BETWEEN THE SEAMS:

THE MAKING OF A PRINCESS

CAROLINE O'BRIEN

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1*1 Canada Between the Seams: The Making of a Princess By Caroline O'Brien a thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of York University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

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The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's written permission. ABSTRACT

In this thesis I investigate the iconic costume for the ballet, the classical tutu, in its relationship to the prima ballerina. In spite of years of training and even more years of practice and rehearsal, the princess of the ballet is unrecognizable without her tutu. There are certain theories of dress that are useful to offer new meanings in this exploration:

Roland Barthes' Fashion System offers a means of interpreting the process used to design the costumes for the ballet; Julia Kristeva and the notion of abjection through vacant clothes secures the classical tutu in an interdependent relationship with the ballerina; finally, the notion of dress as boundary and margin offers another way of exploring the ballerina in relation to her costume: as boundary, the tutu distinguishes her in her role as the princess, but in framing her body as a margin, the tutu connects her to the art of classical ballet, and to the magical world of fairy tale.

As an artifact of the ballet, material culture offers a useful way of investigating the physical properties of the tutu from three perspectives, those of the wearer, the maker and the spectator, and the tutu has different meanings for each of these three. Gaining an understanding of the costume as it evolved along with the dance form through the ages of the Romantic Ballet and the emergence of Classical Ballet provides insight into the form of the tutu we see in use today in the twenty-first century. Parallel to the evolution of the ballet it is interesting to trace a relevant history of the fairy tale from the earliest oral tales to the written tales of Charles Perrault in the late eighteenth century to the translation of

The Sleeping Beauty to the stage by Marius Petipa, master of the classical ballet.

iv In entering the magical world of 'once upon a time' the princess takes us on a journey of exploration that becomes compelling and haunting in its own right, and helps to transcend previous understandings. The classical tutu, one of the most recognizable silhouettes in Western Culture, weaves an aura of enchantment and mystery around the wearer, and comes to signify the taut and honed body of the prima ballerina.

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project could not have been attempted without the support and assistance of several individuals. I am indebted to my supervisory committee: Norma Sue Fisher-Stitt,

Yvonne Singer and Julia Creet. They have given generously of their time and expertise and have guided my efforts to focus this paper on the occasions when I waivered too far off track. Sincere thanks to each of you.

My friends and colleagues in the dance world have been tremendously supportive and have patiently endured the excitement of new understandings: Veronica Tennant,

Mavis Staines, Peggy Baker, Laurel Toto, Greta Hodgkinson, Jaimie Tapper and Johan

Persson, Matjash Mrozewski, Sabrina Matthews and Tiffany Knight. My friends and colleagues in the world of costume have offered support and encouragement for many years: Marjory, Ruth, Chris, Mary, Susan, Barb, Grant, Natalie and Alex. My colleagues at NBS have inspired the original impulse for this project. My academic colleagues have quickly become a source of inspiration: Perry, Sholem, Tanit, Nadia, Irene, Sheldon,

Terry and Sunny. My new-found friends through this work have inspired confidence and alternate ways of seeing the world: Anne, Fides, Delwyn and Laurent.

I am grateful to my parents and family for support and encouragement; my two boys, Ceilidh and Clare, who have always reminded me of what's important in life; And

Ian -1 am eternally grateful, you have given me wings to fly and the courage to embark on the journey.

vi Dedication:

For the influences found on the beaches of Ms Mor TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

1. Introduction 1

Methodology 3

Parameters 8

Fairy Tales 9

Costume 14

Body/Dress 15

2. The Classical Tutu: Form and Function 18

A Brief History 19

The Romantic Tutu 25

The Classical Tutu 28

Classical Tutu Analysis 35

Materials Used 36

Construction 41

General Appearance 44

Significance 46

3. The Body Dress Relationship 50

Roland Barthes' Fashion System ... 52

Lacan / Kristeva 58

Corporeality 60

4. Concluding Remarks 66

Bibliography 74

Figures 81

viii LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1 Early Court Dress 19

Fig2 Marie Camargo, 1730 21

Fig3 Marie Salle, 1734 22

Fig 4 Marie Taglioni in La Sylphide 26

Fig 5 Virginia Zucchi 30

Fig6 The Dance Foyer at the Opera, 1872 33

Fig 7 Inside a classical tutu 36

Fig 8 Centre back of tutu with added snaps and bars 38

Fig 9 Surface decoration 39

Fig 10 Underside of tutu 40

Fig 11 10-panel bodice with structural details 42

Fig 12 Decoration detail 43

Fig 13 Identifying marks 45

Fig 14 Greta Hodgkinson as Aurora 47

Fig 15 Paquita, Canada's National Ballet School 62

ix The bigger fear is that there is nothing to express, nothing with which to express, nothing from which to express, no power to express, no desire to express, together with the obligation to express".

Duthuit in conversation with Beckett Proust. Three Dialogues. Chapter 1

Introduction

This paper is an effort to offer a glimpse of the journey taken as I've investigated some of the meanings of the princess in modern western society. What began as a fascination with the many manifestations of a princess in our culture has been distilled down to some of the parts I know best: the prima ballerina, the fairy tale as it has been translated to the stage, and the meaning of the classical tutu as it has evolved from the time of Marie Antoinette and pre-revolutionary France.

In this paper I argue that it is only through the classical tutu that we can recognize the princess of the ballet, and without it her body does not carry the same meaning or identity. The physical / visceral body of the ballet dancer brings the costume to life and the body itself may become lost in the performance of the ballet; likewise, without the body the costume remains inanimate and anonymous in the confines of the wardrobe.

There are a few questions motivating the research. The first and most central asks: Is she a princess without her tutu and is the tutu central to her performance of the princess? Other related questions include: How does the princess of the ballet distinguish herself? Is the tutu made to fit the body, or to create an illusion that the body becomes?

How does the tutu contribute to the transcendent quality of the ballet? What is the difference between clothes and fashion, costume and fashion?

1 From my perspective, an effective way of investigating the significance of the princess in the ballet is to explore the structure of the clothing in signifying the role.

While the classical tutu is an iconic image of the ballet, there are many ways of examining and understanding the artifact: from the perspective of the wearer, the maker and the viewer. Although these three persons often share a passion for the classical tutu, their unique perspectives and contributions to the success of a performance are often diverse, and it is conceivable that one amongst them might never know who the other two are. In the hierarchy of the wardrobe system in a ballet company, a tutu maker might never meet the dancer; more often the fittings are attended by the designer, the cutter and the wardrobe supervisor. The stitcher, or maker, is too far down the chain of hierarchy to attend. Further, the ballerina may never meet her public, or viewer, as the proscenium maintains a separation between the private world of the dancer, and the public realms of the theatre. Finally, in a world where the specialized skills inherent to dressing a dancer are often undervalued and underpaid, it is rare that any interaction between the artisans of the wardrobe and members of the public ever occur. It is a cardinal rule of the theatre that no costumed performer shall ever wander beyond the confines of the backstage areas, and that guests shall not enter the intimacy of the dressing rooms. This code has served to protect the magic and intrigue of the professional ballerina. In this paper I offer views of the tutu from each of the three perspectives, thereby clarifying some of the significance of the tutu, and offering some insight into the world of the classical ballerina.

2 Methodology

There is a certain structure required to narrate a story of this sort. The methodology for this study is interdisciplinary in nature, and therefore it is prudent to outline some of the benefits of such an approach. It is necessary to evaluate the significance of fairy tales to our lives and to explore the dynamic interface between the oral tale, the printed form and the performance of the ballet; it is essential to offer an overview of the most relevant parts of the history and evolution of the art form which we now define as classical ballet; it is important to examine the role of the prima ballerina in the context of the fairy tale ballet; and it is imperative to investigate the relationship of the body to its dress, given that the language and nuance of the clothed body carries a transcendent power which can bewitch and entertain.

The original impulse for this paper began with recognition that the story ballets are the ones which are most often repeated in a repertory company, and the ones which sell the most tickets. Although not always the favourites of the members of a classical company, the audience seems to return again and again to witness the magic and enchantment of the fairy tales on stage. In a world where feminism and femininity are often at odds with one another, we still witness young women and young girls who aspire to the varying forms of the tutu. In my work with dancers from around the world it has become evident that young ballet dancers aspire to be ballerinas and young ballerinas aspire to be princesses. It is in the fitting room, in front of the mirror, that tne transformation from dancer to princess takes shape.

3 My passion for the work that I do as a costume designer with both major and

minor ballet and modern dance companies around the world for almost 25 years has

brought me to this place where I wish to document some of my observations about the

dancer and the dance, and draw parallels between the different types of princesses we

support in our culture, for indeed, the symbol of the tutu carries many meanings for both

men and women around the world. For many years I have watched as young girls don

their first pair of pointe shoes, and the inherent excitement and apprehension associated

with that moment. And many times I have watched as young women are hooked into

their first tutu, pleased and proud and misty eyed in front of the mirror; the tutu

represents a coming of age and a realization of a childhood dream - a young and aspiring

dancer is transformed into a ballerina. The pointe shoes and the tutu are the

quintessential tools used in the performance of the ballet, and it is only after the dancer has endured countless hours of repetition in the studio that she is deemed ready to be seen

by her public.

As a methodology, Interdisciplinarity is central to this research. The

subject areas include but are not limited to English Literature, Dance and Material

Culture. Further explorations have included philosophy and a study of clothes and the body. Although I cannot pretend to be an expert in any of these areas my undergraduate degree was in English, with a special affinity towards children's literature; my passion for and experience in the dance world demanded a focus on the princess of the ballet; and my experience in designing for dance compelled an exploration of the topic through visual

4 art: if the human body is the framework and structure, then the fabrics offer a sculptural

representation of that form when fashioned into costume. As an icon of the ballet and as

an object in the material world, the classical tutu is worthy of study due to its close

involvement with the ballerina as well as its ability to convey a language of delight and

enchantment. It is difficult to talk about ballet and the classical story ballets without

moving across disciplines to investigate the theory of fairy tales, the histories of fashion

and dance, and the philosophy and sociology of clothing.

In looking at meanings for an interdisciplinary inquiry, I found Timothy Austin's

summary of Interdisciplinarity most illuminating, perhaps because he uses a sort of

language I've found useful to express a sentiment of clothes for the ballerina (Torgovnick

273). He suggests that there is a membrane, both fragile and permeable, that surrounds

any discipline. When we wish to cross borders in order to deepen our understanding, the membrane allows an easy passage. Perhaps I might add a cautionary note to tread lightly

across these margins so as not to drag too much of our own discipline into another area,

and to leave the new area of exploration respectfully intact after the investigation.

An interdisciplinary inquiry asks the investigator to honour the assumptions, the history, the methods and the current multiplicity of each discipline. The tension lies in the risk to move away from the purity of the subject and allow other disciplines to

support the hypotheses expressed (Hutcheon 19). Rather, I agree with the collaborative notion of an interdisciplinary approach. If we have so much to learn from other disciplines, then perhaps a collaborative effort will enliven the discourse. It is more

5 important to build the collaborations than to fear reducing the purity of an area.

Furthermore, when we move into an area of study that differs from our primary one we

move with a sense of defamiliarization as we foray into uncharted territory. This

potential disarming from our usual research approach can allow for breakthrough to

powerful insights.

A multi layered investigation allows me to investigate classical dance and The

Sleeping Beauty from a perspective I have not seen before. The volume that changed the

way I think about art is a seminal treatment of architecture by well known Finnish

architect Juhani Pallasmaa. His small book offers two essays: the first surveys the

historical development of our emphasis on sight in Western Culture since the Greeks, and the impact of sight domination on our experience of the world. The second explores the role of the other senses in an authentic experience of living. Pallasmaa suggests that a more multi-sensory engagement with the world is conducive to a sense of belonging and

integration. This book has offered new ways of understanding theatre, the body and our experience of performance because of the ways it explores our experience of being in the world through art and architecture.

An investigation of clothes and the body and how clothes might be worn by a ballet dancer allows me to offer new insights to suggest what classical costume signifies in the ballet. There are two primary sources that have been key in this area: Alexandra

Warwick and Dani Cavallaro's Fashioning The Frame offers an overview of recent

scholarship and presents a new theory of what dress means in relation to the body. This

6 book suggests that identity of the self depends on boundaries while dress challenges boundaries. The silhouette of the tutu combined with the practicality of navigating the world while wearing one hints at notions of boundary both separating the ballerina and integrating her into the world of the ballet. In Clothes, John Harvey offers an insightful treatment of what dress means in the modern age, and how the body within the clothes puts on identity relative to the kinds of adornment we choose. I suggest that in the theatre the body becomes an optical effect accomplished by the clothes of the ballet. The dancer's body animates or brings life to the tutu; in wardrobe speak we refer to this as hanger value - the unoccupied costume has little appeal when suspended on a hanger, but fulfils its purpose when adorning the wearer. Julia Kristeva calls this abjection, by which she means the despondency of vacant clothes (Kristeva 1982); Elizabeth Wilson suggests that clothes are so much a part of our living moving selves that without a wearer they

"hint at something only half understood, sinister, threatening... can affect us unpleasantly, as if a snake had shed its skin (Wilson 1-2). Without the costume the ballerina can hardly become the princess. The tutu, as an "objet" of the ballet forms an intimate relationship with her body and signifies her central role to the classical story as it unfolds on stage. Without the tutu, the rigours of the training and the articulation of the ballerina's performance become abject, as does the tutu without a wearer, laid in a heap on the shelf.

7 Parameters

It is necessary to clarify the parameters of this study, as the princess and the world of classical ballet can be so broadly defined. While ballet is an art form that has its origins in the European court dances of the fifteenth century, the vocabulary and style can be identified from the court of Louis XTV and his founding of the Royal Academy of

Music and Dance in 1661. By the end of the nineteenth century ballet productions offered sumptuous and lavish sets and costumes and often related the narratives of some of the best loved fairy tales. The popular appeal of some of these stories has extended right up to the present day, and the Princess Aurora, perhaps better known as The

Sleeping Beauty, remains among the most popular of the heroes of classical dance.

Almost every ballet company in the world contains in its repertoire a version of this ballet. In spite of the ever evolving nature of contemporary choreography, and the desire to push the envelope of our understanding of classical dance, some of the names of past ballerinas will be recalled first for their memorable performances of Aurora (Haskell 26).

Further, in the summer of 2006 there were no less than 6 new productions of The

Sleeping Beauty around the world, including The Royal Ballet Covent Garden in London and American Ballet Theatre in New York. This reality suggests that the power of story and spectacle to delight and entertain is still with us in the twenty-first century, not to mention the pragmatic need within a company to sell tickets. Ballet companies will continue to balance the box office with traditional works that repeatedly bring the audience back and innovative new creations that push the boundaries of the art form.

8 Fairy Tales

An interesting feature of the appeal of the ballet can be addressed through investigating some of the meanings of fairy tales and story. Most cultures have stories which help to shed light on the experience of being alive, and many of the stories from around the world share common themes and demonstrate the same desirable characteristics among the heroes. We hold onto these stories and they gain importance because they help us to gain insight into aspects of life that we might not otherwise understand. There are a number of narrative forms that preceded the fairy tale and each has its place in the evolution of story. The earliest, the myth, suggests a religious recitation that became symbolic of the play between eternity and time (Campbell 2002,

7). Myths were a human's first effort to find a bridge of understanding between that which was understood as transcendent and eternal and the authenticity of grounding in real time. Myths were followed by romantic legends, the precursor to the fairy tales.

Campbell suggests that these stories were searching for the union of that which has been divided, the peace that comes from joining (1991, 246). The legends were an attempt to narrate localized stories in such a way that people understood the more immediate events and circumstance of their surroundings. Both myths and legends may have been entertaining but they were intended as tutorial according to Campbell (2002, 7).

Fairy tales, next in the genre of narration, offered a fascinating and captivating interpretation of those dreamlike images and narratives. They were intended to entertain and delight and at the same time to acknowledge the more sinister forces we might

9 encounter in life. Fairy tales became an expression of the narrator's effort to understand and explain the world around us and then, especially in the incidence of the more fierce and terrible images, to control them. The tales may have motifs that have been plucked from the origins of myths, but they are judged not from a scientific nor sociological basis, but from an artistic one. (Campbell 2002, 23). It is for this reason that I suggest that tales move easily from the page to the black box and into a three dimensional aspect. As the audience watches the themes unfold the dancers place the story in the realms of reality and suggest that we might take the story more seriously than we would if we were reading the page. Our dreams and visions take on a more tangible dimension as we witness the decor and the action and we enter the story more readily. As Pallasmaa has suggested, in an ocular world the reduction of our experience "fragments the innate complexity, comprehensiveness and plasticity of the perceptual system, reinforcing a sense of detachment and alienation (39). The fullness of the sensory world of the theatre permits an experience that transcends the real world and offers the satisfaction that can be found from a full immersion into the tale being told.

Fairy tales as we know them began in late seventeenth century France with Marie

Catherine d'Aulnay followed in the next eight years by no less than fifteen significant authors (Hanlon 140). Charles Perrault has endured as the seminal teller with Cinderella,

Little Red Riding Hood and The Sleeping Beauty representing the stories of the great century of Louis XIV. In the introduction to her book From The Beast To The Blonde

Marina Warner suggests that fairy tales could allow us to "remake the world in the image

10 of desire" (Warner xii). Fairy tales were originally written for children and were used to teach and to entertain, but were always offered with the intention that the child would outgrow this form and move on to more sophisticated literature. Yet, Warner suggests that as adults we return to the pleasures of the tales of magic and entertainment in order to experience escapism and to willingly become children again (Warner xiii). It is the elements of the tales that draw us back: the suspension of reality offered by once upon a time; the pinnacled castles, the fairies, both benevolent and malevolent; the dark and tangled forests; the deep sleeps and the rose wreathed princesses. It is this very element of stories which have translated so beautifully to the stage and personify the magic that happens behind the black border of the proscenium.

If the elements of the tales offer the enchantment and magic, then what is the significance of story in our lives? There are a few theories that are important to answering this question. Claude Levi-Strauss, French anthropologist, was central to the development of structuralism in the mid-twentieth century. His theory of kinship found in Structural Anthropology (1963) describes the structure of relationships within societies. He describes how goods, ideas and people have traditionally been exchanged within a culture, and explains that the exchange of women, the most valuable commodity within any culture, was central to the survival of the social order. This notion became important because women were often the oral tellers and the carers and along with the evolution of the system of marriage and the exchange of goods there evolved an exchange of stories. These stories make women thrive, and indeed all citizens, and

11 encourage a searching far beyond the improbable fantasies and narratives extended through the pages of the fairy tales. Every young child clamours for a story at bed time and the retelling of an old tale from memory is the best sort. The images of heroic deeds and the fairy tale princesses take the imagination to another place and encourage the child to dream of the improbable. Rooted in this experience of fantasy is the healthy nurturing of a mind that can move readily between reality and imagination and back to reality again with the inherent belief that anything is possible.

When we enter the realm of fairy tale we leave the world of certainty behind from the very beginning. Jack Zipes suggests that the fairy tale ignites a double quest for home: the first occurs in the reader's mind and is psychological and difficult to interpret since the reception of an individual tale varies according to the background and experience of the reader. The other occurs within the tale itself and indicates the socialization process and acquisition of values for participation in a society where the protagonist has more powers of determination (Zipes 2008). Zipes argues that the reading of a fairy tale is an uncanny experience in that it separates the reader from the restrictions of reality from the outset and makes the repressed unfamiliar once again. If the uncanny is the unknown, then the unknown excites an idea of pain or danger as threats to our well being. We return to the story to find reassurance that we will pass through the precarious in order to stabilize again. We keep going back to hero stories because we live vicariously in the danger and uncertainty as the tales unfold. The sets and costumes, often set in the baroque or rococo periods, assist in suspending reality and

12 support the threat that lurks behind the gaiety and promise - that nothing is as it seems.

This is the once upon a time, where we immediately enter the realm of the imagination as the story unfolds. It is true that once we begin listening to, or reading, a fairy tale there is estrangement or separation from the familiar world, inducing an uncanny feeling which can be both frightening and comforting at the same time. Ernest Bloch goes even further to suggest that there is good reason for the timelessness of the traditional fairy tale: "not only does the fairy tale remain as fresh as longing and love, but the demonically evil, which is abundant in the fairy tale is still seen at work here in the present; and the joy of happily ever after which is even more abundant still affects our vision of the future"

(Zipes 2008). It is the reality of the day-to-day which commands an expectant and opportunistic striving toward a glimpse of that which is transcendent and redemptive.

The motifs of the Perrault tales suggest that youth and beauty are prerequisites for happiness; that the princess is passive while her prince journeys through challenging and life altering forests; that powerful good women are nearly always fairies and only appear when needed while female villains are strong, determined and perhaps unwomanly; finally that marriage is a girl's best chance at upward mobility. The social essence of the fairy tale as well as the manner in which we return to it and reformulate it to conceive new worlds or to reinforce our belief in the present one, indicates that we attribute great moral and ideological power to it in the process of socializing and educating our children.

Petipa embraced the motifs of the Perrault tales as he created his magical worlds. In his

Sleeping Beauty he demonstrates the awakening of a young woman to love. Aurora is the

13 central figure of the ballet and the moment when she makes her entrance on stage in the

Rose Adagio continues to inspire an audible response from her audience. She represents the power of youth and beauty, pure joy and inherent goodness. Her classical tutu, unique in its form and fabrication, aids in the creation of her allure and secures her identity as the personification of virtue and light.

Marius Petipa's rendering of The Sleeping Beauty, representing the pinnacle of classicism, has inspired numerous offerings of the same ballet. First presented in St.

Petersburg in 1890, the ballet has come to incarnate the grace and elegance of the entire art form. Its choreography exemplifies the precision and beauty that we associate with the classical dancer (Roth 210). In this paper I limit my examination of the costume to

The Sleeping Beauty as fairy tale, and in a specific translation to the stage: the 1972

Rudolph Nureyev version for The National Ballet of Canada. That production was seminal, both for Nureyev and his contribution to ballet in the west, and for the National

Ballet and its positioning as one of the foremost international ballet companies.

Costume

The next element in defining the making of the princess requires an enquiry into the costume for the ballet, and within the confines of this work, this means a look inside the classical tutu. While the classical tutu has its roots in the costume of the pre- revolutionary French Court and is a direct descendent of the romantic tutu, its current permutation is an entity unto itself; there is no other garment like it in history, nor a more recognizable form in the world of clothes. The tutu is understood and admired on many 14 different levels, and is worn by many individuals, both young and not so young. It has been suggested in bridal gowns (also known as princess-for-a-day-wear), dancewear for the very young, costume for drag performance and at different times in history for party dresses. As Toni Bentley, a former dancer with the New York City Ballet suggests,

"What greater party dress was ever invented than a ballerina's tutu? It is a flower redesigned as a piece of clothing with the female body and head as its bud, and the tutu as its petals. And as a ballet dancer you can wear one, legitimately, right into adulthood!"

(Bentley 2003, 49). Bentley succinctly places the tutu in the context of western culture and desire and credits Edgar Degas with offering the ethereal quality which has become so irresistible. Degas, for his part, revealed aspects of a dancer's life that had never been laid bare before. With his paintbrush he managed to capture the beauty that inspired and justified their efforts both on stage and in the studio He came to personify what we recognize today as the quintessential ballerina, and through his painting he encourages all of us to strive for a glimpse of the unattainable, the heavenly and otherworldly creatures of the ballet.

Body/Dress Relationship

In exploring the meaning of the classical tutu, I will look into the relationship between the body and dress. If the tutu, as an artifact, is an inanimate and therefore powerless item of clothing, can we say that it becomes transformed into an agent by its ability to furnish the body with signifying powers that the unclothed subject would lack?

(Warwick 60). My premise is that the dancer's body is a finely tuned instrument of the

15 ballet, and the tutu is a garment that will signify the princess. The centrality of the body in contemporary consumer culture suggests that we live in a culture that appears to idolize as sacred the young, sculpted, sexualized body, and to suggest that it is available to us all (Shilling 182). The tutu is an esoteric form in our contemporary world, and carries much meaning and value in the context of the role of the princess. The prima ballerina carries an identity in her company that might be easily recognized, but once she passes from the realms of the studio through the backstage areas of the theatre and onto the stage her body does not carry the same meaning for her adoring fans. The language and nuance of the clothed ballerina carries a transcendent power that can bewitch and entertain.

Finally, what is the importance of this study? The body, and the body in performance has been at the centre of much recent study; the ballerinas of the twentieth century have been written about and criticized on many levels; clothes, and costume for the ballet has not had so much attention. The fact that costume for the ballet has such a long history and is so recognizable in western culture warrants an investigation. As in the rich tradition of the ballet, so in the tradition of the costume shops: nothing much has been written down and all of the stories live in memory. It is only by examining the artifacts of the ballet, specifically the classical tutu that we can reveal some of the history and story inherent to the lives encased there. In gaining an understanding of the most iconic garment of the ballet we can begin to wonder whether the tutu is the best costume for the roles to be performed, and whether the life of the ballerina is best served by

16 adopting a garment which at the same time protects and makes vulnerable. Notions of the tutu as boundary, by which the identity of the ballerina is both defended and distinguished will be explored, as well as the tutu's ability to reveal and conceal the body, or offer disguise and character. Ultimately, the goal of this paper is to offer a suggestion of what costume for the ballet means in relation to the body of the ballerina.

17 One of the greatest inventions of all time, the tutu -probably derived from the French child's word "tu-tu" or "cul-cul" meaning "bottom" and thus seeming to relate to the panties onto which the layers of tulle are attached-first appeared in Paris...

Toni Bentley, Costumes By Karinska.

Chapter 2

The Classical Tutu: Form and Function

The classical tutu belongs in the realm of Western Culture and has existed and evolved through various permutations for most of the past two hundred years. While it was originally inspired by the fashions of the day, the tutu quickly became an esoteric form in the world of clothes and since the 1870's has existed within the realm of costume for the world of classical ballet. The tutu goes through variations in theme and style and can often be located in history through construction techniques and materials used, but the tutu persists in its ability to captivate an audience. Although useless unless adorning the frame of a finely honed and trained ballerina, the classical tutu is an iconographic image of the dance world and has become synonymous with the aspirations of young girls around the world who seek to embody the role of the princess. In this chapter I will offer a glimpse inside the classical tutu, and between the seams, to discover what lies beneath the sheen and sparkle of the prima ballerina. I will attempt to look at an object of the ballet that is unavailable for commercial consumption and that continues to weave an aura of enchantment, mystery and wonder around those who encounter it. More specifically, I will look at the tutu in the context of professional ballet companies. It is

18 my intention to build a narrative of the tutu based on observations of the item knitted together with real experience of the history. In this way I will propose that the tutu as an artifact reflects identifiable cultural values that relate to gender, and I will look at the ways in which the hegemony of the patriarchy has perpetuated the place of the tutu in a more comprehensive social environment.

A Brief History of Costume for the Ballet

Fig 1 Early Court Dress, c. 1779 19 The story of the ballet can be traced back to the lavish presentations of dance in the Italian courts of the fifteenth century. These elaborate performances were presented in large halls and were often a combined expression of painting, poetry, music and dancing; the dance was often based in the social dances of the time. The tradition of court dance was continued in France, where the ballets consisted of social dance scenes that expressed a minimum plot. In these early days of ballet, dancers wore their own clothes rather than specially designed costumes. These clothes can still be recognized in the contemporary design of costume for classical ballet. The men wore very elaborate, stiff brocaded coats, knee breeches, wigs and swords belted to their waists. The women were tightly laced in long-sleeved bodices and panniered skirts, (figl). The weight of this unwieldy and burdensome garb determined that the movement of the body needed to be simple and dignified.

The costumes employed in these dances reflected the rich aristocratic tastes of the audience, and although it was during this period that professional dancers made their appearance behind the proscenium, the final act of the performance was still reserved for the king and his courtiers. The court ballet continued to rise in popularity into the early eighteenth century, reaching its peak during the reign of Louis XIV. In 1661 the Sun

King founded the Academie Royale de Musique et de Danse, an initiative that established

Paris as the centre of academic ballet, and this represented the early emergence of the complexity of ballet technique. As the dancers incorporated pirouettes and quick beats of the feet the whirling skirts called for calegons de precaution, or precautionary drawers

20 (Chazin-Bennahum 44), to aid in preserving modesty. Although hose of various sorts had been invented, tights and leotards were still a long way off in the future.

Fig 2 Marie Camargo, c. 1730

During the eighteenth century women began to shorten their skirts in order to display the intricate footwork. Marie Camargo (fig 2), etoile of the Paris Opera in the mid 1700's, was said to be the first to do this (Chazin-Bennahum 43). As well, she was said to be the first to take the heels off her shoes to dance in satin slippers.

21 Her contemporary and rival, Marie Salle (fig 3), proved even more courageous

when she abandoned her petticoats and danced in her much lighter muslin dress. She was

a dancer much loved for her grace and lyricism, and was remembered for her great talent

and intellect.

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Fig 3 Marie Salia, c. 1734

.. .She has dared to appear in this entree without pannier, skirt or bodice and with her hair down; she did not wear a single ornament on her head. Apart from her corset and petticoat she wore only a simple dress of muslin draped about her in the manner of a Greek statue. (Chazin-Bennahum 44)

Both Salle and Camargo initiated costume reforms that stimulated a change both to the dance form and dress that are remembered to this day, but each had their own 22 style. Camargo excelled at technique and wished her excellent achievements to be visible, whereas Salle preferred to portray her dramatic characters as convincingly as possible. Camargo came to be recognized for her portrayal of dance as an expression of outward beauty and Salle came to symbolize dance as an expression of inward feeling (Anderson 56).

The most significant new form of ballet to develop in the eighteenth century was the ballet a"action, a form of dance that emphasized unity and drama. Jean

Georges Noverre was a leading advocate of this innovation. An acclaimed choreographer and innovator of dance, Noverre became the dance teacher for Marie

Antoinette and was best known for his Letters on Dancing and Ballets, a late eighteenth century exposition on dance aesthetics. He argued that all aspects of the production contribute to the central theme and that any costume item that impedes movement should be discarded (Anderson 62). Costume reform was central to the development of movement and by the late 1700's Noverre witnessed many of his recommendations being followed: his ideals of light and flowing draperies and the soft heel-less slipper. By the time of the French Revolution the costume for dance had shifted to reflect the preferred themes of the ballet; there was a return to the classical Greek models of simple and lightweight fabrics, and soft flowing styles both on and off the stage. A costume designer (Maillot) at the Paris Opera is said to have invented tights during this era in order to offer modesty underneath the transparent layers of muslin, and canvas slippers became de rigeur. All of these

23 innovations empowered dancers with a greater freedom of movement, and technique developed well beyond previously known boundaries.

Charles Didelot, the French choreographer who was born in Stockholm, was also concerned with dramatic expression, and furthered the union of costume and dance. He staged ballets around Europe and was invited to St. Petersburg by the director of the Imperial Theatres in 1801 where he contributed much to the development of Russian Ballet. By his advocacy of the use of tights in performance he contributed to the simplification of costuming. He was also the first choreographer to develop a system of rigging that allowed dancers to be elevated off the stage and give the illusion of flight. In lowering a ballerina she could appear to be poised on her toes and this is suggested to be the origin of the appeal of the ballerina to balance on her toes, a breakthrough that would profoundly affect the evolution of the art form in the nineteenth century (Anderson 67).

The period of the Romantic Ballet extends from 1830 to about 1850, although aspects of the genre remain visible until as late as the 1870's. After the turbulence of the French Revolution and the fall of Napoleon a dominant middle class emerged who had greater economic power than had previously been seen and this class began to frequent the ballet. Romanticism defines an expression that praises feeling and passion and the ballet became an arena where these themes could be explored and laid bare. The two elements of Romantic art that profoundly affected the development of ballet were a fascination with the colourful or even 24 exotic aspects of this world, and a pining after the nonrational or supernatural

(Anderson 77). As the ballet came to embrace aspects of fantasy and dreams the audience could enter the realms of magic and enchantment in ways previously unattainable and could witness the deep gulf that can exist between imagination and reality. New developments in stagecraft enabled this magical world, both through the use of the proscenium and curtain during set changes, and the use of gas lighting to permit light and shadow on stage as well as the dimming of house light during a performance. The darkening of the theatre combined with the eerie lighting effects contributed much to the ambience of theatrical enchantment. The insertion of nymphs and fairies and other-worldly figures secured the impression of magic. Integral to the performance of the sprites and sylphs of the Romantic Ballet was the Romantic tutu.

The Romantic Tutu

The tutu as we know it can be traced back to Marie Taglioni and her momentous performance of the sylph in La Sylphide in 1832 (fig 4). She was angelic in her dancing, and established the aesthetic of the dancer as an ethereal being not of this world. So convincing did she become in her role as the sylph that other dancers tried to emulate her performance and this led to the idolization and idealization of women in the ballet, and signalled the rise of the ballerina. The role for Taglioni was created for her by her father, who was her main teacher and mentor; the costume was created by Eugene Lami, a

French costume designer of the time. The costume was a muslin dress of a very ethereal 25 quality which would become the uniform of the classical dancer, the standard romantic tutu.

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Fig 4 Marie Taglioni in La Sylphide, c. 1832; lith. Alfred-Edouard Chalon

The costume consisted of a form fitting decollete bodice of silk or linen and a bell shaped diaphanous skirt of tarlatan or muslin that reached to the calf muscle. The only real signs of flesh and blood were the neck and shoulders, the rest concealed behind the tight bodice and masses of billowing skirt that became known as the Romantic tutu. Later on the skirts would be made of several layers of fine silk or cotton tulle in order to emphasize 26 the light and airy appeal of the ballerina en pointe. In the Romantic Ballet, the ballerina was an idealized creature who appeared to float across the stage on her toes just out of the hero's reach. Lami's invention fully supported this ideal. The success of the Romantic tutu was in the way it confirmed the identity of the ballerina as an ethereal and otherworldly vision.

An important aspect in the development of ballet in the nineteenth century was the cult of the ballerina. The hysteria which developed around the female heroes of the ballet was likely initiated by the two most famous of the romantics, Marie Taglioni and

Fanny Elssler. Their rivalry paralleled that of Salle and Camargo, and like their predecessors the two women embodied different aspects of the dance form. Theophile

Gautier, famous dance critic of the nineteenth century, characterized Taglioni as

"Christian" and Elssler as "pagan." The first a cool and spiritual dancer, contrasted with the warmth and passion of the latter (Anderson 84). While both women toured and performed extensively Elssler was the most travelled of her time, appearing all over

Europe as well as in the New World; she was met with wild enthusiasm wherever she went. For the first time, ballet stars were lauded for the strength of their feminine charms. Just as Camargo is celebrated for shortening the length of her skirt, Taglioni has come to exemplify the ballerina en pointe for her ability to glide across the stage in an ethereal and essentially spiritual fashion. Her ability to rise up on her toes assisted her desire to leave all carnal traces behind and embrace the ghostly essence of the Romantic

27 ballerina. The voluminous skirts of her costume were the perfect addition to the personification of her role.

The Classical Tutu

As dancers became more expert and the technique developed, the costume for the ballet underwent further changes. The most significant influences occurred concurrently in the latter half of the nineteenth century in Europe: the decline of ballet in Paris; the rise of virtuosity of the Italian ballerinas and the ascent to glory of the Russian Imperial

Ballet. Each of these developments contributed to the changes that happened in the tutu by the end of the nineteenth century.

Ballet was imported into Russia during its first period of westernization in the eighteenth century when many of the European fashions were imported and imitated.

Catherine II (1762-1796) brought French civilization to Russia through her alliances with members of the intellectual class, and she established the Directorate of the Imperial

Theatres, which had jurisdiction over opera, drama and dance. The Imperial Court recognized the value of the arts to its cultural identity and made the world of the ballet widely available. The Russian ballet in the nineteenth century developed exclusively under the influence of the French, and primarily under the direction of Charles Didelot

(1767-1837), Jules Perrot (1810-1892) and Arthur Saint-Leon (1821-1870). The French style demonstrated charm, elegance and curved lines and seemed often at risk of falling victim to preciousness. Enrico Cecchetti (1850-1928) was invited to Russia from Italy as a direct result of the respect and enthusiasm with which the Italian virtuoso technique had 28 been received. The Russian style as we know it today developed as the perfect merging of the artistry and grace of the Franco-Russian school combined with the expertise and strength of the Italian School. The most important of the imported choreographers was

Marius Petipa, who arrived in St. Petersburg as premier danseur in 1847 and who dedicated the next sixty years of his life to the Russian Ballet.

Petipa was born in Marseille to parents who were dancers and performers themselves. His brother Lucien went on to become a principal dancer with the Paris

Opera, appearing in the premiere of Giselle opposite Carlotta Grisi. Marius, after travelling extensively around Europe and even to North America dancing and making dances, eventually made his way to St. Petersburg. He continued the legacy of the

Romantic masters of the ballet who, in their own ways, insisted on dance as a vehicle to convey matters of the heart, and Russia became the dominant centre of world ballet.

Petipa would be recognized as taking ballet into the twentieth century and leaving behind him a legacy of choreography that still stands today.

Petipa gained more and more control of the Imperial Ballet as his experience grew and by 1862 he had been installed as ballet master in St. Petersburg (Goldman 23). The most virtuosic of dancers were coming to Russia from La Scala, the most notable of these dancers being Carlotta Brianza and Virginia Zucchi (fig 5). Zucchi was a sensational dancer who exhibited beauty, technical virtuosity and dramatic intensity in her acting, which all resulted in an invitation to join the Maryinsky theatre in the latter part of the nineteenth century. She is often credited with cutting off the length of her romantic skirt

29 to reveal most of the leg so that the intricacies of her work could be appreciated by her audience.

Fig 5 Virginia Zucchi, c. 1870; photo by Eugenio Filippini

According to Anderson, the use of costume in the Petipa ballets might be considered strange today. Most often the minor characters would appear dressed to reflect the historical or geographical period being represented but the female stars would more often appear in classical tutus with little reference to the flavor of the ballet

(Anderson 104). The Sleeping Beauty choreographed by Petipa and premiered in St.

Petersburg in 1890, represents the pinnacle of classicism and situated him as one of the 30 choreographic geniuses of the nineteenth century. The technical demands of his work necessitated shifts to the costume so that dancers' bodies would be liberated to perform the challenging roles and the virtuosic footwork would be visible to the audience. If the romantic ballet was about exploring the world of the supernatural, and celebrating the cult of the ballerina, the classical ballet was about technique. The steps became more complicated and were more apt to demonstrate a physical prowess previously unknown on the stage. The satin slippers were reinforced at the toe and the elevation of dancers en pointe served to distinguish their art even more. The choreography developed by Petipa required not only the principals to dance en pointe but also the corps de ballet and this permitted a greater depth of artistry, but more importantly technical virtuosity, to be developed.

The costume for the ballet in this part of the nineteenth century was based on the clothing worn by women of the day: a corset like bodice made of linen or cotton muslin which left the arms and upper chest revealed, cinched at the waist and lightly boned to emphasize the silhouette, accompanied by a multi layered bouffant skirt made of tarlatan or silk net. The goal of the garment was to fit perfectly well so as to reveal the outline of the figure, but not be so tight as to confine the movement. In the rehearsal hall, ballet dancers wore quite elaborate uniforms:

First came a chemise tied at the waist with a little ribbon; then a little corset, laced up tight; then cotton panties and long cotton stockings fastened with suspenders and over these bloomers; then a white batiste bodice, sleeveless, with a ruffle around the neck and the double tarlatan skirts of the tutu. A neat sash around the waist completed the picture. (Wagner 2009)

31 While practice clothes would have been more functional in nature, the tutus worn for performance would have been more lavish and decorated, and would have incorporated more brocades and silks in their makeup.

The costumes for the ballet described above were made visible through the paintings of Edgar Degas, seminal painter of the ballet in Paris. When the Franco-

Prussian War broke out Paris was besieged and the Opera was forced to close (Anderson

91). By the time the Opera reopened in 1871 ballet was perceived as little more than light entertainment and had gone into a recognizable decline. It was during this time that

Degas began his study of the dancers at the Opera with his first painting, The Dance

Foyer at the Opera, appearing in 1872 (fig 6). We have come to identify his ethereal sprays of tulle with the flower fairies of the ballet, yet he injected a more visceral and earthy aspect to the trials and travails of these women who haunted the hallowed halls of the Palais Gamier. With his paintbrush he managed to distill the essence of the dancer's spirit: his early paintings capture the efforts of dancers in the studio as well as the etoiles under the glare of the lights; he passed across the orchestra pit onto the stage, into the wings and even further into the most intimate and private places of the dressing rooms and studios. He represented his subjects at work and in repose, arranging and re­ arranging their clothes in ways we would never witness in the public realm (fig 6). He offered us a lasting testament to the life of a classical dancer, both the glamour and fascination as well as the darker side of the appeal at the Paris Opera: the possibility of sponsorship by the abonnes or male patrons, which would ease their life of poverty, yet

32 would require them to commit to a world of companionship and prostitution. His dancers have personified the contemporary image of the classical ballerina and have inspired a number of choreographic interpretations, including The Phantom of the Opera (Andrew

Lloyd Weber, London 1986) and La Petite Danseuse (Patrice Bart, Paris 2003).

Fig 6 The Dance Foyer at the Opera, 1872; painting by Edgar Degas

33 Although recent scholarship suggests that Degas chose as his subjects some of the more unsavory characters of his day, and sometimes chose to express those characters in less than flattering terms (De Vonyar/Kendall) he still had an unprecedented access to the back stage areas of the Palais Gamier and he still achieved an expression that has been unsurpassed in the history of Western art. More often than not his dancers were not performing, they were preening, waiting, adjusting themselves, tired and bored. Yet they are always dressed in the bell shaped dresses of the time, tightly corseted underneath their bodices, their plumes of tulle emanating an effervescent and ethereal quality. If, as

Bentley suggested, the ballet in Paris was in decline during the latter part of the nineteenth century, then perhaps Degas was the most important choreographic figure of late nineteenth century France (2003, 42). Indeed, he managed to capture the essence of the ballerina and gave his public a perspective on the theatre that had never been seen before. Further, he created an image of the ballet dancer that informs much of our contemporary understanding of the more magical aspects of that world, an image that continues to inspire young hopefuls who wish for a glimpse inside the mysterious world of the theatre.

By the end of the nineteenth century the bell shaped romantic dress made so famous by Marie Taglioni had given way to the classical tutu. Spurred on by the technically demanding choreography of Marius Petipa, the new and floppy sixteen layer tutus reached to the knee and allowed the ballerinas much greater mobility as well as the opportunity to display the new technical feats and fancy footwork offered by the

34 advancing opportunities in choreography. As ballet moved into the twentieth century the classical tutu evolved into something that is more common to our contemporary experience - the layers of tulle gathered onto knickers which project out from the hips and parallel to the floor, attached to a basque and a stiff bodice. Known as the pancake tutu, the layers are controlled with an intricate system of hand stitches and are supported by a V" wire in the seventh row. By mid century Margot Fonteyn made her debut in

1948 in one of these tutus, notable for the fact that it allows the entire leg to be seen. The other style of tutu, developed in New York by Madame Karinska, is known as the powder puff. Similar to the pancake, it has several layers of soft tulle, loosely controlled and stitched together, but no wire hoop. As a result it tends to droop a bit lower, but has a softness and lightness absent in the pancake.

Classical Tutu Analysis

The classical tutu is an icon of the ballet and has a rich story to tell about the world of the ballerina and all of those involved with bringing her to the stage.

Preliminary examinations of the tutu have revealed a great deal of information about gender relationships and the feminine identity, and the investigation that follows makes an effort to penetrate the tale of intrigue and mystery that surrounds the contemporary ballerina. I suggest that the tutu is significant because of the relationship between its particular material form, and the body that wears it. The tutu still uses materials that were employed over 100 years ago, and still takes a very similar form. The prima ballerina trains for years before earning the right to demonstrate her expertise in a tutu 35 and pointe shoes; on any other body, the material form of the tutu would not carry the same significance.

This investigation looks at the tutu in relation to the ballerina, the maker and the viewer, and attempts to bring resolution to some of the mysteries inherent to the wearing of this garment. Is it true that the most desired is in fact the unattainable, and has this premise upheld the status of the princess ballerina for the past two hundred years? In order to investigate the physical properties it seems necessary to look at material, construction and function, which will then be summarized in the general appearance. It is also of value to outline the rituals and rites of passage associated with the tutu, the collective and individual identities attached to a ballet company and the public and private aspects of the ballerina in her costume.

Materials used:

Fig 7 Inside a classical tutu; this and remaining photos in this section by the author, 2009

36 Aurora's tutu was made in the costume shop at The National Ballet of Canada, in

1972, and was later refurbished and revived for the opening of The Four Seasons Centre in Toronto in 2006. The component parts of the tutu can be observed and documented in order to better understand the structure. From the inside, the tutu reveals many different materials. Cotton duck (a heavy material of 100% cotton distinguished by the double thread in the warp and single thread in the weft), originally white and now slightly soiled and discoloured, is the backing for the more decorative brocade fabric which is used for the bodice. Each bodice piece is shaped so that it follows the contours of the body from the curve of the bust to the slight waist, returning to the fullness of the hip. The waist band is made from a one inch wide strong woven ribbon known as petersham whose purpose is to secure the tutu around the waist of the dancer (fig 7). The waist band is the most important component of the tutu, unseen from the outside, but serving to secure the garment on the torso so that it cannot wander up and down but remains stable as the wearer performs the role. This waistband has an added length of elastic, also one inch wide, which serves to adjust the fit. It is secured at the centre back with a pair of hooks and bars and is attached in such a way that it will not touch or irritate the spine.

The basque is the component of the tutu which fits smoothly between waist and hip and joins with the knickers on the top row of the ruffles. In this tutu both the basque

(hidden on the inside), and the knickers, are made from two layers of a synthetic organza, a fabric similar to sheer curtains, but which offers durability, comfort and easy cleaning

(fig 7).

37 The leg opening of the knickers is secured with a bias finished casing and elastic

has been inserted into the leg in order to snug the fit.

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Fig 8 centre back of tutu with added snaps and bars, 2009

The back opening is secured with hook and bar tape that has been dyed to match the brocade; snaps have been added incrementally in order to prevent it from coming undone during a performance. The addition of bars and snaps on the left side indicates that more than one dancer has worn the tutu (fig 8); these extra closings have been added in order to

38 adjust the size. Each snap and bar is secured with a strong koban thread and several stitches in order to ensure durability.

From the topside on the outside (fig 9), the applied decoration is a series of appliqued brocade which harmonizes with the base brocade; gold brocade trim inlaid with crystals and rhinestones; black soutache which serves to outline all of the motifs which have been applied; two sizes of pearls which are scattered across the breastplate and adorn the upper edge; a delicate re embroidered lace for the sleeve, backed by souffle, another delicate flesh toned fabric which offers durability and structure; finally a soft pink 3/8" elastic supports the shoulder strap and sleeve.

Fig 9 surface decoration, 2009

39 The view from the underside of the tutu offers the final perspective on this three dimensional investigation of the materials. The 12 layers of tulle have been cut with a scalloped edge; the roundness serves to soften the cut edge of the netting. The scalloped edges have been graded from small to large depending on the width of the ruffles; the smallest ruffles and scallops sitting closest to the body, the largest on the outermost layers. The tutu net is 100% nylon and represents a few different deniers, or stiffness, with the softer layers closest to the top. There is also a slight tonal variation which lends depth to the colour. The finishing touch is the silk organza plate on the top of the largest ruffle which is finished with a softly rolled hem at the outer edge and is embellished with more of the brocade decoration.

Fig 10 underside of tutu, 2009 40 Construction

This part of investigating Aurora's tutu describes the construction methods used.

This is important because it reveals some of the techniques used which are unique to theatre costuming, and which distinguish this sort of princess from the couture world.

The bodice is composed of 10 panels and sports a decollete neckline that sweeps across the shoulders into a delicate dropped sleeve. It is not unusual for a ballet bodice to have

12 or 14 panels, but a bridal bodice rarely has more than 8, and often less than this. The refinement of cut illustrates the sculpted and elegant silhouette of the dancer, significantly more delicate and petite than a pedestrian figure. The many panels and seams allow the bodice to more closely adopt the shape of the ballerina, accentuating a softly curved breast tapering over a fine rib cage, cinching a tiny waistline and then flaring slightly to contour the soft curve of the hip. The interior cotton duck has been flat basted or laminated to the outer brocade fabric prior to assembling the panels. Each of the seam edges has been clean finished with serging, or over lock, in order to keep the interior clean and smooth and free of frayed edges. The bodice panels have been put together with a sewing machine using a fairly small straight stitch and maintaining a conventional 1.5 cm seam allowance. The centre back allowance demonstrates a turning of almost 6 cm, a compromise that will permit alteration if the bodice needs to be adjusted at any time (fig 10).

The upper edges of the bodice have been bound with a conventional commercial bias tape finished by hand with a slip stitch at about Vi\ Laid over the bias tape is a short

41 layer of souffle which supports the leaf motif on the outside upper edge. Cross stitched

over the souffle on the inside across the front is a length of 3/8" pink elastic, used to snug

the front close against the dancer's body.

Fig 11 10-panel bodice with structural details, 2009

The basque is constructed of a double layer of organza, flat basted together, and

then serged on the upper and lower edges. The upper edge of the basque is stitched to the

outer edge of the waistband to keep the bulk of seam allowance away from the body; the

lower edge is turned at l"and attached by machine to the top row of ruffles. The applique

has been prepared separately, edged with embroidery and hand sewn on to the bodice.

The trim which encircles the rib cage area of the bodice has been machine stitched on,

preventing much future alteration to the costume. The knickers have been constructed with elastic inserted into the leg in order to secure a good fit. Applications of a leg ruffle

42 as well as 12 layers of tulle by machine finish the signature part of the tutu. A Vi" steel hoop has been inserted into the 7th row of the ruffles in order to lend support and shape to the skirt.

The decoration for the tutu has all been prepared by hand: the leaf motif is made of gold embroidery edged with black soutache, then applied to the bodice by hand. The pearls, gold motifs and rhinestones are all applied by hand, suggesting a very labour intensive process, but a very high quality product.

Fig 12 Decoration detail, 2009

43 General appearance

A close inspection of the waistband reveals two words: Kain - Aurora. The inside placket at the centre back reveals more information: Beauty - Aurora; The

National Ballet of Canada; Yu; Hodgkinson (fig 13). All of these words offer meaning to the company of dancers and personnel. The tutu is the property of the National Ballet; the tutu belongs to Aurora in The Sleeping Beauty; the original ballerina to wear the tutu was Karen Kain, and later it was passed to Greta Hodgkinson and Xiao Nan Yu, all principal dancers, all Aurora. This information offers insight into the nature of a ballet company: the tutu belongs to the company, not the dancer, and therefore is not a consumer item. It was handmade and custom fit to its wearer in the wardrobe by specialized hands. It is a commodity only in the sense that it carries value for the ballet company. This tutu is used for only one role, Aurora, and is not transferable to any other role. To the members of the running wardrobe this tutu belongs to the dancers named inside, and will not be offered to any other company members. This understanding generally only holds true for principal roles, not usually for corps de ballet members.

The two photos (fig 13) illustrate certain signs of wear on the inside of the tutu.

The bodice shows some signs of makeup at the upper edges, suggesting that ballerinas pancake their upper bodies above the line of the bodice; there are smudges along the centre back placket suggesting that the bodice rubs against the body and retains soiling that cannot be cleaned over the long term; there is evidence of wrinkling in spite of the stiffness of the bodice, which suggests that the bodice softens and conforms to the shape

44 of the ballerina as she moves through her paces on the stage. This occurs over time through absorption of sweat and in cleaning.

Fig 13 identifying marks, 2009

45 Significance

Designed by Nicholas Georgiadis in 1972, the surface decoration of the tutu was

refurbished in 2006, but otherwise the tutu maintains the original integrity of the design.

The close inspection offered above lends credence to the fact that a ballet company

invests heavily in producing a durable product in the original preparations, and that there

are many people involved in the maintenance of the tutu during the long-term use and

storage of the item. The skills required to build a tutu are specialized and unique. The

ballet company pays a large sum of money for custom made couture-like garments and

the makers of the tutu invest an amount of time and energy in the work that is

extraordinary in our age of mass production and disposable clothes. Tutus are built to

endure for 30 or 35 years, longer than most dance careers and are often revived to enjoy

even further long life, as in this instance of Aurora. Close handling of the tutu offers the true sense of the history of the garment - the prima ballerinas who have worn it and the

expert wardrobe staff who have been charged with the care and maintenance.

A tutu is more than just a bodice connected to layers of tulle. It's an extension of a ballerina's being, capable of mesmerizing audiences of all ages. A dancer can be transformed into a swan, a ghost, and, of course, a princess. When Dance Magazine asked eight ballerinas to share stories of tutus they treasure, Canada's Greta Hodgkinson chose Aurora, Act I. "When you put on the tutu from Sleeping Beauty Act I, you feel like a princess. It's gorgeous... it's not heavy or fitted to the point where you feel restricted.

It's ready to dance in. I put it on and I feel like Aurora." (Nov 2008, 62)

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Fig 14 Greta Hodgkinson as Aurora, Act 1,2006; photo by Cylla von Tiedeman, courtesy of The National Ballet of Canada 47 In the sum of its component parts, the classical tutu offers several different aesthetic functions. The bodice is based on the history and construction of the corset, which offers many paradoxes in this manifestation: the corset was historically an undergarment, yet the tutu bodice has evolved as the outer garment. The corset was built to sculpt the shape of its wearer whereas the ballet bodice conforms to and eventually adopts the figure of its wearer. The bodice is fitted as a second skin on the dancer, and therefore wraps up the torso impenetrably and insulates it against the prying eyes of the viewer. Yet, we are always alert to spillage: parts of the body emerging that were never intended to be seen. Further, the tutu bodice exhibits more of the dancer's body than a loose garment might. There is rarely any level of transparency to the fabric, and yet, more of the body is revealed due to the framing of the torso through the structure of the cut. While the bodice serves to confine and contain the upper body, the under and outer layers of the tutu offer a different function. They are usually much lighter fabrics: tulle, net or organza; they are designed to be of the lightest weight and to free the arms and legs in order to demonstrate the technique of dance. The skirt / knickers combination could also be said to frame the body in a different way, to delineate space and to frame a boundary around the princess. Passing through doorways and hallways can be a challenge; proximity to her dancing partner and other ballerinas requires careful planning.

The tutu necessitates a slight shift in the posture, bringing the ballerina more upright through the spine and lifting the torso from the pelvis. She cannot hook herself in nor release herself, she cannot see her feet and she cannot lower her arms. The notion of

48 confinement becomes startlingly real for the dancer, yet the body becomes liberated to move elegantly and gracefully through her dance.

The classical tutu serves most basically as a body covering. The tutu also serves to reveal the body: the bodice covers the torso for modesty, but reveals the decolletage to offer a seductive and appealing aesthetic of the body. In keeping with the evolution of the tutu at the end of the nineteenth century, the tutu reveals most of the length of the leg of the ballerina, emphasizing the intricacies of the footwork while she moves, and the aesthetic of her training while she is still. Finally, the tutu creates an identity for the ballerina to put on; she can then emerge onto the stage to fulfil the expectation of her public. More than all of this, however, the tutu weaves a spell of enchantment around the wearer, and creates a princess who embodies lightness and grace, grandeur and transcendence.

And what then is the significance of the costume to the ballet? Traditionally housed within the realm of women's work, and therefore historically undervalued and underpaid, the costume can be said to bring the whole work to life, to allow the ballerina to embody the role of the Princess Aurora, and to allow the outsider even further entry into the world of magic and wonder. As has already been suggested, the costume for the ballet dates back to the eighteenth century, but the meanings we attach to the classical tutu are more rooted in the early nineteenth century with the Italians, Marie Taglioni, and the gauzy, ethereal romantic dress of the Sylph.

49 There was Prince Ronald. He looked at her and said, "Elizabeth, you are a mess! You smell like ashes, your hair is all tangled and you are Wearing a dirty old paper bag. Come back when you are dressed like a real princess. Robert Munsch, The Paper Bag Princess.

Chapter 3

The Making of a Princess: The Body/Dress Relationship

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the body of the ballerina and the dress of the ballerina as distinct forms and structures, and to investigate the relationship that exists between the body and the costume. It is only through the costume of the ballet that the dancer can perform her transcendent role: the layers of tulle and organza, the brocades, the sparkle and the silhouette create her identity as the princess of the ballet, perhaps one of the most recognizable silhouettes in Western culture.

In 1980 Robert Munsch wrote a story that recreated the princess in the minds of his readers. He was playing to an audience who wanted to believe that women could be assertive and independent, and who didn't need to rely on Prince Charming to rescue them from a fate of enchanted castles, beautiful clothes, and happily ever after. His story,

The Paper Bag Princess, became one of his greatest successes and has been translated into more than a dozen languages. And, inadvertently, he has completely supported my premise that without the classical tutu the princess of the ballet is unrecognizable. While the ballerina constructs her identity both through the vocabulary of dance and the

50 vocabulary of costume, much of her meaning would be lost in the eyes of the spectator if we did not have her classical tutu. And so we must proceed: in what ways do we construct the identity of the ballerina, and in what ways does she construct her own identity?

"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings," notes Bryan

Turner at the start of The Body and Society, "they have bodies and they are bodies"

(1985, 1). In other words, human beings construct identity around the self, and become inseparable from the self. However, in The Fashioned Body Joanne Entwistle goes one step further to suggest that human beings are dressed bodies (Entwistle 6). She emphasizes that all cultures and societies share the premise that nakedness is inappropriate in almost all situations, and that some form of adornment or embellishment is always present, be it tattoo, makeup, perfume, or a full suit of clothes. I would also suggest from this premise that as human beings we like the bare body, but we prefer to adorn it, and just as we construct identity through dress, the ballerina constructs her identity through the classical tutu. She puts on a world of make-believe and the diminutive proportions of her dancer's body are not apparent to the audience.

The ballet dancer spends years honing and perfecting the instrument that is her body and that training becomes manifest in many ways. The repetitive exercises performed by the dancer every day serve to sculpt the body into a form that becomes recognizable as a dancer's body: the erect posture, the lean physique, the graceful gesture, the clear and consuming gaze as she takes in her surroundings and the ever-

51 present slightly turned-out feet. The other most obvious way of identifying a ballet

dancer is through the way she adorns and decorates herself, the identity she puts on. In preparation for the studio rehearsal this means the requisite tights and satin shoes; a form

fitting leotard; perhaps a short skirt of chiffon, a whisper of a thing to soften the line of the body, or in the case of a classical variation, a practice tutu; a variation on the theme of legwarmers, a garment to keep the large leg muscles warm, and the hair pulled into a tightly wrapped chignon on top of the head. This might all be supplemented by hair ornaments, light makeup or jewellery, the personal items that individuate a dancer.

Alternatively, the performance costume is provided by the wardrobe department and includes a specific and specially prepared tutu, a pair of soft-pink briefs (also known as spankies) and a coordinating tiara. All of this describes a way of preparing the body and creating the identity based on tradition and peer approval, and forms the basis from which

I will explore the ways in which the costume and the ballerina become inseparable.

Roland Barthes' Fashion System

This part of my investigation has brought me to the work of Roland Barthes, for his theory of dress as it relates to langue etparole, (Ferdinand de Saussure, ch 3) or the language of clothes, as created by the structure of the garment. Barthes suggests that within the Fashion System there are three types of garments that must be distinguished: image clothing, that which is presented as a photograph or drawing; the written garment, presenting the same garment as a written description; and the real clothing, the garment the other two are supposed to represent (Barthes 3-4). He emphasizes that each form of

52 the garment refers to the same reality, but they do not have the same structure. He also suggests that the unifying factor between the image and the description is the actual garment itself; the garment is the sum of its parts - the seams, the cut, the fabric (Barthes

6).

The structure of the fashion system as described by Barthes is useful in order to describe the fabrication of the classical tutu. The major ballet companies in the world have their own costume shops and the individuals who work in these shops have very specialized skills. Although each one may have a particular skill that manifests a particular part of the costume, for example one who specializes in bodices, the nature of preparing costume for the stage is a collaborative process. The designers, shoppers, cutters, stitchers and tailors are all directed by the managers and the whole operation functions like a well-oiled machine when the system is working well.

At the beginning of the process the costume designer prepares the designs which will become the real garments that will be worn by the dancers. The sketches are prepared as early in the process as possible, particularly if the garments have complicated detail, and are the cornerstone by which the costume will be prepared. When the designs are laid out on a table, the cutters immediately begin to discuss possibilities of materials and construction; the cutters become interpreters of the images, and often the success of a garment is determined by the skill of a good cutter. The addendum to the image presented by the designer is the pattern that will be prepared by the cutter. The cutter is often an employee of longstanding in a ballet company and therefore gets to know the

53 dancers well. This is beneficial when a glorious costume is required because the cutter understands the nuances of each dancer's body, and fashions the garment accordingly.

The team of stitchers works alongside the cutter to assemble the cut pieces of fabric into a garment, in this case the classical tutu.

The other part of the process, getting from the techno garment to the written word is the sewing program, or the words which describe the formula used to build the garment. The way of constructing a tutu is much more involved than that applied to a pedestrian piece of clothing, and involves a deliberate series of steps that will produce a garment that is wearable, durable and pleasing to the eye. This is a text quite separate from a description of the finished tutu, or even a critical review; the goal is to outline not what the garment is, but what it will become in a process of sewing and it uses a language that includes measurements and verbs. This branch of the structure describes the making of the garment, the transition from the image to the real garment, and includes words like cut, seam, flat baste, hook-and-bar-tape and applique - words that are specialized to the nature of the work involved in creating a costume for the ballet.

Finally, the shifter between the image and the written word might refer to the review of a new work. The publicity department of a ballet company fulfills a very important function in creating the identity of the ballerina and works alongside the creative team (the choreographer, the designer, the ballerina) to ensure that the ballet is made known to the outside world. This means a photo shoot is organized before the premiere of the work and this can be accomplished in the photographer's studio or during

54 a dress rehearsal of the work. Either way, an image of the garment as worn by the ballerina is prepared and distributed, and is usually accompanied by a critical review of the ballet. In an ideal world the words used will describe the splendor of the princess as we witness her on stage.

To summarize and justify the fashion system as it applies to the classical tutu, the relation between image clothing and written clothing can be described as a conceptual opposition between language and speech (Barthes 17). Language might be described as an institution, an abstract body of constraints; speech is the extraction of this vocabulary for the purpose of communication. We might suggest therefore, that the image clothing is the language, the constraint, which the written word will then extract and describe in detail. The image of the tutu represents a piece of clothing that will then be formulated into an item of dress and will eventually be worn by the ballerina and become the signifier of her identity. The next part of the exploration will investigate the meaning of dress, and the body within the dress, to negotiate the relationship between the ballerina and her tutu.

When engaging in a discourse of dress it may be that surfaces are more significant than the depths they are attempting to camouflage. In the case of the ballerina, the wrapping of the tutu may be far more appealing than the body concealed underneath. If the tutu bodice serves as an envelope or wrapping for the body, then how is it designed in order to flatter the body and make it appeal to the spectator? When we look at that dress, we notice immediately that the shoulders and arms are bare, or almost so, the back is

55 revealed and the hourglass figure is in evidence; through the folds of the tulle the legs are veiled in silky smooth stockings; the feet are clad in satin slippers with the toes reinforced to support the dancer as she goes en pointe. We are looking to reveal the sinews of the trained body, the delicacy of the arms and the porcelain shoulders, reminiscent of a by-gone era. And the result is a pleasing and attractive body which is ready to express the movement and gesture of the princess in motion. As viewers, we want to see the body exposed in its entire splendor, yet concealed to a level of modesty and aesthetic in keeping with the art of the ballet. This means that the torso is encased within the confines of the bodice and basque while never revealing a midriff, perhaps with the exception of the ballet of La Bayadere. The classical tutu, supported by seams, bones, hooks and elastic, provides a sheath for the body, loose but not too loose, and never parting to reveal more than was intended. The body is signaled everywhere. The female body and the female dress are like two partners engaged in an amazing dance where concealing and revealing, confining and letting go are the ultimate play. Adorned in her finery the princess of the ballet invites us to engage fully in the world of dreams, imagination and desire.

The body of the ballerina in all of its manifestations requires its own investigation in terms of the body/dress relationship. As a workingwoman, the female ideal of the ballerina casts off the limiting encumbrance of domestic and reproductive stereotypes of femininity but also serves to perpetuate the smaller prepubescent, fragile image of woman in contrast to the stronger and physically larger male counterpart. Classical ballet

56 cultivates a body of minimalism, small muscles, and a refined skeletal structure. The

achievement of this ideal requires self-control, self-discipline, self-determination and a

willingness to enter an antagonistic relationship with one's body. The dancer is

fashioned both from inside and from out, by her diet, by her self discipline and by her

costume.

In a historic context, the Western body has been described as the site of the

dwelling place of the soul and the cloth, as protector, became the outermost wrapping

(Carlyle 1846,28). The inner character was considered as displayed through the outward

signs, clothing being one of those signs that inevitably offered an extension of the

identity. We are physical bodies but are governed by our psyche (Warwick 23). The mind/body dualism perpetuated by Descartes suggests that the mind and body are two

separate entities and function independently of one another. My experience of the ballerina suggests that it is the soul of the ballerina that is performed on stage, and without her body there is no union and therefore no performance of the transcendent.

Also historically, in the eighteenth century gorging was the signifier of power, and therefore a large girth was equated with wealth, status and power. By the twentieth century there was a refinement of taste which means that now it is starving and denial that is the signifier of power (Warwick 14). In terms of body image slim and slender signifies discipline, restraint and a solid work ethic, all integral to the life of a ballet dancer. The ideal of thinness as beauty is personified in the ballerina. In fact, dancers are selected for their physique, and there is an understanding that the physical features

57 that are considered ideal for a ballerina are the same features that determine her strength and agility, and her ability to succeed in a pragmatic sense.

Lacan/Kristeva; Self/Other

The relationship between the ballerina and her tutu depends upon recognition of other. She, the subject, exists in relation to the tutu, the object. Neither really exists without the other in the context of the ballet. She is born into a set of symbols that will signify her identity. This notion of other brings us to Jacques Lacan and Julia Kristeva and their theories of the body/dress relationship. For Lacan, dress or fashion is another form of adorning the body in a way that dress cannot be separated from the body or the identity (Warwick 24). His mirror theory suggests that during the toddler stage of life a human being has experienced fragmentation. We have separated from the mother and understand our bodies as separate from self and separate from mother. We experience fragmentation. The mirror becomes important because in our fragmentation we glance at the reflection and have a means of re-integrating the fragments to make the self whole again. The mirror represents an image out there, a lack, and provides completeness; we recognize a division between the self and other, between the subject and the world. The ballerina experiences the body in fragmentation - each part of the body is broken down into separate units and is trained and experienced as a unique entity: the feet, the knees, the hips, the neck, the arms, the hands, the chin, the eyes, and the smile. The mirror is required to reconstruct the body and put the vocabulary of dance back into the wholeness of the image that is to be found in the mirror. When the cloth is added to the body as an

58 extension of the identity, all of the pieces put together in an integrated whole allow her to perform the princess.

Kristeva speaks of the body/dress relationship in the sense that the dress completes the identity and that without a body to wrap, the garment becomes abject in its vacancy (Warwick 27). She suggests that the self desires completion within the body but an awareness of the skin as porous or broken means that the self wants to protect the integrity of the structure, and requires the cloth to offer coverage and the accompanying sense of self as non-fragmented. She suggests that there is a false sense of identity whereby the structure considers the self as itself yet they are essentially separate, and that the clothes offer the final wrapping that frames the identity. Both are abject in isolation, but become fulfilled in union (Warwick 37). The clothing hovers over the frame, part of but not part of the body; inside the tutu the body vanishes and becomes what the clothing makes it. Warwick suggests that the empty garment indicates the presence of the body that once inhabited it, and the garment becomes a celebration of its former wearer (31); the empty garment indicates the body and represents the fragmentation inherent within the body / dress relationship. This feature of the costume for the ballerina becomes apparent in a sensory encounter with a tutu: there is usually an apparent scent in evidence, and certain wrinkles, make up stains and strains in the panels of the bodice hint at its wearer, and offer an identity to the garment in its fragmentation. When young dancers first attend a costume fitting for a costume that has previously been worn by another dancer, the first thing they often want to know is who might have previously

59 worn the piece in order to determine the potential karma or luck associated with a possible hero or mentor. The tradition and legacy associated with the ballet extends not only to the wearer of the costume but also to the designer and the maker, as well as the company wardrobe where the garment might have originated.

Corporeality

During the Romantic and Victorian eras there was a prevailing attitude that "man is a soul, a spirit and a divine apparition whose flesh and senses are but a garment"

(Carlyle 28). If this is so, then the essence of our existence is intangible and we attempt to make the self corporeal or real through the physical matter that makes up the structure of the body. The garment laid over the physical matter becomes the second skin, and the house, or dwelling we inhabit becomes the third skin (Pallasmaa 59). As human beings we continue to wrap ourselves up in efforts to integrate the self. Kristeva suggests we must abandon our need for order, for corporeality and for the perception of self as a physical entity. We must integrate the physical and social body and clothes help us to do this. We are in a constant state of symbolic socialization where clothes aid in establishing a material identity; they are abject in that they are as separate as eating, drinking and shedding, therefore they cannot be assimilated into an identity but rather help to frame one.

Another quality of dress offered by Warwick suggests that as a socializing tool it covers up the improper aspects of bodily existence; it frames, separates and sanctifies the body, gives it a fluid outline and a culturally accepted shape. From the perspective of the 60 audience, the classical tutu fulfills this requirement: the ballerina, after putting on her identity, becomes sanctified, exemplifies the role of the princess, and this is accomplished through the exclusivity of the silhouette of her garment. There is a sense of awe and wonder inherent in the admiring gaze of the spectator, and the pedestal upon which the princess rests in full costume represents the temporary illusion of stability offered by her union with the tutu. Once she removes her costume her body becomes once again a fragmented and potentially chaotic entity seeking an identity to put on, this time her more private self, the one she takes home at the end of the performance.

The practical purpose in the tutu design is that all components covering the torso will be connected to one another so that there will be no leaking or gaping flesh that escapes, that there will be no perceived improprieties witnessed during a performance.

The decolletage is expressed most often through a heart shaped neckline that hints at a cleavage; the sleeves are dropped off the shoulder, the most obvious play on conceal and reveal as the upper part of the arm is concealed behind a breath of lace, and the edge of the shoulder is revealed. The curve of the waistline is emphasized in the fit of the corset like structure, and continues into a basque, the part of the garment that continues to 3.5 inches below the waist, the high hip level where the ruffles of the skirt begin. The decoration emphasizes other parts of the bodice, and the body inside it, depending on the placement and design of the applique and beading. This wrapping conceals and enfolds the ballerina in a splendid covering while she performs her enchanted role. If, as has been suggested by many male patrons of the ballet, and by scholars of Degas, the

61 ballerina is a package enclosed in a beautiful wrapping, then perhaps the implication is the invitation to unwrap the authorized, clothed body (Warwick 50). Spectators often choose their favourite ballerina and follow her career and development as a dancer based on unspoken attractions to her identity as expressed in her performance.

Fig 15 Paquita performed by Canada's National Ballet School, 2002; photo by Cylla von Tiedeman

This body / dress combination confers another duality that is important to the ballet, individuation versus multiplicity (Barthes 255). The essence of the corps de ballet is the collective identity. This is achieved through a rehearsal process where the dancers review endless repetitions of the choreography so that the vocabulary of the dance is

62 perfected as one whole motion rather than 18 or 24 separate motions. The unison is

emphasized through the use of costume: the tutus are prepared from an identical recipe

with no variation, and timeless tricks of the trade allow for differences in proportion to be

accommodated through subtleties in the cut and finish of the garment. The hair

ornaments are identical, the hairdos are identical and the makeup is applied in the same

way. There is no allowance for distinction of any member of the corps. In the context of the princess, the essence of her identity is achieved through the individuation of her performance. This means that her tutu is distinct from the corps and signifies her role as the prima dancer; the subtleties of the cut might be a little bit more revealing or

suggestive than the others, the colour or combinations of colour will draw attention to her place on the stage, and the decoration will create a spark that elevates her above the level of her colleagues. Through her dress she will be celebrated as the enchanted and iconic figure of the ballet, and her performance will resonate in ways that will linger on in the mind of the spectator.

Further, on the discourse in the body/dress relationship, the seemingly inanimate and hence powerless item of clothing is transformed into an agent by its ability to furnish the body with signifying powers that the unclothed subject would lack. Barthes describes this in a way that suggests that the body, the subject, essentially wants nothing and does nothing, and therefore becomes the object of the real subject (Warwick 60), in this case the classical tutu. The tutu appears lifeless and formless in many ways, but carries a beauty and an uncommon allure to the viewer because it is an esoteric form in the world

63 of dress, and because it would appear somewhat ridiculous worn by anyone who did not have the grace and poise to carry it. As the tutu becomes the subject, it becomes the framing device for the body, and may frame in noticeable and explicit ways: as a form that is skin tight it wraps the body, insulating it against the outside world, but at the same time it exhibits more of the body than a loose garment would, and alludes to more of the silhouette than most other forms of dress could. This has been achieved with intention when we think back to the history of the garment in relation to the context of period dress, as well as the shortening and tightening that occurred in order to display the virtuosity of the early ballet dancers. In considering what happens with the wearing of the bodice, the fabric becomes a dermal layer and creates another, a second skin that is protective at the same time as it suggests the underlying first skin. Each of the dancers exhibits this phenomenon of armour and this becomes a unifying factor in the expression of the dance behind the veil of the garment.

If the bodice frames the body in this way, it could be said to categorize the style as either framing or cohesive (Warwick 61). The classical tutu, once the ruffles have been added, is definitively a framing device. On first consideration, the "skirt" separates the upper and lower portions of the body: in dance the legs are stiff and strong, virile and virtuosic, and demonstrate the depths of the choreography; the upper body, on the other hand, is suppler and bends to the partner more often and becomes more expressive in relation to gesture and facial expression. The tutu plate creates the perfect separation between these two aspects of the dancer, and perpetuates the fantasy and dreamlike

64 qualities of the classical princess. Added to this, the puffs of tulle also create boundaries amongst the dancers: special rehearsals have to be scheduled for "spacing" where dancers will determine spatial needs one from another in order to perform a cohesive whole during the ballet; male partners will determine the distance needed to support the ballerina; all dancers will learn to perform the intricacy of all the steps without being able to see their feet; and dancers will learn to rest without allowing arms to drop at their sides because this would crush the sides of the garment. Some of these accommodations will be accomplished with the use of the practice tutu, but rehearsal garments do not have bodices attached, and are not maintained to the level of performance costumes; therefore the spacing and dress rehearsals are vital to a brilliant performance. This idea also relates back to Turner's statement about human beings: "they have bodies and they are bodies"

(1985,1). Ballerinas have bodies that are visceral and muscular, strong and coherent, but those bodies exist in space in relation to other bodies, and in relation to space as framed within its dress that connects it to its surroundings.

65 "The organic form... is innate; it shapes as it develops itself from within, and the fullness of its development is one and the same with the perfection of its outward form. Such is the life, such the form... each exterior is the physiognomy of the being within, its true image reflected and thrown out from the concave mirror. "

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Chapter 4

Concluding remarks

At the beginning of this research project I felt an intrigue with the popularity of the princess in our culture. After many years of dressing dancers I have witnessed all sorts of manifestations of the princess, and most of them seemed to be expressed through clothes. Closely allied with the ballerina I found representations of the princess within the ranks of the modern day bride, the drag queen and small children who felt it important to own a tutu in order to put on their own princess. I had a beginning. The sprays of tulle attached to the ends of stiff bodices represented a foray into a land of magic and enchantment.

While it would have been entertaining to explore each of the avenues that leads to the idea of the modern day princess, pragmatics won out and I came to limit my quest to the parts of the story I know best: the translation of fairy tales to the stage, the evolution of the prima ballerina, and the clothes which come to signify the princess. The most central question raised during the process asks "is she a princess without her tutu?" I decided that as well trained and finely honed as a ballerina's body might be, we would not have the same glimpse of her were it not for the legacy and tradition of the ballet and

66 the transcendent theme of her tutu. While my initial thoughts centred around the ballerina in the studio and the revelations available through the fairy tales of Charles

Perrault, I more recently came to understand that the clothes are indeed central to the identity of the ballerina and the expertise of the designers and stitchers who prepare the costume for the ballet is integral to a successful performance. My paper has become an investigation of the iconic costume in western culture that is the classical tutu, and the role it plays in signifying the body of the prima ballerina.

In exploring theories of dress and the body a number of themes have become important. The sense of the self in the world and the need to distinguish self from other is an important part of maintaining an identity. While Descartes supported a theory that the body is an independent entity in the world and operates in a way that is distinct from the self as well as from the world around it, this notion is not supported by many of the twentieth century philosophers who put forward new theories of the body and how it needs to belong to the organic world from whence it comes. Merleau-Ponty maintained a steady critique of Descartes and disembodiment, and rather suggested that the human body is an incarnate part of the "flesh of the world" (Pallasmaa 20). I understand this to mean that as human beings we are essentially linked to the web of life and our identity is shaped through our experience of the world around us. Lacan and his mirror theory support the notion that as we grow separate from the mother and experience ourselves as fragmented from the world a learned understanding of the reflection we witness in the mirror allows us to put back the wholeness of the self as one entity. Our experience of

67 the body can be restored from fragmentation to integration through the mirror. Finally,

Julia Kristeva put forward another theory of fragmentation which suggests that our bodies are abject in our fragmentation. Our inability to stop the gaps that allow parts of us to float away manifests a state of horror and hopelessness, and we seek ways to re-integrate the loss in order to maintain a sense of self in relation to the other.

After gaining a better understanding of where the body fits in the universe of experience I felt I needed to understand the relationship of clothes on that body. Would our clothes help us in relating to the world around us, or do we even make a conscious choice? All accounts on the history of dress suggest that adornment is the most often cited reason that human beings wear clothes. The body is made up of the flesh and skin and bones, and humans in all cultures have found ways to embellish the raw material. In

Phenomenology of Perception Merleau-Ponty purports that "our own body is in the world as the heart is in the organism" (1992, 203). Once we gain an understanding of ourselves in the world we come to the realization that "we have bodies and we are bodies" (Turner

1). And if we can acknowledge that all cultures have some form of bodily adornment, then we can extend our understanding of the self to mean that we are dressed bodies

(Entwistle 6). This realization became important to understanding the meaning of the classical tutu as signifier of the princess. Our contact with the world takes place at the boundary line of the self through specialized parts of our enveloping membrane

(Pallasmaa 11). We come to understand the self as an entity that exists in relation to the world and the different layers of the membrane establish boundaries by which we can

68 extend ourselves into the world and protect ourselves from the world. The sense of self

becomes strengthened through the art of the ballet: the cloth becomes the membrane which wraps the body and forms the extension of the self through the performance. The body inside the cloth is the boundary by which the soul or the essence of the individual is both protected and revealed. The body is the vessel and becomes the locus for imagination and integration. The ballerina becomes the material, embodied and spiritual essence of the human experience, and we live the magic of once upon a time through her interpretation of the role in dance.

In summarizing the use of fairy tale in our culture I have learned that we moved from an oral to a written culture and this happened around the time that Perrault recorded his tales in the late seventeenth century. Walter J. Ong, in his book Orality and Literacy, suggests that this shift from oral to literary tales was not necessarily a positive experience for human beings and that much was lost in our experience of the world as a sensory playground. With a quickly growing dependence on the written word and therefore on the visual sense much of our engagement with the imagination and perception has been lost (Ong 12). Perhaps this was the perfect opportunity to begin to represent the tales through performance on the stage. As I have outlined in the history and development of classical ballet, the costume and dance seemed to develop together. The most significant choreographers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had very strong ideas about how the dress could most positively enhance the performance of the ethereal and otherworldly creatures. The theatre developed with a proscenium and curtain that could

69 form a boundary between the audience and the performers; the invention of gas lights allowed for light and shadow to be distinguished from one another and subsequently the mood of the performance could be altered through raising or lowering the level of the lights, and the darkening of the theatre contributed much to establishing the quality of enchantment. The costumes for the fairy tales most often have been set in the Baroque and Rococo periods and this too aids in the suspension of reality and allows us to enter the magical world of castles and forests where princes and princesses are united in the happily ever after.

The stories themselves represent a quest for home and a longing for that sense of fulfillment which seems always just out of reach (Campbell 1991, 246). I have found two expositions to be useful in understanding the human condition in relation to the meaning of story. Elizabeth Roth prepared an article about The Sleeping Beauty in which she explores the themes of beauty and the sublime in the production from The Royal

Ballet Covent Garden in London. She suggests that beauty as a concept in transcendence offers a sense of harmony and balance that does not really shake us out of our daily lived experience. When we approach the sublime, however, we are entering the world of dangerous and precarious and this is where we encounter a sense of wonder and awe at the immensity of creation. The power of the ballet, in the fullness of its production values, invites us and indeed summons us to the world of make believe where we will encounter the themes of benevolence and malevolence and where we must acknowledge that nothing is as it seems. We enter the story in order to find reassurance that we will

70 pass through the precarious in order to stabilize again. The idea relates to Samuel

Beckett in his Proust essay. Beckett suggests that as human beings we learn to live habitual lives that offer comfort and regularity until something happens to elevate us out of that comfort where we embrace the suffering of being truly alive.

The periods of transition that separate consecutive adaptations represent the perilous zones in the life of the individual, dangerous, precarious, painful, mysterious and fertile, when for a moment the boredom of living is replaced by the suffering of being. (Beckett 8)

This sense of being truly alive is a theme iterated and reiterated by philosophers and storytellers, and I believe that we go back to the stories because they allow us to live vicariously in the danger and uncertainty, the enchantment and magic, as the tales unfold.

The tales allow us to transcend the world of humanity and live as fully as we were meant to - to witness the experience of being alive, as opposed to finding meaning in life as we know it.

The princess of the ballet is central to the presentation of the story. Her costume represents the grandeur and elegance of the promise of something transcendent in life.

The years spent training in front of the mirror allow her to perfect her art form: the quintessential five positions that form the basis of the vocabulary, the floor exercises that lend discipline and flexibility to her persona, and the courtly manners and deportment that are the hallmark of her authority. After all, the classical tutu appears ridiculous on a body that is not trained in the art of classical dance.

71 I have come to think of the ballerina body as a terrain forming a landscape within the structure and construct of the ballet. In order to assemble the parts there is a need to deconstruct, to explore and to understand each of the components that unites to create the fairy tale princess; as Louise Bourgeois suggests: to do, to undo, to redo. This paper has been about the ballerina, as she lives her real life every day, her imagined world woven in, integrated into the fabrication of the clothing that delineates her identity. The legacy of the costume for the ballet reinforces the constant fragmentation and deconstruction: the tutu is built as a structural membrane that becomes an extension of her body and is then undone and redone constantly through the life of the ballet in order to be rebuilt, mended and reconstructed as required through the needs of the wearing. The tutu essentially becomes a revisable text that can be re-written and re-worked for each dancer.

In this paper I have found the encouragement to begin a discourse on the relationship between the dancer's body and the costume for dance. The scope of the work has been limited to Aurora's tutu from The Sleeping Beauty in order to complete a study of the tutu as an icon of the ballet. In the next phase of my work I will look at a broader selection of the artifacts of the ballet, one that will include the men's costumes, and will extend into the realms of stretch fabrics. While an investigation of the tutu has offered a much deeper understanding of the world of the ballerina, how much more can be learned from studying a selected archive from The National Ballet of Canada? By tracing a narrative that might include the work of a group of choreographers or a group of

72 costume designers the artifacts will have much to teach on the nature of the collaborations and the affect of the costume on the evolution of the dance.

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