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Estuarine Acidification Estuarine Acidification Abhijit Mitra · Sufia Zaman Estuarine Acidification Exploring the Situation of Mangrove Dominated Indian Sundarban Estuaries Abhijit Mitra Sufia Zaman Department of Marine Science Department of Oceanography University of Calcutta Techno India University Kolkata, India West Bengal, Kolkata, India ISBN 978-3-030-84791-3 ISBN 978-3-030-84792-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84792-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements We are thankful to our scholar pool who raised the following questions that triggered us to conceptualize the theme of estuarine acidification (EA): 1. How can we beat EA and have a well-balanced aquatic ecosystem? 2. Why is EA an adverse by-product of rapid industrial development? 3. How are the population explosion and subsequent urban development related to EA? 4. What is the actual price of regulating service of mangroves in context to carbon scrubbing? And will the expansion of blue carbon be able to reduce the pace of EA? 5. Are there any strategies to manage EA at a local scale? 6. What will be the cost of EA management? And who will pay those bills? These questions basically pushed us to dive deep in the subject and collect relevant data from various sources. We are thankful to Dr. Pardis Fazli of Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University Putra, Selangor, Malaysia, for her effort in representing our data in graphical forms. Finally, Dr. Abhijit Mitra expresses his gratefulness to his wife Shampa, daughter Ankita and late mother Manjulika whose inspirations and encouragements act as a booster to complete the manuscript. The statement of late Dhanesh Chandra Mitra, father of Dr. Abhijit Mitra, to create a strong footprint in the life still boosts the author with extra heavenly energy. The sudden demise of mother of Dr. Mitra during the COVID phase retarded the pace significantly, but with the active support of his well-wisher and Chancellor of Techno India University, West Bengal, Dr. Goutam Roy Chowdhury, the author could finally serve the ground-zero data of Sundarban on the reader’s plate. Dr. Sufia Zaman expresses her deepest gratitude to her mother Mrs. Ayesha Zaman for her unconditional love, and practical day-to-day support from, father, Mr. Salim-uz-Zaman who gave her immense moral support. Dr. Zaman also acknowl- edges the support of her beloved husband Dr. Sahid Imam Mallick and her baby girl Shanza Mallick. Dr. Zaman wishes to accord her deep sense of gratitude to her family members including her uncle (Mr. Pradip Kumar Mitra) and aunt (Late v vi Acknowledgements Mrs. Kanika Mitra), younger sister (Ms. Sharmilee Zaman), brother-in-law (Kazi Dr. Sazzad Manir), her nephew (baby Diyan Kazi), her in-laws and her beloved grand- mother (Late Mrs. Shibani Dhar) for their encouragement and inspiration throughout the strenuous period of manuscript preparation. Dr. Zaman still recalls her granny late Shibani Dhar, who shaped her life and always wished to see her as an author of a subject that can create mark on the society. Finally, our goal is to analyze the potential of different verticals of blue carbon (like mangroves, saltmarsh grass, sea grass, etc.) in retarding the pace of EA. Our aim is to bring the importance of EA in the climate change domain and draw the attention of busy decision makers, political leaders establishing national priorities, funding officers allocating research projects or young couples wishing to take bath in the coastal water in a sunny day. We hope this book will be a useful source of information for people of all ranks of the society. Contents 1 Estuarine Acidification: An Overview ............................ 1 1.1 Estuary: Definition and Types . 1 1.1.1 Definition . 1 1.1.2 Types of Estuaries . 2 1.2 EcosystemServicesofEstuaries .............................. 12 1.3 AcidificationofIndianEstuaries.............................. 21 1.3.1 VellarEstuary ...................................... 22 1.3.2 Ennore Estuary . 24 1.3.3 Adyar Estuary . 26 1.3.4 RushikulyaEstuary ................................. 27 1.3.5 KaliEstuary........................................ 29 1.3.6 Mandovi Estuary . 30 1.3.7 Kalapet Estuary . 32 1.3.8 MahiEstuary....................................... 33 1.3.9 Mindhola Estuary . 35 1.3.10 TapiEstuary ....................................... 36 1.4 Take Home Messages . 40 Annexure 1: List of True Mangrove Flora with Medicinal Properties . 41 References . 47 2 Estuaries of Indian Sundarbans: A Test Bed for Acidification Study ......................................................... 49 2.1 Estuaries of Indian Sundarbans . 49 2.2 Climate of Indian Sundarbans . 55 2.2.1 Wind.............................................. 56 2.2.2 WavesandTides .................................... 59 2.2.3 WaterTemperature .................................. 59 2.2.4 Rainfall ........................................... 59 2.3 Pulse of Acidification in Hooghly and Matla Estuaries of Indian Sundarbans . 60 2.4 Take Home Messages . 72 vii viii Contents Annexure 2: How the COVID Lockdown Phase Impacted the Pace ofAcidification? ................................................ 76 References . 78 3 Impact of Acidification on Fishes ................................ 81 3.1 Taxonomic Diversity of Fish in Indian Sundarbans . 81 3.2 Threats to Indian Sundarban Fishery in the Backdrop of Climate Change . 93 3.2.1 Alteration of Spawning and Larval Recruitment . 94 3.2.2 Alteration of Metabolic Activity and Growth . 102 3.2.3 Alteration of Microbial Load in Fish Tissues . 107 3.3 Acidification—Effect on Fish Community of Indian Sundarbans . 112 3.3.1 Effect on Calcareous Structures . 116 3.3.2 Effect on Growth and Condition Index . 116 3.3.3 Effect on Bioaccumulation . 123 3.3.4 EffectonSpawning ................................. 126 3.4 Take Home Messages . 126 Annexure 3: Compartmentation of Heavy Metals due to Acidification in Matla Estuary of Indian Sundarbans . 128 References . 133 4 Impact of Acidification on Molluscs .............................. 137 4.1 EstuarineMolluscanCommunity:AnOverview ................ 137 4.2 EffectofAcidificationonOysterCommunity................... 147 4.3 MolluscsasPotentialSinkofCarbon.......................... 152 References . 170 5 Impact of Acidification on Plankton .............................. 171 5.1 Plankton Community: Overview and Types . 171 5.2 Common Plankton of Indian Sundarban Estuaries . 178 5.3 Plankton: Effect of Acidification . 184 5.4 Take Home Messages . 212 Annexure 5: Program to Evaluate Shannon-Weiner Species DiversityIndex ................................................. 214 References . 215 6 Impact of Acidification on Ecosystem Services of Sundarban Estuaries ...................................................... 219 6.1 Concept of Ecosystem Services: Focus Sundarban Mangroves . 219 6.2 Respondent Analysis on Acidification of Sundarban Estuaries . 241 6.3 Status of Heavy Metals in Context to Acidification of Sundarban Estuaries . 248 6.4 Take Home Messages . 261 References . 272 Contents ix 7 Regulatory Role of Blue Carbon in Estuarine Acidification ......... 277 7.1 Mangroves . 277 7.2 SeaGrassandSaltmarshGrass ............................... 282 7.3 Seaweeds . 292 7.4 Take Home Messages . 314 Annexure 7: Worldwide Common Mangrove and Associate Species . 315 References . 334 8 Estuarine Acidification: Management and Mitigation .............. 337 8.1 Mitigation of Point Sources of Carbon Dioxide Through CleanEnergy .............................................. 337 8.2 Expansion of Blue Carbon . 361 8.3 Acceleration of Resilience of Affected Components . 368 8.4 Take Home Messages . 390 Annexure 8: Salinity—Specific Mangrove Distribution in Indian Sundarbans . 395 References . 401 About the Authors Dr. Abhijit Mitra Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta (India), has been active in the sphere of oceanog- raphy since 1985. He obtained his Ph.D. as NET qualified scholar in 1994. Since then, he joined Calcutta Port Trust and WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature-India), in various
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