on specific areas, (see Appendix 4).

The RSPCA is a long standing organisation working against the cruel treatment of animals and it has developed programs to educate and inform human society about the treatment of unwanted animals, through advertising and television programs.402

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is the largest animal rights organisation in the world.403 This organisation is rights based, focusing of the rights and welfare of large numbers of animals in the food industry, clothing trade, scientific laboratories, entertainment industry and domestic animals in the home.404

The organisation, Compassion in World Farming, focuses on the treatment of animals in the intensive factory farming industry.405 The living conditions and welfare of livestock is revealed through websites, advertising and television.406

The Humane Society is a worldwide organisation for the protection of wild animals and their habitat. They provide disaster relief in developing countries for injured and abandoned animals and work with the World Trade Organization and United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation to improve the lives of farm animals.407 Their aim is to develop practical, long-term, cultural-sensitive solutions which benefit both humans and animals.408

401 Ironically, slavery was recognised as immoral and was abolished in the British Empire. 402 The success of these programs are represented in my artwork Bags of Babies, where it demonstrates the drop in numbers of unwanted pets being euthanised each year over a ten year period. 403 People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals https://www.peta.org/about-peta/ (accessed May 29, 2018) 404 People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. 405 Compassion in Work Farming https://www.ciwf.org.uk/about-us/ (accessed May 29, 2018) 406 The European Union have acknowledged farm animals as sentient beings with the capacity to suffer pain, as a result of political lobbying and campaigning by Compassion in World Farming. In real terms, this means the successful banning of barren battery cages for laying hens, the end to near-permanent confinement of sows and the eradication of narrow pens for young calves in the production of veal in the United Kingdom and Europe. https://www.ciwf.org.uk/about-us/ (accessed May 29, 2018) 407 Humane Society International https://www.hsi.org.au/go/to/12/about-us.html#.WxXZaUiFPIU (accessed June 5, 2018) 408 Humane Society International.

The number of organisations working to improve animal welfare, supports the notion that humanity is moving towards better treatment of animals through respect for their rights. Some of the organisations for the protection of animals have developed powerful influence in the political arena, which have determined policies that benefit animals. Does this mean that dogs benefit from the new approach? In the next chapter I examine some aspects of contemporary tension between old and new views on human-dog relationships.

Chapter Four

Greyhound Racing: Death in the Fast Lane

In researching the history of the treatment of animals and how artists represented these ideas I have found ways to both understand human motives and to realise my personal responses through my art works. At the beginning I was puzzled as to why relatively superficial human needs and desires could be so dominant and have such priority over those of another living creature. It has become clear that there are many complex issues and motivations that influence this relationship.

In 2016 the Australian NSW State government banned announced the end of Greyhound racing in NSW by 1st July, 2017.409 The evidence for cruelty in this ‘sport’ was comprehensive and convincing. Yet, after pressure from some groups in society, the ban was later lifted. Why did the interests of a small section of society overwhelm the opposition of some groups concerned with the welfare of these greyhound dogs? Accordingly this example can be considered a detailed case study for the conflicts regarding the treatment of dogs in contemporary society.

This chapter sets out the issues around this ban and indicates the primacy of vested interest in the practice of greyhound racing. It was through my research into this issue that I was able to identify some principles for my art practice.

The practice of breeding for purpose has resulted in modifying the appearance of domesticated dogs as well as encouraging basic characteristics, such as obedience to human command. But humans have also encouraged certain aggressive behaviours. Racing greyhounds are intelligent sighthounds originally bred for chasing down game. The dogs’ slight, muscular bodies allow them to reach speeds of up to 70 kilometres per hour, chasing a mechanical lure around a circular track in competitive racing.

Figure 40: “Official Greyhound Colour Chart”.410

409 Simon Thomsen, “Mike Baird has banned greyhound racing in NSW,” Business Insider Australia, July 7, 2016. 410 “The Official Greyhound Colour Chart” https://i1.wp.com/aboutdogs.eu/wp- content/uploads/2016/09/greyhound7-1-1.jpg?fit=3456%2C2160&ssl=1 (accessed April 3, 2018).

Greyhound racing was imported into South Wales, United Kingdom from the United States during the inter-war years.411 Consequently, greyhounds were and still are extensively used worldwide as a racing animal. Gaming (betting) on greyhounds is legal in Australia, Ireland, China, Spain, Mexico, United Kingdom and United States of America. However, in these countries, arguments exist for and against greyhound racing when the treatment of greyhounds has been exposed.

Evidence of Cruelty in Greyhound Racing in Australia

A ban on greyhound racing was initiated by the NSW government in 2016 after an official inquiry was launched due to claims of cruelty to dogs and live baiting in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland.412 413 The Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s Four Corners programme documented cruel training practices within the greyhound racing industry showing footage of illegal live baiting, brutal treatment of dogs, disposal of unwanted dogs and pups and race fixing through the drugging of greyhounds. Such acts of cruelty are deemed illegal under the NSW Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1979.414 Under the Crimes Act 1900, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 a NSW corporation or an individual can be fined a maximum of 110,000 or 22,000 dollars respectively and the punishment carries a jail term of up to five years. In Australia the fines and jail time vary from state to state.

One argument against greyhound racing is the practice of blooding dogs, which is allowing dogs to chase and kill small animals in training. There are two types of greyhound racing - one is racing around an oval track chasing an artificial lure and the second is called ‘coursing’ where the dogs chase a live lure and are allowed to kill the live animal, at the end of the race, which is called blooding the dog. Blooding is used in both types of greyhound racing.415 The ABC’s Four Corners programme “Making a Killing”416 exposed this illegal and cruel practice, which prompted the official enquiry.417 The Special Commission of Inquiry’s report stated that twenty percent of

411 Daryl Leeworthy, “A Diversion from the New Leisure: Greyhound Racing Working-Class Culture and the Politics of Unemployment in Inter-war South Wales,” Sport in History 32, no. 1(March, 2012):68. Daryl Leeworthy, claims greyhound racing provided work during a time of long term unemployment which gripped South Wales in the inter-war years. 412 ABC’s Four Corners program investigation in 2015 uncovered cruel treatment in the industry that was then, forecasted to the public. 413 Thomsen, “Mike Baird has banned greyhound racing in NSW.” 414 NSW Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1979, No 200, Section 17. 415 These activities are deemed illegal under the NSW Prevention to Cruelty to Animals Act, however still prevail. NSW Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1979, No 200. Part 2, Section 21. 416 Nick Smith, “Making a Killing” Four Corners ABC February 15, 2015. 417 The illegal practice of blooding dogs with live bait is when a small live animal such as a rabbit, piglet or possum is tied to the race track apparatus as a lure. The captive animal’s cries and movement excites the

trainers use illegal live baiting in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland.418 The image (Fig. 41) highlights that greyhounds are not the only animals that suffer misery, brutality and death due to training dogs for racing.

Figure 41: Poster on Animal Liberation Queensland website, 7 July 2016.419

Greyhounds suffer mistreatment and cruelty in order to race and this begins at birth. Two thousand greyhound pups are disposed of every year in NSW, because they have not got the qualities deemed necessary to race.420 Greyhound Racing NSW estimates three thousand adult greyhounds die by lethal injection each year in NSW alone, a figure the RSPCA takes as a minimum.”421 In some cases, dogs that are uncompetitive are auctioned off online, then shipped to Macau,422 China and Vietnam. There they live in inhumane conditions and are raced to exhaustion and death.423 The export of retired greyhounds continues, where some greyhounds have even been sent to an animal theme park in Shanghai to race cheetahs.424 The fate of these dogs is dismal, they live in dark, hot confinement and if they are injured they are fed live to the park’s large predators.425 This is an indication of the negative cultural ideas about the treatment of dogs. Few retired greyhounds are rehomed in Australia because people believe that they would

greyhound causing the dog to chase down the lure. In some cases, the lure animal is devoured when caught. 418 Thomsen, “Mike Baird has banned greyhound racing in NSW.” 419 Animal Liberation Queensland website http://alq.org.au/sites/default/files/u48/Web%20Article%20Header%20%281%29.jpg (accessed March 26, 2018). 420 No author, “Ban greyhound racing: the arguments are compelling,” The Sydney Morning Herald, February 17, 2015, Editorial. 421 Sean Rubinszrein-Dunlop “Greyhound racing industry hit with doping, cruelty, collusion allegations,” ABC News, October 16, 2013. 422 Anastasia Smietanka stated in “Live Export: A cruel and Risky Industry” Issues 103, June 2013: 4, Australia is the largest exporter of greyhounds to Macau. 423 Caro Meldrum and Sam Clark,”Slow Australian greyhounds being exported to Macau, China to go on death row,” ABC 7.30 Report, December, 9, 2015. 424 Eamonn Duff, “Australian greyhounds force to race cheetahs at Shanghai Wild Animal Park,” The Sydney Morning Herald, May 27, 2017. 425 Duff, “Australian greyhounds force to race cheetahs at Shanghai Wild Animal Park.”

not make good pets.426 However, efforts by greyhound rescue organisations are promoting otherwise.427

Figure 42: Poster in favour of the Greyhound Racing Ban, appearing on an online petition, 2016.428

Race fixing and doping are often hidden costs to the welfare of the racing animal. To fix a race, drugs are administered by the trainer before the race to either slow the dog down or speed it up.429 For example, beta-blockers used in the United Kingdom reduce the adrenaline near the end of the race and the dog slows down.430 This procedure is repeated several times bringing down the odds by reducing its handicap. Consequently, the drug free dog is put into a race with slower animals and wins.

The other strategy is to drug the dog in order for it to run faster, sometimes faster than it is physically safe to do so. Popular drugs include cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine and EPO, the performance-enhancing hormone. Cocaine, for example, is either injected or the powder wiped on the gums of the dog before the race.431 A Sydney trainer432 states that eighty per cent of greyhound trainers need to dope their dogs to compete and un-medicated dogs have no chance against drugged dogs.433

426 RSPCA NSW https://www.rspcansw.org.au/rspca-nsw-blog/greyhound-racing-ban-faqs (accessed December, 16, 2016). 427 Greyhounds as Pets adoption website https://www.gapnsw.com.au/adopt/ (accessed July 17, 2018). 428 https://pbs.twimg.com/profile_banners/2813171471/1412719496/1500x500 (accessed March 26, 2018). 429 Jason Bennetto, Crime Correspondent, “Dogs, drugs and scandal in a twilight world,” Independent United Kingdom, November 18, 1995. 430 Bennetto, “Dogs, drugs and scandal in a twilight world.” 431 Rubinsztein-Dunlop, “Greyhound racing industry hit with doping, cruelty, collusion allegations.” 432 ‘“Sydney trainer Christos Arletos has been racing greyhounds for the past twenty-five years and says there "never was, and never will be" a level playing field.” In Rubinsztein-Dunlop, “Greyhound racing industry hit with doping, cruelty, collusion allegations,” 433Rubinsztein-Dunlop, “Greyhound racing industry hit with doping, cruelty, collusion allegations,”

Figure 43. Poster from Occupy for Animals!434

Consequently, like many sports where gambling is involved, there is not a level playing field due to corruption. Corruption can flourish in any industry that is incapable of self-regulation. For example, a trainer considered top in her field has been found, several times, to have drugged her dogs to increase performance. This trainer, Jodie Lord, has been repeatedly disqualified from racing after cocaine and steroids had been found in her dogs.435 436 437 Yet, Lord continues to race her dogs.

These practises often end in lethal injuries, fractured skulls, broken backs and broken legs. It is estimated that in one-year one hundred and eighty dogs suffer catastrophic injuries while racing, which often ended in the dogs being euthanised.438 The fate of injured dogs on the track are determined by Greyhound race stewards, who are not trained veterinarians.

The living conditions and transportation of greyhounds also need to be considered, as many greyhounds spend their off track time muzzled and in cages.439 Consequently, these dogs endure cage and muzzle sores along with infestations of internal and external parasites.440 As access to green areas regularly is important in order to curb fatigue and parasite infections, unsuitable transportation is also an important factor. The dogs carry very little body fat, which makes them susceptible when exposed to extreme temperatures, and they can die from heat stress whilst

434 Poster on Occupy for Animals! Website: http://www.occupyforanimals.net/uploads/7/7/3/5/7735203/3017819.jpg?581 (accessed March 26, 2018). Occupy for Animals! Website displays this poster to remind the community that the exploitation of greyhound racing dogs continues despite their ill-treatment being exposed for public consideration. 435 In 2005 she was banned after drugging one of her dogs with cocaine. Lord is currently serving another disqualification for using a banned anti-anxiety medication “Oxydiazepam” on one of her dogs in 2015. 23 Sean Rubinsztein-Dunlop, “Veteran greyhound trainer Jodie Lord disqualified over banned drugs in dogs,” ABC News, July 12, 2016. 437 Rubinsztein-Dunlop, “Veteran greyhound trainer Jodie Lord disqualified over banned drugs in dogs.” 438Thomsen, “Mike Baird has banned greyhound racing in NSW.” 439 No author, “Greyhound racing: Death in the Fast Lane,” PETA, Issues, Animals for entertainment (accessed September 22, 2016). 440 No author, “Greyhound racing: Death in the Fast Lane.”

being transported for racing. Ranged against the aspects of the cruelty existing in this ‘sport’ remain arguments against banning the sport.

Opposition to the Banning this Sport

The banning of greyhound racing was supported because of the cruel treatment of dogs and other animals. The industry was described as incapable of self-regulation and it was argued that the economic and social arguments in support of the industry were flawed. These assertions were vigorously opposed by the industry. It was claimed that the loss of many economic and social benefits from greyhound racing in New South Wales would harm the human community. 441

Greyhound racing is a big business disguised as ‘sport’, generating approximately forty-eight million dollars annually (2016 figures)442 in New South Wales and providing an income stream for a range of industries and businesses, particularly in regional areas. The greyhound racing industry also supports hospitality, the operation of race tracks, veterinary services, pet food suppliers and associate suppliers for cages, muzzles and racing gear.

Greyhound Racing NSW claimed that thirteen thousand people are actively involved with greyhound racing in New South Wales443 although, most of these people are on a volunteer basis.444 This organisation estimated that the industry employed approximately one thousand, five hundred and sixty-one people full time or the equivalent directly or indirectly.445

Breeding and training is claimed to be the single most important contributor in the industry. In Australia sixty-five percent of racing dogs are bred in regional New South Wales and sixty-two percent of dog trainer’s work in regional areas.446 Because New South Wales is the major contributor to greyhound stock nationwide,447 the action of the NSW Government affected all states.

441 Bridget Glanville and Sarah Gerathy, “NSW Premier Mike Baird admits he ‘got it wrong’ after backflip on greyhound racing ban,”ABC News, October 11, 2016. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10- 11/greyhound-ban-baird-government-confirms-backflip/7921000 (accessed June 10, 2019). 442 Thomsen, “Mike Baird has banned greyhound racing in NSW.” 443Written by GRNSW, “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution” The Dogs.com.au. February 7, 2011. News. 444 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.” 445 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.” 446 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.” 447 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.”

Through greyhound racing, the gaming industry contributes one hundred and forty-four million dollars to the economy of New South Wales each year.448 Other associated industries such as wagering contributed an estimated eight hundred and twenty million dollars through greyhound racing in NSW 2009-10.449 The greyhound industry contributed thirty million dollars in wagering taxes in 2015.450 Consequently, the loss of economic value to New South Wales was a significant part of the argument against the proposed racing ban.

While racing dogs is not as popular as racing horses and the prize money is not as great, money remains a high incentive for owners and trainers. This became an influential factor of the government’s final decision, although the vast majority of participants operate at a significant financial loss.451 452

The argument based on social value of the sport arises from greyhound racing being considered a pursuit of the working class, the ‘poor man’s’ sport.453 Attending the greyhound track is an affordable activity for the same socio-economic sector of the community, offering entertainment, social interaction and in some cases financial gain.

There were a range of social benefits claimed by the industry, particularly in regional areas, that were identified.454 The race meetings are essentially social events which are particularly valued, where people meet at the track or local club for entertainment and companionship. The race tracks are made available to the community for other local events apart from greyhound racing. Such events contribute to building stronger community bonds.

Greyhound racing is a family tradition and in some cases has existed for generations, so that any change to the industry is strongly resisted. For some training families the greyhound industry is their only source of income. They claim that they would go bankrupt if the ban was implemented. The ban would put the future of the existing dog racing stock in jeopardy because, without the benefits of racing, trainers claim they could not afford to care for these dogs. The fate of the racing stock would become uncertain and the future of the breed would become in doubt.

448 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.” 449 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.” 450 Rick Wallace, “Greyhound racing ban costs thousands of jobs,” The Australian, July 8, 2016. 451 No author, “Ban greyhound racing: the arguments are compelling.” 452 The highest amount of prize money earnt so far, was by “Fernando Bale” one million, two hundred and ninety-nine thousand, three hundred and seventy dollars for forty-three races with thirty-four wins and last raced 2016. https://fasttrack.grv.org.au/Dog/Form/255840010 (accessed May 20, 2017). 453 Raymond Madden, “Imaging the greyhound: ‘Racing’ and ‘rescue’ narratives in a human and dog relationship,” Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies, 24, no.4 (2010): 507. 454 “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution.”

There is a belief amongst these supporters of the industry that the idea of the ban was based on ‘half-truths’ and that the majority of owners and trainers genuinely care for the welfare of their dogs and do not treat them cruelly.455 The greyhound racing industry is claimed to be the only racing code to rehome retired racing animals.456 However, RSPCA figures indicate that only about one thousand dogs are rehomed in New South Wales each year.457

Arguments against the Industry’s Position

Greyhound racing is not the only contributor or cause for community gatherings in rural Australia. Community events are essential for the well-being of the inhabitants in isolated areas, who do not have the opportunity to socialise on a regular basis. However, community events that indirectly cause suffering and cruelty to animals should be scrutinised. Does a society that supports cock fighting, bear baiting and bull fighting provide good models for communities? There is a fundamental flaw in a society that reaps the benefits from suffering and exploitation of any vulnerable members of their community, including animals. The mistreatment of these dogs and lure animals has been well documented.

The recognition of the detrimental effects on dogs and other animal species for human purposes is gaining awareness. As stated by Peter Hartcher, (writer for the Sydney Morning Herald) the ‘rights revolutions’ have over centuries increased the boundaries to acknowledge and award power to “… ordinary citizens, to slaves, to women, to indigenous people, to the disabled, to homosexuals, to children and increasingly today to animals.”458

The economic argument provided by the greyhound industry that it supports a large number of people, does not stand up to scrutiny.459 Nevertheless, the small number involved provide a strong vocal voting block and the number of people opposed to this sport exist as a silent presence. Consequently, the NSW State Government quickly reversed their decision to ban

455 AAP, The Courier Mail “Greyhound racing ban: Queensland urged to follow NSW lead,” Townsville Bulletin, July 7, 2016, News Stated Queensland Greyhound Breeders Owners and Trainers Association president Brenton Wilson condemned the proposed ban in NSW. 456 Megan Levy and Matt O'Sullivan, “Greyhound racing banned in NSW: Mike Baird announces ban after special enquiry,”,Sydney Morning Herald, July 7, 2016. News. 457 No author, RSPCA NSW https://www.rspcansw.org.au/rspca-nsw-blog/greyhound-racing-ban-faqs (accessed December 16, 2016). 458 Peter Hartcher, “The destructive American fad that Australia needs to avoid,” Sydney Morning Herald, September 29, 2018, Opinion, 36. 459 Of the approximately twelve million people employed full time in Australia in 2017, only a very small percentage, .0008%459 represents full time employment in Greyhound racing industry. No author, “Labour Force, 6202.1, October 2016, Australian Bureau of Statistics.

greyhound racing in October, 2017.460 The social benefits of racing to the human community were pointed out as advantageous and out-weighed the welfare of the dogs.461 However, many of the trainers and owners consider the welfare of their dogs paramount, as a healthy dog will perform better and longer, which is financially beneficial. So that the demise of the greyhound racing industry in New South Wales was deemed to be of no benefit to the community. The failure to carry out the ban on greyhound racing indicates that ideas of the primacy of human desires, and the belief in animals as property, along with the failure to recognise animal rights, are strongly held within the community.

Because of the political implications of the government’s decision, the ban was lifted. The arguments against greyhound racing were not seen to be as powerful as the potential economic and political losses. It could be considered that this nation’s morality was under scrutiny with the examination of the greyhound racing industry. While the 2015 ABC’s Four Corners programme highlighted immoral practices in the industry and exposed them for public debate, other animal industries such as horse racing and live animal export are also vulnerable to similar examination.462 The overwhelming value placed on human jobs, wealth and well-being still reflect the unequal relationship between humans and animals, as the final decision was to revoke the ban on greyhound racing, regardless of the proof of conditions exposed. The arguments offered provide a case study that describe some of the current conflicts in today’s society around the treatment of animals. The case for compassionate treatment in respect for the rights of greyhounds was strongly opposed by the argument that human rights over animals and human interest should prevail.

Furthermore in July 2018 the NSW State Government had not only reversed the initial ban but also provided 500,000 dollars of taxpayer’s money to boost prize money to 1.7 million dollars.463 This was for the ‘Million Dollar Chase’ event, which the industry claims is the richest dog race in the world.464 In a duplicitous attempt to address community concerns regarding the disposal of unwanted dogs, the government stated that the funds will only be provided to the winner on the

460 Michael Slezak, “Greyhound racing ban overturned: animal welfare groups blast Mike Baird,” The Guardian, News, NSW Politics. 461 This view can be traced back to the medieval period when dogs were pitted against bears and bulls for entertainment of the low status community. 462 ABC’s Four Corners programme also examined the live export of cattle to Indonesia, which revealed brutal, disrespectful treatment of animals for slaughter. 463 Laura Weyman-Jones, “The NSW Government Has Made an OBSECENE Donation to a Greyhound Race,”PETA, August 3, 2018. 464 No author, “Greyhound racing: NSW Government criticized for tipping in $500,000 in prize money, ABC News, July 31, 2018.

proviso that the winning dog is not destroyed and is appropriately rehomed on retirement.465 This deed however, saves only the winning dog leaving all other racing greyhounds at risk.

Advocates for the prevention of cruelty to animals suggest that the indifference to the suffering of these dogs is only one part of their concerns regarding the cruelty that exists in this industry.466 The savage acts of live baiting, disposal of surplus puppies for the purpose of selective breeding, destroying under-performing dogs, the exacerbation of racing injuries, drugging dogs and inhumane living conditions reflect a negative value to vulnerable animals in human care. Even with the spotlight on this industry, mistreatment and disposal of dogs is still a current issue.467 In July 2018 the RSPCA uncovered nine greyhound bodies on a Sydney trainer’s property and removed another twelve emaciated dogs from their care.468

The response of a State Government, that initially intended to ban greyhound racing on the basis of inhumane treatment to dogs in the industry, to them giving taxpayers’ money in prizes to encourage this industry clearly indicated that the growing awareness regarding cruel treatment of animals as the same indifference can be seen in other animal industries, such as the live export of sheep and cattle has little effect on society.469

In considering the conflicts between the supporters of greyhound racing and their opponents I extracted what I think to be the guiding decisions regarding the relationships of these dogs and humans. Firstly, because of the innate qualities present in dogs such as ability to chase game and the capacity to be trained to do so, humans have exploited these capacities for their own needs and desires. Secondly, the belief of some sections of society that human needs are paramount over other species permits the neglect of the welfare of dogs. This tolerates upholding lesser human desires, such as gambling and entertainment to overrule welfare issues for dogs such as health, suffering and even death. The perils of greyhound racing for dogs, show the willingness of many humans to take their human ‘right’ for a ‘fun’ racing experience.

465 Tom Rabe, “NSW Government fund ‘richest’ greyhound race,” The Courier Mail, July 31, 2018. Other Sports. 466 Laura Weyman-Jones, “The NSW Government Has Made an OBSECENE Donation to a Greyhound Race,”PETA, August 3, 2018. 467 Brooke Wylie and Jamie McKinnell, “Mass greyhound grave found at Sydney property, a dozen emaciated dogs seized,” ABC News Friday, July 13, 2018. 468 Wylie and McKinnell, “Mass greyhound grave found at Sydney property, a dozen emaciated dogs seized.” 469 Calla Wahlquist, “Exporter and Western Australia government at odds over fate of 60,000 sheep,” The Guardian, June 25, 2018, AU Politics, News.

The Response of Artists

A number of artists have produced works which question the current human-animal relationships in relation to the treatment of greyhounds, such as Sarah Regan-Snavely, Martin Usborne and Julie Brunn.

Figure 44: Sarah Regan-Snavely, Prey Drive 1, 2011. Stoneware, dimensions unknown.470

American artist, Sarah Regan-Snavely (born 1940) adopted her first greyhound in 1995 and has since focused most of her work around these dogs.471 She states fragility, strength, humour and a sense of belonging and exclusion are fundamental aspects in her work.472 Snavely sculpts her dogs mainly in clay because of the plastic and malleable qualities.473 However, she explains that constructing the dogs in this material is challenging, yet inspiring.474 Figure 44 Prey Drive 1 is a ceramic representation of the artist’s understanding of the innate qualities of greyhounds, and their desire to chase small, fast moving creatures. Prey Drive 1 (Fig. 44) shows the dog as an extremely focussed animal with the capacity to follow instinct. This instinct is controlled by chasing rabbits or having ‘bunnies in its brain’. The artist has depicted one rabbit at the steering wheel, while another two rabbit passengers enjoy the ride, as if the family of rabbits were out for a Sunday drive in the country. This work addresses the instinctive motivation of greyhounds to chase rabbits which is so strongly exploited in the greyhound racing industry.

470 http://greyhoundsculptor.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/PreyDrive.jpg (accessed 14 October, 2018). 471 Sarah Regan-Snavely’s website https://www.sarahregansnavely.com/ (accessed 28 January, 2019) 472 https://www.sarahregansnavely.com/ (accessed 28 January, 2019) 473 http://www.blurb.ca/user/srsnavely (accessed 28 January, 2019). 474 http://www.blurb.ca/user/srsnavely (accessed 28 January, 2019).

In Australia, some greyhounds that fail to win greyhound racing events are destroyed or shipped overseas and suffer appalling conditions. In Spain, some 30,000 greyhounds are dumped each year475 when the hare hunting season ends in February.476 While some dogs have been injured or savagely beaten, these dogs are abandoned, considered not worth nursing back to health.477 New dogs are selected to take the place of the old, weak, sick or incapacitated hunting dogs.478 The English photographer Martin Usborne (1973 - ) has created a series of portraits titled ‘Where the Hunting Dogs Rest,’ that responds to this human disregard and the failure to value the intrinsic worth of a fellow creature.

Figure 45: Martin Usborne, Where Hunting Dogs Rest - Galgo 4, 2014. Photograph, dimensions unknown.479

Usborne photographs these abandoned hunting dogs in settings far removed from the excitement and movement of the hunt. He places the unadorned dog, which appears unsure and vulnerable, looking outside the frame, perhaps towards a master who is no longer there. Galgo (Fig. 45) has the tail tucked under and looks almost as if they are quivering, ears back and submissive. The sense of despair and abandonment is echoed in the depressed urban environment surrounding the dog with garbage and other discarded items in a deserted, dirty, urban lane.

Usborne’s use of the cloth backdrop and pieces of fruit reference memento mori paintings, where the objects depicted are decaying and withering. The dirty background and old sack depicted in Figure 45 Galgo refer to materials past their usefulness while the uniqueness, elegance and

475 Martin Usborne, “Viewfinder Galgo (2014),” Daily Telegraph (London), May 30, 2015. 476 Ellyn Kail, “Tender Portraits tell the sad story of abandoned Spanish Greyhounds,” Feature Shoot, June 2, 2015. 477 Kail, “Tender Portraits tell the sad story of abandoned Spanish Greyhounds” 478 Kail, “Tender Portraits tell the sad story of abandoned Spanish Greyhounds” 479 Kail, “Tender Portraits tell the sad story of abandoned Spanish Greyhounds”

potential life shown by the greyhound indicate that they are still vibrant and of value. By referring to still life portraits where the subject is in its prime, before the moment of decay, such as flowers, fruit, vegetables, dead fish, birds and game, the artist draws attention to the life force still existing in the animal. His depiction of the greyhound stresses qualities of elegance, grace and sentience of a creature that has been thrown away without human conscience or care.

Figure 46: Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, Eos, 1841. Oil on canvas, 111.8 x 142.9 cm. Royal Collection Trust.480

In contrast with Galgo (Fig. 45) the much earlier portrait of Eos (Fig. 46) by English artist Sir Edwin Henry Landseer (1802 – 1873) is set in splendid, luxurious surroundings familiar to the dog. Greyhounds were traditionally connected with European aristocracy, where they were valued as status symbols and may not have been exclusively used for hunting. In the portrait, Eos the dog is well cared for and echoes the status of its owner.

The pose of Eos is similar to that of Galgo. Yet, Eos appears calm and confident, the features are soft and the ears are relaxed, as they look out of the painting unperturbed perhaps waiting for instruction or a walk with the unseen Prince. The dog stands strong, but comfortable and untroubled in the surroundings, representing a dog that is sheltered and cherished. This is in stark contrast with Galgo, as who peers out of the frame with trepidation.

Details in Eos (Fig. 46) such as the Deerskin footstool with hoof feet signifies the owner’s sporting interests as the dog is portrayed amongst the owner’s other possessions. The setting is an area where hats, coats and walking sticks were kept. Expensive items such as the black beaver fur hat, leather gloves and carved ivory top cane (also carved in the form of a dog) suggests that the

480 Royal Collection Trust London, Public domain. https://www.rct.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rctr-scale- 1300-500/public/collection-online/1/9/261054-1331571101.jpg?itok=x3cfthuF (accessed January 18, 2019).

owner is wealthy and has status in society. The sumptuous surroundings and rich colour palette imbue the art work with vibrancy, energising the portrait with hope, life and prosperity. The dazzling red back drop emphasises the glistening, healthy black coat of the dog. The eyes are clear, the nose is wet and the well-groomed coat gleams. The Prince’s black fur hat and Eos’s shiny black coat, balance the portrait and highlight a link between the Prince and his favourite dog. Landseer’s attention to the details in this portrait, in particular to the dog, reveals Eos as a valued possession of Prince Albert’s and a silver enamelled collar with locket adorn the slender neck of Eos, indicating the Prince’s ownership. Whereas the forsaken Galgo has no owner, no status and no collar, which was probably removed by the owner before abandoning his dog.

Instead of abandoning ‘failed’ greyhounds, advocates want greyhounds to be adopted as pets, and state they prefer to enjoy a quiet life sleeping on the lounge.481 They maintain that their gentle, good-natured, temperament482 make them ideal pets.

Figure 47: Julie Brunn, Afternoon Nap, 2017. Oil on paper, 23 x 33 cm.483

Afternoon Nap (Fig.47) depicts two greyhounds resting side by side, demonstrating another characteristic of the greyhound, at rest. Julie Brunn (born 19??) is a British based artist, who paints portraits of pets and has a particular style that infuses the work with character and sensitivity. Brunn states that her aim is to depict the animals’ individuality and personality.484 She suggests the empty surrounds in this portrait indicate isolation.485 Through blended rendering of the background and foreground, which softens the edges, attention is drawn to the eyes of the

481Greyhounds as Pets website, Frequently asked questions https://www.gapnsw.com.au/faqs/ (accessed December 7, 2018). 482“Greyhounds as Pets.” 483 Julie Brunn website http://www.juliebrunn.co.uk/pet-portraits (accessed July 2, 2018) Approved by the artist for use in this document by email. 484 Julie Brunn website: https://www.juliebrunn.co.uk/ (accessed January 28, 2019). 485 Julie Brunn website: https://www.juliebrunn.co.uk/ (accessed January 28, 2019).

two dogs. The dog to the left looks directly at the viewer, whilst the one on the rights gazes out of the frame, so perhaps the viewer is in turn being observed. As the viewer peers into the painting the gaze of the dogs look back. Humans are compelled to look into the eyes of animals, searching for the secrets they hold, the secrets that empower animals and this power is only ascribed to animals.486 Or is the viewer trying to gain a sense of recognition from the animal? It is in the eyes where the two animal species, humans and dogs can create a correlation. Dogs do not have the capacity for the same facial expressions as humans. However, through the eyes, a connection and an understanding of this relationship can be expressed. John Berger states: The eyes of an animal when they consider a man are attentive and wary. The same animal may well look at other species in the same way. He does not reserve a special look for man. But by no other species except man will the animal’s look be recognised as familiar. Other animals are held by the look. Man becomes aware of himself returning the look.487

According to Berger, when a dog looks at another animal, the animal may be held by the look.488 However, when a dog looks at a human it is across “a narrow abyss of non-comprehension”.489 Consequently, humans can surprise animals and animals can surprise humans.490 Humans are always regarding animals across ignorance and fear.491 Therefore animals have power in their gaze.492

Berger goes on to point out that “…figurative language was the first to be born, proper meanings was last to be found”.493 So that the first essential relationship was metaphoric.494 Consequently, “…by no other species but man will the animal’s look be recognised as familiar.”495 While other animals are held by the look, man becomes aware of himself looking back.496

In my art practice, I aim to capture the gaze of the dog particularly to reflect their treatment by humans. I created a series of porcelain representations of the racing greyhound in response to the treatment of these vulnerable creatures as discussed in the case study presented earlier in this chapter. My aim is to exemplify human dominance and exploitation of the innate

486 John Berger, “Why Look at Animals”in Selected Essays John Berger ed. Geoff Dyer (New York: Vintage International, 2003), 260. 487 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.”260. 488 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261. 489 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 260. 490 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261. 491 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261. 492 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261. 493 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261. 494 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261. 495 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 260. 496 Berger, “Why Look at Animals.” 261.

characteristics of the greyhound for financial gain and their consequent failure to acknowledge any suffering experienced by these dogs. This is a failure of human compassion and respect, which my works seeks to redress.

My series consisted of art works in porcelain and gold leaf in a response to this ill-treatment. I chose porcelain because it is a natural material and this was important to me as my work depicts an organic creature. Porcelain is tied to the notion of strength and fragility. As a material, it allows me to move and push the clay into a form that expresses an animal that I see as an important contributor to human society, the dog.

Porcelain is a pure, sensual material that is sensitive to the touch (like a living creature). Whilst building a depiction of the dog, I am aware that I cannot push the material beyond its limits or else it will crack. The manipulation of the porcelain must be gentle, allowing it to rest, but not allowing it to dry out. The development of the form needs constant attention and care, much like a new puppy. As the form grows, considerations are taken to ensure its safety from movement or knocks and protection from draughts. Sudden movement, knocks or rapid drying will cause cracking and could weaken or break the form.

Once the modelling of the sculpture is finished, then it is ready for firing. After the piece is bisque fired I sand the surface to remove any blemishes or scratches, then it is returned to the kiln for the final firing and final sanding, when the surface gains a soft, translucent and tractile appearance. The smooth surface attracts touch, drawing in the viewer. Much like a dog – most people cannot resist the temptation to pat a happy, tail wagging dog. . At the final stage, the form takes on its own character as the surface and features soften into an individual piece, like no other.

The first is a series of three greyhound heads fixed to the wall, symbolising these dogs as trophies. The racing greyhound can often have a short life, particularly if it does not win trophies. Ready (Fig. 48), Set (Fig. 49) and Go (Fig. 50) were all formed from porcelain and gold leaf. The second art work Speed (Fig. 51) portrays two greyhound paws in porcelain and gold leaf.

The gold leaf harkens back to an ancient Japanese craft “Kintsukuroi” or “Kintsugi” that is used to repair precious broken ceramic objects with a special lacquer, which is then dusted with powered gold, silver or platinum. The “Kintsugi” method values the object, even when it is damaged and the object is brought back to life. This process emphasises the fractures rather than concealing them, acknowledging a past life of the object. I use gold leaf to honour the speed of the

greyhound and to emphasise that these dogs, even though they appear to be powerful, can break easily and that they have a life that is important to them.

Figure 48: Vicki Hamilton, Ready, 2017. Porcelain and gold leaf, 20 x 10 x 14cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

The first of the series Ready (Fig. 48) depicts a dog resting, but always alert to any sudden movement of small, fast moving creatures. The eyes are slightly open, ears folded back gently against its neck to illustrate the dog’s readiness to run. However, Ready is resting and is not earning, the lack of any gilding indicates this.

Figure 49: Vicki Hamilton, Set, 2017. Porcelain and gold leaf, 20 x 20 x 14cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

Set (Fig.49) a greyhound that has been alerted to a sudden movement. Ears pricked striving to locate where the sound is coming from, eyes open alert and averted in the direction of the sound. The veins in the face of the dog start to fill with blood as the anticipation of the chase is mounting. A fracture seeping with gold appears on the back of the head and in the nostrils to illustrate the increasing breath.

Figure 50: Vicki Hamilton, Go, 2017. Porcelain and Gold leaf, 22 x 20 x 14cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

Go (Fig. 50) depicts the head of a greyhound racing. I have laid gold leaf on certain features of the dog to symbolise gold oozing from cracks and from the nostrils. Only while the dogs are racing or training they have the potential to make money for the owner. The blood pumps through the veins as the dog runs faster, straining to compete for the lure. Gold seeps from the factures and nostrils, the eyes of the dog fixed on the lure. This piece in particular demonstrates the use of the greyhound is innate qualities and senses.

I modelled front legs and paws of a greyhound, that stand upright in a similar pose to Auguste Rodin’s The Cathedral (or The Ark of the Covenant) (Fig. 52). I took this elegant, balanced composition to represent a male and female greyhound reaching toward one another. Rodin’s The Cathedral depicts two human hands tenderly reaching for one another. The space between the two right hands exemplify a human intimate space. Whereas with Speed (Fig. 51) the negative space between the paws exemplifies human control, which only allows dogs to come into contact under human control. The restraint placed on these dogs represents the human desire to control bloodlines in order to build suitable racing stock. The underside of the claws have been gilded as an indication that the fastest dog wins and the owner gains financially. Dogs often suffer injuries to their legs, paws and claws during a race. Claws can be torn out, which cause extensive bleeding, suffering and in some cases death.

Figure 51: Vicki Hamilton, Speed, 2017. Figure 52: Auguste Rodin, The Cathedral, 1908 Porcelain, gold leaf and recycled Jarrah, 35 x 13cm Stone 64 x 29.5 x 31.8cm Photographed by artist Rodin Museum S.1001497

Figure 53: Vicki Hamilton, Outcast, 2019, work in progress Raku and earthenware,100 x 89 x 30cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

497Rodin Museum collection online http://www.musee-rodin.fr/en/collections/sculptures/cathedral (accessed February 25, 2019).

Outcast (Fig. 53) is my response to the exploitation and modification of the behaviour of the greyhound breed for the purpose of racing, which may leave this dog with an unacceptably altered demeanour. The dog’s behaviour has been cultivated from a pup to be suitable for race track conditions. I see the human interference in the development of this racing dog as cruel and exploitative. Outcast, now too old to run must remain muzzled and tethered for the protection of other dogs and humans. Even though this dog no longer is required to wear a muzzle, he must remain on the lead. This dog stands on the edge of the park, (Wag Tail Park) watching other dogs playing (video footage screened on the wall opposite) and interacting as a social group. The dog’s head is lowered with ears back and tense body. This situation in the park is new to this retired racing greyhound.

In Australia, the Greyhounds as Pets organisation assess retired racing greyhounds for the suitability to be adopted as a pet. Outcast (Fig. 53) is a full sized ceramic piece that represents a rescued racing greyhound, which by luck has not been destroyed, mortally injured or sent to Macau to race in appalling conditions until the dog dies. The finished clay figure is wrapped in earthenware soaked cloth, to create the effect of a bandaged dog which represents a vulnerable, sentient creature that has been corrupted for some human’s desires and the subsequent attempt to rehabilitate the dog. The body has been formed from Raku clay for its strength and resilience, but the earthenware bandaging causes the fired surface to become fragile, which will crumble when touched by a human hand. The sturdy interior clay allows the large form to stand, whilst the fired cloth clay surface aims to embody the form with fragility and sensitivity. My aim is to evoke compassion for the dog represented in this artwork.

Figure 54: A pack of domesticated dogs, Wag Tail Park, 2019 (Detail). Earthenware clay, Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

Wag Tail Park (Fig. 54) is another component to this installation, my aim is the capture the essence of the dog. I have laid down leather hard slabs of earthenware clay and invited a group of friendly dogs to interact with each other on the clay. Each paw mark, scratch and tumble is recorded in the clay imbuing the artwork with joy and play. Wag Tail Park (Fig. 54) remains on the gallery floor with no further intervention from me, leaving this piece as a representation of an experience of the dog. This event was filmed and later projected onto the gallery wall opposite to the park and the retired racing greyhound Outcast (Fig. 53). The imprints are in a fragile state on the gallery floor where human participants are free to walk on the artwork which will crush under their weight. I see this work as a demonstration of humans’ impact on domesticated dogs and the environment, for human needs and desires overpower the needs of other species on the planet including humans’ closest animal friend.

Humans cannot know the suffering of dogs that can no longer be a part of the pack because they have endured conditioning and training specifically for the race track. The joy that dogs experience in the pack has been taken away from these greyhounds. However, present society still continues to exploit and ill-treat this and other breeds of domesticated dog. When beliefs in the inferiority of animals and the primacy of human needs and desires are paramount, dogs suffer.

In the following chapter I explore the legal use of dogs in science, pharmaceuticals testing, space exploration, the military and ‘puppy farming’ and the continuing illegal practice of dog fighting, as examples of contemporary cruelty towards dogs.

Chapter Five

Continuing forms of Exploitation: ‘A Dog’s Life’

The previous chapter indicated that a principle exists where dogs generally continue to be valued by humans only to the degree that they provide some return for human desires and interests. This chapter examines other current practices in the treatment of dogs, where a dog’s natural capacities have been exploited solely for the benefit of humans. This principle in the primacy of human belief that human benefits override the needs and welfare of other species permits a variety of forms of exploitation. My studio practice reflects some forms of the exploitation of dogs that continue today.

Dogs were selectively bred and domesticated (trained) by humans for certain purposes, however over centuries the domesticated dog became a member of the human family structure and often lived in the home. This is when the definition moved from ‘domesticated’ dog to ‘domestic’ dog. This shift separated dogs from other domestic species, such as horses, pigs and cows. Through selective breeding humans have created domesticated dogs that are physically and behaviourally dependant on humans, “… consequently killing the wild characteristics”.498 Where such human dominance forces dogs into submission, their behaviour goes against the animals’ strong desires and natural behaviour.499 At the same time humans have honed certain “wild” characteristics of dogs for specific human purposes, such as herding, tracking, hunting and fighting.

While some early humans had deep respect for wild animals and revered them as the spirits of their ancestors who showed them the way to live, this is generally no longer the way humans relate to animals and nature. Shepard states that past relationships cannot be retrieved, for

Pets cannot restore us to that wholeness any more than an artificial limb renews the original; nor can it do more than simulate the Others among who our ancestors lived for so long.500

The reality of the experience of dogs in Western contemporary society cannot be based on some idealised fantasy of nature but on an understanding of the capacity of humans to exploit the innate abilities of dogs for human ends.

498 Margo Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication” in A Cultural History of Animals in Modern Age, ed. Randy Malamud (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 68. 499 Yi-Fu Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 107. 500 Paul Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human (Washington D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1996), 151.

Contemporary culture is distancing humans from the most fundamental properties of nature including its wildness.501 Shepard suggests the natural world holds a form of ecological conscience and humility reminding humans of their limits.502 The thoughts of wild animals are hidden from humans, particularly from those humans separated from nature, however, dogs can act as a safe conduit to the natural world. Dogs can fill the human need for connection with the wild, but they cannot replace the wild.503 The domesticated dog has long been separated from the wild environment, remaining with humans in a human society and experiencing a restricted life designed to suit humans.

An innate quality in dogs is their pack mentality and their ability to thrive in a strong hierarchical structure. By appealing to the pack hierarchy humans have through conditioning and selection, developed an enduring relationship with dogs to allow humans to remain dominant. Yi-Fu Tuan claims humans’ main motive for dog ownership is domination,504 which has empowered humans with the ability to change certain unwanted behaviours and characteristics in dogs. Showing specific breeds of dogs is considered necessary to establish the best of the breed, to enhance the business of breeding dogs. Tuan suggests that dog shows are refined cruelty.505 These shows appeal to human vanity and competiveness,506 where humans can display their control over the dog’s behaviour and their ability to make a dog suppress its own desires.

Gisela Kaplan507 Australian sociologist, states that menacing or dangerous behaviour of dogs are the result of poor human behaviour, where the dog does not know its place in the pack.508 Kaplan states that dogs are complex animals and that human owners need to learn to read the dogs’ interactions, particularly around strangers.509 Failure to understand the nature of dogs has resulted in human injury and death and consequently the death of dogs.510 Some humans have chosen to encourage aggressive behaviour in their dogs, while other owners have failed to cultivate appropriate interactions between their dogs and other dogs, and a range of other humans including children.

501 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human,146. 502 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human,150. 503 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human,146. 504 Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets, 107. 505 Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets, 107. 506 Tuan, Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets, 107. 507 Gisela Kaplan has written extensively on animal behavior, particularly on wild dogs. 508 No attribution, “Dog attacks mainly due to ‘human error’, animal expert says,” The Sydney Morning Herald, March 7, 2018. 509 No attribution, “Dog attacks mainly due to ‘human error’, animal expert says,” 510 Benedict Brook, “Canberra woman dies in “horrific” dog attack,” News.com.au, October 26, 2017.

When dogs behave in ways that are harmful to humans there are local government by-laws that operate for the declaration and management of dangerous and menacing dogs.511 When dogs attack their owners, this can be seen as a betrayal of human love and dangerous dogs are destroyed. When humans behave in ways that are harmful to dogs, some cases are dealt with by the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1979.512 Laws have been put in place to protect humans and dogs from dangerous and inappropriate behaviour. However, cruel acts are still perpetrated against dogs and some human behaviours still put dogs at risk.

Domestic animals are deemed ‘property’, so that stealing a pet is considered a crime. There is an expectation that property will be cared for, to benefit society. So that owners are held responsible for dogs’ actions, including barking, defecating and biting.

Just as the appearance of dogs has been carefully modified through breeding so the behavioural development of certain breeds of dogs have been exploited to benefit humans. For example, Border Collies respond to whistles and calls as instructions, sighthounds are utilised for their speed in chasing game down, Pit Bulls are utilised for their ready disposition to fight and Maremmas for their willingness to guard the pack.

Dogs’ humility and their loyalty to humans, are qualities thought to be positive and valued by humans to help heal, develop empathy and trust, provide companionship and assistance and to share in their joyous company. At the same time, humans still use dogs in ways that can cause dogs to suffer. Dogs have been sent into space, used as experimental subjects, for clothing, entertainment,513as working auxiliaries, transport and in some countries as food.514 515 These relationships are still not seen as obviously cruel by today’s standards, even with the improved sensitivity to the suffering of other species. However, I consider that a more rigorous consideration of these treatments shows that widespread indifference to the suffering of species other than that of humans still exists.

511 NSW Government, Office of Local Government, “Declared dangerous and menacing dogs”. 512 NSW Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1979 No 200. Section 17. 513 This has been examined in the preamble, a case study of the Greyhound Racing Industry. 514 Fat Reyes,“300,000 dogs killed for meat every year in the Philippines,” Inquirer, July 4, 2012. In the Philippines over 300,000 dogs are consumed every year served as “pulutan”, which is consumed with an alcoholic drink. 515 Jewel Topsfield and Karuni Rompies, “Call for dog meat ban in Indonesia,”The Sun-Herald, November 5, 2017. World News.

Figure 55: Poster for Fight Dog Meat of dogs in Indonesia on their way to slaughter 516

The image (Fig. 55) is confronting, but points out humans’ cultural differences when considering the treatment of animals. Some Indonesian communities have traditionally eaten dogs and see them as a food source like Western society sees cattle, pigs and chickens.517 A recent petition in Indonesia to ban dog meat has been successful.518 The ban was initiated as a pledge by the Indonesians to eliminate rabies by 2020, 519 but not to eliminate suffering and brutal deaths of dogs for meat. This reflects a failure to recognise the sentience of the dog.

Dogs as Experimental Resources

The body of a dog is considered similar enough to the human body to have been extensively used as an experimental subject. The argument for this use is the possible benefit to human knowledge, as the uses of these dogs reach beyond the moral restraints placed on human experimentation. The similarities between human and dog responses to experimentation, such as pain, discomfort and/or restriction of movement, is however ignored when it is convenient to do so, or if it limits financial gain.520

Daniel Oliver claims that animals have been used as experimental subjects for more than 2,000 years.521 522 In the third century Greek philosopher Erasistratus examined the biological structure

516 Fight Dog Meat. com https://dingo.care2.com/pictures/petition_images/petition/905/561429- 1463288886-wide.jpg (accessed August 28,2018) 517 Topsfield and Rompies,” Call for dog meat ban in Indonesia,” 518 Stuart Winter, “Dog meat VICTORY: Indonesia BANS horrific dog meat trade – Will celebrate globally,” Express, August 7, 2018, News. 519 Topsfield and Rompies,” Call for dog meat ban in Indonesia,” 520 Marika Dobbin, “Victoria labs experiments kill 100 dogs for drug and dental research,” The Age, December 5, 2015. 521 Daniel T. Oliver, Animal rights: The Inhumane Crusade, 2nd ed. (Washington: Merril Press, 1999), 11. 522 PETA claim, currently, 100 million animals per year are subject to suffering and pain and then put to death in the United States alone for medical research, chemical, food and cosmetic studies. https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-experimentation/animals-used-experimentation- factsheets/animal-experiments-overview/ (accessed August 7, 2018)

of animals and Aristotle is claimed to have conducted vivisection on animals.523 The age of technology has seen a widening range of applications for the use of animals, specifically dogs, as experimental subjects. Laika (Fig. 56) was the first dog sent into earth’s orbit on Sputnik 2, 3rd November, 1957, however, she died within hours of leaving earth from stress and heat due to a space craft malfunction.524 525

Figure 56: Laika first dog in space 1957.526

Dogs are still considered a replaceable resource in the scientific research for dental, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and chemical industries. In Australia, mostly ex-racing greyhounds and beagles are subjects and are provided by a NSW breeder specifically for the purposes of experimentation.527 According to figures compiled from Australian government sources,528 nearly 6000 dogs each year in Australia were used for experimental purposes, being subject to a range of major surgeries before being put to death in order to test the results.529 Scientists claim they need to euthanize the dogs to successfully complete the experiment.530

523 Oliver, Animal rights: The Inhumane Crusade,11. 524 Karl Tate, “Cosmic Menagerie: A History of Animals in Space (Infographic),” Space. Com, April 12, 2013. https://www.space.com/20648-animals-in-space-history-infographic.html (accessed November 12, 2017). 525 Two more dogs followed in 1960 on Sputnik 5 and returned alive. Stray dogs were chosen for this purpose because they were considered robust. However, these dogs went through stressful preparation before the flights, being exposed to extreme temperatures and caged in increasing small cages. These dogs were considered a replaceable resource for human endeavours and did not appear on the public moral radar. Karl Tate, “Cosmic Menagerie: A History of Animals in Space (Infographic)”, Space. Com, April 12, 2013. 526 History Collection http://cdn.historycollection.co/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/FotorCreated-34.jpg (accessed April 20, 2018) 527 Marika Dobbin, “Victoria labs experiments kill 100 dogs for drug and dental research”, The Age, December 5, 2015. 528 Dobbin, “Victoria labs experiments kill 100 dogs for drug and dental research,” 529 Dobbin, “Victoria labs experiments kill 100 dogs for drug and dental research,” 530 Dobbin, “Victoria labs experiments kill 100 dogs for drug and dental research,”

Figure 57: Image of a Beagle used in experimental research531

The above image (Fig. 57) is an example of a charismatic, sentient creature enduring pain and misery for the purposes of research to benefit humans. The dog cowers in the corner of a cell, alone suffering distress and fear, incarcerated for the purpose of the experiment, unable to interact with other dogs, the natural environment or other creatures. Humans cannot know the anguish endured by this dog, as humans do not think or act like dogs or have the needs of dogs.

As many as ninety percent of pharmaceuticals found to be safe and effective in animal tests, fail to be successful in the medical treatment of humans.532 While humans are aware that other animals can suffer pain and experience joy, dogs are still subjected to miserable painful lives for a perceived benefit to humans. However, Australian animal ethics committees533 are working toward more appropriate medical testing techniques that will reduce the number of tests on animals.534

531 Activism freedom in sharing website. Public domain. https://www.activism.com/en_GB/petition/oppose-plans-for-breeding-beagles-for-vivisection-in- uk/36475 (accessed April 20, 2018) 532 Lynette Chave and Peter Johnson, “Animal Ethics Committees: Gatekeepers of Animal Research,” Issues 103, June 2013:21. 533 Animal ethics committees are nominated to oversee the operations regarding the ethical treatment of animals according to the “Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986” and comply to the “Australian Code for the Care of Animals for Scientific Purposes 8th Edition 2013”. 534 Chave and Johnson, “Animal Ethics Committees: Gatekeepers of Animal Research,”21.

100

Dogs as Military Resources

Throughout history the military have used dogs as a resource in warfare and human conflicts. From ancient times the mastiff (Molossus) breed (Fig. 58) was utilised by humans as a weapon in battle, because of its size and inclination to attack both humans and other animals.535

Figure 58: The Jennings Dog / The Duncombe Dog / The Dog of Alcibiades, 2nd Century (?) Marble, Height 1.05 mtr (max), British Museum.536 537

Certain breeds of dogs continue to be used by the military because of their intelligence, capacity to attack, willingness to be trained and perform, despite the dangers to which they are exposed. During World War I and World War II dogs on the battlefield carried food, water, and messages to the wounded in no man’s land and to command posts, also acting as lookouts and alerting soldiers of impending attack.538 539

Soldiers who dealt directly with army dogs, often bonded with them and considered them mates. Even pet dogs were turned into army dogs. Between 1941-1945 the organisation ‘Dogs for

535 No attribution, “War Culture - Animals of War” Military History Monthly July 12, 2012. 536 British Museum collection online. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license. http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?assetId=3655 31001&objectId=467443&partId=1 (accessed February 10, 2018) 537Marble statue of a seated Molossian dog with a docked tail; a Roman copy of a Hellenistic bronze original, muzzle and one leg repaired. The stand-alone form fig.?? has been carved from marble representing strength, resilience and value in much the way a human soldier would be portrayed. 538 Michael G. Lemish stated in War Dogs: Canines in Combat (Washington: Brassey’s, 1996), 89 Dogs were sent on suicide missions carrying bombs behind enemy lines during WWII. 539 These unfortunate dogs were usually strays picked up by soldiers whilst deployed overseas. Often they became a mascot of the unit, which the military overlooked because it built morale amongst the soldiers. So these dogs offered emotional support as well.

101

Defence’ in the United States appealed to dog owners to contribute their pet dogs to the war effort.540 Formerly domesticated dogs were then selected to train as sentry dogs, mine detection dogs, scout or patrol dogs.541 Despite the established bonds many of these dogs were left behind when the battle ended, only a few were allowed to accompany the soldiers home.542 Dogs that remained home also were used for the detection of humans in the rubble and remains of bombed buildings.

Figure 59: Jet of Iada, 1949. Cast for an original sculpture By Edna Rose (1899 – 1981). Bronze bust dimensions unknown, Museum of Liverpool.543

Jet of Iada (Fig. 59) is a sculptural representation of a black Alsatian who is credited with saving more than fifty lives when British cities were bombed during WW2. He was awarded the Dickin Medal (equal to the Victoria Cross).544 Jet also searched successfully for victims in the Whitehaven pit disaster of 1947 and was awarded the RSPCA’s highest award, the Medallion of Valour for his courage and persistence.545 He would not move until the person he detected was found by rescuers.546 The artwork is a monument to the dog’s grit and valour. The artist used bronze which characterises eternalness and strength and has been used to represent human heroes.

540 Fairfax Downey, Dogs for Defence: American Dogs in the Second World War 1941-1945 (New York: McDonald, 1955), 23. 541 Janet M. Alger and Steven F. Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars” in Animals and War: Studies of Europe and North America, ed. Ryan Hediger (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 82. 542 Alger and Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars,” 83. 543 Kay, “Jet the dog – Liverpool superhero to curators and small boys” Museum of Liverpool Blog, 19 October ,2015. http://blog.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/jet-dog-painting- Alfred-Kemp-Wiffen.jpg (accessed March 6, 2018). 544 Kay, “Jet the dog – Liverpool superhero to curators and small boys.” 545 Kay, “Jet the dog – Liverpool superhero to curators and small boys.” 546 Kay, “Jet the dog – Liverpool superhero to curators and small boys.”

102

The recognition of the innate abilities of dogs was the beginning of dogs becoming a more valued part of the military machine. Their contribution is sometimes recognised at the end of the battle in the “... form of memorials and medals to commemorate their sacrifice”.547

Figure 60: Digger – photograph, 1918.548

During the first World War an Australian dog named ‘Digger’ carried food and water to injured soldiers in no-man’s land and brought messages back to the trenches. He suffered burns, being gassed, lost his right eye and three teeth after being shot in the jaw. Digger served at Gallipoli, Pozieres and the Western front in France and Belgium.549 Early in 1918 Digger (Fig. 60) returned home with his handler Sergeant James Harold Martin and was awarded a silver collar.550

Awarding honours and medals to canine soldiers is a tradition that is growing in the U.S. military551and other Western countries. But this mark of respect only has meaning to humans. Is this guilt because of the dogs’ exposure to danger or is this a sentimental gesture? Medals and honours have no meaning or practical use to the dog, however human companionship is sought by these dogs. Australia also gives awards to dogs, in September 2008, Sarbi (Fig. 61), a Military Working Dog (MWD) went missing for fourteen months in Afghanistan after her convoy was ambushed and her handler was wounded along with nine other Australian soldiers.552 553 Sarbi was reunited with her unit when an American soldier recognised her in north-eastern Uruzgan

547 Alger and Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars,” 77. 548 Puppy Tales website http://puppytales.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Digger-the-Bulldog.jpg (accessed February 26, 2017) 549 Veterans S.A. website http://anzaccentenary.sa.gov.au/event/digger-the-war-dog-memorial-opening/ (accessed January 19, 2018) 550 A permanent memorial was opened October, 2017 at the West Croydon and Kilkenny RSL to commemorate Digger’s, and other animals’ service during this conflict.550 551 Linda Crippen, TRADOC, “Military Working Dogs: Guardians of the Night”, U.S. Army, May, 23 2011. 552 No attribution, “Our most decorated canine has died” Media release, The Australian Army, September 6, 2016. 553 This was the same incident which Corporal Mark Donaldson was awarded the Victoria Cross of Australia. No attribution, “Our most decorated canine has died.”

103

province.554 On Sarbi’s return to Australia she was awarded the War Dog Operational Medal, the Canine Service Medal and RSPCA Purple Cross Award for her exceptional courage risking her life to save human lives.555

Figure 61: Sarbi – Australian Army explosive detection dog with her handler Warrant Officer Class Two David Simpson.556

In early conflicts dogs were regarded as dispensable. The U.S. forces estimated four thousand dogs served in the Vietnam war and they were credited with saving over ten thousand U.S. soldiers’ lives.557 While war dogs were estimated as a valuable resource, during the Vietnam conflict they were provided no real protection.558 559 560 561 Unfortunately, only a few dogs returned home and the remainder was left behind to be dealt with by the South Vietnamese.562 The Australian military dogs who served in this conflict also did not return to home, due to quarantine costs.563 564 The dogs were no longer of use to the military and were left to the

554 No attribution, “Our most decorated canine has died.” 555 No attribution, “Our most decorated canine has died.” 556 No attribution, “Our most decorated canine has died.” 557 Rebecca Frankel, “Dogs at War: Left Behind in Vietnam” National Geographic, May 19, 2014. 558 Alger and Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars,”85, suggested the lack of veterinary services, insufficient food and cultural differences made a hostile environment for dogs within the military. 559 William Clark and Henry Harrison in The History of United States Army Veterinary Corps in Vietnam. 1962-1973(Roswell: GA: W.H. Wolf Associates, 1992), 18 claimed malnutrition was a major contributor to the loss of U.S. military dogs in this conflict. Ninety percent of the dogs that died in the first two and one half years, died of malnutrition. 560 Alger and Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars,”85 claimed the dogs and the South Vietnamese soldiers ate the same food and the soldiers would feed their families before the dog. 561 In early 20th century wars in Western culture, one of the primary concerns for the dogs was to feed and protect them because the dog was considered a valued member of the fighting force and a mate, however this consideration appeared to be absent during the Vietnam conflict. 562 Frankel, “Dogs at War: Left Behind in Vietnam,” 563 Frankel, “Dogs at War: Left Behind in Vietnam,” May 19, 2014. 564 However, the eleven dogs that served in Vietnam where taken in by European and Australian expatriates as pets at the end of the conflict.

104

Vietnamese to use them as they desired565. After returning home many of the handlers searched for their dogs only to find that they never made it out alive.566 567

Figure 62: A United States soldier and his war dog.568

The moment captured in (Fig. 62) demonstrates that some handlers have high regard for their canine military mates. Some of these soldiers owe their life and limbs to these detection dogs. Military handlers have to leave their dogs when the soldier’s deployment finishes and a new handler is assigned to the service dog. Currently, when the dog’s deployment finishes, they now return home. When a service dog returns home their survival is not guaranteed. A war dog’s behaviour is imbedded to react appropriately in a war zone and their trained behaviour may not be suitable for life in the domestic environment.569

During 2010 to 2013, the British military destroyed two hundred and eighty-eight dogs at the end of their military service due to behavioural problems or health issues.570 However, homes where found for three hundred and eighteen dogs that were deemed suitable for rehoming.571 This latter action is a change in attitude and allows the dogs to be re-evaluated to have a role as a domesticated dog.

565 In some Asian countries dogs are considered to possess no value and are consumed. Consequently, South Vietnamese considered their job as handlers below them and the treatment of the dog reflected this idea. 566 Frankel, “Dogs at War: Left Behind in Vietnam,” May 19, 2014. 567 The use of dogs as a resource and indifference to their welfare by the military can be seen in the treatment of returned human soldiers. 568 Certapet webite https://www.certapet.com/military-dogs/ (accessed January 26, 2018) 569 Adrian Lee, “The doomed dogs of war: What happens to military dogs when they are no longer needed?” Express: Home of the Daily and Sunday Express, September 21, 2013, News. 570Lee, “The doomed dogs of war: What happens to military dogs when they are no longer needed?” 571Lee, “The doomed dogs of war: What happens to military dogs when they are no longer needed?”

105

Figure 63: Colin Self, Guard Dog on a Missile Base, No.1, 1965. Pencil on card 55.6 x 76.2 cm, Tate, London572

Guard Dog on a Missile Base, No.1 (Fig. 63) portrays a dog (perhaps an Alsatian) bearing its teeth at a perceived intruder This work demonstrates the development of the innate aggressive demeanour of this dog in order to protect military property. Sentry dogs were and still are trained to protect local and overseas military installations and will attack anyone on command.573 Generally retired sentry dogs, which are trained to attack and bite, are deemed unsuitable for rehoming in a domestic environment.574 However, some sentry dogs are considered suitable for working with security firms under the control of humans.575

Currently specific dog breeds are targeted for their particular abilities to be trained by the military for given purposes such as scouts, messengers, guards (attack dogs), detectors of improvised explosive devices (IED) and chemicals (sniffer dogs).576 577

572 Tate London collection online http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/self-guard-dog-on-a-missile-base- no-1-t01850 (accessed March 3, 2016) 573 Crippen, TRADOC, “Military Working Dogs: Guardians of the night,” Dogs’ service to humans in war and their roles have now been acknowledged by the armed forces as members and in some cases are awarded an unofficial rank. Although, the rank is not officially acknowledged by the military, rather it is considered a tradition.573 It is important for the dog to be seen more as a soldier than military property to prevent possible poor treatment. This tradition was born from the concern for the dog’s treatment, consequently the dog is awarded a higher rank than the handler to counteract the handler mistreating the dog. 574 Military dogs are generally retired at eight or nine years old as the dogs are assessed by their handler and a military vet at the end of their service. The characteristics that have been honed and utilised by the military can influence the ultimate fate of the dog.Adrian Lee, “The doomed dogs of war: What happens to military dogs when they are no longer needed?” Express: Home of the Daily and Sunday Express, September 21, 2013, News. 575 Lee, “The doomed dogs of war: What happens to military dogs when they are no longer needed?” 576 The United States War Dogs Association , Inc. https://www.uswardogs.org/war-dog-history/types-war- dogs/ (accessed April 18, 2017) 577 The United States War Dogs Association, Inc.

106

Figure 64: Scooby, British Military Dog, Jordan Desert. 578

Because of the dogs’ proven value to the military and the cost of training, they are now equipped with some protection from the battle environment, earmuffs and goggles for loud noise and flying debris and booties to protect their paws from chemicals and sharp objects. Scooby (Fig. 64) is a photograph of a six year old British Military dog being trained in the Jordan Desert to locate explosives in luggage and vehicles.579

In recent years, the military have recognised the potential of working with dogs and identified certain breeds that can be trained for specific tasks. This is a significant investment in time and money and dogs are now regarded as members of the military and not just treated as pets or mascots. Dogs are increasingly valued as a members of their companies which affords them certain rights, such as veterinary care, safe and hygienic housing, adequate, nutritious food and body protection. These considerations increase the status of the dog and therefore the respect for the dog’s participation in battle. However, questions still remain about the morality of sending dogs, and other animals, into battle. It must be considered that dogs and other animals did not willingly choose this role in a human conflict and are frequently wounded or killed.580 581

578 Sara Malam, “The dog of war: Scooby the British military pup dons goggles and ear muffs as it takes part in Army desert exercises in Jordan,” Daily Mail Australia, April 8, 2016, News. Photograph by David Hedges, SWSN com. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3528564/The-dog-war-Scooby-British- military-pup-dons-goggles-ear-muffs-takes-Army-desert-exercises-Jordan.html. 579 Malam, “The dog of war: Scooby the British military pup dons goggles and ear muffs as it takes part in Army desert exercises in Jordan,” 580 Alger and Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars,” 79. The military attempts to counter such concerns regarding the safety of the dogs by justifying the dogs are specifically breed, well trained and prepared to operate under extreme conditions. 581 The strength of the trusting relationship developed between the handler and the dog is paramount for the safety of the dog and the soldiers. The battleground is an area of great stress and anxiety for soldiers, handlers and their dogs.

107

The recognition of the role of dogs in the armed forces, and in particular participating in battles, is of no direct benefit to the dog. However, it may change how the dog is perceived by humans and consequently effect the treatment of the dog. Nevertheless, the dog may be in considerable danger which can leave the dog vulnerable to being killed or seriously injured.582 The injuries dogs sustain during service can be parallel to human injuries, including mental trauma, as it is now acknowledged that dogs can suffer Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in the field and after returning home.583 Consequently, the use of dogs in such dangerous situations also needs to be judged in relation to the welfare of the dog.

The dog’s acquiescence to accompany soldiers into battle is a demonstration of a form of ‘mateship’ of the highest degree. Fidelity, a strong characteristic of the dog, is often valued highly by the soldiers, despite the dog’s vulnerability to abandonment when the battle ended.

Figure 65: Vicki Hamilton, Grace, (work in progress), 2018. Bronze, 18.5 x 11 x 8cm, ceramic, 120 x 30 x 30 cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

582 Through human history abandoned dogs have found themselves trapped in a human conflict. Some men missed their dogs from home and rescued abandoned dogs that may have starved or been killed. These rescued dogs often became a mascot or an unofficial member of the fighting force and regularly acted as an alarm of an impending attack saving many soldiers’ lives. Roland Perry, Horrie the War Dog: The story of Australia’s Most Famous Dog (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2013), 194. 583Kristen Andrews, The Animal Mind: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Animal Cognition (London: Routledge, 2015), 157.

108

As a response to the dangers that dogs may be exposed to whilst being utilised on the battlefield, I have sculpted Grace (Fig. 65). She represents the many dogs that have been used as military work dogs because of their unique qualities of smell, sight and hearing. Grace is a bronze representation of an injured, returned canine soldier. I chose to represent her in bronze because she is a hero and her sacrifice saved many human lives. As a material, bronze has long been used in the production of monumental or commemorative objects because of its permanence. Many human heroes have been traditionally portrayed in bronze to denote their resilience, stoicism and courage.

Grace embodies a dog that has suffered physical and perhaps mental trauma in a human conflict. Her body has been deformed through the loss of one of her front legs during deployment overseas as an IED (improvised explosive device) detection dog. The injuries she sustained have affected her posture, she sits leaning on the right side to accommodate the missing leg and her ear sits lopsided because of the blast, however her loyalty remains.

Grace is perched on top of a crumbling, ceramic representation of the Victoria Cross, on a fractured ceramic plinth. The cross describes the superficial efforts of humans to honour war dogs, which really vindicates human use of dogs in war. I question the morality of dogs being utilised as a part of the military machine and feel that humans try to address this moral concern by awarding medals of valour to returned canine soldiers, even when dogs do not have any concept of awards.

Street Dogs

Figure 66: Blue faience tile with black outline drawing of man leading a dog From Thebes, Upper Egypt, 19th or 20th Dynasty (1295 BC - 1069 BC), Dims unknown. Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney.584

584 Sydney University Museum collection, Available Copyright Act 1968 http://sydney.edu.au/museums/collections_search/#search-

109

The notion of using dogs to represent a human’s status existed in ancient Egypt as depicted in the blue faience tile (Fig. 66). The large dog dominates the image which may indicate the dog is of more value than the human, who is possibly a servant or slave.585 586

While certain breeds of dogs such as French Bulldogs, Australian Bulldogs, Afghan Hounds or Great Danes are used by wealthy humans as indicators of their owner’s status in society, here I intend to explore aggressive breeds of dogs that are used for status through their capacity to fight.

Dog breeds that are perceived as aggressive have been exploited in contemporary culture for the purpose of ‘Weapon/Status dogs’ and can be responsible for brutal attacks on humans and other animals.587 On the street, contemporary gangs use these dogs to elevate their owners’ status for toughness and masculinity; ‘My dog can kill your dog’.588

Figure 67: John Corcoran, Man’s Best Friend, 2004. Oil on canvas, 152.4 x 172.72.589

results&view=list&id=d7e0&modules=ecatalogue%3Benarratives%3Beevents%3Beparties&keywords=do g%20in%20ancient%20egyptian%20art (accessed January 15, 2018) 585 Craig Barker, “Every Object Tells a Story”, Archaeological Diggings 19, 4. (2012): 31. 586 The notion that the dog is more valuable than the human contradicts the popular view that all humans have higher moral status than animals. 587 These dogs are an example of cross-breeding to gain the necessary qualities that can lead to aggressive behaviour in dogs. Large heavy set dogs, such as, Pit Bulls, Staffordshire Terriers, Rottweilers or German Shepherds may be trained or conditioned and then utilised as weapon/status dogs. 588 Yilmaz,et.al. “Dog Fighting: A nasty work,” 5.5 (2015):221. 589 Dog Art today September 16, 2008 http://dreamdogsart.typepad.com/art/2008/09/dog-portrait-with- self-by-david-corcoran.html (accessed April 20, 2018)

110

Man’s Best Friend (Fig. 67) depicts ferociousness in both dog and man. The dog’s expression can be seen as dangerous and savage, whereas the human’s expression can be interpreted as rage or frustration. The artist is pulling the two species closer in character and ability for brutality.

Wells suggests that owners of ‘aggressive’ dog breeds have more antagonistic, hostile personality590 and noted that owners of ‘aggressive’ dog breeds have higher scores of anxiety and depression, have tendencies to be manipulative and are more inclined to demonstrate neglect than owners of ‘non-aggressive’ breeds.591 Such aggression in dogs may be a reflection of the owner and that such aggression is shown in social situations is taught behaviour rather than being the main characteristic of the dog.592

Figure 68: Bill Traylor, Dog walking Man, ca 1930. Cardboard, coloured pencil and charcoal, (dims unknown).593

In Bill Traylor’s (1853-1949) Dog walking Man (Fig.68) the black dog dominates the white man, which is a comment on their mutual positons. The man holds the leash which indicates he is in charge of this large vicious dog. A political and moral comment on how the artist saw his position in life. As an African American born into slavery in ca 1853,594 he was an eyewitness to the American Civil War and the emancipation of slaves. 595 Traylor’s art work is a naïve embodiment

590 Deborah L. Wells, Peter G. Hepper, “The personality of “aggressive” and “non-aggressive” dog owners”, Personality and Individual Difference 53 (2012):772. 591 Wells and Hepper, “The personality of “aggressive” and “non-aggressive” dog owners,”772. 592 Rachel A. Casey et.al., “Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors.” Applied animal Behaviour Science 152 (2014): 62. 593Ompomhappy website: https://ompomhappy.com/2015/06/08/artist-bill-traylor/ (accessed March 2, 2018) 594 Ompomhappy website. 595 No attribution, Smithsonian American Art Museum,“ Between two Worlds: The Art of Bill Traylor”, September 28, 2018 – April 7, 2019 https://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/traylor (accessed June 20, 2019).

111

of his memories of this segregated society,596 where African Americans were controlled and undermined by the white population. The man leading the dog is represented as having more status, dominating the African American society.

Fighting Dogs

Although organised dog fighting it is illegal in Australia597 it still takes place. It involves planning since it requires access to a dog-fighting pit in a hidden location.598 Since dogs suffer brutality and injury some dogs jump from the pit and refuse to fight. 599 600 601 These dogs are of no use to the owner and are often disposed of by drowning, electrocution, hanging, strangulation or gunshot.602 Consequently, rescued fighting dogs are often behaviourally and physically damaged and most are not suitable for rehoming, because they have been conditioned to kill other dogs. Almost all rescued fighting dogs die from lethal injection.603 However, with the increased understanding of animal behaviour, more fighting dogs are seen as ‘victims’ rather than aggressors and where possible are being rehabilitated and rehomed.604

People for the ethical treatment of animals organisation (PETA) aims to ban the breeding of Pit Bulls, because they believe they are the most abandoned and abused breed.605 On their web site they state that Pit Bulls are trained to attack people and other animals by cruel treatment and starving to increase their aggression and fear of people.606 The dog does not develop a suitable temperament to live in human society and are consequently deemed as dangerous. PETA also

596 No attribution, Smithsonian American Art Museum,“ Between two Worlds: The Art of Bill Traylor”, 597 NSW Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1979, No 200. Part 2, Section 17. 598 Donna Page, “Underground dog-fighting ring operating in Port Stephens,” Newcastle Herald, July 1, 2014.Local News. 599 Some dogs are conditioned as killers to prepare them as fighting dogs in the street or in the pit. This is done by means of brutal treatment and live baiting, using rabbits, possums, cats and small dogs which act as a lure on the end of a pole. Heavy chains are wrapped around the neck of the dog to build neck and upper body strength as it chases the lure for exercise O. Yilmaz, F Coskun and M Ertugrul, “Dog Fighting: A nasty work” Research Opinions in Animal & Veterinary Sciences, 5(5) (2015):221. 600 The dog is rewarded with devouring the live bait. Yilmaz,et.al. “Dog Fighting: A nasty work,” 5(5) (2015):221. 601 Family pets have been targeted to be conditioned as a fighter or used as a bait dogs depending on the breed. 602 Yilmaz,et.al. “Dog Fighting: A nasty work,” 5(5) (2015):222. 603 Yilmaz,et.al. “Dog Fighting: A nasty work,” 5(5) (2015):222. 604 H. Weaver, “Becoming in Kind: Race, Class, Gender, and Nation in Cultures of dog Rescue and Dog Fighting.” American Quarterly, 65.3 (2013): 696. 605 PETA webstie: https://www.peta.org/about-peta/ (accessed May 29, 2018) 606 PETA website.

112

suggests that people check animal shelters, where thousands of dogs are waiting for adoption, rather than supporting the breeding industry.

Figure 69: Bill Traylor, Two dogs fighting, ca 1930. Cardboard and paint (dims unknown).607

Two dogs fighting (Fig. 69) depicts a black dog and a tan coloured dog in a fight. At the age of 82 years when the artist could work no longer, he began to draw and paint on any available material.608 The black dog may represent the artist and the tan dog his ‘master’. In this image the black dog is well defined as a strong fierce dog. The rear legs are rendered as a part of a strong, muscular body. The dog’s teeth are clearly depicted in a short snout. However, the tan dog has more human qualities, such as the hind legs, the sausage shaped body, and no clear evidence of teeth in the large head. The overall impression is that the tan dog appears to be the weaker of the two.

607 Ompomhappy website. 608 Ompomhappy website.

113

Figure 70: Vicki Hamilton, Rocky, 2018. Toast Clay, Mixed media, 45 x 35 x 47cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

Figure 71: Vicki Hamilton, Champ, 2018. Toast Clay, 42 x 49 x 35cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

There is no kind treatment or regard for fighting dogs in contemporary society. This illegal activity is hidden away from sight, so the dogs are treated with contempt and valued only when they are winning. Rocky and Champ are my response to the issue of contemporary dog fighting.

I have used a toast clay to represent the perceived toughness and resilience of these fighting dogs. Rocky (Fig. 70) has red fighting gloves fitted to the front paws, indicating human desires

114

being imposed on the dog. Rocky has been put into the ring many times, even though he has been conditioned to fight and wins by killing the other dogs, he knows the time will come when he will lose. If he can no longer fight, he is of no value to his owner, who will dispose of him. Rocky does not want to fight anymore, he is tired and sore, his body is weak and his spirit has been broken.

Toast clay is a robust gritty clay that I used to form Champ and Rocky. I built Champ (Fig. 71) by the coiling method and Rocky by hand modelling then gouging out the internal clay. I used toast clay for is strength and rough, gritty surface to express another sort of dog, the fighting dog. Even though this clay is known to be sturdy, it still has its limits. The clay must be handled and modelled in a certain way, it cannot be treated like porcelain. It has its only fragility, too much water can cause the piece to fracture and crumble. This clay is very different to porcelain and earthenware. Its character expresses individuality and demands different type of treatment.

Dogs as Throwaways

In Australia pets are abandoned by the thousands,609 which has given rise to shelters and placement services.610 611 Animal welfare organisations have risen in response to the consumerisation of dogs and other pets, to provide care for unwanted animals. Due to the easy accessibility of dogs and readiness to dispose of them in contemporary society, these organisations are essential, not only in providing the care for these animals, but to highlight the dilemma of the slaughter of such numbers of ‘pets’ in the public forum.

609 RSPCA figures for 2016-2017 stated 44,770 dogs Australia wide were received at their shelters. From that figure 18,190 were reclaimed and 16,294 were rehomed. RSPCA Australian Nations Statistics 2016- 2017. These figures do not include figures from other animal rescue organisations. 610 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human,150. 611 Shepard states in The Others: How Animals made us Human, 150, This casual abandonment may reveal humans’ disenchantment in the pet’s ability to satisfy humans’ needs and inadequacies.

115

Figure 72: Stephen Gallagher, Bran, 2017. Oil on canvas, 25 x 30 cm.612

The dilemma of abandoned dogs is being addressed by contemporary artists, who consider these dogs worthy of worldwide attention. Australian artist Stephen Gallagher (born 1967) painted portraits of 100 shelter dogs to highlight that each of these creatures has a character and a life that is important to them.613 He claimed his aim was to show viewers that the dogs still have ‘spark’, each dog is an individual that can be a valuable addition to a human’s life.614 Bran (Fig. 72) portrays an alert, intelligent, curious creature. Bran’s eyes are clear and bright, looking on with curiosity and anticipation. The wet nose, white teeth and healthy coat conveys the dog’s vigour and vitality. For no fault of the dog, the young, healthy, unwanted creature languishes in a shelter because of human desires.

612 Static Wixstatic website: https://static.wixstatic.com/media/15a250_2c24d856fc3748dc98c640be7c59bf9d~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_36 2,h_445,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/15a250_2c24d856fc3748dc98c640be7c59bf9d~mv2.jpg (accessed November 4, 2018) 613 Jessica Hinchliffe, “Artist paints 100 portraits of shelter dogs to encourage other to adopt a pet” ABC Radio, News, June 9, 2017. 614 Hinchliffe, “Artist paints 100 portraits of shelter dogs to encourage other to adopt a pet,”

116

Figure 73: Vicki Hamilton, Bag of Babies, 2017. Porcelain, cotton twine, paper banner, 100 x 53cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

My response to the surplus of unwanted dogs is Bags of Babies (Fig. 73). The graph is representative of the shocking statistics emphasising the loss of vulnerable young creatures, through no fault of their own. These dogs have become an inconvenience and are disposed of because of human needs. Animal Protection organisations are bringing light into the dark corners of animal suffering in relation to the puppy industry that is usually hidden from public scrutiny. The graph demonstrates the shift in cultural attitudes which has caused the figures of the disposal of unwanted dogs and puppies to drop over ten years, from an appalling twenty-five thousand dogs in 2005 to seven thousand in 2015. 615 Porcelain bags of various sizes, with the word Surplus printed on each bag, hang over parts of the graph to point out the high and low figures during this period. I chose to use porcelain because this material is perceived as a precious substance and it is holding vulnerable young lives. The bags represent a common way of disposing of unwanted puppies and kittens.616 In contrast, human expenditure on what they consider to be appropriate for the needs of their dogs, has become excessive. Perhaps this is a consequence of an awareness that this relationship may be one sided or misplaced sense of love.

615 No attribution, RSPCA website. https://www.rspca.org.au/facts/annual-statistics-2015-16/published- statistics (accessed February 12, 2017) 616 An American woman was arrested for throwing a plastic bag containing seven three day old puppies into a commercial bin in April, 2019, also 38 dogs were recovered from filthy living conditions for the property. Marine O’Neill, “Woman tossed bag of newborn puppies into bin caught”, News.com.au. April, 24, 2019 https://www.news.com.au/technology/science/animals/woman-who-tossed-bag-of-newborn- puppies-in-bin-caught/news-story/af66e21c39a76650b41e5a35e94fec78 (accessed June 20, 2019)

117

Pet dogs can also suffer unintentional mistreatment. Outdated methods of animal discipline, may result in poor treatment of the dog where it is believed that a dog will learn to behave or take commands through using harsh discipline, such ‘punishment’ and intimidation is still practiced. Inflicting pain on a dog whilst training has a negative impact617 on the dog’s capacity to learn and may make the dog fearful.

When a dog is treated as a substitute for a human child they may be over fed618 619 or fed unsuitable food. Owners may also be found carrying the dog, keeping the dog confined indoors and dressing the dog inappropriately in human type clothing.620 This can impact on the welfare of the dog, as extremely obese dogs suffer similar diseases as obese humans.621 Dogs also endure passive abuse by way of neglect, where medical care is withheld, or through failure to supply adequate living conditions, food and water or the opportunity for appropriate exercise.

Equally important is the ignorance shown by animal hoarders, who express their love for the animals without addressing the animals’ needs. The animal hoarder also believes they are doing the right thing by bringing the animal into their home with any other number of abandoned animals. However, this often is a forerunner to over-crowding, starvation and unhygienic living conditions. For dogs this leads to further suffering and is a form of cruelty no matter how well intentioned, and often results in the demise of some animals. Humans can become so obsessed with their own desire for love and companionship that they do not consider the dog’s needs. George Bernard Shaw, who was an animal lover said, “…pet animals sometimes bear more than their natural burden of human love”.622

617 Alger and Alger, “Canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars,”89. 618 Veterinarian Anne-Katrin Oatley claims pet obesity and obesity related disease are growing problems in Western society, in “Pet Obesity: Big and Getting Bigger, Issues 103, June (2013): 43. 619 Obesity can be avoided if the size, breed and level of activity of the dog is considered, when providing nourishment. 620 James. Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986),28. 621 Anne-Katrin Oatley, “Pet Obesity: Big and Getting Bigger, Issues 103, June (2013): 43. 622 Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships, 32.

118

Figure 74: Vicki Hamilton, Princess, 2017. Porcelain, Satin, tulle and taffeta, 12 x 13 x 12cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

Princess (Fig.74) is my response to the human desire to substitute a dog for a child and the burden the dog bears because of humans’ emotional needs. This human desire is exacerbated by the pet accessories industry, which provides a variety of dog clothing and accessories made to fit all sizes and shapes of dogs. Princess represents a ‘pampered’ dog that has been over fed. The female dog is dressed in a pink tutu and sits on a pink satin cushion. I have used pink to respond to the trend of dressing human female infants in pink to identify them as a female. The tutu represents another trend to dress infant females as fairy princesses. I feel that these trends can be restricting and isolating for children not allowing them to grow into themselves, by applying superficial notions of inclusion that society dictates.

The domesticated dog can also be restricted and isolated living in a human environment. The dog has no choice and in some cases I believe, can suffer humiliation by being dressed in inappropriate clothing as if they were human. The burden of being ‘pampered’ is illustrated in the posture of this precious creature. Princess’s head is lowered in humiliation and discomfort as she is to remain in the human costume on the cushion and must not destroy or soil them. Princess illustrates a dog that has been deprived of her liberty, her health and her ‘dog hood’.

The Pet Industries

An economy has developed to exploit the ‘needs’ of pets as perceived by indulgent owners. As pet owners are willing to pay, even excessively for their pets’ perceived comforts, industries

119

specifically targeted at pet owners have risen. Pet industries include specialised dog food, which remains unregulated,623 pharmaceuticals, specialised veterinarian care, bedding, dog day care, dog grooming, dog parties, dog holiday accommodation and dog funeral services. The rise of the encouragement of pampering pets is in strong contrast to the growing number of discarded pets.

Figure 75: A-Young Lee, Bumble Bee, ca 2010. Mixed Media, dimensions unknown.624

Korean artist A-Young Lee’s painting Bumble Bee (Fig. 75) depicts the absurdity of dressing a dog as if it were a human child in bumble bee costume.625 The background represents clouds and sky, which is the typical environment for a bumble bee, but not a dog. However, it is notable that the image of the dog has been realistically rendered, which is an indication of the value the artist allocates to the dog. The wings of the bumble bee costume is the human made component which has been stuck to the painting, giving the image a three dimensional effect. The human made component projects from the painting surface which emphasises the wings as being an addition to the image. This creates surface tension which stresses the burden the dog has to bear, being a substitute human child. The photographer William Wegman (born 1943) dressed dogs in human clothing creating hybrid figures. But his intention is satirical.

623 ABC’s 7:30 Report programme by Leigh Sales May 16, 2018, revealed plastic and mold found in a popular specialised dry dog food could be the cause of the fatal condition “megaesophagus.” This pointed out the indifference to the welfare of dogs in the dog food industry which is not regulated and can include plastic and medal ear tags. 624Dog Art Today “ More Dog Art from A-young Lee” January 14, 2010. http://dreamdogsart.typepad.com/art/2010/01/more-dog-art-from-ayoung-lee.html (accessed March 20, 2018) 625 Although this may not have been the intention of the artist as some Asian countries contemporary ‘cute’ images are popular in their culture.

120

Figure 76: William Wegman, Seated Figure, 1996. Photograph, dimensions unknown.626

Wegman’s muses were his female dogs. He rarely dressed his male dog, Man Ray in human clothes but dressed his female dog Fay in human clothes.627 His aim was to highlight women’s fashion as being pretentious and ridiculous, however these images could be viewed as disrespectful of the dog, making a mockery of a beautiful, humble creature. He stated that the dogs enjoyed the attention, which they probably did. However, taking advantage of their co- operation may be seen as exploitative and degrading to the dog.

Puppy Farms

Dogs can be treated as both a status symbol and a commodity that can be purchased online or through pet shops,628ordering an animal by size, colour and type. Puppy farms supply these outlets, where in the worst cases dogs are regarded just as money earners. Puppy mills are not responsible breeders of dogs, the dog is not valued and their welfare is not considered important. Female dogs in puppy farms, spend their entire life in cramped, dismal, filthy conditions in cages and are used for breeding over and over again.629 630 The breeding stock often lack veterinary

626 Alessandra Codinha, “What William Wegamn (and his Weimaraners) Can Teach Us About Being Human”, Vogue, Culture and Art, October 4, 2017. https://www.vogue.com/article/william-wegman- weimaraners-being-human (accessed April 29, 2018). 627 Codinha, “What William Wegamn (and his Weimaraners) Can Teach Us About Being Human,” 628 Jessica Pierce, Run Spot Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 161. 629 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,” 83. 630 No attribution,“Help needed to heal dogs in distress after puppy farm rescues,” Newcastle Herald, May 9, 2018, News, 3, rescuers liberated sick and suffering dogs, where dogs endured multiple caesarean

121

care, which leads to illness, fear and aggressive behaviour.631 The puppies provided by puppy mills are often fearful and suffer behavioural problems for the rest of their lives,632 which adds to the ever-going numbers of abandoned or ill-adjusted dogs and puppies. When the motivation to breed dogs is an economic one, the dog is considered disposable when it ceases to perform its function or is deemed unsuitable for the domestic environment.633 The treatment of dogs in the puppy farm industry is an ethical issue which needs to be taken into account when humans decide to acquire a dog.

Figure 77: Vicki Hamilton, Bling and her Babies, 2017. Tinted Porcelain, cardboard, ribbon, tissue paper, dimensions variable. Photograph by Vicki Hamilton.

Bling and her Babies (Fig. 77) is in response to the use of dogs in ‘puppy farms’. Bling represents the female dogs that are used as a breeding machine. Some breeders do not allow enough time between inseminations for the dog to recover, before she is giving birth to ever more pups. This is exploitation of a natural process of vulnerable, sentient creatures for financial gain. This artwork is comprised of a female dog and five of her recently weaned puppies. Bling is formed from pink births, severe dental disease, eye disease and utter neglect. Some dogs had to be euthanised due to their suffering. 631 Kailey A.Burger, “Solving the Problem of Puppy Mills: Why the Animal Welfare Movement’s Bark is Stronger than its Bite,” Journal of Law and Policy, 43(2013): 262. 632 Paul Solotaroff, “An investigation into the underworld of America’s puppy mills, the secret shame of the pet industry.” Rolling Stone. Issue 1278/1279, December 1, 2017:42-56. Accession number 120528745. 633 Cynthia Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals” in Pets and People: The Ethics of Our Relationships with Companion Animals, ed. Christine Overall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 24.

122

tinted porcelain and is perched on a white plinth, looking down at her pups. Her left ear has been tagged to indicate that she is breeding stock, just a number and so remains nameless. Three of the pups are nestled in tissue paper, inside a gift box, sparkly ribbons lay under the boxes ready to wrap up the pups as gifts. The other two pups lay unboxed not suitable for the consumer, their destiny is uncertain. The puppies have been specially bred to meet the demand of the pet market. I have tinted the porcelain of each piece to represent gender; female a pink puppy, male a blue puppy and the spotty, white puppy represents a de-sexed animal which has lost its gender. The mother lay thin and exhausted, wondering when she will be next violated by artificial insemination to produce even more offspring that will be taken from her. The breeders deprive her of her autonomy and natural instinct to find the strongest male candidate to father of her pups, denying her of her ‘dog hood’. At the end of her breeding life, which can leave the dog with multiple health and behavioural issues, she is sold off or destroyed because of ill health. This artwork describes another negative impact human desires can have on dogs. Here the dog can be seen as merely a machine providing income for the breeder. Bags of Babies is also a response to the negative outcome from contrived, concentrated breeding of dogs for financial gain and disposal of surplus healthy sentient creatures.

However, not all breeders treat their dogs so coldheartedly, although these dogs are still deemed replaceable and there is often no commitment to an individual dog.634 635 636 To counter these issues the RSPCA have compiled a buyer’s guide for the responsible purchase of a new puppy or dog.637

While some services such as veterinary care, can be seen as fundamental to dogs’ needs, expensive pharmaceutical care and surgical procedures have become available which are parallel to that of humans. Treatments for cancer and cataract surgery along with a wide range of treatments, are provided for pets in Western society. 638 639 Such treatment often result in pain or great discomfort for these animals and may give little benefit long-term to their well-being. This may reflect human failure to accept the inevitable decline of their pet and to overlook the possible suffering of the dog.

634 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,” 24. 635 Hobby breeders, breed on a smaller scale and have more contact with their dogs. 636 However, there are hobby breeders who are not economically motivated and just love a specific breed of dog. Pierce, Run Spot Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets, 163. 637 RSPCA, The smart puppy and dog buyer’s guide available on www.rspcapuppyguide.com.au. 638 Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships, 30. 639 While these expensive services are not attainable for humans in poor countries, I consider animals have the right to good care, I also consider that all human beings also require good care.

123

When a human recognises the dog to be an individual as well as a member of a different species and respects those differences and behaviour, a companionable relationship results. Bearing in mind that domesticated dogs have been detached from “…their ancestral ecology,”640 Shepard suggests that ensuring the dog’s life is enriched in a way that stimulates them intellectually, preserving their integrity, can influence positive experiences and increases their over-all well- being.641 These actions can strengthen the bond between dog and human.

As I have identified within contemporary Australian communities, the early ideas of the domination and exploitation of animals continues to exist in tension with more compassionate arguments. Not all people are aware of these viewpoints, so that some artists who include animals or their representation in their art fail to acknowledge the integrity and welfare of their subjects and encourage the primacy of human needs or desires.

In the next chapter I discuss aspects of current conflicting relationships between humans and dogs where dogs might live ‘a dog’s life’ far removed from being ‘man’s best friend’ and I provide examples of human-dog relationships which demonstrate the possibility of a mutually beneficial relationship.

640 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 315. 641 Shepard, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human, 315.

124

Chapter Six

‘Man’s (or Women’s) Best Friend’: Towards Harmonious Human-Dog Relationships

In an earlier chapter I explored the way domesticated dogs have become part of everyday human life and are often referred to as ‘Man’s (or Women’s) best friend’. The developing concerns about dog welfare and the conflict between human needs/desires in the treatment of animals was examined in Chapter 5. This chapter continues the investigation of selected current practices in the human treatment of dogs that acknowledge dog’s integrity and rights to provide a more mutually beneficial relationship. This approach forms the basis of both my studio practice and is reflected in the art of other contemporary artists.

Popular culture today is saturated with images of dogs, as the domesticated dog is perhaps one of the few ways humans interact with other animal species. Domesticated dogs are still the most widely kept pet, companion or working animal. An animal industry journal quoted that there are 4.8 million domesticated dogs in Australia, that is approximately 20 dogs to every 100 people and for 83% of Australians pets are a part of childhood.642 This contact643 has potential beneficial aspects for humans and dogs. However, previous ideas about hierarchy in nature still inform both popular culture and art, as many aspects of human-dog relationships still show the earlier ideas about nature. In contemporary Western society the images of dogs in popular culture still portray allegory, with dogs generally shown as exemplars for bravery, intelligence and loyalty. In this section I examine the keeping of dogs as pets where they cohabit in human homes and society to become ‘members of the family’.

642No attribution, “Dog Ownership in Australia,” Animal Medicines Australia: Pet Ownership in Australia, 2016: 11. 643 Chapter one examines the many health benefits for humans derived from contact with dogs.

125

Figure 78: Tom Mosser, A Golden Retriever at the Museum, 2013. Oil on Canvas, dimensions unknown.644

A Golden Retriever at the Museum, (Fig. 78) depicts a dog as a viewer of art rather than a participant in an art installation or as an art object. The dog is expressing curiosity, joy and playfulness.

Dogs in Popular Culture: A New Allegory Images of dogs in popular culture often act as models for human moral behaviour, suggesting a relationship that benefits humans and dogs mutually and equally. Dogs appear in contemporary popular culture in advertising, movies, images on clothing and are depicted as a part of human family life, representing positive and negative human qualities, and forming moral examples for both adults and children. The reception by children, of dogs as moral examples can lead the way to their acceptance and the pursuit of dogs as life companions in a child’s later life. Dogs are often depicted as examples of admired characters, but sometimes are used critically as examples of less admirable human conduct. For children, dogs have been models of heroic characteristics for example Rin Tin Tin, Lassie, Old Yeller and Red Dog.645 Rin Tin Tin’s first 1922 film success,646 led to the increased use of real dogs

644 Noble Divorce and Family Law website, with permission of Tom Mosser. https://i2.wp.com/nobledivorcelaw.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/golden-at-the-museum.jpg (accessed April 22, 2018) 645 Rin Tin Tin appeared in twenty-four Hollywood films, the first being a silent film in 1922 The Man from Hell’s River. Kathryn Fuller-Seeley and Jeremy Groskorf, “The Dogs Who Saved Hollywood” in Cinematic Canines: Dogs and Their Work in the Fiction Film ed Adrienne L. McLean (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 62. 646 Fuller-Seeley and Groskorf, “The Dogs Who Saved Hollywood,”62.

126

in film as central characters, because they were used to demonstrate qualities admired in human heroes, such as courage, intelligence and independence.647 Again, in the film Lassie Come Home of 1940,648 Lassie was portrayed as an intelligent, resilient and enterprising female dog, who exhibited endurance, determination and great devotion to her family.649 The 1957 film Old Yeller 650 showed that strong bonds can develop into a trusting and loving relationship between a boy and his dog. It demonstrated the acceptance of human grief over the loss of a family dog and the sacrifice of the dog in protecting them.651

The film Red Dog of 2011652 is directed from a screenplay written by Daniel Taplitz and was based on a true story. The prequel to Red Dog (originally called True Blue), by Louis de Bernieres, was published as a prequel and titled Red Dog: True Blue, 2016 by Vintage North Sydney.653 The tag line reads “…every legend has a beginning”. These films are Australian versions of a ‘true blue’ Aussie Red Kelpie, that not only offers a model for the Pilbara Wanderer, an independent larrikin, but also of a determined and resilient dog. Louis de Bernieres said that his book Red Dog: True Blue, provides Red Dog with legendary status, and while his book “…was written for twelve-year olds … will probably be read mainly by adults.”654

These films placed domesticated dogs between two concepts answering to natural instincts implicit in wild nature while also embodying human characteristics. Such characteristics as a child- like innocence were accompanied by the complex traits of intelligence and courage.655 This idealisation of the representation of dogs was an indication of the humanisation of dogs in Western culture.656

647 Fuller-Seeley and Groskorf, “The Dogs Who Saved Hollywood,”55. 648Britannica.com https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lassie-Come-Home (accessed June 26, 2018) 649 Eric Knight, “Lassie Come Home” The Saturday Evening Post, March 1989. 650 Old Yeller was originally a book, where a lost dog is caught stealing meat from a poor pioneer family. The youngest boy bonds with the dog and they quickly become constant companions. Thomas J. Taylor, “Old Yeller by Fred Gipson” Salem Press Encyclopaedia of Literature, 2016: 1. 651 Taylor, “Old Yeller by Fred Gipson,”1. 652 The film Red Dog is the story of a lone dog who was faithful only to one man and when his human companion died Red Dog spent years searching for him. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEu7n4wew_A (accessed June 26, 2018) 653Red Dog: True Blue was about a lonely, boy who rescued an abandoned puppy after a storm. Over time they developed a close companionship, until the boy is forced to return to the city and the dog’s search for his mate began. Stephen Romei, “Film reviews: Red Dog: True Blue; Why Him? The Australian, December, 24, 2016, Arts. 654 Louis de Bernieres, Red Dog:True Blue ( Sydney: Vintage Books, 2016), 129. 655 Fuller-Seeley and Groskorf, “The Dogs Who Saved Hollywood,”56. 656 Fuller-Seeley and Groskorf, “The Dogs Who Saved Hollywood,”56.

127

Dogs are often depicted in popular culture as independent thinking characters with creative intellect.657 Their character and temperament can act as models for good human behaviour and their fidelity and sense of joy can assist with the development of compassion in young people.

Figure 79: Wallace and Gromit. Characters created by Nick Park.658 Photograph on Know your meme Website.

In the cartoon Wallace and Gromit (Fig. 79), a clay animated comedy television and film series, Gromit is a skilled Beagle and the dim-witted man, Wallace’s, best friend.659 Gromit represents the fine qualities of a dog that combines with some physical capabilities of a human being. Gromit although mute, is depicted as an ideal best friend; intelligent, loyal, honest, charismatic, diligent and creative.660

The portrayed character and demeanour of dogs is utilised in contemporary society to represent some qualities in humans. Some allegories of the qualities and behaviour of dogs also appear in advertising where it is used to appeal to adult humans.

657 Depiction of dogs as cartoon characters existed in popular culture from the early 1920’s, starting with Pluto, many others followed for example, Huckleberry Hound, Auggie Doggie and Doggie Daddy, Astro Jetson, Scoobie Doo, Brian in the Family Man and Santa’s little helper in the Simpsons. 658 Know your meme webstie: Wallace and Gromit/ Wensleydale http://knowyourmeme.com/photos/1180919-wallace-and-gromit-wensleydale (accessed April 23, 2018) 659 Gromit is depicted as an especially talented aeroplane pilot and likes knitting, cooking, playing chess, reading the newspaper and enjoying a good cup of tea. His favourite things are a mixture of human and dog belongings an alarm clock, dog bone, brush and photo of Wallace and himself. https://www.wallaceandgromit.com/nick-park (accessed April 23, 2018) 660 The producers of the film series, describe the relationship between Wallace and Gromit as an ‘edgy’, honest friendship without sentimentality. Source from Patrick Wood, “Wallace and Gromit creative duo open Australian exhibition” ABC News Breakfast, June 28, 2017. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06- 28/wallace-and-gromit-aardman-duo-open-australian-exhibition/8655912 (accessed May 3, 2018)

128

Figure 80: Official logo for Iron Jack Lager.661

The human figure in (Fig. 80) is depicted as a rugged outdoorsman, bred on the land to hunt and fish, with his faithful dog by his side. The dog depicted is a Mastiff just as tough and hard as the man and also represents loyalty and companionship for a man who works alone in the bush, a ‘true blue’ mate.

The qualities of dogs, that humans value can assist with the development of empathy through a companionable relationship with a dog. While popular culture uses allegory based around dogs to encourage young people to aspire to characteristics valued as contributing positively to their culture, domesticated dogs as living creatures have been used to assist in the development of human empathy.

Programs for training dogs by juvenile inmates have indicated the development of beneficial dog- human relationships to offenders. Studies have shown positive results when incarcerated youths have participated in programs that train shelter dogs for adoption.662 The use of shelter dogs in this program is appropriate because the youths can relate to the issues of abuse and abandonment that the dogs have suffered. This is critical with the development of empathy towards fellow sufferers but also encouraging the nurture of dogs and other vulnerable animals.

661 https://denifishingclassic.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/IRON-JACK-LOGO-MAN-AND-DOG- 1v2.png (accessed July 8, 2018) 662 Cynthia L. Bathurst and Lisa Lunghofer “Lifetime Bonds: At-Risk Youth and At-Risk Dogs Helping One Another” in Men and Their Dogs: A New Understanding of Man’s Best Friend, eds Christopher Blazina and Lori R. Kogan, (Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2016), 138.

129

Cynthia Bathurst et.al., animal advocate state, “Empathy is a key protective factor in preventing youth delinquency...”663 The interaction with dogs builds empathy, enhances moral cognitive and identity development.664 Further studies have found improvements in honesty, nurturing, social growth, understanding, self-confidence and pride of accomplishment in these adolescences.665

Additionally researchers have found the development of empathy for animals can have an important “…impact on human-directed empathy.”666 Through the program the human participants can learn to understand the importance of caring for another living creature and can freely express their love and affection for them.667 Dogs, particularly ill-treated dogs, show great benefit from these interactions.

Dogs also participate in prisoner rehabilitation programmes, which help prisoners to develop empathy, compassion and a sense of pride or accomplishment.668 Some programmes, using dogs are set up to help steer youths away from interest in criminal acts before they start. BackTrack is an Australian initiative, where Hunter Valley youths are partnered with working dogs to train the dogs for dog-jumping competitions.669 One student stated, “BackTrack gave me a two-day-a- week break from school and I got through to Year 12.”670 The local police inspector claims the programme has “incredible results against all odds.”671 Like popular culture, the use of dogs can become a force for developing good citizens.

This encouragement of empathy, understanding and companionship was explored in an early art work by Joseph Beuys (1921 – 1986), Coyote: I like America and America likes me, (Fig. 81).

663 Bathurst and Lunghofer “Lifetime Bonds: At-Risk Youth and At-Risk Dogs Helping One Another,”138. 664 Bathurst and Lunghofer “Lifetime Bonds: At-Risk Youth and At-Risk Dogs Helping One Another,”138. 665 C. Deaton, “Humanizing prisons with animals: A closer look at “cell dogs” and horse programs in correctional institutions” Journal of Correctional Education, 56.1 (2005): 55. 666 Bathurst and Lunghofer “Lifetime Bonds: At-Risk Youth and At-Risk Dogs Helping One Another,”138. 667 Bathurst and Lunghofer “Lifetime Bonds: At-Risk Youth and At-Risk Dogs Helping One Another,”138. 668 Angela K. Fournier, “Pen Pals: An Examination of Human-Animal Interaction as an Outlet for Healthy Masculinity” in Prison in Men and Their Dogs: A New Understanding of Man’s Best Friend, eds Christopher Blazina and Lori R. Kogan, (Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2016), 179. 669 Chris Bath, “An epic story of new hope,” Newcastle Herald, October 20, 2018 Cover Story, Weekender, 13. 670 Bath, “An epic story of new hope,” 671 Bath, “An epic story of new hope,”

130

Figure 81: Joseph Beuys, Coyote: I like America and America likes me, 1974. Performance, live coyote and artist, New York.672

This performance took place in an enclosed unnatural environment with torn copies of the Wall Street Journal, straw, felt, a live coyote and Beuys.673 For Native Americans, the Coyote is a sacred animal representing spiritual transformation and teaching humans how to live. This work was an attempt by Beuys to invoke positive social changes, through education and healing. This performance was a reflection of what Beuys saw as an interactive, healing of the relationship between Americans and the American Indian.674 With Beuys’ shamanistic manner, he constantly approached the coyote trying to create a trusting relationship with the animal. However, Steve Baker suggests it was more about the confrontation between animal and human, where the roles changed, that continues to intrigue viewers.675 While the wolf is not a domesticated dog, Beuys’ search for trust, which is a vital aspect in any relationship is indicative of the potential for mutually beneficial human-dog relationships. Beuys showed the animal reverence and respect, beyond any human relationships, only communing with the coyote during his visit.

Dogs assisting Humans

Dogs are remarkable for their capacity to respond to training by humans and this ability has been shaped to aid humans in various roles, as assistance dogs. Dogs are trained to locate injured human victims of disasters, to guide the blind and to carry out an extraordinary range of everyday

672The Painters Key.com http://i0.wp.com/painterskeys.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/beuys- coyote.jpg (accessed April 3, 2018) 673 Steve Baker, The Postmodern Animal (London: Reaktion Books, 2000), 58. 674 Baker, The Postmodern Animal, 44. 675 Baker, The Postmodern Animal, 44.

131

tasks for those who cannot hear, walk or reach and finally to give comfort to the aged, disabled, mentally ill and dying.

Dogs have been trained to alert the deaf to a sound, to open doors, pick up and carry items to their owners.676 Some dogs have even learnt to unload the washing from a front loader washing machine.677 Figure 82 demonstrates one of many skills dogs are capable of to assist physically disabled humans.

Figure 82: “Ouch Blog: Assistance dogs: How to spot them, BBC News, July 9, 2014. 678

Dogs are trained to alert humans with serious medical conditions such as diabetes and epilepsy of impending low blood sugar and seizures. Hearing dogs alert humans to door bells, telephones and fire alarms.679

Figure 83: Lores guide dog at work, Umina 2015, photographed by Vicki Hamilton, with the permission of the owner.

Dogs to guide the blind or vision impaired are specially bred for this purpose, utilising qualities of that breed such as intelligence, calm demeanour and the ability to consistently follow

676 No attribution, Assistance Dogs Australia, People with physical disabilities program. https://www.assistancedogs.org.au/ (accessed July 12, 2018). 677 No attribution, Assistance Dogs Australia, People with physical disabilities program. 678 Katherine Hawkins, “Ouch Blog: Assistance dogs: How to spot them,” BBC News, July 9, 2014. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-ouch-28195268 (accessed June 25, 2019). 679 Hawkins, “Ouch Blog: Assistance dogs: How to spot them,”

132

instructions.680 These service dogs enhance the lives of humans, allowing them to remain active in society and independent.

Assistance/service dogs offer more than performing trained tasks; they also provide companionship and emotional support. The training of these dogs is a specialist skill of mutual benefit to dogs and humans, particularly those suffering Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and this is covered in detail in Appendix 3. Therapy dogs help socially withdrawn or isolated humans who have suffered abuse or are intellectually challenged, to begin to communicate by positive interaction with a dog.681

Delta Society Australia Ltd is an organisation of volunteers and their dogs who enter hospitals and aged care facilities to visit the sick and aged.682 The joyous, innocent disposition of these selected dogs give comfort to patients and this develops over time into a relationship. These relationships are often positive for both the human and the dog. Some members of the Delta Society believed their dogs suffered grief after a death of a human, particularly if the dog had had a long association with that person and when guide/assistance and therapy dogs come to the end of their working life and have to cope with a critical change in their relationships with humans. When the dog’s capacity to provide a service diminishes, it must retire and then be replaced with a younger dog. If the original owner does not want the dog as a pet, this raises the question of rehoming retired dogs. These dogs are accustomed to being in the company of humans for no less than four hours a day, sleeping inside, travelling on public transport and in cars, so generally do not make good ‘back-yard dogs.’683 Left alone for long periods of time would distress the dog and cause some undesirable behavioural changes.684 It is distressing that working dogs still might be considered disposable at the end of their service. Many of the tasks that these dogs are trained

680 The puppy is raised by a volunteer from eight weeks old to approximately twelve months and some initial training takes place during this period. At fourteen months old, the dogs are returned to the Guide dog centre to be assessed and if the dog is deemed suitable, the twenty week intensive training begins. The intelligence of the dog is evident and ability to follow instructions from at least three different carers is essential. This prepares the guide dog to bond quickly and follow instructions from a new person. No attribution, Guide Dogs NSW/ACT, home page (accessed March 6, 2018) 681 Marc Bekoff, The Emotional Lives of Animals, (Novato: New World Library, 2007), 20. 682 My Pembroke corgi, Lily, and I were members of this organisation for four and half years and visited a nearby aged care facility every fortnight. We encountered a mixed reception, some people were very happy to interact with Lily, however some were horrified that the management would allow a dog inside the facility. Some of the residents would grab at Lily’s ears or tail and give it a good squeeze. I had to be vigilant to ensure there was no damage done to Lily or to the residents. Other Delta members visited hospitals greeted by delighted sick children. Members were frequently asked if their dog could stay with a dying child because the dog provided comfort. 683 Guide Dogs NSW/ACT, Apply to re-home a dog. www.guidedogs.com.au/guide-dogs/rehoming. (accessed October 1, 2018) 684 Guide Dogs NSW/ACT, Apply to re-home a dog.

133

for are beyond the services that humans are prepared to provide so continuously to fellow humans.

Owning Dogs: Mutual Benefits

Dog ownership has gradually increased in Western society since World War II and the emotional attachment to them has deepened,685thus increasingly dogs are being considered ‘a part of the family’. The companionship of a dog is seen as helping the elderly, the destitute, the lonely and stressed humans to live happier and longer686 by lessening loneliness and isolation.687 688 689

There is a distinction that needs to be made between the nature of relationships between dogs as pets and their owners. Firstly, where a dog becomes a substitute for a human baby or toy, I describe this relationship as a ‘pet’ dog. Secondly, where a dog is not recognised as a sentient being with certain needs and is dominated with no affection, which may be exploitative and cruel and can produce what I describe as a ‘victim’ dog. 690 Lastly, where the human-dog relationship recognises the dog as a dog, I consider this is a ‘companion’ dog. In such relations the dog is not infantilised or cruelly dominated but respected and acknowledged in such ways that many of the dog’s needs are meet. Yi-Fu Tuan (1930 - ) Chinese-American geographer, explains that while it is still a form of dominance this type of ownership is infused with affection and may yield a companionable relationship.691

Pets can be described as an object of ‘affection’ or as property whereas a companion is more a subject within an affectionate relationship and thus becomes a confidant, mate or attendant. A companionable relationship ascribes the dog with certain respect and moral consideration. Being considered ‘just a pet’ takes power from the dog.

685 James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-animal Relationships (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986),23. 686 Paul Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human (Washington D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1996), 147. 687 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human, 142. 688Talking to, and stroking a dog lowers blood pressure, heart rate and is considered to improve psychological and social issues Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human, 147. 689For the elderly, looking after a dog gives structure to their day and a purpose for getting out of bed, preparing meals and having regular exercise. Lori Kogan, “Older Adults and Pets – Physical and Psychological Benefits in Men and their Dogs: A New Understanding of Man’s Best Friend. Christopher Blazina and Lori R. Kogan eds. (Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2016), 271. 690 Yi-Fu Tuan, Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984),2. 691 Tuan, Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets, 2.

134

Jessica Pierce suggested that humans need to change the language describing pets, moving away from the concept of dogs as property, from owner to ‘caregiver’ and from pet to ‘companion animal’.692 Even dogs being described as “companions” may be problematic, because this indicates that dogs can be categorised according to their value to humans.693 Shepard acknowledges ‘companion animals’ are a medical and scientific wonder for which humans should be kind and thankful.694

However, some poor dog-human relationships can lead to the disruption of human relationships. He argues that family dogs can cause family disputes, because of unhealthy emotions, “… even divorce, and may become bridges of unhealthy transference relationships and regression to infantile human behaviour.”695 This highlights problematic human relationships that can be transferred onto dogs.

In a positive dog-human relationship dogs can provide companionship so that humans can lead more complete lives.

Figure 84: Ally Brentwood, Last Connection 1 Trust, 2013. Watercolour, 76.2 x96.52cm.696

Last Connection 1 Trust (Fig. 84) is a watercolour depicting a homeless person and their dog companion packing up their gear after a night on the street. Along with the meagre belongings is

692 Jessica Pierce, Run Spot Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 215. 693 Pierce, Run Spot Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets, 214. 694 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human, 151. 695 Shepard, The Others: How Animals made us Human, 150. 696 Image and permission was provided by the artist emailed April 16, 2018

135

a battered dog food bowl. The dog collar, harness, kerchief and lead indicate that this dog belongs to this person. The figure of the yellow Labrador is like a ray of sunshine in a grim, cold street. The dog sits calmly and patiently, waiting for the human companion to finish. This dog, glows like a ray of sunshine, offers their human companion protection, acceptance, warmth and comfort which may assist the human to feel less isolated and lonely. People talk to their dog companions and other people in society will talk to a person with a dog. The dog in this scene imbues the scene with a sense of hope and warmth.

The Companionship of Dogs

The human-companion dog relationship is the most positive interaction humans have with dogs.697 This relationship can provide comfort and well-being to both the human and the dog.698 Companionship can mean enrichment of both the human’s and dog’s lives through mutual consideration and reciprocity. Some humans see this as a friendship, where a dog is described as ‘man’s best friend’. However, it is very difficult to actually know how the companion dog essentially experiences this relationship.699

In a human-dog relationship the balance of ‘power’ is important. The human enjoys more power than the dog. Cynthia Townley argues that it is not a question of the inequality of power, rather how that power is applied.700 If a human abuses this power, this is a failure of virtue and the dog may suffer. Secondly, it is necessary to assert power over a dog in the human-dog relationship to assure the dog of its position in the relationship. Dogs are pack animals, where hierarchical power within the pack is an intrinsic element, which assists with positive social interaction and ultimately the survival of the pack.

697 Margo Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Modern Age, ed. Randy Malamud (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 88. 698 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,” 88. 699 E. Prato-Previde et al.,“Is the dog-human relationship an attachment bond? An observational study using Ainsworth’s strange situation.” Behaviour 140 (2003): 235. 700 Cynthia Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals” in Pets and People: The Ethics of Our Relationships with Companion Animals, ed. Christine Overall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 29.

136

Figure 85. Double Portrait, 1985-86 By Lucian Freud Oil on Canvas, 88.9 x 78.8 cm Irish Museum of Modern Art701

For example Lucian Freud’s Double Portrait (Fig. 85) is a realistic depiction of a close and intimate relationship between a human and a dog. The viewer observes two sleeping individuals in a relaxed, reassuring embrace. The title, Double Portrait, indicates that the artist afforded each figure equal value in the composition. The whippet’s healthy fur covers most of the dog, only revealing her pink, fleshy under belly. In contrast, the flesh of the arm covering the eyes of the human model, looks blue and dead. Every breath the dog exhales is filtered through the fingers of the human and the two front legs of the dog hug the humans arm comfortingly.

Townley considers that friendship with a companion animal is as valuable and “…worthy of respect as any other friendship”.702 The pleasure of spending time with a charming, fun individual is fundamental to friendships703 and this is also the case in positive human-dog relationships. In a friendship that cultivates positive relationships, there is a concern for the welfare of the other as well as oneself.704 705 The company of a dog provides physical and mental health benefits, such as reduced stress, lowering blood pressure and helps some humans fight depression.706 In a positive relationship one party does not enjoy pleasure at the other party’s expense.707 Similarly, responding to the dog’s apparent preferences and making concessions for these preferences is a

701 Irish Museum of Moderns Art collection online https://imma.ie/wp- content/uploads/2018/11/7574.jpg (accessed March 19, 2018) 702 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,”25. 703 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,”25. 704 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,”25. 705 This concern has been demonstrated on the battlefield, which has been examined early in this chapter. 706 Michael J. Dotson and Eva M. Hyatt, “Understanding dog-human companionship,” Journal of Business Research, 62 (2008): 456. 707 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,”25.

137

part of positive relationships.708 Humans prioritise and even make sacrifices for their dogs.709 These sacrifices are small when it is understood that the dog will put the human first as American humourist Henry Wheeler Shaw (pen name Josh Billings) quoted “A dog is the only thing on earth that loves you more than he loves himself”.710

Artists and their dogs In this section I examine the way that dogs have become muse, inspiration and subject as they are represented by artists as their companions. Dogs being represented in art as companions to artists, has been a constant in human-dog relationships through to contemporary times.

Figure 86: William Hogarth, The Painter and his Pug, 1745. Oil on canvas, 90 x 69 cm, Tate, London.711

William Hogarth’s self-portrait with Trump fig. 86, his pug, was one of many early depictions of the love and respect for the artist’s quiet and easy-going companion.712 Here, the artist depicted the objects of his affections, such as his volumes of Shakespeare, Swift and Milton, authors who motivated his dedication to satire and drama.713 Hogarth is dressed in informal attire, looking out of the painting with the direct gaze of a cynic and his mouth is firm. His palette lays in alongside his dog and has been inscribed with the ‘Line of Beauty and Grace,’ which supported his artistic

708 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,”29. 709 Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals,”30. 710 No attribution, Quote Ambition – Top 100 Greatest Dog Quotes and Sayings with Images http://www.quoteambition.com/greatest-dog-quotes-sayings-images/ (accessed November 2, 2018) 711 Tate, London collection online, Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-ND (3.0 Unported) http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/hogarth-the-painter-and-his-pug-n00112 (accessed April 23, 2018) 712 Also noted here is the evident differences in features compared to the contemporary pug, which has been inter-bred to appeal to human desires. 713 Jenny Ulgow, Hogarth : A Life and a World, (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), 403.

138

concepts. His representation of his beloved dog ‘Trump’ has been placed in the foreground giving the dog pride of place. The dog appears to be quite uninvolved, even bored with the process, looking away from Hogarth and out of the painting, suggesting impatience to join a life out of the formal constraints. Hogarth often equated himself to his pug and referred to himself as having a pugnacious temperament.714 The dog is reflected by the artist in himself.

Figure 87: Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, The Connoisseurs: Portrait of the Artist with two Dogs, 1865. Oil on canvas, 92.4 x 72.1 cm, Royal Collection Trust.715

Sir Edwin Landseer painted during the reign of Queen Victoria. The Connoisseurs: Portrait of the Artist with two Dogs (Fig. 87) was painted shortly before Landseer’s death. It seems fitting for him to have painted such a portrait, portraying dogs on either side, guiding the artist’s hand. The dogs and the artist share equal light and prominence in the painting. Landseer centres himself in the composition, looking out of the painting as if he is studying his subject, while both dogs look down as his work. Landseer sensitively portrayed his subjects as individuals, imbuing them with intelligent, grace and dignity. He depicted dogs as sentient creatures capable of courage, loyalty and often depicted as a noble hero. J. Batty claims that Landseer painted dogs as friends,716 as his earliest drawing was of a dog rendered at the age of five,717 and claims that no other artist of Landseer’s period represented the depth and truth of the dogs’ feelings so fully.718

714 Freire Barnes “William Hogarth’s homage to his beloved Pug, Trump: We take a closer look at the famed English painter and satirist’s self-portrait with his special pet” The Omnivore, January 30. 715 Royal Collection Trust collection online, Public Domain. https://www.rct.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rctr-scale-1300-500/public/collection-online/4/c/553619- 1476116518.jpg?itok=xP2Wwotj (accessed October 10, 2018) 716 J Batty ed., Landseer’s Animal Illustrations, (Alton UK: Nimrod Press Ltd, 1990), 128. 717 Batty ed., Landseer’s Animal Illustrations, 128. 718 Batty ed., Landseer’s Animal Illustrations, 130.

139

In contrast, Picasso’s attitude to dogs was limited to the inspiration they initiated. Even though Picasso surrounded himself with animals, he was apparently not passionate about them,719 until the little dachshund Lump, arrived. Lump was free to be a dog, he slept in Picasso’s bed, was hand fed at the table by Picasso720 and was the only dog he held.721 Lump also became the subject of many drawings and paintings, such as Las Meninas after Velazquez fig. 88, where Picasso replaced the original large mastiff with his dachshund. However, like many of Picasso’s human relationships this infatuation did not last. When Lump developed a spinal injury, Picasso seem to lose interest in him.722 The original owner of Lump, David Douglas Duncan took Lump back into his care after six – seven years with Picasso. He then, sought appropriate medical treatment which increased Lump’s life for another ten years.723 The indifference to Lump’s condition shown by Picasso could be described as a reflection of the cultural consideration for animals, that once they are of no use to humans, the emotional connection can be cut.

Figure 88: Pablo Picasso, Las Meninas after Velazquez, 1957. Oil on canvas, 194 x 260 cm, Museum Picasso, Barcelona. 724

719 No attribution, “How Picasso fell for a dachshund” Independent Newspaper, May 1, 2006, Culture. 720 No attribution, “How Picasso fell for a dachshund,”. 721 Hilary Rose, “The master and his dog” Times, Magazine United Kingdom, April 1, 2006. 42. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.newcastle.edu.au/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=2502cc2f-16e5-4351- 97ec- a5623084981d%40sessionmgr4010&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#AN=7EH4033618698&db=n5 h (accessed April 6, 2019) 722 No attribution, “How Picasso fell for a dachshund” Independent Newspaper, May 1, 2006, Culture. 723 No attribution, “How Picasso fell for a dachshund” Independent Newspaper, May 1, 2006, Culture. 724Picasso Museum, Barcelona http://web.guggenheim.org/exhibitions/picasso/content/images/picasso_x.2009.1292_l.jpg (Accessed November 2, 2018)

140

Figure 89: Lucian Freud, Eli, 2002. Etching, 66 x 84.5 cm, Art Gallery NSW.725

In contrast, Lucian Freud loved dogs and enjoyed their quiet company. The artist rendered Eli (Fig. 89) as an image of a warm, living, breathing creature. His treatment of this image is also the way that he painted humans where he did not idealise or censor any aspect of his subject. This creates a strong impression of the reality of this dog’s experience. Freud was interested in people as a part of the animal species.726 William Feaver (born 1943) explains that Freud viewed animal behaviour as virtues: “their unselfconsciousness, their lack of arrogance, their ready eagerness, their animal pragmatism…”727 Feaver claimed that Freud believed dogs where honest in the behaviour and appearance because “The appetites where so undisguised in a dog…”728

Freud preferred to work with undraped human models,729 because people are exposed and he believed they shed their facades,730leaving them vulnerable physically and emotionally. He stated “I like people to look as natural and as physically at ease as animals…”731 and this was essential in capturing their personalities and moods.732 Freud explained that in each portrait he aims to depict a particular individual’s characteristics, to express who they are and how their personality moved the artist.733 Consequently, not only is Freud aiming to express the personality of Eli, he is also expressing the effects of the dog’s personality on him.

725 Art Gallery of NSW collection online, Section 40, Copyright Act 1968. https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/works/106.2003/?tab=details (accessed April 23, 2018) 726 William Feaver, Lucian Freud,( London: Tate Publishing, 2002),41. 727 Feaver, Lucian Freud,41. 728 Feaver, Lucian Freud,41. 729 Feaver, Lucian Freud,41. 730 Feaver, Lucian Freud,41. 731 Feaver, Lucian Freud,42. 732 Martin Gayford, “Introduction” in Lucian Freud: Painting People, ed. Sarah Ruddick (Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books, 2012), 11. 733 Gayford, “Introduction,”11.

141

Figure 90: Vicki Hamilton, Lily, work in progress, 2019. Porcelain and Lily’s Ashes 15 x21 x 23cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton

Lily, (Fig. 90) is my representation of an artist’s companion. The life we experienced together was an important factor in my decision to commence my PhD research. The quality of our relationship made me feel the possibility of rewarding and mutual relationships between dogs and people.

Lily is a representation of my Pembroke Corgi, who passed 11th August, 2014 at the age of twelve and a half. Her companionship enriched my life, she connected me with the community and nature, and helped me to slow down to experience the here and now. I respected her as another species and understood her need to do ‘dog things’, such as follow a scent and interact with other dogs. Lily was a charismatic creature, imbued with joy, empathy and a sense of humour. We trusted each other and I considered her a friend (a women’s best friend).

This piece was technically and emotionally difficult to make. This was the first time I had worked with and formulated bone china from lamb and bovine bone ash. Even more important was that the final piece was using Lily’s ashes, which were precious to me.

My aim was to honour Lily by sculpting a commemorative bust of her head from bone china that included Lily’s ashes. In order make Lily, I had to do many tests, where I used bone ash from sheep and bovine bones and combined them with clay ingredients to form the clay body. The process began with collecting unwanted bones, then I boiled them to remove any remaining material, before firing them to 1000 degrees, then crushed them using a mortar and pestle. The early tests resulted in a chalky, flat finish, which were unsuitable. Then I combined the ashes with

142

commercial porcelain slip for testing, before using Lily ashes. The resulting surface of these tests were more favourable with the finish like a porcelain, soft and tactile.

In the following chapter the failure of some contemporary artists to acknowledge the welfare and integrity of animals in their representation, is considered.

143

Chapter Seven

Dogs in Art: Contemporary Issues of Representation

When live dogs become a part of an exhibit, they become like an art object which is viewed in a Museum. These animals are not participants but rather observed as an object. Berger equates the notion of the observation of animals with the observation of women in art as objects,734 subjects rather than participants of the gaze. Exhibitions featuring live animals can be used as a social devices which confront the audience and challenges their ethical position. Such artworks are not always driven by concern for animals, but can often reveal humans’ perception of animals’ needs and demonstrate human moral standards.

Animals used as Art Objects

Examination of various art works and art installations using either dead or live animals, address these issues. Here I consider artists who use live animals as their art.

Featuring live animals as an artwork or in an art installation can raise debates concerning the rights of animals.735 Examples of art relevant to these debates are Helena (Fig. 91) by Chilean artist Marco Evaristti (born 1963), Belgian artist Wim Delvoye’s (born 1965) tattooed pigs (Fig. 92) and American artist Andy Feehan’s (born 1950) Minnesota (Fig. 93) More specifically dogs in art installations such as Dogs that cannot touch each other (Fig . 94) by Chinese artists Sun Yuan (born 1972) and Peng Yu (born 1974), and You are what you read (Eres Lo Que Lees) (Fig. 96) by Costa Rician artist Guillermo “Habacuc” Vargas (born 1975)are also discussed.

A controversial installation addressing human relationships with animals was Helena (Fig. 91) by Marco Evaristti,736 which points out the inherent capacity for humans to be cruel in their interactions with other species. The notion of human dominance and power is clear, which raises ethical issues regarding the welfare of non-human animals. This is particularly towards vulnerable living creatures that are considered lower on the hierarchical scale. While this does not feature a dog, the intention of this artist in permitting cruel treatment of the fish raises questions about the responsibility and complicity of the artist.

734John Berger, “Why Look at Animals” in The Animal Reader: The Essential Classic and Contemporary Writings, eds by Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald,(Oxford : Berg, 2007), 251. 735 Steve Baker, “Haunted by the Animal,” Tate Magazine, September, 2001. http://www.ekac.org/haunted.html (accessed September 28,2017) 736 First exhibited at Trapholt Art Gallery in Denmark, 2000.

144

Figure 91: Marco Evaristti, Helena, 2000. Installation 10 liquidisers, water, gold fish and table, dimensions variable.737

This installation illustrated the moral values of viewers and acted as an examination of human social principles. The art work consisted of ten Moulinex Optiblend 2000 liquidisers on a table738 each containing water and one goldfish. The liquidisers were clearly connected to the power and the viewer had the opportunity to press the “on” switch if they wished. The artist claimed that it was a social experiment by dividing the viewers into three groups “The idiot who pushes the button; the voyeur who loves to watch and the moralist who would judge”739 the ethics of pushing the button or of staging the exhibition.740 Evaristti describes, the ‘idiot’ who by pushing the button would convert the fish into fish soup in the most violent manner has no regard for their wellbeing.

From an animal rights view, Peter Singer remarked that the option of pressing the “on button pointed out the power we have over animals”741 and the willingness of many humans to take that right, whether as a trophy or a ‘fun’ exhibition experience. It also exposes the role of the artist in actively encouraging the ‘blending’ of the fish, their suffering and death.

737 Marco Evaristti, “The Greenhouse Effect”, interviewed by Eric Frank and Animal H-Readers for Exhibition Catalogue, Serpentine Gallery, 2000, London, 65. 738 Which the artist claimed acted as an altar. 739 Evaristti, “The Greenhouse Effect,”66. 740 Evaristti, “The Greenhouse Effect,”66. 741 Baker, “Haunted by the Animal,”.

145

Figure 92: Live pig being tattooed under the directions of Wim Delvoye.742

Wim Delvoye began tattooing pig hide in the 1990s and later progressed to tattooing live pigs. He established an ‘art farm’ in Beijing, where pigs are bred exclusively to be a canvas for his artwork. The live pigs are tattooed under anaesthetic then they are slaughtered and their skins sold as art works. He considers animals just as property whereby the animal is merely a means to an end.743 Artists use many animal products in the production their work (brushes, vellum, leather, glue, bone), but this particular use of an animal raises issues such as using human tattooing on a live animal as the means to produce an art work. This indicates a failure to respect the authentic nature of the pig.744 Figure 92 illustrates the superficiality of some gestures, as the pig is been tattooed with images of Disney princess characters. While many animals have been bred to modify their character, the imposition of tattooing a pig changes the moral value of a living creature into a mere canvas for human desires. This belittles the animal.

Figure 93: Andy Feehan, Minnesota, ca 1977. Live Chester White pig 745

742 Fareed Kaviani, “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?,” Modern Farmer, May 19, 2014 https://cdn.modernfarmer.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/oinked1.jpg (accessed April 8, 2018) 743 Kaviani, “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?” 744 This indignity imposed on the pig is similar to the Wegman photographic images of Wiemaraners. 745 Kaviani, “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?”

146

In another art work based on tattooing a pig, Minnesota (Fig. 93) Andy Feehan claimed his intention was to “save” the pig from the slaughterhouse by making it into an art object.746 747 The artist tattooed wings on the pig’s flanks while the animal was unconscious and the artist suggested the wings implied the pig’s flight for freedom from an untimely death.748 Ironically, Minnesota still died because her purchaser had her killed and stuffed.749 750 The artist does not appear to have thought through the issues involved in treating a sentient creature in this way.751

Figure 94: Sun Yuan and Peng Yu, Dogs That Cannot Touch Each Other, 2003. Still from Video752

Figure 94 Dogs That Cannot Touch Each Other was intended by the artists to demonstrate the unavoidable participation as subjects of either domination or subordination in human society.753 However, this scene harkens back to periods in history where dogs were tethered and urged to fight bears and bulls for the entertainment of humans. Ironically the eight pit bulls featuring in this installation were locally sourced from an organisation that trains pit bulls to fight754. They were harnessed to non-motorised treadmills, facing one another. The dogs run towards one another in futility, never being able to reach each other. The aggressive character of pit bulls was

746 Kaviani, “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?,” 747 Minnesota fig 93 was a pig of the Chester White breed which has been developed through centuries of selective breeding be slaughtered to provide bacon. 748 Kaviani, “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?,” 749 Kaviani, “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?,” 750 Perhaps the saying “pigs might fly” is a suitable description of trying to save the pigs from the slaughterhouse in a human centric world. 751Colin Perkel, “Bodies Revealed exhibit may be using executed Chinese prisoners’, says rights group”, The Canadian Press, September 6, 2014. The issues of the rights of dead humans have been raised recently when it was discovered that cadavers of criminals in China were preserved through plastination for public viewing without prior permission. This relates to issues similar of use of animals that have not rights even in death. 752 Ben Davis, “Why the Guggenheim’s Controversial Dog Video is Even More Disturbing Than You Think”, ArtNews, September 29, 2017. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/so-whats-really-going-on-with-that- disturbing-dog-video-at-the-guggenheim-1100417 (accessed April 8, 2018) 753 Davis, “Why the Guggenheim’s Controversial Dog Video is Even More Disturbing Than You Think,”. 754 Davis, “Why the Guggenheim’s Controversial Dog Video is Even More Disturbing Than You Think,”.

147

utilised to illustrate power and control, but where the facilitation of power and control supports hierarchical social structures.755 Even though the dogs were not harmed in this performance; the innate characteristics of the dogs were exploited for the purposes of demonstrating hierarchical and dominating structures in human society.

Artist Mark Dion stated that when using live organisms in an artwork the artist needs to know what they are doing and must take responsibility for these animals’ welfare.756 Steve Baker states “…as the animal in the gallery space is seldom (if ever) there of its own choosing”757 the ethical treatment of the animal should be scrutinised.

Figure 95: Guillermo “Habacus” Vargas, You are what you read (Eres Lo Que Lees) October, 2007. Codice Gallery, Manwihichagua, Nicaragua.758

Figure 96: Guillermo “Habacus” Vargas, You are what you read (Eres Lo Que Lees) October, 2007. Codice Gallery, Manwihichagua, Nicaragua.759

The installation You are what you read (Fig. 96) by Guillermo ‘Habacus’ Vargas raised issues around the welfare of the stray domesticated dog. At the artist’s request, the dog was picked up by local children from a pack of stray dogs for the installation. The dog was tied by rope to a point

755 Davis, “Why the Guggenheim’s Controversial Dog Video is Even More Disturbing Than You Think,” 756 Baker, “Haunted by the Animal,” 757 Baker, “Haunted by the Animal,” 758 Paul Harris, “The artist who is leaving a dog to starve in the name of art”, Daily Mail, April 25, 2008. 759 Harris, “The artist who is leaving a dog to starve in the name of art,”

148

high on the wall, with the words ‘You are what you read’ marked out on the wall in dog food. This was out of reach of the dog. The artist noted that during the exhibition no one attempted to free the dog, feed the dog or ring authorities.760 Vargas would not remark on the fate of the dog and his silence only intensified the effect of the installation on those who objected to the treatment of the dog.761 Consequently his intention in the exhibition and later his silence sparked a media controversy which made the artist a target of anonymous death threats.

It was unclear whether the artist was intending the failure of the audience to indicate concern for these dogs to be the point of the exhibition or if he intended the cruel indifference to the animals’ welfare to ‘shock’ the audience. If the dog died because it was incarcerated in an artwork or if it survived, highlights the fact that artists must keep in mind that animals are not inanimate materials and can suffer because of the artist’s intent. Although, David Yanez claims that ambiguity was the artist’s intention,762 and the art exhibition illustrated how easy the facts can be manipulated by media which reveals the hypocrisy of the viewers’ ethical position, particularly when live animals are used in an art installation.763

Artist and researcher Brydndis Snaebjornsdottr claims that socially engaging art is a thoughtful tool of examination and “…a powerful lever to instigate social change”.764 She and artist Mark Wilson used a number of taxidermied Polar Bears showing various degrees of degradation in an installation titled Nanoq: Flat Out and Bluesome (Fig. 97).

Figure 97: Brydndis Snaebjornsdottr and Mark Wilson Nanoq: Flat Out and Bluesome,c2006. Installation Taxidermy Polar Bears, Spike Island. 765

760 The gallery owner said that the dog escaped after one day and was replaced by another starving dog and was fed each day by the artist. She added, the dog was only tied up for three hours a day during the exhibition. 761 Harris, “The artist who is leaving a dog to starve in the name of art,”. 762 David Yanez, “You Are What You Read,” Art 21 Magazine, March 4, 2010. 763 Yanez, “You Are What You Read,”. 764 Evaristti, “The Greenhouse Effect,” 66. 765http://www.tessdemountable.co.uk/_assets/images/showcases/mono-3d/gallery/main/8.jpg (accessed October 6, 2017)

149

Snaebjornsdottr and Wilson noted that viewers’ responded to the more perfectly preserved taxidermy as true representation of the animal.766 The more rudimentary the taxidermy, the more easily a viewer could imagine how dangerous life once was.767 In this case, some of the Polar Bears created an illusion of a pristine real life. People imagined and preferred to imagine, that the Polar Bears live in perfect conditions. In fact, wild Polar Bears have to endure starvation, loss of offspring and injuries in order to survive in an increasingly hostile environment.

Here, the Polar Bears are in perfect condition giving the audience the illusion that they had a perfect life. The viewer’s ethical position is not challenged because the animal is past suffering, compared to the installation You are what you read, where the dog is alive and its suffering is obvious which confronts the viewer. Consequently, if Vargas had used a well-groomed pedigree dog, would there have been so much controversy?

The use of taxidermy animals in artwork raises the issue around the treatment of the animal after death. Using their bodies, skins, paws and fur as an inanimate material in an art work could further degrade the respect for the animal, but Angela Singer believes recycling unwanted or damaged taxidermy animal trophies is her way ‘to honour the animals’ life’.768 As she peels back the layers of taxidermy exposing gunshot wounds and scars to reveal the human assault and changes the pose from ‘the serene’, which we associate with a natural state, to one that exposes the wounds inflicted by of humans.769

Figure 98: Angela Singer, Hedge Row, 2010. Recycled Vintage taxidermy fox and mixed media,20 x 69 x 24cm.770

766 Evaristti, “The Greenhouse Effect,” 65. 767 Evaristti, “The Greenhouse Effect,” 65. 768 Giovanni Aloi, “Angela Singer: Animal Rights and Wrongs”, Antennae, February, 2008, 11. 769 Aloi, “Angela Singer: Animal Rights and Wrongs,”13. 770 Image supplied by Angela Singer and approved for use in this exegesis.

150

Hedge Row (Fig. 98) demonstrates how human intervention has altered the animal. Singer claims when working with the taxidermy animal it is important to learn the story behind the death of the animal,771 so its history informs the methodology in her work.772 She aims for an emotional engagement with the viewer by loading the work with abrasive, unnatural colours and artificial materials to provoke an alternate way of looking at animals and to highlight the debate about human moral consideration of the rights of animals.

Steve Baker states artists who use animals as material in this way “render the animal abrasively visible”773 unlike illustrations of animals containing anthropomorphic sentiment that render them other than a real animal.774 When using an animal as an artwork the essence of the animal is present and is powerful. So that the human-animal relationship still exists whether the animal is alive or dead. If the artwork includes a live dog, certain considerations of welfare must be observed, however if the dog is dead another set of considerations need to be observed.

Figure 99: Katinka Simonse (Tinkerbell), Fifi (date unknown). Taxidermied dog dimensions unknown775

I consider that Dutch artist Katinka Simonse (born 1979)(professionally known as “Tinkerbell”) approaches the issue of dog ownership in a confronting and degrading manner. Fifi (Fig. 99) is a taxidermy pet dog converted into a pull-along toy. The artist aims to highlight the hypocrisy in human society, where some humans treat their dog as a toy, discarding the dog when the novelty

771 Angela Singer talks about her work, Youtube interview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQd- xQFA7HE Angela Singer talks about her work (accessed April 9, 2018) 772 Angela Singer talks about her work, Youtube interview. 773 Baker, “Haunted by the Animal,”. 774 Baker, “Haunted by the Animal,”. 775 Occupy for Animals. “Animals killed and used in the name of Art” http://www.occupyforanimals.net/art--animals-killedused-in-the-name-of-art.html (accessed February 27, 2018)

151

wears off or the care of the dog becomes inconvenient. The taxidermied dog is represented as a commodity being constructed to address human desires. While her intention is to draw attention to the abandonment of dogs, the way the art work is constructed lessens the respect for the pet dog.

Similar to the destruction of the goldfish in Helena, My dearest cat Pinkeltjie 2009, attracted hate mail.776 During a fair in Amsterdam on Platform 21, sixty male chicks were available for sale or otherwise they could be dropped into a shedder to demonstrate how male chicks are treated in industry farming. This was another attempt to demonstrate the moral duality in society and the consistent blind spot when it comes to the treatment of farm animals. However, the art work reflected so much actively viewed violence inflicted on the chicks that it ignited outrage which can overshadow the intended message from the artist.

Use of Animal Parts in Art

Figure 100: Ondrej Brody and Kristofer Paetau, Dog Carpets, 2007. Installation of Dog heads and skins, dimensions variable.777

Czech Republic artist Ondrej Brody (born 1980) and Finnish artist Kristofer Paetau’s (born 1972) Dog Carpets (Fig. 100) have reduced the domesticated dog to a floor covering as a response to the hypocrisy of speciesism. Humans lay down hides of cattle, sheep and wild animals, yet sentimentally the domesticated dog is protected from this treatment.778 779 The artists explained

776 Torch Gallery website: http://www.torchgallery.com/tinkebell-.html (accessed April 9, 2018) 777 Ondrej Brody and Kristofer Paeteau website: http://brodypaetau.com/recent-works/dog-carpets- 2007-by-ondrej-brody-and-kristofer-paetau (accessed February 27, 2018) 778 Occupy for Animals website http://www.occupyforanimals.net/ondrej-brody-and-kristofer- paetau.html (accessed February 27, 2018) 779 In La Paz, Bolivia, where the dog skins were acquired, street dogs are considered a pest and are euthanised.

152

that the process undertaken to create the installation was exceedingly confronting, where stray dogs were rounded up and euthanised in an industrial manner. As they claimed that the dogs clearly suffered during this procedure780. The crude treatment of the dogs’ bodies after death also reflected the local communities disrespect for dogs.

Figure 101: Kate James, Security Blanket, 2006. Hand spun and hand knitted dog hair, dimensions unknown. Courtesy of the artist.781

In contrast, Australian artist Kate James (born 1978) response to dogs is one of respect for the character of the dog. What is more comforting to a dog lover than this intricately hand crafted Security Blanket (Fig. 101) of dog fur? This art work is a powerful symbol of protection and comfort which recognises the soothing effects of a companion dog. Security blanket captures the essence of the dog without the moral entanglement of using animals or animal body parts as art objects. The fur used in this artwork was naturally shed from the dog and hand spun into yarn. James has converted this ephemeral material into a lasting art work which embodies one of the many characteristics of the domesticated dog. The immediacy of this work is the tactile experience of touching or patting a dog.

Capturing the essence of the animal or animal experience is important in the work of British artists Olly Williams (19?? -) and Suzi Winstanley (19?? - ). They conduct their art making in remote areas, observing and engaging with threatened and endangered species. The artists state, “Our

780 Ondrej Brody and Kristofer Paeteau website. 781 Image and permission provided by the artist, emailed April 16, 2018.

153

art-making process is concerned with our journey; a collaborative, mutual response to nature at its most primitive and wild”.782

Figure 102: Olly and Suzi, Cheetah Interaction, Namibia. Artwork and photograph.783

Olly and Suzi’s aim is to raise awareness of threatened and endangered species through their art work by depicting animals going about everyday life in their natural habitat.784 This is achieved by the animals being actively involved with the creation of the artwork by embodying it with the animal’s impressions and marks. After Olly and Suzi have made an image of the animal engaged in their natural activities, the animal is allowed to bite, tear or walk over the artwork, leaving a lasting impression. Olly and Suzi work directly with their animal subject, encouraging the animal to interact as a participating artist by leaving a mark.

The artists worked together hand over hand to create an image of a coalition of cheetahs, then retreated leaving the artwork within reach of the animals. The animal’s curiosity drew them to response to the artwork leaving their mark. Olly Williams states respecting animals and their natural habitat is crucial to them as artists.785 That is why they work closely with conservationists who observe, record and protect endangered species.786 They believe to capture the animal, the artists must not intrude on or disrupt the normal behaviour of the animal. Otherwise they believe

782 An Art History of Nature, “Is Science Art’s Muse?” https://anarthistoryofnature.wordpress.com/2014/05/19/olly-and-suzi-animal-art-in-action/ accessed 20/10/2017. 783 Olly and Suzi Photography website http://www.ollysuzi.com/photography/#photograph (accessed May 15, 2018) 784 Kate Mikhail, “Where the wild things are”, The Guardian, 16 July, 2001. https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2001/jul/15/features.magazine47 (accessed May 16, 2018) 785 Mikhail, “Where the wild things are,”. 786 Mikhail, “Where the wild things are,”.

154

the artwork becomes contrived. The artists claim their work is unadulterated and honest because of the direct involvement of the animal.

Figure 54: Group of domesticated dogs, Wag Tail Park (Detail) 2019. Earthenware clay

My response to this concept was Wag Tail Park (Fig. 54) where I have laid down leather hard slabs of earthenware clay and invited a group of domesticated dogs to play on it. Each paw mark, scratch and tumble was recorded in the clay, imbuing the artwork with the trace of their joy and play. This event was filmed and later projected onto the gallery wall near the clay park which remains on the gallery floor with no further intervention from me. However, the dried clay form may be walked on by viewers to reflect the control and intervention by humans on the domesticated dog. This artwork is a part of an installation which is analysed previously in Chapter four.

The treatment of animals either as an experimental subject or as a subject of art has been debated by Animal Rights activists. When an animal appears to be suffering in the public realm as an art object, this can confront the audience and in some cases offend them. This suffering should be taken into consideration, regardless of the artist’s intended message or how much the artist aims to shock. Otherwise the artist also demonstrates their lack of compassion and moral consideration for these animals.

The human-animal relationship demonstrated in the You are what you read installation illustrates the complete disregard some humans can have for non-human animals, especially if moral treatment of the animal does not benefit humans. The appearance of the emaciated dog is unsettling which causes uneasiness for the viewer. This is because the viewer is confronted with the suffering of the dog, whereas dogs in a laboratory as an experimental subject are hidden from public view or stray dogs are considered dirty and a nuisance. However, if an animal suffers during an art exhibition, is it more morally unacceptable or just publicly unavoidable? Society finds it

155

acceptable for a dog to suffer or die at the hands of a scientist if there is a supportable argument that there is some ‘benefit’ to humanity, and in most cases their suffering is hidden from public view.

Modification of Dogs’ Features

Some dog breeds have suffered from the consequence of selective breeding to create dogs to suit human desires and aesthetics. This practice develops breeds to a narrow set of characteristics which has resulted in some purebreds living with extreme physical discomfort. ‘Neoteny’ describes the retention of juvenile characteristics in dogs, such as short noses, smaller teeth, large eyes, relatively short legs and excess fat.787 For example the Pug, Bull dog and Boxer have been bred to further flatten their noses which has caused severe breathing distress even when to dog is resting.788 789 German Shepherds are known to suffer from hip dysplasia and Labradors along with other larger breeds, suffer the onset of arthritis at an unusually early age.790 Over 350 inherited disorders have been identified in various purebred dogs.791 The breeders acknowledge and accept these disorders as side effects in the development of purebred dogs.792

Pugnacious is my response to the mistreatment of certain dog breeds though selective breeding to achieve physical modifications to address human desires. The modification of dogs’ physical features developed over centuries of selected breeding to create a perceived ‘pleasing’ appearance. Pugnacious (Fig. 103) is a series of three pugs’ heads made from porcelain using a single mould. The first head of the series is a depiction of the original pug. Through my research I found images of pugs from 200 years ago, which show them with a smaller eyes, larger ears and a length of snout that was in proportion to the size of the dog. These features have significantly altered over time, due to human intervention. I made a further two moulded forms which have been manipulated to reflect the changing characteristics of the pug over the last 200 years. The first head had no modification, the second head I cut the snout off and shortened it, increased the size of the eyes by cutting away the eye lids and cut down the size of the ears. The third head

787 Margo Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication” in A Cultural History of Animals in the Modern Age, ed. Randy Malamud (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 83. 788 Jessica Pierce, Run Spot Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016), 164. 789 These dogs have been selectively bred for their appearance rather than their abilities. As a Border Collie is bred for its abilities rather than appearance. 790 Pierce, Run Spot Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets, 164. 791 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,” 83. 792 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,” 83.

156

I made further modifications to the snout, eyes and ears resulting in a representation of the pug as it appears in contemporary times. Using the one mould is significant as it relates to the breeders choosing to continually breed from abnormal characteristics which have been engineered for the purpose of human desires.

Figure 103: Vicki Hamilton, Pugnacious, 2019. Porcelain, dimensions variable. Photograph by artist.

The manipulation of these features has caused the individual dogs great suffering and misery. In response I formed another two heads Misery (Fig. 104) and Despair (Fig. 105) which represent the emotional effects of a dog that has been mutilated for human desire and silenced by a gag around their muzzles.

Figure 104: Vicki Hamilton, Misery, 2019. Figure 105: Vicki Hamilton, Despair, 2019. Porcelain, 17 x 21 x 14cm. Porcelain, 17 x 16 x 14cm. Photograph by artist. Photograph by artist.

157

Controlled breeding has also developed designer dogs, which are cross-bred to offer pleasing characteristics, such as no shedding, no dog smell, easy to train and intelligence. These dogs are essentially dogs ‘made to measure’ which can be ordered for breed, size and colour.793 794 An example of cross breeding for the purposes of meeting certain characteristics is a Labrador crossed with a poodle, this breed is known as a Labradoodle.795 796 797

Figure 106: A-Young Lee, Title Unknown, ca 2010. Mixed media, dimensions unknown.

Figure 106 depicts a pocket sized dog, which has been inter-bred to ensure its size and ‘cuteness’ to appeal to certain consumers. Some dog breeds are only in existence to cater to human pleasure and convenience.798Chihuahuas have been so tightly genetically engineered to human desires that the breed cannot survive without human care.799 Figure 106 shows the effects of human intervention into this breed, leaving the dog helpless and vulnerable. The work indicates that the dog is too small to walk, and is condemned to be carried in a human made satchel. Chihuahuas, along with other small breeds can be considered as a fashion accessory and carried around in a

793 Tamaruke webstie, Colours and sizes http://tamaruke.com/tamaruke-colours-and-sizes/ (accessed March 20, 2018) 794 However the sort after characteristics of dogs can change with current trends because the modified features have no real function. 795 A Hunter Valley breeder of labradoodles have been breeding them for 25 years and claim they have developed a new bred called Tamarukes. 796 Tamaruke wesite http://tamaruke.com/about/ (accessed March 20, 2018) 797 This same breeder offers a guardian programme where male and female adult breeding dogs stay with families until they are required to return to the facility for breeding purposes and programme operates for three years. At the end of the programme female dogs are released to the guardian on a permanent basis at no cost. 798 Yi-Fu Tuan, Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 88. 799 Demello, “The Present and Future of Animal Domestication,” 84.

158

handbag. This action diminishes the dog’s ability to act like a dog and to do dog things, such as sniffing at a scent. Not allowing the dog to walk can also weaken the dog’s bones and muscles.

Figure 107: Vicki Hamilton, Fifi – Dog Bodies, 2019. Porcelain, brocade appropriated collar, 23 x 10 x14cm. Photographed by Liane Audrins.

Fifi - Dog Bodies (Fig. 107) is a representation of a Chihuahua and my response to this small dog being designed to suit human desires. I have sculpted a porcelain head to represent the preciousness of this helpless sentient creature, which has often been carried around in some of the most expensive hand bags of celebrities and the wealthy. I patterned the body from luxurious pink brocade and remodelled a dog collar with diamonties to fit the small neck of Fifi. The body of the dog is filled with sand to impart a sense of weight and movement in the body. This representation echoes a type of doll, which had a soft body of fabric and porcelain head and limbs.

Forging an Art Practice

The thread that flows through my art practice is my concern for the harm to non-human species and the natural environment caused through certain human interventions even to the extinction of such species. This is detailed in Appendix 5. Here I focus my research and art practice on relationship of humans to a specific species, that of the domesticated dog, an animal that has cohabited with humans for some tens of thousands of years. I felt strongly about the exploitation of this loyal, charismatic, sentient creature and the suffering they endure due to human behaviour when this is driven by some peoples’ often thoughtless and harmful needs and desires. The reading and research has powerfully informed this degree exhibition.

159

As this research uncovered extremely disturbing information, I aim to convey my response to this material together with my positive feelings as a dog owner in my artwork. While I now understand some of the reasons why some humans can be cruel towards other species, I consider these ideas are outweighed by the need for human relationships to be informed by empathy and kindness. When I am making my ceramic sculpture, I feel a connection with them as I talk to them as if they are a real living creature. My aim is to imbue each of them with uniqueness, character, vulnerability and expression and many of these characteristics are included in my previous work.

I met a number of challenges in the creation of these figurative representations of ‘Man’s best Friend’. Some technical processes proved to be time consuming, physically and emotionally demanding. Outcast was one of the challenging pieces. The size of piece dictated that it needed an internal structure.800 As heavy and difficult this was to build, I felt it was essential to finish this piece. My research revealed shocking truth about the cruel treatment and disregard of this vulnerable, loyal creature so it is important to me that my representation of this dog, is a reflection of the treatment that left this dog broken and beaten.

Lily was exceptionally challenging to make, both emotionally and technically. Lily was my good friend and happened to be a Pembroke Corgi. Through Lily I connected with nature and the community, slowed down and became more mindful. I found she taught me that life does not have to be complicated to be true and fulfilling. She enjoyed the simple things and I enjoyed the company of a warm, fun, charismatic and empathetic creature. Lily expressed empathy when I was ill, she would not eat until I ate and she sat or laid next to me for three days. These memories will be with me for a long time. She was faithful, fun and I believe cared for me.

I wanted to include Lily’s ashes in the artwork representing her.801 Because I wanted Lily to appear soft and tactile, I combined bone ash with commercial mid-fire porcelain slip.802 In the final piece I moulded southern ice porcelain slip, then poured a second layer of slip with Lily’s ashes into the mould.

Viewing dogs as sentient creatures, capable of making decisions, with the capacity to suffer and with a life important to them, may reduce any negative outcomes for dogs. Such awareness may

800 This armature was made from wood, which was wrapped in newspaper and cotton fabric to bulk out the body, before laying 5 kilos of 10mm thick clay over the torso, leaving the legs, head and tail to be built separately and attached to the torso at leather hard state. 801 Before the final piece, I made several tests formulating bone china slip with bone ash from lamb and pork bones. The results were chalky with a flat finish and this was unsatisfactory. 802 These results were also chalky with a flat finish. The tests with southern ice porcelain slip combined with bone ash produced similar results.

160

develop positive relationships that are mutually beneficial to dogs and humans, through dogs and humans working together and in mutual companionship.

Despite the capacity of dogs to attack human beings, my respect for dogs as sentient creatures has grown through this research, as did my determination that my research and practical work may act as an incentive to encourage human awareness of any disrespect and cruelty in their behaviour, challenging their perception of animal suffering. Undermining the ideas of sentience and rights for dogs can influence human behaviour towards dogs, possibly leading to practices that are negative for both dogs and humans.

In reviewing many contemporary artworks, it could be concluded that the exploitation of the innate nature and qualities of dogs and other animals has meant that there has been little benefit to the subjects. Some artists have actively encouraged others to engage in harmful actions towards animals. This is a reflection of many of the negative human-dog relationships identified in this society in previous chapters. Consequently, I would urge all artists to respect the rights of animals within their artworks, even if the work centres around the outcome of educating the public.

Fortunately for humans the domesticated dog accepts its level of membership in the ‘pack’ within human society with humility, grace and joy. Such cross-species relationships are precious and should be valued.803

The encouragement of the human virtues of trust, empathy and validation can be developed as an integral part in a human-dog friendship.804 Fostering likeable behaviour in dogs, by encouraging them to behave in a socially acceptable manner, develops virtue in the human-dog relationship, as both human and dog benefit. Here the dog is praised for its good behaviour and the human enjoys the praise from others when they say ‘what a good dog’ and ‘how well you have trained it’. The dog’s good behaviour is important, because a domesticated dog needs to live within the constraints of human society in a way that pleases humans, yet does not infringe the rights of the dog. Humans benefit by training a dog to become a valued part of human and dog society. This is done by punishment for their vices, rewarding their virtuous acts and constraining their desires to shape their character.805 This can often impede their dog-ness and could be harmful to their character. Otherwise the dog could become an outcast, a ‘problem’ or

803 There are other examples of positive human/cross-species relationships such as horses, cats and birds. 804 Cynthia Townley, “Friendship with Companion Animals” in Pets and People: The Ethics of Our Relationships with Companion Animals, ed. Christine Overall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 25. 805 Roger Scruton, Animal Rights and Wrongs, 3rd ed.(London: Metro Books, 2000), 85.

161

even be a danger. Training of a dog to develop good behaviour is a benefit to the community and can help to maintain order.

Concern for mutual benefit for both dogs and humans in their relationship will go some way in mitigating any cruel treatment of dogs so that as Father Tu states:

God protects dogs from the knowledge of death… so they will be brave and serve their fellow man. Because of the unconditional love, devotion, humility and honesty, all dogs are rewarded in the afterlife with the equivalent of Heaven.806 Let us hope dogs do not have to wait so long.

806 Curt Dalton, “The Dog Days of War” The Vincent Brothers Review, Issue 21, 2002. http://www.daytonhistorybooks.com/page/page/1640971.htm (accessed May 15,2018)

162

Conclusion and Recommendations

To provide new insights and knowledge relevant to the creation of any art that involves the representation of domesticated dogs and their relationship to humans, this research culminated in a series of exhibitions. My research also derived the conclusions listed below, in both the production and the analysis of art works that specifically address relationships between dogs and humans. These guidelines can more generally be applied to making and viewing the visual representation of other fauna. My exhibitions were informed by these determinations and demonstrate their application.

Throughout this study I created, where possible, artworks to extend the written arguments in physical form. Through analysis and a historical approach to my study, I gained respect for the life and contribution of dogs in society. By applying these new insights in contemporary society, I have revealed the continued conflicts and stresses visible around the treatment and representation of animals Western society. Consequently I have identified four guidelines as listed below.

Guideline 1

When dogs (and fauna generally) are represented in art on the basis of hierarchical beliefs in the superiority of humans, the artists who create these works are valuing their subjects only in terms of human needs and desires.

This view of human supremacy generally leads to the treatment of dogs as disposable property. The ancient ideas of hierarchy and soul that were later developed in religious theory and practice, still remain embedded in some contemporary viewpoints. Early Greek philosophers, believed that animals had souls but they considered them lower on the scale compared to free humans and slaves and consequently were of lesser moral status. Later religious thought even denied dogs a soul as the idea that only human beings had an immortal soul. This left dogs valued only for their capacity to be exploited by human needs and has led to the exploitation of dog’s innate qualities. Artists’ portrayal of the treatment of dogs throughout history confirm these attitudes.

Consequently, I reviewed early periods of history where dogs were victims, suffering violence and sickening cruelty to satisfy human needs and desires. The historical use of some aggressive characteristics of certain breeds were exploited for hunting, dog fighting and in entertainment as demonstrated by the works of William Hogarth, Thomas Hewes Hinckle and Frans Snyders. These artworks portrayed the capacity for human cruelty through the use of dog’s innate characteristics and the belief of human superiority.

163

During the Enlightenment, dogs were considered valuable property, and they began to appear as subjects as figurative sculpture and on canvas, in their own right to represent valued characteristics prized by humans such as strength, courage and loyalty. At the same time the notion that animals could suffer began to emerge and artists responded to this idea. Artists depicted dogs as individuals that exhibited personalities expressing the valued qualities of dogs, encouraging the viewer to feel empathy and compassion towards their subjects.

Guideline 2

When dogs (and fauna generally) are represented or involved in an artwork, the rights of the animal should be acknowledged and respected.

I aim to encourage feelings of empathy and compassion towards dogs to exemplify how a positive human-dog relationships, through the valuing the integrity of the dog can assist the expression of the gentler, kinder qualities of humans.

During my research I have discovered examples of shocking cruelty and insensitive disregard for the welfare of dogs. I found some photographic images and art work to be particularly distressing because of the violence, cruelty and disrespect that was documented and even fostered. At times I felt physically sickened by human cruelty toward dogs and the indifference shown to their suffering. The arguments by theorists such as Clinton Flynn, Bill Henry and Cheryl Sanders have provided me with ways of linking this human behaviour to problematic human development and violent behaviour of individuals in society.

Through later philosophers, such as Peter Singer, Tom Regan, Michael Fox and Raymond G Frey, the rights of animals are enforced. Singer and Regan state that the notion of supremacy is human centric and in some cases is discriminative purely due to speciesism.

Guideline 3

The welfare of dogs should not be overruled by human needs and desires. Consequently, artists should be aware of the inadvertent encouragement of adverse actions in the treatment of dogs in their art practice.

I have criticised some contemporary artists that appear to ignore these current views of the rights of dogs. My art work aims to reflect the experience of the dog through their sensitive representations in ceramic, bronze and mixed media. Rather than using animal parts, live or dead dogs in artwork, I have chosen to make representations abiding by my principles of respect to retain integrity in my practice.

164

I consider that any art work that is reflective of a relationship between a dog and a human should suggest respect for the dog as a sentient being and provide a model for moral human behaviour. Respect for a dog results in a positive relationship between human and dog. Both negative and positive relationships inform my own studio practice.

Guideline 4

When, as humans or as artists, the innate qualities of dogs are exploited for human needs and desires or for some artistic ends, this exploitation should not just benefit the human exploiter but should also benefit rather than denigrate the dog.

These outcomes form a set of guidelines that should be made available to artists, curators, critics, theorists and gallery directors. Artists need to be aware that as their art work can reflect negative aspects of their society, there are still aspects of human behavior that impact on domesticated dogs. By becoming familiar with these guidelines artists, now and in the future, cannot claim ignorance regarding their responsibility and if they reject these principles, need to provide strong arguments for their denial.

Now that these principles have been elucidated they will continue to form the basis on my future art practice.

165

Appendix 1

A list of indicators of ethical or unethical treatment of Dogs in U.S. War zones by J. Alger and S. Alger in “canine soldiers, Mascots, and Stray Dogs in U.S. Wars”, Animals and War: Studies of Europe and North America, ed. Ryan Hediger (Leiden:Brill, 2013).

1. Whether or not the Armed Forces use humane methods of training that included positive reinforcement and reward.

2. Whether or not dogs are placed in environments they can handle. For instance, are they trained for the specific tasks they will undertake? Are they provided with the equipment they require for the tasks they will perform? Are they medically prepared for the war zone with vaccinations and climate protection?

3. Whether or not dogs are provided with adequately nutritious and safe food.

4. Whether or not dogs receive adequate medical care in case of injury or illness.

5. Whether or not dogs are placed in situations of certain injury or death. For instance, suicide missions.

6. Whether or not dogs are defined as “equipment” rather than as sentient beings with all that implies for their treatment.

7. Whether or not dogs are repatriated at the end of the war. For instance, are they given to native k-9 units or police in countries where dogs are not valued and may even be eaten? Are they abandoned to an unknown fate? Are they euthanized?

8. Whether or not dogs are formally recognized for their military service.

9. Whether or not records are kept of dog deployment, injury, mortality or disposition after service in war zones.

For the case of mascots, stray dogs and soldier’s pets, we will use the following criteria of moral concern:

1. Whether or not human soldiers are allowed to keep mascots or stray dogs as companions.

2. Whether or not the military will assist with food and medical care to such animals.

3. Whether or not human soldiers are allowed to send such animals home when their tour of duty in the war zone ends.

166

Appendix 2

Early War Dogs

Further representations of war dogs from World War 1 are examined below.

Figure 108: Horrie the Wog Dog Artist unknown, Bronze, 2016. Memorial Garden, Corryong, Victoria Photographed by Bill Bale September, 2016.807 808

Figure. 108 Horrie the Wog Dog represents a courageous, charismatic dog. His alert stance and open mouth depict the actions of Horrie, when he heard the sound of incoming aircraft. This brave little dog has been represented in bronze as a hero. He was valued by the soldiers for his many qualities. He would prick his ears and bark alerting them to impending attack, giving the soldiers time to take cover and be armed.809 He guarded their equipment and personal possessions, bought comfort to wounded soldiers and his charismatic character was a welcome distraction on the battlefield. The men in the company considered Horrie a valued mate.810

807A bronze sculpture of Horrie the Wog Dog. http://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/culture/animals/display/110647-horrie-the-wog-dog (accessed March 19, 2018) 808 The battlefield is an environment that can inspire a strong bond between human and dog. For example, Private Jim Moody smuggled a small dog ‘Horrie’ back into Australia after WWI at the risk of being prosecuted and the dog being destroyed. Moody explained, “You don’t think an Australian soldier would leave a mate behind, do you?” No Author, “Horrie the War Dog: A True Legend” Australian Dog Lover, April, 2013. 809 Roland Perry, Horrie the War Dog: The story of Australia’s Most Famous Dog (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2013) ,194. 810On the voyage home the ship’s Captain insisted the dog be destroyed before landing in Perth. Jim Moody suggested that this action would be unwise as Moody’s battalion were harden fighting men and

167

Animal companionship is an enduring quality that dogs offered soldiers deployed overseas.811 The companionship that forms between soldier and dog was not recognised by the military command in earlier conflicts, dogs were seen as an unnecessary burden. So the wrench when soldiers who were ordered to destroy or abandon their dogs, left soldiers traumatised.

Figure 109: Sergeant Stubby, photograph.812

Awarding a rank and recognising dogs’ services to the U.S. military first existed during WWI. Sergeant Stubby (1916 – 1926)(Fig. 109) a bull-terrier, was the first dog nominated for rank by the U.S. armed forces then unofficially promoted to Sergeant for his role in capturing a German solider.813 Sergeant Putty was the unofficial mascot for the 26th Yankee division814 and served in seventeen battles on the Western front.815 816

may react violently. Particularly, when they had witnessed a pet cat been thrown overboard. Roland Perry, Horrie the War Dog: The story of Australia’s Most Famous Dog (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2013),267. 811 Non-human animals adopted by soldiers deployed overseas is testament to these men’s need for non- human companionship particularly when it was prohibited and dangerous to do so. 812Rachel Dinning, “Sergeant Stubby of the First World War: the heroic story of America’s most decorated war dog” website BBC History Magazine and BBC World Histories Magazine. https://images.immediate.co.uk/volatile/sites/7/2018/09/GettyImages-515133022-1a6d808- e1536932993943.jpg?quality=90&resize=620,413 (accessed February 26, 2018) 813 History Extra https://www.historyextra.com/period/first-world-war/sergeant-stubby-richard-lanni- film-animated-war-dog-american-history/ (accessed February 26, 2018) (accessed February 26, 2018) 814 Evelyn Le Chene, Silent Heroes: The Bravery and Devotion of Animals in War (London: Souvenir Press, 1994), 163. 815 History Extra https://www.historyextra.com/period/first-world-war/sergeant-stubby-richard-lanni- film-animated-war-dog-american-history/ (accessed February 26, 2018) 816 In the Australian Armed Forces dogs are not awarded a rank, but on completion of their training receive an Armed Forces membership number beginning with MWD which distinguishes them from human soldiers. Thus, some Australian dogs also have been awarded medals for their outstanding service.

168

Appendix 3

Dogs help assist healing of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

New strategies have been developed to allow dogs to provide medical therapy and comfort to human war veterans. For returned war veterans, training a service dog for another veteran is beneficial to human and dog. Training service dogs for veterans is used to help returned soldiers recover from brain trauma injury, mental health issues such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.817 For patients to develop skills necessary to train the dog, the trainers’ language and cognitive abilities need to be proficient. This is done by repetition of the commands which improves speech and recall.818 In order to be a service dog trainer, the trainer needs to give appropriately articulated commands at the appropriate time and the dog is rewarded for the correct response. The trainer needs to concentrate on the dog’s needs whilst being in stressful situations. This assists the trainer to overcome what normally would traumatise them.819 In order to operate successfully in what is seen as, traumatic situations the trainer must develop confidence in order for the dog to follow a command and perform the task.

Consequently, the trainer and the dog are being prepared to be at ease in noisy and crowded situations. This assists the trainer to gradually ease back into social environments. The exercises create a trusting bond between the trainer and the dog. The relationship is beneficial and rewarding to both the trainer and the dog, because the dog enjoys rewards for performing tasks and the trainer enjoys the non-judgemental companionship, achievement and in some cases recovery. Ironically, canine soldiers can suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,820 often when their handler or themselves have been injured during combat. These dogs are of no use in battlefield and are returned home for treatment. In some cases, retired canine soldiers are adopted by their handler and become a companion.

817 Ritchie, E.C. ed, “Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and related diseases in Combat Veterans” ISBN 978-3- 319-22984-3 ISBN 978-3-319-22985-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-22985-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951824 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, p200 818 Ritchie, “Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and related diseases in Combat Veterans,” 200. 819 Ritchie, “Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and related diseases in Combat Veterans,” 201. 820 Joe Wilkes “Veteran dogs suffering from PTSD” Cesar’s Way https://www.cesarsway.com/dog- behavior/anxiety/veteran-dogs-suffering-from-ptsd (accessed July 12, 2018)

169

Appendix 4 List of relevant organizations concerned with dog-animal welfare

Animals Australia: The Voice for Animals 37 O’Connell Street North Melbourne VIC 3051 https://www.animalsaustralia.org/ (accessed June 19, 2018) Claim to be a voice for domestic animals and Australia’s leading animal protection organisation.

Animal Welfare League NSW 1605 Elizabeth Drive Kemps Creek NSW 2178 http://www.awlnsw.com.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) This charity has been operating for 60 years and they provide care of abandoned, abused, neglected and surrendered companion animals throughout New South Wales.

Australian Pet Welfare Foundation 2059 Moggill Road, Kenmore QLD 4069 https://www.petwelfare.org.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) This organisation’s aim is to eliminate euthanasia of adoptable and treatable pets in animal shelters and to improve the health and welfare of pets.

Australian Working Dog Rescue 133 O’Connors Lane Ballan VIC 3342 http://www.workingdogrescue.com.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) Australian Working Dog Rescue’s primary function is to rescue and rehomed abandoned and surrendered working dogs.

170

The Australian Animal Protection Society 1/132 Bangholme Road Dandenong South VIC 3175 http://www.aaps.org.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) AAPS is a community –based, not for profit registered charity that aims to turn no animal that needs care or a home away.

Dog’s Refuge Home 30 Lemnos Street Shenton Park WA 6008 http://www.dogshome.org.au/ (accessed July 12, 2018) Claim to be dedicated to the care and re-homing of lost or unwanted dogs through caring for dogs until they find a new home and promotion of responsible dog ownership.

Four Paws Australia 16/155 King Street Sydney NSW 2000 https://four-paws.org.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) Their mission is to create a strong, global voice for animals under human control to reduce animal suffering.

Humane Society International, Australia Lvl 1, 27 Barrenjoey Road, Avalon Beach NSW 2107 http://www.hsi.org.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) Are working on saving endangered species; improving legislation that impacts animals and the environment; reducing cruelty in farming and industry; improving the welfare of domestic animals; and increasing habitat devoted to conservation.

International Fund for Animal Welfare 6 Belmont Street Surry Hills NSW 2010 [email protected] (accessed July 10, 2018) Work to help people which in turn helps native animals and enriches their natural environment.

171

RSPCA Australia (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) 5/6 Napier Close Deakin ACT 2600 https://www.rspa.org.au/ (accessed July 10, 2018) RSPCA’s mission to undertake the prevention of cruelty to animals by enforcing the law and removing neglected and abused animals from further risk. Also the RSPCA provide facilities to surrender or unwanted pets.

Sydney Dogs and Cats 77 Edward Street Carlton NSW 2218 https://sydneydogsandcatshome.org/ (accessed July 10, 2018) Sydney dogs and cats offers practical shelter for lost or abandoned dogs and cats along with adoption of unwanted pets or foster care.

The Lost Dog’s Home 2 Gracie Street, North Melbourne VIC 3051 https://dogshome.com/ (accessed July 10, 2018) This organisation offers practical resources such as shelter for lost or abandoned dogs and cats, a portal on their website to help locate a lost animal, adoption of unwanted pets or foster care and assistance with dog training and encourage the adoption of older dogs and cats.

Voiceless: The Animal Protection Institute 2 Paddington Street Paddington NSW 2021 https://www.voiceless.org.au/about-us (accessed July 17, 2018) Their aim is to include the issues of ethical and legal concepts in the treatment of non-human animals in the education of school children.

172

WSPA (World Society for the Protection of Animals) Unit 1, 2 Northcote Street Naremburn NSW 2065 https://www.worldanimalprotection.org.au/change (accessed July 10, 2018) WSPA focus on lobbying governments and the United Nations to change their current legislation to improve understanding of the treatment of non-human animals.

World Animal Protection 120 Christie Street St. Leonards NSW 2015 https://www.worldanimalprotection.org.au/ (accessed July 20, 2018) Operate in Africa, Asia Pacific, Europe, North America and Latin America, to protect the welfare of wild animals, animals in communities and farm animals.

173

Appendix 5

Vicki Hamilton’s previous relevant art practice

My art practice is driven by my concerns for the welfare of other animal species. These concerns are generated by my deeply imbedded experiences of neglect, indifference and disrespect. These experiences have given way to feelings of empathy and compassion towards vulnerable non- human animals which I convey through my art practice.

My Honours research was initiated because of my concern for the loss of the natural environment and the consequent loss of animal species through the indifference of humanity. I examined a large range of endangered species that were affected by humanity worldwide. The scope of my examination was important, because my aim was to point out that human actions negatively impacted on species all over the world.

Figure 110: Vicki Hamilton, Mountain Pigmy Possum, 2007. Porcelain 17 x 5 x 15cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

The exhibition Honours, Stamped Out821 consisted of an installation of over seven hundred handmade tiles, seventeen porcelain sculptures depicting a range of endangered species and a banner listing over one thousand endangered species.

821 Bachelor of Fine Arts, Hons. 1, 2007.

174

Figure 111: Vicki Hamilton, Banner listing a further thousand endangered non-human animals. Printed paper, 1200 x 25cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

The tiles where laid on the floor of the gallery and in order to view the porcelain animal heads, the participant had to walk on the tiles, which crushed under foot. The impact on the viewer was dramatic as they awkwardly negotiated the floor trying not to crush a representation of a well- known endangered species. This caused them to change the way they walked which was a physical response to the work. The sound of breaking tiles moved some participants to tears as they tried carefully to engage with the work.

Figure 112: Vicki Hamilton, Viewers navigating the installation of tiles Stamped Out exhibition, 2007. 589 Earthenware tiles 14 x 14 cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton.

The next project, my Masters research, aimed to demonstrate the negative direct and indirect impact that humanity have on seven endangered species. My aim was to emphasise a link between human desires and behaviours with the loss of natural habitat and consequent effects on wild animal species. Since humans do not live in isolation from the rest of creation, peoples’ actions can reverberate through nature causing suffering and even extinction.

175

Figure 113: Vicki Hamilton, Flux, 2013. Figure 114: Vicki Hamilton, Bad Bunny, 2011. Porcelain and slumped glass, 29 x16 x 14cm. Porcelain, 24 x 15 x13cm. Photographed by Laine Audrins. Photographed by Laine Audrins.

Figure 115: Vicki Hamilton, Hanging by a Thread, 2013. Porcelain, nylon rope, plastic bag, 300 x 10 x 24cm. Muswellbrook Regional Arts Centre. Photographed by Laine Audrins.

My Masters exhibition, On the Edge, consisted of two installations, seven porcelain figurative pieces and one large raku figurative piece. The first installation piece, Pathway to Extinction (Fig. 116) was to demonstrate the negative direct impact of human intervention. The small electric conveyor belt was erected on the wall at 1.5 metres high and loaded with low bisque earthenware representations of selected endangered species directly impacted by humans. At this stage the viewers had the opportunity to press the button to move the conveyor belt, which caused the ceramic animals to travel to the end of the conveyor and fall to the floor and smash. Consequently, viewers tried to catch the falling pieces and place them back on the belt, while

176

others reached for the off button. This was a common reaction whenever the conveyor belt was operating.

Figure 116: Vicki Hamilton, Pathway to Extinction, 2013. Electric conveyor belt, bisque fired earthenware, dimensions variable. Photographed by Laine Audrins.

Pathway to Extinction was designed to shock, to jolt the viewer visually and audibly. Watching viewer’s reactions, I gained more insight into the impact of my work. I saw the attempts to save the ceramic animals from being destroyed as representing animal conservationists’ efforts to save these species. While they pull one species off the Pathway to Extinction another species begins its journey on the same pathway. This is a reflection of animal needs versus human desires.

Secondly, I created Indirect Impact (Fig. 117) installation to demonstrate the negative impact of human actions on other animal species. I erected plastic milk bottles with taps, filled with water, held in recycled holster attached to the wall, over non-recyclable plastic dishes containing a specific animal representation in greenware. The tap was set to drip water onto the piece below, slowly degrading the form until all features were gone. This embodied my concerns of indirect impact of humanity which progressively erodes the quality of life for other species, until finally these species diminish and slide into extinction.822

822 Vicki Hamilton, On The Edge, Exegesis, 2013. 98.

177

Figure 117: Vicki Hamilton, Indirect impact, 2013. Installation of Plastic,bottles,non-recyclable plastic, earthenware figures, dimensions variable. Photographed by Laine Audrins.

As the world becomes more saturated by humans, natural habitats are being converted for human needs. The efforts to save these creatures seems futile. I question the efforts of zoos to keep certain species from slipping into extinction through breeding programs – is it for the benefit of the animal or a more anthropocentric purpose? I believe some of these animals are destined to remain in human captivity for their natural habits are now utilised by humans.

As my PhD research is a natural extension of my investigation into the human-animal relationship. My intention was to look deeper into the human-animal relationship to find out why humans can be so indifferent to other species’ suffering.

To direct my research, I chose to focus on the domesticated dog. The dog (in some cases cats) is often the only regular contact humans have with other animal species. Dogs saturate Western human society, they act as companions and in most cases are considered a valued member of the family. In spite of this, the close human-dog relationship can leave dogs vulnerable, where they gain no benefit and can suffer serious moral deprivation. This indifference to the welfare of dogs can also be demonstrated in art. Where the artists’ intention is to highlight their concern for animal welfare but at the same time the dog can suffer fear, disrespect, cruelty or even death. In contrast, through my art practice, I wish to draw attention to the capacity of the dog to suffer.

I see each of the materials as having individual qualities, which express the character of each piece. Dogs are individual sentient beings, which left to their own devices are capable expressing themselves. However, dogs living in human society must live within human behavioural boundaries and this can disguise the authentic dog. For humans have modified their behaviour

178

and physical characteristics to meet a variety of human desires. However, some special strong qualities remain, such as loyalty, their sense of joy and companionship. Thank God humans have not eliminated these qualities in their quest to create a dog more like a human.

Figure 117: Vicki Hamilton, Show Girl, 2017. Porcelain, feathers and fake gemstones, dog 10 x 7 x 10cm. Photographed by Vicki Hamilton

Show Girl (Fig. 117) is my response to the concept of dogs being treated as an object to represent a breeder’s expertise with producing purebred dogs. Her posture expresses a dog that is feed up being put on a pedestal as a fine example of her breed.

To see the intrinsic value of her you must look past the feathers and gemstones to see her true qualities of purity, honesty, loyalty, integrity and grace. I have used feathers and gemstones to appear to overwhelm the delicate porcelain form. This is to represent the domesticated dog being overwhelm by human desires.

179

Bibliography

AAP, The Courier Mail “Greyhound racing ban: Queensland urged to follow NSW lead,” Townsville Bulletin, July 7, 2016. https://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/more-sports/nsw-govt- funds-richest-greyhound-race/news- story/9dcef3aa5acb3d7d4be478f44aa4469a?nk=27b15b8617c 8fa76bb253c60a50e24a9-1536540237 (accessed September, 10, 2018)

Aloi, Giovanni. “Angela Singer: Animal Rights and Wrongs,” Antennae, 8 (Autumn, 2008): 1-80.

Andrews, Kristin. The Animal Mind: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Animal Cognition. London: Routledge, 2015.

Australian Bureau of Statistics, Labour Force, 6202.1, October 2016. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/6202.0 (accessed October 14, 2016).

Baker, Steve. “Haunted by the Animal,” Tate Magazine, September, 2001. http://www.ekac.org/haunted.html (accessed September 28, 2017)

Baker, Steve. The Postmodern Animal (London: Reaktion Books, 2000),

Barker, Craig. “Every Object Tells a Story”, Archaeological Diggings 19, 4. (2012): 31-33

Barnes, Freire. “William Hogarth’s homage to his beloved Pug, Trump: We take a closer look at the famed English painter and satirist’s self- portrait with his special pet” The Omnivore, January 30. https://medium.com/the-omnivore/tagged/william-hogarth (accessed July 8, 2018).

Barnes, Jonathan, ed. The Complete Works of Aristotle. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Bath, Chris. “An epic story of new hope,” Newcastle Herald, October 20, 2018, Cover Story, Weekender, 13.

Batty, J, ed. Landseer’s Animal Illustrations, Alton UK: Nimrod Press Ltd, 1990.

Baumgarten, Albert I, ed. Sacrifice in Religious Experience. Leiden: Brill, 2002.

Bekoff, Mark. The Emotional Lives of Animal. Novato: New World Library, 2007.

Bekoff, Mark. Why Dogs Hump and Bees get Depressed. Novato: New World Library, 2013.

Benedict, Brook. “Canberra woman dies in “horrific dog attack,” News.com.au, October 26, 2017.

180

Bennetto, Jason. Crime Correspondent, “Dogs, drugs and scandal in a twilight world,” Independent United Kingdom, November 18, 1995. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/dogs-drugs-and- scandal-in-a-twilight-world-hit-b-1582408.html (accessed April 23, 2017)

Bishop, Morris. Saint Francis of Assisi, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1974.

Blazina, Christopher & Kogan, Lori R. eds., Men and their dogs: A New Understanding of Man’s Best Friend. Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2016.

Boehrer, Bruce, ed. A Cultural History of Animals in the Renaissance, Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007.

Braitman, Laurel. Animal Madness: How anxious dogs, compulsive parrots, and elephants in recovery help us understand ourselves. Brunswick: Scribe Publications, 2014.

Brooke Wylie and Jamie McKinnell. “Mass greyhound grave found at Sydney property, a dozen emaciated dogs seized,” ABC News Friday, July 13, 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-12/greyhound-grave- uncovered-on-sydney-property/9986408 (accessed July 17, 2018).

Bucchieri, Rebecca L. “Bridging The Gap: The Connection Between Violence Against Animals and Violence Against Humans.” Journal of Animal Law, 11, May (2015): 115-135.

Burger, Kailey A. “Solving the Problem of Puppy Mills: Why the Animal Welfare Movement’s Bark is Stronger than its Bite,” Journal of Law and Policy, 43(2013): 259-284.

Casey, Rachel A et.al. “Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 152 (2014): 52-63.

Caterson, Simon. “Lessons from the wild we need to learn” The Sydney Morning Herald, Books (Review) of “The Wisdom of Wolves: How Wolves Can Teach Us To Be More Human” by Elli H. Radinger, May 25- 26, 2019.

Chave, Lynette and Johnson. Peter. “Animal Ethics Committees: Gatekeepers of Animal Research.” Issues 103, June (2013):1-48. (Ed. Sally Woollett)

Clark, Stephen R.L. Animals and their Moral Standing. London: Routledge, 1997.

Clark, William. Henry Harrison. The History of United States Army Veterinary Corps in Vietnam. 1962-1973. Roswell, Georgia: W.H. Wolf Associates, 1992.

Codinha, Alessandra. “What William Wegamn (and his Weimaraners) Can Teach Us About Being Human”, Vogue, Culture and Art, October 4, 2017. https://www.vogue.com/article/william-wegman-weimaraners- being-human (accessed April 29, 2018)

181

Crippen, Linda. TRADOC, “Military Working Dogs: Guardians of the Night”, U.S. Army, May, 23 2011. https://www.army.mil/article/56965/military_working_dogs_g uardians_of_the_night (accessed February 26, 2018)

Cudworth, Erika. “Killing animals: sociology, species relations and institutionalized violence.” The Sociological Review 63 (2015): 1-18.

Dalton, Curt. “The Dog Days of War” The Vincent Brothers Review, Issue 21, 2002.

Dan, Robitzski. “The de- evolution of the bulldog”, September 25, 2017. https://scienceline.org/2017/09/de-evolution-bulldog/ (accessed March, 2019)

Darnton, Robert. The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History, London: Penguin Group, 1984.

Davis, Ben. “Why the Guggenheim’s Controversial Dog Video is Even More Disturbing Than You Think”, ArtNews, September 29, 2017. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/so-whats-really-going-on- with-that-disturbing-dog-video-at-the-guggenheim-1100417 (accessed April 8, 2018). de Bernieres, Louis. Red Dog: True Blue, Sydney: Vintage Books, 2016.

Deaton, C. “Humanizing prisons with animals: A closer look at “cell dogs” and horse programs in correctional institutions.” Journal of Correctional Education, 56.1 (2005): 46-62.

Dinning, Rachel. “Sergeant Stubby of the First World War: the heroic story of America’s most decorated war dog” website BBC History Magazine and BBC World Histories Magazine. https://images.immediate.co.uk/volatile/sites/7/2018/09/Getty Images-515133022-1a6d808- e1536932993943.jpg?quality=90&resize=620,413 (accessed February 26, 2018)

Dobbin, Marika. “Victoria labs experiments kill 100 dogs for drug and dental research,” The Age, December 5, 2015. https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/victoria-lab- experiments-kill-100-dogs-for-drug-and-dental-research- 20151204-glg0g1.html (accessed April 20, 2018)

Donnellan, Angelique. ABC’s 7:30 Report programme, May 16, 2018. The fatal condition “megaesophagus.” https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-30/popular-dog-food- suspected-of-making-dogs-sick-advance-dermocare/9699866 (accessed June 5, 2018).

Dotson, Michael J. and Hyatt, Eva M. “Understanding dog-human companionship,” Journal of Business Research, 62 (2008): 457-466.

182

Downey, Fairfax. Dogs for Defence: American Dogs in the Second World War 1941- 1945, New York: McDonald, 1955.

Duff, Eamonn. “Australian greyhounds force to race cheetahs at Shanghai Wild Animal Park,” The Sydney Morning Herald, May 27, 2017. https://www.smh.com.au/national/australian-greyhounds- forced-to-race-cheetahs-at-shanghai-wild-animal-park- 20170526-gwe27l.html (accessed March 26, 2018)

Dyer, Geoff, ed. Selected Essays John Berger. New York: Vintage International, 2003.

Ellis, William. trans., The Politics Aristotle. New York: Prometheus Books, 1986.

Fareed Kaviani. “O-inked: Is Tattooing a Pig Art?” Modern Farmer, May 19, 2014 https://cdn.modernfarmer.com/wp- content/uploads/2014/05/oinked1.jpg (accessed April 8, 2018).

Feaver, William. Lucian Freud, London: Tate Publishing, 2002.

Fisher, Mark W. “Is There a Need for a More Expansive Use of Ethics and Values in Reflecting on the Use of Animals in Scientifics Research?” Animals, Issue 4, (2014): 643-656.

Flynn, Clifton P. “Examining the Links between animal abuse and human violence.” Crime, Law and Social Change 55 (2011): 453-468.

Foer, Jonathan Safran. Eating Animals. New York: Back Bay Books, 2010.

Frankel, Rebecca. “Dogs at War: Left Behind in Vietnam,” National Geographic, May 19, 2014. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140519- dogs-war-canines-soldiers-troops-military-vietnam/ (accessed October 24, 2018).

Gardin, Temple, ed. Livestock Handling and Transport 4th Edition. Croydon, UK: CPI Group, 2014.

Glanville, Bridget and Gerathy,Sarah. “NSW Premier Mike Baird admits he ‘got it wrong’ after backflip on greyhound racing ban,” ABC News, October 11, 2016. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-11/greyhound-ban- baird-government-confirms-backflip/7921000 (accessed June 10, 2019).

Hamlyn, D.W. trans., Aristotle’s De Amina: Books II and III. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968.

Harris, Paul. “The artist who is leaving a dog to starve in the name of art”, Daily Mail, April 25, 2008. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-561815/The-artist- whos-leaving-dog-starve-art.html (accessed October 6, 2017)

Hartcher, Peter. “The destructive American fad that Australia needs to avoid,” Sydney Morning Herald, September 29, 2018, Opinion, 36.

183

Hawkins, Katherine. “Ouch Blog: Assistance dogs: How to spot them, BBC News, July 9, 2014. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-ouch-28195268 (accessed June 25, 2019).

Hediger, Ryan, ed. Animals and War: Studies of Europe and North America, Leiden: Brill, 2013.

Henry, Bill C. and Sanders, Cheryl E. “Bullying and animal Abuse: Is There a Connection?” Society and Animal, 15.2 (2007):107-126.

Hensley C. and Tallichet S. “Childhood and adolescent animal cruelty methods and their possible link to adult violent crimes,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24 (2009):147-158.

Jessica, Hinchliffe. “Artist paints 100 portraits of shelter dogs to encourage other to adopt a pet,” ABC Radio, News, June 9, 2017. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-09/stephen- gallagher/8603956 (accessed November 4, 2018)

Kail, Ellyn. “Tender Portraits tell the sad story of abandoned Spanish Greyhounds,” Feature Shoot, June 2, 2015.https://www.featureshoot.com/2015/06/tender- portraits-tell-the-sad-story-of-abandoned-spanish-greyhounds/ (accessed February 25, 2019)

Kalof, Linda, ed. A Cultural History of Animals in Antiquity, Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007.

Kalof, Linda. Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books Ltd, 2007.

Kalof, Linda.,Fitzgerald, Amy. ed. The Animal Reader: The Essential Classic and Contemporary Writings. Oxford: Berg, 2007.

Kay. “Jet the dog – Liverpool superhero to curators and small boys)” Museum of Liverpool Blog, 19 October, 2015. http://blog.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/2015/10/jet-the-dog- liverpool-superhero-to-curators-and-small-boys/ (accessed March 6, 2018)

Kean, Hilda. Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800. London: Reaktion Books, 1998.

Kogan, Lori. “Older Adults and Pets – Physical and Psychological Benefits in Men and their Dogs: A New Understanding of Man’s Best Friend. Christopher Blazina and Lori R. Kogan eds. (Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2016.

La Follette, Hugh. ed. Ethics in Practice: An Anthology 2nd ed. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002.

Landes, Joan B.,Young Lee, Paula and Youngquist, Paul, eds. Gorgeous Beasts: Animal Bodies in Historical Perspective. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2012.

184

Lawson-Tangred, Hugh. trans., Aristotle: De Anima (On the Soul). Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd, 1986.

Le Chene, Evelyn. Silent Heroes: The Bravery and Devotion of Animals in War, London: Souvenir Press, 1994.

Lee, Adrian. “The doomed dogs of war: What happens to military dogs when they are no longer needed?” Express: Home of the Daily and Sunday Express, September 21, 2013, News. https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/431049/The-doomed- dogs-of-war-What-happens-to-military-dogs-when-they-are- no-longer-needed (accessed March 15, 2018).

Leeworthy, Daryl. “A Diversion from the New Leisure: Greyhound Racing Working- Class Culture and the Politics of Unemployment in Inter-war South Wales,” Sport in History 32.1 March (2012): 53-73.

Lemish, Michael G. War Dogs: Canines in Combat. Washington: Brassey’s, 1996.

Levy, Megan and O'Sullivan, Matt. “Greyhound racing banned in NSW: Mike Baird announces ban after special enquiry,” Sydney Morning Herald, July 7, 2016. News.

Linden, Scott. “Top Dog,” Outdoor Life, 222, 9. October, 2015, 63-67.

Lord, Carnes. trans., Aristotle The Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984.

Madden, Raymond. “Imaging the greyhound: ‘Racing’ and ‘rescue’ narratives in a human and dog relationship,” Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies, 24.4 (2010): 503-515.

Magnus, Albertus. On Animals. A Medieval Summa Zoologica. Translated by K.F. Kitchell Jr and I.M. Resnick, 2 vols, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Malam, Sara. “The dog of war: Scooby the British military pup dons goggles and ear muffs as it takes part in Army desert exercises in Jordan,” Daily Mail Australia, April 8, 2016, News.

Malamud, Randy ed. A Cultural History of Animals in the Modern Age. Oxford: Berg, 2007.

Manning, Aubrey & Serpell, James eds. Animals and Human Society: Changing perspectives. London: Routledge, 1994.

Manning, Roger B. Hunters and Poachers : A Cultural and Social History of Unlawful Hunting in England 1485-1640, Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1993.

McKeon, Richards ed. The Basic Works of Aristotle. New York: Random House, 1941.

Mclaughlin,Ryan P. “Noblesse Oblige: Theological Differences Between Humans and Animals and What They Imply Morally.” Journal of Animal Ethics 1.2 Fall (2011):132-149.

185

McLean, Adrienne. ed. Cinematic Canines: Dogs and Their Work in the Fiction Film. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2014.

Meldrum, Caro and Clark, Sam. ”Slow Australian greyhounds being exported to Macau, China to go on death row” ABC 7.30 Report, December, 9, 2015. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-09/greyhounds- exported-to-macau-china-against-industry-rules/7014434 (accessed December 1, 2016)

Mikhail, Kate. “Where the wild things are”, The Guardian, 16 July, 2001. https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2001/jul/15/featur es.magazine47 (accessed May 16, 2018)

Miller, Steven. Dogs in Australian Art: A New History of Antipodean Creativity, Kentown: Wakefield Press, 2012.

Morell, Virginia. Animal Wise: The Thoughts and Emotions of our Fellow Creatures. Collingwood: Black Inc., 2014.

Natassia, Chrysanthos. “Suspicious’ death caused by pet dog”, The Sydney Morning Herald, News June 14, 2019.

No attribution. Greyhounds as Pets website, Frequently asked questions https://www.gapnsw.com.au/faqs/ (accessed December 7, 2018).

No attribution. History Extra https://www.historyextra.com/period/first-world- war/sergeant-stubby-richard-lanni-film-animated-war-dog- american-history/ (accessed February 26, 2018)

No attribution. “Dog attacks mainly due to ‘human error’, animal expert says” The Sydney Morning Herald, March 7, 2018.

No attribution. “Greyhound Racing Make Significant Contribution” The Dogs.com.au. February 7, 2011. News. http://m.thedogs.com.au/News/NewsArticle/2173 (accessed September 21, 2016).

No attribution. “Greyhound racing: Death in the Fast Lane” PETA, Issues, Animals for entertainment. https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in- entertainment/animals-used-entertainment- factsheets/greyhound-racing-death-fast-lane/ (accessed September 22, 2016).

No attribution. “Our most decorated canine has died” Media release, The Australian Army, September 6, 2016. https://www.army.gov.au/media-room/media-releases/our- most-decorated-canine-has-died (accessed March 5, 2018)

No attribution. “War Culture - Animals of War” Military History Monthly July 12, 2012. https://www.military-history.org/articles/war- culture-animals-of-war.htm (accessed March 10, 2018)

186

No attribution. RSPCA https://www.rspca.org.au/facts/annual-statistics-2015- 16/published-statistics (accessed February 12, 2017).

No attribution. RSPCA NSW https://www.rspcansw.org.au/rspca-nsw- blog/greyhound-racing-ban-faqs (accessed December 16, 2016).

No attribution. RSPCA, The smart puppy and dog buyer’s guide available on www.rspcapuppyguide.com.au. (accessed February 12, 2017).

No attribution. “Help needed to heal dogs in distress after puppy farm rescues,” Newcastle Herald, May 9, 2018, News.

No attribution. “How Picasso fell for a dachshund” Independent Newspaper, May 1, 2006, Culture. https://www.independent.co.uk/arts- entertainment/books/features/how-picasso-fell-for-a- dachshund-6102204.html (accessed April 10, 2018).

No attribution. Greyhounds as Pets adoption website https://www.gapnsw.com.au/adopt/ (accessed July 17, 2018).

No attribution. “Greyhound racing: NSW Government criticized for tipping in $500,000 in prize money, ABC News, July 31, 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-31/nsw-government- tipping-$500,000-into-greyhound-racing- prizemoney/10055554 (accessed July 31, 2018).

No attribution. “More Dog Art from A-young Lee” January 14, 2010. http://dreamdogsart.typepad.com/art/2010/01/more-dog-art- from-ayoung-lee.html (accessed March 20, 2018)

No attribution. “Angela Singer talks about her work” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQd-xQFA7HE (accessed April 9, 2018).

No attribution. “Ban Greyhound racing: the arguments are compelling,” The Sydney Morning Herald, February 17, 2015, Editorial. http://www.smh.com.au/comment/smh-editorial/ban- greyhound-racing-the-arguments-are-compelling-20150216- 13gnje.html (accessed October 12, 2016)

No attribution. An Art History of Nature, “Is Science Art’s Muse?” https://anarthistoryofnature.wordpress.com/2014/05/19/olly- and-suzi-animal-art-in-action/ (accessed October 20, 2017).

No attribution. NSW Government, Office of Local Government, “Declared dangerous and menacing dogs.” https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/public/dogs-and- cats/information-for-the-community/information-about- declared-dangerous-dogs (accessed January 28, 2017).

187

No attribution. NSW Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1979, No 200, Section 17. https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/1979/200 (accessed August 17, 2017).

No attribution. Occupy for Animals website: http://www.occupyforanimals.net/ondrej-brody-and-kristofer- paetau.html (accessed February 27, 2018).

No attribution. Occupy for Animals website: “Animals killed and used in the name of Art” http://www.occupyforanimals.net/art--animals- killedused-in-the-name-of-art.html (accessed February 27, 2018).

No attribution. Quote Ambition – Top 100 Greatest Dog Quotes and Sayings with Images http://www.quoteambition.com/greatest-dog- quotes-sayings-images/ (accessed November 2, 2018).

No attribution. Tamaruke website http://tamaruke.com/tamaruke-colours- and-sizes/ (accessed March 20, 2018).

Nobel, Justin. “The Nature of Suicide”: Do animals Commit Suicide? A Scientific Debate.” Time, March 10, 2010.

O’Neill, Marine. “Woman tossed bag of newborn puppies into bin caught”, News.com.au. April, 24, 2019. https://www.news.com.au/technology/science/animals/woma n-who-tossed-bag-of-newborn-puppies-in-bin-caught/news- story/af66e21c39a76650b41e5a35e94fec78 (accessed June 20, 2019).

Oatley, Anne-Katrin. “Pet Obesity: Big and Getting Bigger.” Issues 103, June (2013):1- 48.

Odendaal,J. S. J. and Meintjes, R. A. “Neurophysiological Correlates of Affiliative Behaviour between Humans and Dogs.” The Veterinary Journal 165 (2003): 296–301.

Oliver, Daniel T. Animal Rights: The Inhumane Crusade, 2nd Edition Washington: Merril Press, 1999.

Olly and Suzi Photography website http://www.ollysuzi.com/photography/#photograph (accessed May 15, 2018).

Overall, Christine ed. Pets and People: The Ethics of Our Relationships with Companion Animals. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Page, Donna. “Underground dog-fighting ring operating in Port Stephens,” Newcastle Herald, July 1, 2014.Local News. . http://www.theherald.com.au/story/2389076/underground- dog-fighting-ring-operating-in-port-stephens/ (accessed March 15, 2018).

188

Peirce, Jessica. Run, Spot, Run: The Ethics of Keeping Pets. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016.

Perry, Roland. Horrie the War Dog: The story of Australia’s Most Famous Dog. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2013.

Piazza, Jared et.al. “Cruel nature: Harmfulness as an important, overlooked dimension in judgements or moral standing.” Cognition 131.1 (2014): 108-124.

Prato-Previde, E., Custance, D.M., Spiezio, C., Sabatini, F., Psicologia, I., Milano, College U. & G.

“Is the dog-human relationship an attachment bond? An observational study using Ainsworth’s strange situation.” Behaviour 140 (2003): 225-254.

Primatt, Humphrey. A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals, published London, R. Hett, 1776, 45. In the New York Public Library collection. https://archive.org/details/adissertationon00primgoog (accessed May 27, 2018).

Rabe, Tom. “NSW Government fund ‘richest’ greyhound race,” The Courier Mail, July 31, 2018. Other Sports. https://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/more-sports/nsw-govt- funds-richest-greyhound-race/news- story/9dcef3aa5acb3d7d4be478f44aa4469a (accessed August 18, 2018).

Rackham, H. trans., Aristotle in Twenty-three Volumes XXI Politics. London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1932.

Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

Resl, Bridgitte,ed. A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007.

Resnick, Irven M. “Good Dog/Bad Dog: Dogs in Medieval Religious Polemics,” Enarriato, 18 (2013): 70-97.

Reyes,Fat. “300,000 dogs killed for meat every year in the Philippines,” Inquirer, July 4, 2012. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/223405/300000-dogs-killed-for- meat-in-philippines-every-year (accessed February 19, 2017).

Rogers, Lesley J. and Kaplan, Gisela. Spirit of the Wild Dog: the world of wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals & dingoes. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2003.

Rose, Hilary. “The Master and his dog” Times, Magazine United Kingdom, April 1, 2006. 42. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.newcastle.edu.au/eds/det ail/detail?vid=0&sid=2502cc2f-16e5-4351-97ec- a5623084981d%40sessionmgr4010&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzL

189

WxpdmU%3d#AN=7EH4033618698&db=n5h (accessed October 20, 2018).

Rowe, Bradley D. “Animal Rights and Human Growth: Intellectual Courage and Extending the Moral Community”, Philosophical Studies in Education, Vol. 40 (2009):155.

Rubinsztein-Dunlop, Sean. “Veteran greyhound trainer Jodie Lord disqualified over banned drugs in dogs” ABC News, July 12, 2016. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-08/leading-greyhound- trainer27s-wife-doped-dogs-with-cocaine2c-s/7581028 (accessed October 13, 2016).

Ruddick, Sarah ed. Lucian Freud: Painting People. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books, 2012.

Ryder, Richard D. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.

Schleidt, W.M. and Shalter, M.D. “Co-evolution of human and canids: An alternative view of dog domestication: Homo homini lupus?” Evolution and Cognition 9.1(2003): 57-72.

Schneider, Norbert. Still Life: Still Life Painting in the Early Modern Period, Koln: Taschen, 1999.

Scruton, Roger. Animal Right and Wrongs, 3rd Edition. London: Metro Books, 2000.

Sean Rubinszrein-Dunlop. “Greyhound racing industry hit with doping, cruelty, collusion allegations,” ABC News, October 16, 2013http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-10-15/greyhound- racing-industry-hit-by-doping,-cruelty-allegations/5024714 (accessed October 13, 2016)

Senior, Matthew, ed. A Cultural History of Animals In the Age of Enlightenment, Oxford U.K.: Berg, 2007.

Serpell, James. “Having Our Dogs and Eating Them Too: Why Animals Are a Social Issue.” Journal of Social Issues 65.3 (2009): 633-644.

Serpell, James. In the Company of Animals: A study of Human-animal Relationships. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Shepard, Paul. The Others: How Animals Made Us Human. Washington, D.C.: Island Press/ Shearwater Books, 1996.

Slezak, Michael. “Greyhound racing ban overturned: animal welfare groups blast Mike Baird,” The Guardian, News, NSW Politics. October 11, 2016.https://www.theguardian.com/australia- news/2016/oct/11/greyhound-racing-ban-overturned-animal- welfare-groups-blast-mike-baird (accessed May14, 2018).

190

Smietanka, Anastasia. “Live Export: A Cruel and Risky Industry.” Issues 103. June (2013):1-48. (Ed. Sally Woollett).

Smith, Nick. “Making a Killing” Four Corners ABC February 15, 2015. https://yt.ax/watch/four-corners-abc-2015-02-15-making-a- killing-full-episode-17758060/ (accessed March 20, 2017).

Solotaroff, Paul. “An investigation into the underworld of America’s puppy mills, the secret shame of the pet industry.” Rolling Stone. Issue 1278/1279, December 1, 2017:42-56. Accession number 120528745.

Sorrell, Roger D. St. Francis of Assisi and Nature: Tradition and Innovation in Western Christian Attitudes toward the Environment, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Tate, Kate. “Cosmic Menagerie: A History of Animals in Space (Infographic),” Space. Com, April 12, 2013. https://www.space.com/20648-animals-in-space-history- infographic.html (accessed November 12, 2017).

Thiebaux, Marcelle. “The Medieval Chase” Speculum 42, (1967), 260-274.

Thomsen, Simon. “Mike Baird has banned greyhound racing in NSW,” Business Insider Australia, July 7, 2016. http://www.businessinsider.com.au/mike-baird-has-just-killed- off-greyhound-racing-in-nsw-2016-7 (accessed December 2, 2016).

Topal J, Miklosi J, Csanyi V, Doka A. “Attachment Behaviour in Dogs ( Canis familiaris): A new Application of Ainsworth’s (1960) Strange Situation Test”, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 112.3 Sep (1998):219-229.

Topsfield, Jewel and Rompies, Karuni. “Call for dog meat ban in Indonesia,”The Sun-Herald, November 5, 2017. World News.

Townley, Cynthia. “Friendship with Companion Animals” in Pets and People: The Ethics of Our Relationships with Companion Animals, ed. Christine Overall, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Tuan, Yi-Fu. Dominance & Affection: The Making of Pets. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.

Uglow, Jenny. Hogarth: a life and a world. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997.

Usborne, Martin “Viewfinder Galgo (2014),” Daily Telegraph (London), May 30, 2015. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.newcastle.edu.au/eds/det ail/detail?vid=1&sid=dd3d80ff-620d-4f12-9a94- 25a143acae0d%40pdc-v- sessmgr03&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#AN=8Q299 946292&db=n5h (accessed June 5, 2019).

191

Vint Virga, D.V.M. The Soul of All Living Creatures. New York: Broadway Books, 2013.

Wahlquist, Calla. “Exporter and Western Australia government at odds over fate of 60,000 sheep,” The Guardian, June 25, 2018, AU Politics, News.https://www.theguardian.com/australia- news/2019/may/12/sheep-were-put-near-oil-fuel-heaters- aboard-live-export-ship-in-summer (accessed October 20, 2018).

Wallace, Rick. “Greyhound racing ban costs thousands of jobs,” The Australian, July 8, 2016.

Weaver, Harlan. “Becoming in Kind: Race, Class, Gender, and Nation in Cultures of dog Rescue and Dog Fighting.” American Quarterly 65.3 (2013): 689-709.

Wells, Deborah L. and Hepper Peter G. “The personality of “aggressive” and “non-aggressive” dog owners”, Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012):770- 773.

Weyman-Jones,Laura. “The NSW Government Has Made an OBSECENE Donation to a Greyhound Race,”PETA, August 3, 2018. https://www.peta.org.au/news/the-nsw-government-has- made-an-obscene-donation-to-a-greyhound-race/ (accessed September, 10, 2018).

Wiertel, Derek Joseph. “Classical Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering” Theological Studies 78.3 (2017):659-695.

Wiessner, Daniel. “Chimpanzees have no human rights, US court rules”, Sydney Morning Herald, December 6, 2014. https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/chimpan zees-have-no-human-rights-us-court-rules-20141205- 120r31.html (accessed May 21, 2017).

Wilkes, Joe. “Veteran dogs suffering from PTSD” Cesar’s Way https://www.cesarsway.com/dog-behavior/anxiety/veteran- dogs-suffering-from-ptsd (accessed July 12, 2018).

Winter, Stuart. “Dog meat VICTORY: Indonesia BANS horrific dog meat trade – ‘Will celebrate globally,” Express, August 7, 2018, News. https://www.express.co.uk/news/nature/1000206/Dog-meat- trade-Indonesia-ban-killing-dogs-pets-Asia (accessed October 18, 2018).

Wolloch, Nathaniel. “The Limits of Enlightenment Sensitivity to the Suffering of Animals.” At the Interface/Probing the Boundaries 84 (2012): 123-144.

192

Wong, Kate. “Humans and other Primate Pervade the Genome, Genome comparisons reveal the DNA that distinguishes Homo sapiens from its kin, Scientific American, September, 2014. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/tiny-genetic- differences-between-humans-and-other-primates-pervade- the-genome/ (accessed January 11, 2018).

Yang, Chi-Ming. “Culture in Miniature: Toy Dogs and Object Life”, Eighteenth- Century Fiction, 25.1 Fall (2012):139-174.

Yilmaz, O., Coskun, F. and Ertugrul, M. “Dog Fighting: A nasty work” Research Opinions in Animal & Veterinary Sciences, 5.5 (2015): 219- 223.

193