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Women's Collective Action: Unlocking The Women’s Collective Action Unlocking the potential of agricultural markets An Oxfam International research report 15 Is women’s collective action in African agricultural markets the missing link for empowerment? An Oxfam International research report www.womenscollectiveaction.com 15 Is women’s collective action in African agricultural markets the missing link for empowerment? An Oxfam International research report Is women’s collective action in African agricultural markets the missing link for empowerment? An Oxfam International research report 16 Contents Abbreviations 6 Glossary 8 Acknowledgements 9 Executive summary 10 Key findings 11 Key recommendations 12 1. Introduction 14 1.1 Why is women’s collective action important in agricultural markets in Sub-Saharan Africa? 15 1.2 Research questions 17 1.3 What was done? 17 1.4 How was it done? 18 1.5 Structure of the report 20 2. The context for women’s collective action in Ethiopia, Mali and Tanzania 21 2.1 Factors shaping women’s collective action: an analytical framework 22 2.2 Gender relations and women’s motivations and capacities to engage in collective action 23 2.3 Farming systems in areas of study 25 2.4 Market systems in areas of study 26 2.5 The policy and legal framework for women’s collective action 27 2.6 Comparison of collective action in the three countries 29 2.7 Development actors’ strategies supporting collective action 29 3. Which women participate in collective action in markets, and why? 32 3.1 Group characteristics and composition 33 3.2 Profile of women members and non-members 34 3.3 Factors influencing women’s participation in groups 36 3.4 Leadership and women’s participation in groups 38 4. How does collective action help women overcome barriers to their engagement in markets? 39 4.1 Market outlets for group members 40 4.2 Access to productive resources and training 42 4.3 Mobility constraints 42 4.4 Time poverty and social constraints 43 5. What are the economic benefits of participation in collective action for women small-scale farmers? 44 5.1 Assessing the economic benefits of women’s collective action membership 45 5.2 Economic benefits gained by women’s collective action members 45 5.3 Factors contributing to economic benefits 47 6. Empowerment benefits of membership in women’s collective action 48 6.1 Women’s collective action group membership and empowerment outcomes 49 6.2 Factors affecting empowerment outcomes 51 4 Women’s Collective Action: Unlocking the potential of agricultural markets An Oxfam International research report 7. What strategies and factors have enabled collective action interventions to deliver benefits to women in agricultural markets? 53 7.1 Overview of external assistance received by groups 55 7.2 Increasing women’s participation in market oriented collective action groups 56 7.3 Providing women with productive resources 58 7.4 Promoting effective engagement in markets through women’s collective action 59 7.5 Strengthening women’s leadership in the governance of women’s collective action groups 60 7.6 Ensuring equitable benefits from participation in CA groups 60 7.7 Enabling environment for successful interventions to support women’s collective action groups 61 8. Conclusions and recommendations 62 8.1 The importance of context 63 8.2 Key findings on women’s collective action across countries 64 8.3 Recommendations for policy and practice 69 Annexes 71 Annex 1: Women’s collective action research reports and project documents 72 Annex 2: General bibliography 73 Annex 3: Maps of study areas 75 Annex 4: Selected sub-sectors by category (market type) and region 76 Annex 5: Main features of women’s collective action case study groups in Ethiopia 77 Annex 6: Main features of women’s collective action case study groups in Mali 78 Annex 7: Main features of women’s collective action case study groups in Tanzania 79 Annex 8: Additional tables from quantitative analysis 79 Tables Table 1: WCA groups studied in depth 18 Table 2: Sub-sector characteristics 26 Table 3: Examples of development actors’ intervention strategies related to WCA 30 Table 4: Conditions of group membership, Lushoto Vegetable collective action groups 38 Table 5: Sample size per stratum: Ethiopia, Mali, Tanzania 79 Table 6: Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of women members and non-members 80 Table 7: Probability of joining groups (probit regressions) 81 Table 8: Marketing behaviour: comparing members and non-members of groups 82 Table 9: Average treatment effects of women’s collective action participation on outcome variable 83 Table 10: Heterogeneity analysis 84 Table 11: Eight dimensions of empowerment 85 Table 12: Regression estimates on empowerment dimensions 86 Table 13: Regression estimates of empowerment on women’s collective action participation 88 Endnotes 89 Women’s Collective Action: Unlocking the potential of agricultural markets An Oxfam International research report 5 Abbreviations ACE Agricultural Co-operatives in Ethiopia programme (ACDI/VOCA) ACDI/VOCA Economic development organisation based in Washington, D.C., (Agricultural Co-operative Development International and Volunteers in Overseas Co-operative Assistance) ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA), Ethiopia ATT Average Treatment on the Treated (or Average Treatment Effect ) CAADP Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme CA Collective action CERCAD Centre d’Études, de Recherche, de Communication et d’Animation pour le Développement (Mali) (Centre for Research, Communication and Animation for Development – Mali) CIDA Canadian International Development Agency COFERSA Convergence des Femmes Rurales pour la Souveraineté Alimentaire (Convergence of Rural Women for Food Sovereignty–Mali) CRS Catholic Relief Services DADIP District Agricultural Development and Investment Project (Tanzania) DFID Department for International Development (UK) EDP Enterprise Development Programme (Oxfam) FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FFC Facilitators for Change (Ethiopia) IAG International Advisory Group (RWCA project) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN) IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IGA Income-generating activity ILO International Labour Office (UN) INGOs International non-governmental organisations IRAM Institut pour la Recherche Agricole Montpelier (France) (Agricultural Research Institute – Montpelier, France) M4P Making markets work for the poor Mviwata Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (National Farmers’ organisation in Tanzania) ODI Overseas Development Institute (London) OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OHPI Oxford Human Poverty Institute ORDA Organsiation for Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara (Ethiopian NGO) PADEP Participatory Agricultural Development and Empowerment Project (Tanzania) PAFA Projet d’Appui Aux Filières Agricoles (Agricultural value chains support programme)–funded by CIDA in Mali PSM Propensity score matching ROSCA Rotating savings and credit association 6 Women’s Collective Action: Unlocking the potential of agricultural markets An Oxfam International research report RWCA Researching Women’s Collective Action project (Oxfam) SACCOs Savings and Credit Co-operatives (Tanzania) SD Stakeholder dialogue SDC Swiss Development Co-operation SHG Self-help group SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SIGI Social Institutions and Gender Index (OECD) SILC Savings and Internal Loan Committee SNV Netherlands Development organisation SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TAPP Tanzania Agricultural Productivity Programme (USAID-supported) UFROAT Union des Femmes Rurales Ouest Africaines et du Tchad ULT Usambara Lishe Trust (Tanzania) UN United Nations UNFPA United Nations Population Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development VICOBA Village Community Banks (Tanzania) WCA Women’s collective action WEAI Women’s Economic Empowerment in Agriculture Index (IFPRI/OHPI) WSHG Women’s self-help group Women’s Collective Action: Unlocking the potential of agricultural markets An Oxfam International research report 7 Glossary Cercle ‘Circle’, a French term referring to the second-tier administrative unit in Mali Chef d’exploitation French term for head – usually male – of extended family farming household (Mali) Dalali Local brokers Idir Informal association originally constituted to organise burials in Ethiopia, now serving multiple purposes Kebele ‘Village’, the first-tier administrative unit in Ethiopia Masika Long rainy season starting in April through June Mboga A generic Swahili term for ‘vegetables’ including most leafy vegetables (Tanzania) Meher Main growing season corresponding to ‘big rains’ from mid June to Mid September in Ethiopia Tej A honey-based alcoholic drink commonly brewed in Ethiopia Tontines Traditional informal savings groups in Mali Ujamaa Concept that formed the basis of Julius Nyerere’s African socialist development philosophy and model in Tanzania after it gained independence from Britain in 1961. From the Swahili word for extended family or familyhood vidembwa Self-help groups (Swahili) Vuli Short rainy season from October to November wanunuzi/watajiri Traders from outside the community Woreda ‘District’, the second-tier administrative unit in Ethiopia Acknowledgements The Oxfam RWCA team who supported the research implementation during 2010–12 are: This report was prepared by Sally Baden (of Oxfam GB) based on quantitative and qualitative research carried
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