Western Transmission System Ethnographic and Historical Resources

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Allen-Warner Valley Energy System: Western Transmission System Ethnographic and Historical Resources

Item Type Report

Authors Bean, Lowell Bean; Evans, Michael J.; Hopa, Ngapare K.; Massey, Lee Gooding; Rothenberg, Diane; Stoffle, Richard W.; Vane, Sylvia Brakke; Weinman-Roberts, Lois; Young, Jackson

Publisher Cultural Systems Research, Incorporated

Download date 10/10/2021 06:50:38

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/276213 ALLENALLEN-l-1ARNER - WARNER VALLEYVALLEY ENERGYENERGY SYSTEM:SYSTEM: WESTERNWESTERN TRANSMISSIONTRANSMISSION SYSTEMSYSTEH

ETHNOGRAPHICETHNOGRAPHIC ANDAND HISTORICALHISTORICAL RESOURCESRESOURCES

Report SubmittedSubmitted

byby

CULTURAL SYSTEMSSYSTEMS RESEARCH, INCORPORATEDINCORPORATED

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON COMPANY

Contributing Scholars:Scholars: Submitting Officers andand Editors: Lowell JohnJohn Bean,Bean, Ph.D.Ph.D. Michael J.J. Evans,Evans, M.A.M.A. Lowell JohnJohn Bean,Bean, Ph.D.Ph.D. Ngapare K.K. Hopa,Hopa, Ph.D.Ph.D. President, CSRICSRI Lee GoodingGooding Massey,Massey, B.A.B.A. Diane Rothenberg,Rothenberg, Ph.D.Ph.D. Sylvia Brakke Vane,Vane, M.A.M.A. Richard W.W. Stoffle,Stoffle, Ph.D.Ph.D. Vice President, CSRICSRI Sylvia BrakkeBrakke Vane,Vane, M.A.M.A. Lois Weinman-Weinman-Roberts, Roberts, Ph.D.Ph.D. Jackson Young,Young, B.A.B.A.

Menlo Park, California

December 15, 19791979 This materialmaterial is copyrighted by Southern California

Edison Company,Company, Rosemead, California.California. Permission must bebe obtained,obtained, inin writing,writing, to copy or reproduce this materialmaterial inin anyany wayway whatsoever.whatsoever. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents Management SummarySUIIlDlary M-1

Acknowledgements '. i eSRICSRI Staff o•••••••••••••••••••••••• ii List of TablesTables iii

List of Maps v List of Maps .•......

CHAPTER I.I. INTRODUCTION•.•..•...•..•.••. � ...... •..•.11-1 -1

CHAPTER II.II. THEORY AND METHOD 22-1 -1 ....•••..•• , ..•.•...•....

CHAPTER III. NATURAL SETTING 3 -1 III. NATURAL SETTING ...•...•...... 3-1

CHAPTER IV.IV. HISTORY 44-1 -1

CHAPTER V. ETIiNOGRAPHYETHNOGRAPHY 5 -1 V. •.•...... •...... 5-1

MoMojavej ave 5-15 -1 Ethnohistory 5-95 -9 Southern Numic-Numic-Speaking Speaking People 5-185 -18 SouthernSouthe=n PaiutasPaiutes 5-205 -20 Ethnography 5-225 -22 Ethnohistory 5-255 -25 Kawaiisu 55-34 -34 Other Numic-Numic-Speaking Speaking Peoples 5-355 -35

Serrano 5 --363 6

Ethnography · 55-36 -36 Ethnohistory 55-LJ.3 -43 Other TakicTakic-Speaking - Speaking PeoplesPeoples 5-445 -44 The Urban Native Americans of Barstow and Daggett 55-45 -45

Daggett _ CHAPTER VI.VI. ATTITUDE SURVEY 6-16 -1

Mojave · 6-1 Las Vegas Paiute 6-186 -18

- Chemehuevi · · 6 -3232

KawaiisuI

- ...... SSerranoerrano...... · . · ...... · . · . · . · . . . 6 -434 3

Barstow Urban Native Americans 6-586 -58

CHAPTER VII.VII. SUMMARYS�RY · . · · · • 7-1 R -1 REFERENCES CITEDCITED.· ••• ,.,!. ,',.,. .', .'". ,'". , ,.', t' •.•. � ,'t" .', t , .a-i

APPENDIX A.A. INTERVIEW SCHEDULES ..••...•.•••••....••..AA-l -1

APPENDIX B.B. CHEMEHUEVI DRAFT RESOLUTION; CHEMEHUEVI TOURIST STUDY B-lB -1

APPENDIX C.C. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES:SITES: NUMBER CROSSCROSS

REFERENCE FOR SITE DESIGNATIONS ..•...... C-lC -1

APPENDIX D.D. HISTORIC SITESITE LOCATIONS (Confidential)(Confidential) ...DD-l -1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CSRI takes this opportunity toto expressexpress appreciationappreciation toto

the NativeNative AmericanAmerican tribal council membersmembers and elders who made it possible toto carry out this study, as wellwell as to those

individual Native Americans who were willing toto be interviewed.'interviewed.

Only because they were willing, either individuallyindividually oror col-col

lectively, to give of theirtheir time, their wisdom, and theirtheir

accumulated knowledgeknowledge ofof traditionaltraditional cultureculture andand presentpresent-day -day reality was itit possiblepossible toto carrycarry outout thisthis study.study. Those who were helpful will not bebe named individually,individually, however, becausebecause

anonymity has been guaranteedguaranteed toto mostmost ofof them.them.

We also wish toto acknowledgeacknowledge thethe debt of gratitude owedowed

to numerousnumerous archivists, curators, librarians, and other fellow

scholars whowho have gathered and recorded the data used in this report, andand who organized,organized, analyzed,analyzed, andand synthesizedsynthesized it.it.

The helpful cooperation of Robert Laidlaw and Eric Ritter

of thethe Desert PlanningPlanning Staff,Staff, BureauBureau ofof LandLand Management,Management,

Riverside, California,California, hashas beenbeen especiallyespecially significant.significant.

Finally, CSRI wishes toto expressexpress deep appreciation for

assistance provided usus byby DavidDavid R.R. M.M. WhiteWhite andand ThomasThomas, Taylor,Taylor,

Anthropologists, EnvironmentalEnvironmental AffairsAffairs Division,Division, SouthernSouthern

California EdisonEdison Company,Company, andand byby JanetJanet Baas,Baas, ProjectProject Coordi-Coordi nator forfor thethe EnvironmentalEnvironmental AffairsAffairs Division.Division.

i CULTURAL SYSTEMSSYSTE�..s RESEARCH, INC.INC.

Staff for thethe AllenAllen-Warner -Warner ValleyValley EnergyEnergy System:System: Western Transmission System Study

Submitting OfficersOffiaers andand Editors:Editors:

Lowell JohnJohn Bean,Bean, Ph.D.Ph.D. (President, CSRI)CSRI) Sylvia Brakke Vane,Vane, M.A.M.A. (Vice President, CSRI).CSRI}

Contributing Scholars:SchoZars:

Lowell John Bean,Bean, Ph.D.Ph.D. Michael J.J. Evans,Evans, M.A.M.A. Ngapare K. Hopa,Hopa, Ph.D.Ph.D. Lee Gooding Massey,Y�ssey, B.A.B.A. Diane Rothenberg,Rothenberg, Ph.D.Ph.·D. Richard W. Stoffle,Stoffle, Ph.D.Ph.D. Sylvia Brakke Vane,Vane, M.A.M.A. Lois Weinman-Weinman-Roberts, Roberts, Ph.D.Ph.D. Jackson Young, B.A.B.A.

FieZdField Investigation:

Virginia Bagg,Bagg, A.A.A.A. Michael J.J. Evans,Evans, M.A.M.A. Ngapare K.K. Hopa,Hopa, Ph.D.Ph.D. Carole Lowman,Lowman, A.A.A.A. James Mace Diane Rothenberg,Rothenberg, Ph.D.Ph.D. Richard W. Stoffle,Stoffle, Ph.D.Ph.D. Jackson Young,Young, B.A.B.A.

Coordination andand ResearchResearch Support:Support:

Joan Altick, M.A.M.A. Kelly Gooding Jane W. Kilkenny Kevin Kilkenny Daniel F. McCarthy Rosalie Walker, M.P.A.M.P.A. Jackson Young,Young, B.A.B.A.

EditorialEditoriaZ Production:Production:

Joan Altick, M.A.M.A. Linda Brandt,Brandt, B.A.B.A. Lee GoodingGooding Massey,Massey, B.A.B.A. Rosalie Walker,Walker, M.P.A.M.P.A. June Yamashita,Yamashita, M.A.M.A.

ii LIST OF TABLES

TableTable Page

5-I.5 -I. RelationshipRelationship of Chemehuevi, Southern Paiute, Takic, and Kawaiisu Dialects Within thethe Uto-Uto- Aztecan Language FamilyFamily· ... · · · • · · .. • · .... · . · .. · · · .. · 5 -19-19

6-1.6 -I. Summary of Knowledge and AttitudesAttitudes of Native Am.ericans--MojAmericans -- Mojaveave • · .... · .... · · · · · · ...... • · • .. · • · · ...... 6-56 -5

6-I1.6 -II. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts onon SiteSite Categories ----Moj Mojaveave · · · .. · · .. · . · · 6-96 -9

6-11I.6 -III. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts onon SiteSite Categories --Ft.--Ft. MojMojaveave Indian Reservation.Reservation.. ... · .. 6 -10-10

6-IV.6 -IV. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts onon SiteSite Categories--ColoradoCategories -- ColoradoRiver River IndianIndian ReservationReservation .. 66-11 -11

6-V.6 -V. Places SensitiveSensitive toto ImpactImpact--Colorado -- Colorado RiverRiver

Indian ReservationReservation · .. !" • ••• 6 -16-16

6-VI.6 -VI. Places SensitiveSensitive toto Impact-Impact--Fort -Fort Mojave Indian Reservation-Reservation· · · · · .. · 6 -17-17

6-V1I..6 -VII. Cultural Items Ranked by IntensityIntensity ofof Las'Las Vegas PaiutePaiute ConcernConcern · · 66-21 -21

66-VIII. -VIII. English Names forfor IndianIndian PlacesPlaces RankedRanked byby Intensity of Las Vegas Paiute ConcernConcern 6-236 -23

6-VlIla.6- VIIIa. AnnualAnnual TotalTotal ExpensesExpenses ofof 185185 AwAw-Villa -Villa Tourists..6Tourists .. 6-37-37

6-Vll1b.6- VIIIb. AA "Reasonable"Reasonable Case" EstimateEstimate ofof thethe CostCost-Gains -Gains of Building a Power Transmission Line onon thethe Chemehuevi Reservation 6-386 -38

6-IX.6 -IX. Summary of Knowledge andand Attitudes ofof Native AmericansAmericans--Serrano -- Serrano 6-476 -47

6-X.6 -X. Summary of Anticipated Impacts�pacts onon SiteSite Categories--SerranoCategories -- Serrano andand KawaiisuKawaiisu 66-51 -51

6-X1.6 -XI. Summary of Knowledge and Attitudes ofof Native AmericansAmericans--Barstow -- Barstow UrbanUrban Group 6-616 -61

' 6-XII.6 -XII. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts onon SiteSite CategoriesCategories--Barstow -- Barstow UrbanUrban Group 6-666 -66

iii List of Tables, continuedcontinued

66-XIII. -XIII. Summary of AnticipatedAnticipated Impacts onon SiteSite· Categories--NavajoCategories -- Navajo 5-675 -67

66-XIV. -XIV. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts onon SiteSite Categories--LagunaCategories -- Laguna....•...... •....66-68 -68

6-XV.6 -XV. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts onon SiteSite CategoriesCategories--Acoma--Acoma ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6 -6-699

6-XVI.6 -XVI. Summary of AnticipatedAnticipated Impacts on SiteSite Categories--MiscellaneousCategories -- Miscellaneous TribesTribes 66-70 -70

6-XVII.6 -XVII. Places SensitiveSensitive toto ImpactImpact--Barstow -- Barstow UrbanUrban NativeNative Americans 6 --7676

7-1.7 -I. Specific Places For Which Native Americans Spontaneously Expressed Concern 77-10 -10

7-II.7 -II. Sensitivity Estimates:Estimates: Ethnographic SitesSites 7-157 -15

Historic SitesSites 7-217 -21

7-III.7 -III. Summary of Anticipated ImpactsImpacts on SiteSite Categories 7 -65-65

B-I.B -I. Weighted Rankings onon What IsIs AttractiveAttractive in the Locale B-5B -5

B-1I.B -II. Attitudes Toward SpecificSpecific Attractions ofof the Locale BB-6 -6

B-III.B -III. Pearson Correlation Coefficients onon Attitudes Toward DevelopmentDevelopment ProjectsProjects BB-10 -10

B-IV.B -IV. Pearson Correlation Coefficients onon Willingness toto ReturnReturn ifif ProjectsProjects AreAre BuiltBuilt .....BB-ll -11

B-V.B -V. Pearson Correlation Coefficients on Atti- tudes vs. Willingness to Return B-12B -12

iv LISTLIST OFOF MAPSMAPS

Page ta_P.

· 1 -2 A.A. EthnographicEthnographic BoundariesBoundaries , ,' .• 1-2

B.B. IndianIndian ReservationsReservations ' ,,2-112 -11

C.c. HistoricalHistorical Places,P1aces, · 44-30 -30

D.D. Native American Place Names 5 -17a Native American Place Names � S-17a

6 -24 E.E. Places of Major Paiute Concern .. Places of , 6�24 Major Paiute Concern , �

F.F. Proposed Power Line Routes A -9 Proposed Power Line Routes ...... • , ,A-9

G.G. Ethnographic Map ,Insert Ethnographic Map , , Insert CHAPTER I.I. INTRODUCTION

Enclosed herewith are thethe results of aa studystudy performedperformed by Cultural Systems Research, Inc.Inc. (CSRI)(CSRI) forfor SouthernSouthern Cali-Cali fornia Edison CompanyCompany (SCE).(SCE). The purpose of the study was toto determine thethe impactimpact thatthat thethe construction ofQf thethe Western Transmission SystemSystem ofof thethe Allen-Allen-Warner Warner ValleyValley Energy SystemSystem may be expectedexpected toto havehave onon thethe ethnographicethnographic andand historichistoric resources of thethe MojaveMOjave Desert area throughthrough which itit will pass.pass. The Western TransmissionTransmission SystemSystem ofof thethe AllenAllen-Warner -Warner Valley Energy SystemSystem projectproject willwill consistconsist ofof twotwo 500SOO-kilovolt -kilovolt trans-trans mission lineslines extendingextending fromfrom SCE'sSCE's EldoradoEldorado SubstationSubstation inin southern Nevada westwardwestward across the MojaveMojave Desert to Lugo Substation in thethe Victorville, California,California, area.area. These high voltage transmissiontransmission lineslines (HVTLs)(HVTLs) will forfor thethe most part be built parallel toto existingexisting transmissiontransmission lines, railroads, oror roads, although somesome stretchesstretches may be built across thethe desertdesert along new routes.routes.

The ethnographic component of this study includes the identification of Native American groups known to have been associated historically withwith the Study Area,Area, which1aswhich'as defined by SCE extendsextends somesome fivefive miles in each direction beyond thethe areas covered by thethe various proposedproposed routesroutes forfor thethe HVTLs.HVTLs. (See Map A.)A.) The ethnographic component alsoalso includesin9ludes thethe identification of contemporary Native Americans whowho currently exhibit functional interest in the Study Area,Area, and, wherewhere feasible, the identificationidentification ofof anyany NativeNative AmericanAmerican groupsgroups that may bebe expectedexpected toto demonstratedemonstrate project-project-specific specific interestsinterests in the Study Area in the future; the e�hnogra�hicethnographic description of Native American band andand tribaltribal groupsgroups within,within, oror inin inti-inti mate association with, thethe Study Area, as elicited from anthropological andand otherother relevantrelevant socialsocial andand behavioralbehavioral science data; thethe provisionprovision ofof anan accountaccount ofof post-post-European European contact cultural processes in,in, oror intimatelyintimately associatedassociated with,with, the Study Area, toto be presentedpresented within oneone oror moremore relevantrelevant theoretical frameworks;frameworks; andand thethe conductconduct ofof intensiveintensive fieldfield investigations focusing on the ethnohistory and ethnogeography of thethe StudyStudy Area, zoneszones or issuesissues of Native American religious significance within thethe StudyStudy Area, processesprocesses involvinginvolving Indian/Indian/ non-Indiannon - Indianrelations relationsthat that dodo oror couldcould pertainpertain toto the Study Area, andand thethe technological,technological, political, and socialsocial concerns ofof contemporary Native Americans pertinent to present and future project-project-specific specific Com.panyCompany plansplans or programsprograms....

CSRI also agreed to undertake, insofar as feasible, to make shortshort-term -term andand long-termlong -term predictionspredictions regardingregarding the totaltotal effect of thethe AllenAllen-Warner -Warner ValleyValley WesternWestern TransmissionTransmission Syste�System on Native American populations that do or maymay demonstrate

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The·historicThe historic component of this study includes a summary of the history of the Study Area,Area, a mapmap and briefbrief description of sites within thethe StudyStudy Area thatthat havehave historicalhistorical signifi-signifi cance, the evaluation of the impact the HVTLsHVTLs can be expected to havehave onon such sites, andand recommendationsrecommendations forfor thethe mitigationmitigation of any adverseadverse impactsimpacts thatthat cancan bebe foreseen.foreseen.

These studiesstudies have been conductedconducted inin orderorder thatthat SCESeE maymay comply with various requirements ofof regulatoryregulatory agencies.agencies. They have been conductedconducted under PurchasePurchase OrderOrder T2189001,T2l8900l, issuedissued August 6,6, 1979.1979. Results of a literature searchsearch previously conducted for SCEseE under Purchase Order T1909007, issuedissued July 13, 1979,1979, have been incorporatedincorporated inin thethe presentpresent study.study.

. 1-3 CHAPTER II.II. THEORYTHEORY ANDAND METHOD

The theoretical approach ofof thisthis reportreport is derived from cultural ecology (Steward(Steward 1955), ecological anthropology (Harris 1966; Rappaport 1968; Carneiro 1968;1968; SuttlesSuttles 1968;1968; Bean 1972), and general systemssystems theory (Miller(Miller 1965;1965; BuckleyBuckley 1968; Sutherland 1973).1973). Space herehere permitspermits a discussion ofof onlyonly those theoretical aspects mostmost pertinent to the study,study, but it should be noted thatthat the approach isis groundedgrounded onon thethe physics of Einstein, Planck, Bohr and theirtheir successors,successors, andand that it incorporates ideas generated not only in the social sciencesbutsciences but also·byalso.by cybernetics, game theory,theory, andand informa-informa tion theory.theory.

Human sociocultural systems are unique among living sys-sys tems, in that the mostmost significant components are human beings who serveserve asas bothboth observersobservers andand observedobserved inin any analysis of such systems.systems. Like other living systems, socioculturalsociocultural sys-sys te�tems process mattermatter-energy - energyand andinformation, information, withwith componentcomponent subsystems specializing inin oneone oror more processesprocesses underunder thethe direction ofof superordinatesuperordinate decision-decision-making making individuals oror groups. Inputs to and outputs from the systemsystem areare inin thethe form of matter andand/or /or energy,energy, which·which-carrycarry information. De-De pending on the situation,situation, the information is either more or less importantimportant thanthan thethe matter-matter-energy. energy. Information relievesrelieves uncertainty, and has significancesignificance or meaning to the system that processes itit (Miller(�u11er 1965:1931965:193-194). -194).

Like other systems, socioeconomic systems are constrained by thethe operation ofof thethe SecondSecond LawLaw ofof Thermodynamics.Thermodynamics. When they process raw materials andand energy sourcessources fromfrom thethe environ-environ ment toto perform work, thus increasing order in some of their parts, these systemssystems also create "entropy" or "disorder" in other parts, or discharge itit outsideoutside thethe system.system. Thus, thethe raw materialsmaterials and energy sources are irreversibly t�ansformedtransformed over timetime intointo moremore entropicentropic formsforms ofof matter-matter-energy; energy; thatthat is,is, into statistically more probable statesstates (Miller(�i1ler 1965:196;1965:196; Brillouin 1968).1968).

Sociocultural systems have what cancan be viewed asas "life"life cycles." They come into existence andand areare nourished byby inputinput from the memory banksbanks ofof theirtheir predecessors.predecessors. They growgrow toto maturity, and are able toto cope for varying periods with such challenges of their time as wars,wars, epidemics, and internal dissent. They may become unable to meet such challenges, and break up intointo componentcomponent parts (that(that is, into individual human beings, families,families, oror smallsmall groups).groups). These components,components, inin turn,turn, may come togethertogether inin differentdifferent combinations asas new systems,syste�J oror may be incorporatedincorporated intointo otherother systems.systems.

2-12 -1 As systems grow, subsystems develop that take on specificspecific functions. This isis as true of a sociocultural system as of the humanhuman individual, whi�hwhich develops into a system of organs after beginning asas oneone fertilizedfertilized ovum.ovum. Even in very smallsmall socioculturalsociocultural systems there is apt to be a degree ofof hierar-hierar chicalchical stratification, along withwith functionalfuncti�nal specialization. The stratificationstratification maymay bebe determineddetermined primarilyprimarily byby age,age, and of-of ten, by sex.sex. Generally speaking, the degree of hierarchical·hierarchical' stratification increases with the size of aa societysociety andand thethe amount of energyenergy itit uses.uses. Sociocultural systems areare lessless vulnerablevulnerable to death and decay than are systemssystems suchsuch asas organ-organ isms, however, having the ability tot9 restructure themselvesthemselves as-wellas well as to maintain equilibriumequilibrium (Buckley(Buckley 1968).1968).

Before the arrival of Europeans, the Native American societies withwith whichwhich this report is concerned had minimal hierarchical stratification,stratification, asas comparedcompared toto somesome EuropeanEuropean societies atat thethe timetime ofof contact.contact. The Native American groupgroup used littlelittle energy other thanthan that derivedderived by eacheach individualindividual from the food he or she ate, and that provided by the heat ofof the sun.sun. Only inin firefire--which - -whichwas was usedused toto keepkeep peoplepeople warm,warm, cook food, clear forests,forests, drivedrive animalsanimals towardtoward waitingwaiting hunters,hunters, or send signalssignals toto neighborsneighbors--did - -did theythey use long-long-stored stored energy.

When European invaders introduced thethe horse, Native Ameri-Ameri can society gained notnot only the horseshorses but the idea that these animals could be used forfor transportation,transportation, an "energy"energy intensive"intensive" function. Human history has been thethe storystory ofof aa longlong seriesseries of such introductions, which make lifelife easier in many respectsrespects but require thethe use of increasingincreasing amounts of energy fromfrom suchsuch sources as naturalnatural gas, oil, coal, and more recently, nuclear fuels. Such "use" has involvedinvolved thethe transformationtransformation ofof naturalnatural resources intointo moremore entropicentropic forms.forms.

The American environment easily absorbed the entropy introduced by the horse, but it becomesbecomes increasingly difficult to absorb thethe entropyentropy associatedassociated withwith 20th-20th-century century levels of energy transformation (as(as witness the difficultdifficult choiceschoices, thatthat currently must�t be made betweenbetween coalcoal andand nuclearnuclear energyenergy sources).sources). This is aside fromfrom thethe equally difficult problem of acquiring sufficient energyenergy sourcessources toto meetmeet thethe expectationexpectation ofof today'stoday's large populations, which are accustomed to having the extremesextremes of weather modified toto comfortable levels,levels, and to the avail-avail ability ofof easyeasy traveltravel andand communication.communication. Today's peoples areare also accustomed toto a socialsocial structurestructure marked by considerable hierarchical stratificationstratification andand byby extremeextreme specialization.specialization.

For many Americans,Americans, thethe effectseffects ofof thethe stratificationstratification have been amelioratedameliorated byby thethe possibilitiespossibilities forfor upwardupward mobilitymobility that have, toto somesome degree,degree, beenbeen builtbuilt intointo thethe system.system. For descendants ofof thethe originaloriginal inhabitantsinhabitants ofof thethe UnitedUnited States,States, however, thesethese possibilitiespossibilities havehave rarelyrarely beenbeen realized.realized. The situation has been causedcaused primarily by various kinds of

22-2 -2 discrimination onon thethe partpart ofof nonnon-Indians. -Indians.

The inhabitants of the Study Area inin prehistoric timestimes had a more complex socialsocial systemsystem thanthan isis generallygenerally realized.realized. There was anan eliteelite class,class, mademade upup ofof civilcivil andand medicomedico-religious - religious leaders, withwith inherited, ascribedascribed statuses.statuses. This classclass managed a redistributive system thatthat waswas instrumentalinstrumental in enabling a populationpopulation of huntinghunting and gathering peoplespeoples toto livelive in a desert environment whosewhose resources werewere scarce (King(King 1976;1976; Bean 1972,1972, 1976a).1976a). Members of each group'sgroup:'s elite classclass werewere part of a network of elites, whichwhich were bound together byby in-in termarriage and commoncommon goals.goals.

The peoples of the Study Area first came in contactcontact with the Spanish system in the sixteenth century whenwhen Spanish ex-ex plorers visited thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver area.area. Thereafter theythey were subject only indirectly to Spanish influence until 1776,1776, when the Spanish explorer Francisco GarcésGarces visited the Mojave vil-vil lages on the Colorado RiverP�ver and crossedcrossed thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The Spanish also established Christian missions in coastal Cali-Cali fornia in the late 18th century, and these in the following 50 years absorbed most of the peoples of the wes.ternwestern Study Area and had a significant indirect effect on the peoples of the eastern StudyStudy Area.Area. In the course of théthe next hundred yearsyears all the people of the Study AreaArea werewere absorbed into a world social system in which they had nono opporttulityopportunity to make thethe.im important decisions.decisions. They were no longerlonger autonomousautonomous andand landland - controlling peoples.peoples. It is difficult to evaluate the threatthreat this transformation representedrepresented toto thethe integrityintegrity ofof thethe indig-indig enous social systems, because European diseases, in wavewave after epidemic wave, killed offoff anan extremelyextremely highhigh percentagepercentage ofof Na-Na tive Americans inin thethe area,area, asas theythey diddid elsewhereelsewhere (Cook(Cook 1939:1939: Crosby 1972).1972).

The coming ofof thethe Europeans and, later, Euro-Euro-Americans Americans, coming Europeans and, later, J thus deprived the social systems of the Study AreaArea of their land, their autonomy,autonomy, andand mostmost ofof theirtheir people.people. Much ofof thethe knowledge thatthat thethe eliteelite had passed downdown fromfrom generationgeneration toto generationgeneration--religion, -- religion,medicine, medicine, plantplant andand animalanimal lore,lore, craft techniques, kinship,kinship, socialsocial structure,structure, politicalpolitical practices-practices- - was lost.lost. Some of it survived,survived, as diddid aa strongstrong sensesense ofof ethnicethnic identity.

A sensesense ofof identityidentity isis enhancedenhanced by membership in aa groupgroup constrained by anan ethnicethnic boundary.boundary. Both thethe peoplepeople withinwithin thethe boundary andand thosethose outsideoutside recognizerecognize itsits existence,existence, eveneven thoughthough this boundary is more likelylikely to be "fuzzy," an area of gradual transition rather than aa sharply defined line (Zadeh 1973). transition rather than sharply defined line (Zadeh 1973) .. The boundary isis aa barrier,barrier, thusthus transactionstransactions acrossacross itit use upup more energyenergy thanthan dodo thosethose withinwithin itit oror outsideoutside it.it. The flowflow of informationinformation andand matter-matter-energy energy isis inhibitedinhibited byby the boundary-boundary-- whether itit isis markedmarked by aa fence,fence, aa mountain oror river,river, aa lan-Lan guage or ritualistic difference, or is manifest more subtly

22-3 -3 asas mutualmutual distrust or susp�c�on,suspicion, oror in varyingvarying waysways of prepre- senting the self and interpreting thatthat presentation.presentation.

AlthoughAlthough ethnicity is'is only oneone aspect of individual iden-iden tity, it is generally a majormajor factor in ascribed (as opposed to achieved) identity.identity. An individual's ethnicity may vary with s1tuat1onssituations andand overover time.time. A change in ethnic identity cancan be a useful strategy for coping withwith stress in the social or natural environment (Barth(Barth 1969), butbut there are constraints governing thisthis typetype ofof change.change.

The maintenance of a strong ethnic boundary isis especiallyespecially important toto groupsgroups' underunder stress.stress. It facilitates the organi-organi zation of the group into a functioningfunctioning system,system, which cancan defenddefend itself against outsiders.outsiders. The existence of the boundary, inin fact, goesgoes handhand-in-hand -in -handwith with therethere beingbeing somesome kindkind of process or action inin which individuals who claimclaim thethe samesame ethnicethnic iden-iden tity can relate toto eacheach other.other.

The small ethnic minorities that are incorporated intointo large, complex nationnation-states -states areare thethe groupsgroups mostmost likely to persist overover manymany centuries.centuries. Spicer (1971)(1971) has examinedexamined sev-sev eral long-long-persisting persisting ethnicethnic groups,groups, inin thethe efforteffort to identify what they have inin commoncommon thatthat was lackinglacking inin thosethose which have disappeared. Most of the variables he discerned are also fac-fac tors in the maintenance ofof strongstrong ethnicethnic boundaryboundary systems.systems. Threatened with extinctionextinction asas cultural entities,entities, ethnic minor-minor ities unite, employing a variety of techniques in the effort to maintain aa measuremeasure ofof self-self-determination determination andand power.power.

Persistent systemssystems usually identify stronglystrongly with a geo-geo graphical placeplace--a --a homeland. They usually have religiousreligious beliefs thatthat setset themthem apartapart fromfrom thethe dominantdominant society.society. They often continue to speak a language different from that of the dominant society.society. They control the outward flow of information about themselves and their culture, often placing a high value upon secrecy,secrecy, andand controlcontrol thethe inwardinward flowflow ofof informationinformation aboutabout outsiders, disparaging them to their children whilewhile emphasizinge�hasizing the most favorablefavorable aspectsaspects ofof theirtheir ownown history.history. They may wear distinctive ornaments, cosmetics, or clothing, and they commonly maintain aa hostilehostile stancestance towardtoward thethe dominantdominant society.society_

The peoples ofof thethe StudyStudy AreaArea havehave beeilbeen incorporated suc-suc cessively intointo thethe SpanishSpanish missionmission system,system, intointo thethe nationnation-state -state of Mexico, andand finallyfinally intointo thatthat ofof thethe UnitedUnited States.States. In the Southwest as a whole most individuals did not survive the initial incorporation.incorporation. Of those who did,did, aa largelarge percent-percent age perished inin thethe secondsecond incorporationincorporation oror thethe earlyearly yearsyears of the third, fallingfalling victim to disease, mistreatment, and lossloss of thethe sensesense thatthat lifelife waswas worthworth living.living. In thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, only the western peoples were incorporated into the Spanish and Mexican systems,syste�, althoughalthough theythey werewere impacted by them indirectly. They continued as autonomous systems until they were incorporated into the United States in thethe 1860s1860s and 1870s.l870s. After thatthat theirtheir numbers steadilysteadily declined,declined,

2-42 -4 butbut in the twentieth century their numbersnumbers havehave beenbeen increasincreas- ing, and there hashas been a cultural revival of considerableconsiderable dimensions,dimensions, whichwhich has included the formation of regional Amer-Amer icanican Indian subsystems. ThisThis growth hashas been possible be-be cause--throughcause-- through all vicissitudesvicissitudes--surviving -- survivingNative Native AmericansAmericans in thethe area havehave maintainedmaintained their ethnic boundaries to somesome ex-ex tent, despitedespite' efforts of the dominant societysociety toto undermine andand do away with boundary-maintaining measures.measures. TheseThese' outsideoutside ef-ef fortsforts havehave included the imposition of the Christian religion . and the SpanishSpanish languagelanguage onon thethe VanyumeVanyume/Serrano /Serrano of the western Study Area by the Spaniards, the forced removal of Mojave andand Chemehuevi children during the AmericanAmerican periodperiod of schooling (in thethe EnglishEnglish language),language), andand variousvarious attemptsattempts toto impose newnew agriculturalagricultural methods and industrial taskstasks onon NativeNative Americans.Americans. Some Native Americans in the Study Area welcomed the new tech-tech nologies, ifif notnot thethe wholewhole ofof thethe newnew culture.culture. Native Ameri-Ameri can integration into the larger system was sometimes on their own initiativeinitiative andand sometimessometimes imposed uponupon them.them.

Each of the successive superordinate systems has been willing toto openopen thethe lowestlowest ranksranks ofof itsits socio-socio-economic economic systemssystems to Native American participation, but less willing to open higher ranks.ranks. In the Study Area, Native Americans have beenbeen highly valued asas unskilled laborers,laborers, but have sufferedsuffered unem-unem ployment when thethe demanddemand forfor suchsuch laborlabor decreased.decreased.

The reservation system,system, an innovationinnovation of thethe dominant society, hashas beenbeen thethe mostmost importantimportant boundary-boundary-maintaining maintaining de-de vice of allall forfor Native Americans, inasmuchinasmuch asas itit has provided them with landland bases inin thethe herehere andand now.now. Several generations have comecome andand gonegone sincesince thethe reservationreservation systemsystem waswas established,established, and Native American groups now associate themselves closely with reservation lands,lands, asas theirtheir only remaining portion of thethe territory over which theirtheir ancestorsancestors hadhad somesome sovereignty.sovereignty. The firstfirst concernconcern ofof NativeNative AmericansAmericans isis thatthat nono moremore reserva-reserva tion land shall be lostlost toto themthem byby governmentgovernment edict,edict, condemna-condemna tion for public projects, or other practices similar to those through which soso many ofof theirtheir reservationreservation landslands havehave hither-hither to been whittled away.away. Their secondsecond concern,concern, thatthat thethe greatergreater extent ofof theirtheir ancestralancestral territoriesterritories shallshall notnot bebe desecrated,desecrated, is scarcely lessless intense.intense.

The land,land, andand all thatthat is on it, is of course much more than aa boundaryboundary-maintainin8 -maintaining device.device. Each group's landland is,is� forfor its members, thethe centercenter ofof thethe universe-universe--where -where power,power, super-super natural oror ordinary,ordinary, isis concentrated;concentrated; wherewhere thethe mattermatter-energy -energy and informationinformation processesprocesses mostmost significantsignificant toto thethe peoplepeople occur.occur. As thethe place where peoplepeople livelive andand havehave theirtheir being, landland isis important inin bothboth secularsecular andand sacredsacred contexts.contexts.

Power, inin thethe NativeNative AmericanAmerican world view, sharesshares aa numbernumber of characteristics with "power,""power," asas thethe termterm isis understoodtmderstood by modern physicists.physicists. It isis closelyclosely associatedassociated withwith knowledge,knowledge,

22-5 -5 for example, soso thatthat secrecysecrecy--control -- control ofof informationinformation--is --is an important responsibility. TheThe qualityquality ofof powerpower declines over time; that is, itit isis consideredconsidered entropic.entropic. (That(That peoplepeople so closelyclosely attunedattuned to their riaturalnatural environment should graspgrasp thisthis aspect of power isis notnot surprising.surprising. The naturalnatural sequences of death,death, decay, and rebirth demonstrate the reality of entropic and negentropic processes.processes. Power is dangerous to handle, if one does notnot have the requisite knowledge forfor doingdoing so.)so.)

The idea thatthat powerpower cancan residereside inin anythinganything--animate -- animate or inanimate--isinanimate --is consonantconsonant withwith thethe modernmodern physicist'sphysicist's concept that mattermatter and energy are different versions of the .samesame thing.thing. But Native Americans also believe that power is sentient, oror sensitive toto perception oror feeling.feeling. This view of thethe world asas an all-all-encompassing encompassing system,system, inin whichwhich eveneven rocks,rocks, wind,wind, or starsstars are sentient beings, is only to some degree compatible with thethe world view ofof thethe dominantdominant society.society.

It is particularlyparticularly pertinent to this study that native peoples of thethe Mojave Desert, like others inin southernsouthern Cali-Cali fornia, believed that residual power, left over from the time of creation, couldcould existexist inin aa freefree-floating - floating statestate oror as pockets of powerpower in the landscape, and that this residual power couldcould be obtained andand managed by thosethose vested with thethe necessary knowledge (Bean(Bean 1976b:413).1976b;4l3).

The boundaries ofof presentpresent-day -day NativeNative AmericanAmerican cultural systems inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea areare indefinite.indefinite. On many levels and in manymany ways,ways, the Native Americans of the area are integrated into the largerlarger AmericanAmerican system.system. The men have foughtfought inin United States wars.wars. Men andand women work forfor wageswages andand salaries,salaries, paypay in-in come taxes, are subject to most state and federal laws on the same basisbasis as anyone else, use roads and telephones, read newsnews- papers, andand watch television.television. Only a fewfew stillstill remember aa Na-Na tive American language.language.

Native Americans are set apart by their special relation-relation ship to the land, by their membership in a tribal group that makes decisionsdecisions andand carriescarries themthem out, by being subjectsubject toto lawslaws pertaining onlyonly toto them,them, by thethe experience of having been dis-dis criminated againstagainst byby nonnon-Indians, -Indians, byby valuesvalues persistingpersisting from the past along with newly formedformed values resultingresulting fromfrom 200200 years ofof adaptation.adaptation. All thesethese are aspects of the ethnic boun-boun dary. More importantimportant thanthan any of these isis that Native Ameri-Ameri cans shareshare aa distinctivedistinctive world view of humans that determinesdetermines which valuesvalues operateoperate whenwhen therethere areare decisionsdecisions toto make.make. How-How ever, it must be emphasized thatthat all Native Americans dodo not share the worldworld view of their culture that has been generalized here, anyany moremore thanthan allall membersmembers ofof thethe dominantdominant societysociety shareshare its prevailing worldworld view.view. Some Native Americans, forfor example,example, agree with thethe nonnon-Indian -Indian viewview ofof "progress,""progress," whilewhile members ofof the dominantdominant societysociety are becoming increasinglyincreasingly empatheticempathetic to-to ward thethe nativenative viewview ofof thethe environment.environment. The world viewsviews ofof

2-62 -6 individuals change.change, over time, asas do the prevailingprevailing views of cultures, and both may be illogical and inconsistent.inconsistent.

For these reasons, anthropologists asked to evaluate the impact of a proposed constructionconstruction onon NativeNative AmericanAmerican valuesvalues can rely only in partpart on anthropological theory and the data found in the archives andand thethe literature.literature. They must alsoalso askask living Native AmericansAQericans whatwhat theythey think.think. They must taketake carecare to neutralize, insofarinsofar asas possible,possible, thethe information-information-distorting distorting tendencies of the ethnic boundary by using Native AmericanAmerican con-con sultants and by exercising their own experience andand familiar-familiar ity withwith various systems.systems.

2-72 -7 · tETHODMETHOD

In conducting this study, CSRI drew on experience gained in conducting previous studiesstudies forfor SCE,SeE, asas reportedreported byby BeanB.ean and Vane (1973,(1973, 1979a,1979a, 1979b).1979b). The same ethnographers were assigned to interview Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, Mojave, andand SerranoSerrano groupsgroups who had interviewedinterviewed themthem forfor earlierearlier studies,studies, whichwhich consider-consider ably facilitated thethe fieldfield interviewing.interviewing.

Beginning inin midmid-July, -July, 1979,1979, underunder seESCE PurchasePurchase Order T1909007, CSRI had searched the literatureliterature forfor informationinformation about the prehistory (archaeology),(archaeology), ethnography, andand history of the StudyStudy Area.Area. A bibliography was compiled,compiled, and thethe most important primaryprimary andand secondarysecondary sourcessources werewere gatheredgathered togethertogether from CSRI's library and research files as well as fromfrom various other libraries andand sourcessources ofof information.information. From these com-com bined sources,sources, datadata aboutaboutthethe history ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, andand about the relationship of Native Americans to the area, were organized to provide backgroundbackground materialmaterial forfor thisthis report.report.

The remainder of thethe studystudy has been conductedconducted under Pur-Pur chase Order T2189001.T2l8900l. This purchase order was issued in earlyearly August 1979;1979; itit providedprovided forfor aa threethree-month -month study, including interviews withwith Native American groups with a concern for or interest inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

When CSRICSRI conductedconducted thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde studystudy inin 1978,1978, a majormajor problem waswas that Native Americans in everyeverj group felt slighted that SCE had not notified them in advance that the study was toto bebe mademade (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1978:21978:2-15, -15, 2-16).2 -16). Accord-Accord ingly, it hadhad been agreed in advance that SCE wouldwould send let-let ters to the tribal councils of groups to be interviewed in the present study.study. When CSRICSRI ethnographersethnographers arrivedarrived inin thethe field,field, however, theythey discovereddiscovered thatthat no lettersletters fromfrom SCESCE hadhad beenbeen re-re ceived. As before, tribaltribal councilscouncils interpretedinterpreted thethe lacklack ofof notification asas beingbeing indicativeindicative ofof aa lacklack ofof respect.respect.

It should be noted that Native American governing bodies have forfor many yearsyears been dealingdealing with federalfederal agencies,agencies, which are meticulous aboutabout formallyformally notifying themthem ofof matters thatthat are to be brought toto theirtheir attention.attention. The tribaltribal councilcouncil atat one reservation agreedagreed toto thethe present studystudy but clearlyclearly con-con sidered the lack of prior notification to be improper proced-proced ure. Failure toto supplysupply formalformal notification inin advanceadvance may have been oneone ofof thethe reasonsreasons thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi TribalTribal CouncilCouncil re-re fused to letlet CSRICSRI ethnographersethnographers interviewinterview members ofof thatthat reservation, andand insteadinstead isis issuingissuing aa formalformal resolution.resolution.

Richard Stoffle, associateassociate professor ofof anthropologyanthropology atat

22-8 -8 the University ofof WisconsinWisconsin-Parkside, -Parkside, andand MichaelMichael Evans, grad-grad uate studentstudent inin anthropologyanthropology atat thethe UniversityUniversity ofof WestWest Virgin-Virgin ia, undertook the field interviewing ofof thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi and the Las Vegas Paiutes betweenbetween AugustAugust 77 andand AugustAugust 25.25. Stoffle and Evans had interviewedinterviewed thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi forfor thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde studystudy inin 1978,1978, andand have worked extensivelyextensively withwith variousvarious Paiute groupsgroups inin Utah,Utah, Nevada,Nevada, andand California.California. They inter-inter viewed in the Paiute communities at LasLas VegasVegas and Pahrump,Pahrump, and also made arrangements with the leaders of these groups toto mail out questionnairesquestionnaires toto allall members ofof thethe groups.groups. The Chemehuevi TribalTribal CouncilCouncil hadhad suggestedsuggested thethe combinedcombined interviewinterview - mail surveysurvey techniquetechnique inin 19781978 when Stoffle andand Evans diddid thethe field work onon thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde study.study.

The survey form sent out in connection with the present study was designed afterafter thethe interviewsinterviews hadhad beenbeen conducted.conducted. The wording of thethe formform andand the method of tabulatingtabulating thethe results were selectedselected specificallyspecifically toto fitfit thethe situation.situation.

Jackson Young, who had interviewed people of the Colorado Indian Tribes (CRIT)(CRIT) forfor thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde studystudy inin 1978,1978, did the field workwork at that reservation and at the Fort MojaveMojave Indian Reservation (FMIR)(FMIR) forfor thethe presentpresent study.study. He.arrivedHe arrived at the Colorado River area on AugustAugust 11, 1979, and completed field work onon AugustAugust 31.31.

Ngapare Hopa, professor of anthropology at Saddleback College in Irvine, California, interviewedinterviewed thethe SerranoSerrano peoplepeople at San Manuel Reservation, whomwhum sheshe hadhad alsoalso interviewedinterviewed dur-dur ing the coursecourse ofof thethe 1978/19791978/1979 LambLamb CanyonCanyon-Iura -Mira Loma studystudy (Bean and Vane 1979a).1979a). She began interviewing there on August 1616 andand completedcompleted itit onon AugustAugust 23.23. Hopa also interviewedinterviewed one Kawaiisu.Kawaiisu.

Diane Rothenberg, who has donedone extensiveextensive researchresearch onon thethe persistence and maintenance of ethnic boundaries betweenbetween Native Americans and the dominant American society, waswas recruited to interview NativeNative AmericansAmericans inin thethe BarstowBarstow-Daggett -Daggett area.area. She had the research assistance of Virginia Bagg and of Native Americans Carole Lowman (Navajo)(Navajo) and James Mace (California MissionMission-Blackfoot). -Blackfoot). The interviewing waswas completed between August 1515 andand 23,23, 1979.1979.

The schedules used by Young, Hopa and RothenbergRothenberg were based onon thosethose originallyoriginally designeddesigned forfor thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde study (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1978).1978). They begin withwith openopen-ended -ended ques-ques tions and progress to questions about kindskinds of resources that Native AmericansAmericans areare knownknown toto havehave concernsconcerns about.about. In rating responses, CSRICSRI considersconsiders thatthat respondentsrespondents who spontaneous)spontaneously mention aa sitesite oror featurefeature (or(or a classclass of sites andfeatures) are evidencing more intenseintense concernconcern thanthan areare thosethose whowho expressexpress concern only after the ethnographer hashas asked specifically about suchsuch places.places.

2-92 -9 The interview scheduleschedule isis not used asas aa questionnaire,questionnaire, nor doesdoes itit limitlimit thethe dimensionsdimensions ofof anan interview.interview. Rather, thethe schedule is usedused as a framework,framework,· to ensure ·thatthat each interview includes topics that Native AmericansAmericans have shownshown concern about inin thethe past.past. CSRI ethnographers encourage respondents to bring up other matters of concern,concern, pursuing such topics withwith additional questions whenwhen it is appropriate to dodo so.so. The multi-levelmulti -level approachapproach toto datadata c�llectioncollection thatthat CSRI has designed isis more effectiveeffective than a formally structuredstructured approach would be, inin that it makes sure that a fullfull range ofof Native American concernsconcerns aboutabout the impact of the proposed transmission lines on the resources of the Study AreaArea will be elicited.

Lois Weinman-Weinman-Roberts, Roberts, aa historian,historian, waswas retainedretained toto writewrite the report on thethe history ofof thethe StudyStudy Area, withwith whichwhich sheshe is familiar throughthrough her previous work onon thethe historyhistory ofof thethe eastern Mojave Desert forfor thethe BureauBureau ofof LandLand Management (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979).

Lee Gooding MasseyMassey wrote the-chapterthe chapter on naturalnatural setting and also servedserved asas editorialeditorial consultant.consultant.

Archaeological sitesite recordsrecords forfor thethe StudyStudy AreaArea werewere se-se cured and compiledcompiled byby DanielDaniel McCarthy.McCarthy. They have been codedcoded and mappedmapped pictorially by CSRICSRI staffstaff members inin orderorder toto pro-pro vide datadata which have been synthesizedsynthesized with ethnographic and historical datadata toto completecomplete thethe datadata basebase forfor thisthis study.study.

Bean and Vane have written thethe restrest ofof thethe report.report. They have coordinatedcoordinated thethe researchresearch forfor thethe project,project, and,and, asas sub-sub mitting officersofficers andand editors, they assume professional and editorial responsibilityresponsibility forfor thethe work.work.

ORGANIZATION OF REPORT

A generalgeneral historyhistory ofof thethe StudyStudy AreaArea isis includedincluded inin ChapterChapter IV. More historicalhistorical datadata appearappear inin ethnohistories of each group in Chapter V.V.

Map BB showsshows IndianIndian reservationsreservations and communities where respondents were interviewed.interviewed.

2-102 -10 CHAPTER III.III. NATURAL SETTING

Most of the Study Area, which is roughly triangular in shape, lies inin SanSan Bernardino County,County, California. The area's westernwestern apexapex extendsextends intointo LosLos Angeles County, its northeastnortheast- ern angle into ClarkClark County,County, Nevada.Nevada.

Except for a small projection near midpoint, thethe easterneastern boundary ofof thethe StudyStudy AreaArea runsruns northnorth/south. /south. The boundary veers westward near thethe Turtle Mountains, passes north ofof JoshuaJoshua Tree National Monument, and then borders the San Bern-Bern ardino and Angeles nationalnational forests.forests. West of Palmdale, thethe boundary turnsturns sharplysharply northeastward toto Lake MeadHead National Recreation Area, completingcompleting thethe triangle.triangle.

All of the Study Area lies withinwithin the Mojave Desert, andand its climate falls withinwithin Koppen's BWh, or hot desert, classi-classi fication. The Mojave, whichwhich encompasses about a sixth of California's total area, is a high desert; the floors of some of the valleys alongalong itsits westernwestern marginmargin lielie 40004000 feetfeet (1120(1120 m)m) above sea levellevel (Dibblee(Dibblee andand Hewett 1966:66ff.).1966:66ff.). The desert is restricted rather abruptly on the southwest byby the San Bernardino andand SanSan Gabriel mountains, where peaks rise toto more than 10,000 feetfeet (3050(3050 m).m).

On the northeast, thethe Mojave DesertDesert adjoinsadjoins thethe GreatGreat Basin, with which itit sharesshares somesome structuralstructural similarities.similarities. The dominant surface features of the MojaveMojave are elongate mountainmountain ranges separatedseparated byby valleys.valleys. In general, the mountainsmountains trend northwestnorthwest/southeast /southeast inin thethe westernwestern partpart of the Study Area butbut northeastnortheast/southwest /southwest on its easterneastern side.side.

Much ofof thethe present environmentenvironment of the Study Area isis aa result of activitiesactivities associatedassociated withwith thethe SanSan AndreasAndreas faultfault sys-sys tem, although there has been little horizontalhorizontal movementmovement along this system during thethe present centurycentury (Grantz(Grantz andand BarstowBarstow 1977).1977). Vertical movements thatthat began millions of years ago have up-up lifted the San Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains,mountains, whichwhich cast a wide rainrain shadowshadow acrossacross thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

From 5050 toto 8080 percent of the region's precipitation usu-usu ally fallsfalls betweenbetween NovemberNovember andand March.March. In thethe easterneastern sec-sec tion, therethere isis aa secondarysecondary rainyrainy seasonseason duringduring JulyJuly/August. /August.

Except forfor thethe ColoradoColorado River, all the streamsstreams ofof thethe Study Area areare ephemeral, orpartpart-time, -time, streams. Although most transporttransport water beneathbeneath the surface of theirtheir beds, thethe on-on ly time water flowsflows inin theirtheir channels isis afterafter aa rain.rain.

33-1 -1 MostMost of the water-bearingwater -bearing formationsformations areare inin thethe sediments thatthat underlie valleys andand fillfill rockrock basins.basins. These do not oc-oc cur as one large reservo�r,reservoir, however;however; bedrock basins are usually separated, so groundwater tends to accumulate locally rather than being distributed evenly.evenly. Where thethe water tabletable nears the surface, seepsseeps andand springssprings maymay form.form. Springs sometimes ap-ap pear on higher elevations after rains, but usually are asas ephemeral as the streams resulting fromfrom rainsrains (Hunt(Hunt 1966:15).1966:15). WaterWater from springs at higher elevations is usually sweet andand pure.

Most of the permanent springs are located along fault lines, wherewhere rupturing of the bedrockbedrock allowsallows waterwater from deeper reservoirsreservoirs to reach thethe surface.surface. Even where water isis not visible on the surface, aerial photographsphotographs often reveal long ribbons of vegetation indicating thatthat groundwatergroundwater isis presentpresent along zones ofof rifting.rifting.

The hot springs of thethe StudyStudy Area includeinclude thethe following,following, as listed in a report ofof thethe U.S. GeologicalGeological SurveySurvey (Waring(Waring 1965:24):

Water Gallons per temperature minute

Paradise Springs (25(25 miles north of Daggett) 85 -106 °F 30

Soda Station Springs (Sec. 14, T.12N., Soda Springs (Sec. 14, T.12N. J R.BE.)R. 8E . ) 75 30

Newberry SpringSpring (600(600 yds.yds. southsouth ofof Newberry railroadrailroad station)station) 77 300

Deep Creek Hot Springs (Deep(Deep Creek Canyon, 16 miles southeast of Victorville) 8080-100 -100 5

Deep CreekCreek Warm SpringsSprings (Deep(Deep CreekCreek Canyon, 15 miles southeast of Victorville) 8080-100 -100 5

This listlist doesdoes not includeinclude all thethe hot springssprings ofof thethe Study Area.Area. Others that were called to CSRI's attention inin the coursecourse of ethnographicethnographic researchresearch includeinclude JackJack Springs,Springs, Hesperia Hot Springs,Springs, BakerBaker Hot Springs, andand SodaSoda SpringsSprings (Zzyzx Hot Springs).Springs). Hot springs are considered sacredsacred by Na-Na tive Americans.

Some of thethe playas, or drydry lakes,lakes, inin basins ofof thethe StudyStudy Area areare relictsrelicts ofof lakeslakes formedformed 15,00015,000 toto 18,00018,000 yearsyears agoago during the lastlast glacialglacial period (Cooke(Cooke andand Warren 1963:216).1963:216). At thatthat timetime thethe Mojave River drained into a large lake, now

33-2 -2 extinct, thatthat has beenbeen givengiven thethe namename LakeLake Manix.��nix. Groundwater that accumulates on playas isis usually alkaline.alkaline. Early-dayEarly -day travelers notednoted that Indian settlements were placed along thethe edges of playas, where waterwa'ter tendstends toto bebe lessless alkaline.alkaline.

AlthoughAlthough playas are the mostmost barrenbarren placesplaces in the Study Area, some of the mineral deposits that prevent vegetation have had considerableconsiderable economiceconomic value.value. Borax, for example,example, hashas been mined inin greatgreat quantities.quantities. Other nonmetals foundfound inin thethe Study Area include asbestos, granite, gypsum, kaolin,kaolin, lime and limestone, magnesite, nitrates, potash, silica,silica, strontium,strontium, talc, and various gemstonesgemstones (Thompson(Thompson 1929).1929). Ore deposits of the Study Area include copper,copper, gold,gold, iron,iron, manganese,manganese, platin-platin um, silver,silver, tungsten,tungsten, andand vanadium.vanadium. Mining has had periodic importance, whenever the price of metals has made thethe develop-develop ment ofof claimsclaims profitable.profitable.

PLANTS

The Study Area is part of "transmontane California,"California," thethe region east of the coastal mountain ranges, asas defineddefined byby MtmzMunz andand Keck, who place thethe MojaveMoj ave regionregion inin thethe "Southern"Southern Desert" biotic province (1968:4).(1968:4). Included in this province are five plant communities:communities: Alkali Sink,Sink, CreosoteCreosote BushBush Scrub,Scrub, Shadscale Scrub,Scrub, JoshuaJoshua TreeTree Woodland,vloodland, andand PinyonPinyon-Juniper -Juniper Woodland (1968:11(1968:11-18). -18).

Several varities ofof oakoak ((Quercus uercus sp.) werewere common onon thethe better-wateredbetter -watered highlandshighlands ofof the Study Area. Acorns matured in October and November, and collecting them was a group pro-pro ject. Men climbedclimbed thethe treestrees toto shakeshake downdown thethe nuts, whichwhich were gatheredgathered byby womenwomen andand children.children. Women shelledshelled and crushedcrushed the acorns.acorns. The mortars and pestles used in this process were usually leftleft atat thethe sitesite (Bean(Bean 1972:37),1972:37), andand bedrockbedrock mortarsmortars are a common feature near the groves where Native Americans used toto collectcollect thisthis importantimportant foodfood crop.crop.

Oaks were alsoalso valuedvalued asas firewood.firewood. The galls that formedformed on oak leavesleaves were used inin treatingtreating wounds andand eyeeye infectionsinfections (Bean 1972:38). Oak barkbark waswas used as a dye and as a tanning agent forfor buckskin.buckskin. The mesquite andand thethe relatedrelated screwbeanscrewbean (Prosopis(Prosopis sp.)sp.) were alsoalso importantimportant foodfood resourcesresources inin thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, wherewhere they were abundantabundant onon alluvialalluvial fansfans andand inin canyons.canyons. These small treestrees produceproduce edibleedible blossomsblossoms inin JuneJune (Bean(Bean 1972:38).1972:38). The sizesize ofof thethe harvest of seedseed pods maturing in July and August dependeddepended onon weatherweather conditions,conditions, butbut asas muchmuch asas aa hun-hun dred bushels aa year couldcould be collectedcollected fromfrom anan acreacre thatthat waswas

33-3 -3 well coveredcovered withwith trees.trees. These trees were also valued asas firewood and asas building material.material.

Pine trees, common inin thethe highlands ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, were anan erraticerratic sourcesource of food, yielding heavyheavy crops of pinyon nuts inin somesome years butbut scantscant amountsamounts inin others.others. The cones,cones, collected during August, werewere knockedknocked from the trees (Bean(Bean 1972:40). They were then charred in pits, a process that burned off thethe pitch, released the nuts, made them more diges-diges tible, and helped toto prevent rancidity duringduring storage.storage. The shells werewere removed by rolling the nutsnuts gently on a metate with aa mano.mano. Pinyon trees also providedprovided pitch,pitch, whichwhich waswas used as an adhesive, needles forfor basketmaking, andand firewood.firewood.

Agaves were aa yearyear-round -round staplestaple inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea (Bean 1972:41; Bean and SaubelSaubel 1972:31).1972:31). This plant, common on thethe lower foothills, produced several types ofof. food, which were harvested atat differentdifferent timestimes ofof thethe year.year. The flowerflower buds,buds, blossoms, seeds,seeds, and basal rosetterosette ofof thethe agaveagave were eaten,eaten, and the larvae of aa butterfly thatthat livedlived onon thisthis plantplant waswas considered aa specialspecial treat.treat.

Agave leaves were pounded to expose theirtheir fibers,fibers, which after drying were made intointo cordage,cordage, used inin bowstrings, bags,bags, snares, slings, nets, cradles,cradles, mats,mats, andand clothing.clothing. The spinesspines of the plant were used asas needles inin both sewingsewing andand tattooing,tattooing, and for separatingseparating fibersfibers whenwhen makingmaking baskets.baskets. Set in wooden handles, agaveagave spinesspines werewere usedused asas awls.awls.

Another reliable sourcesource of foodfood was thethe fanfan palm (Washingtonia filifera), which grewgrew inin scatteredscattered lowlow oror pro-pro tected areas of thethe desert,desert, eacheach treetree providing asas much asas several hundred pounds ofof datesdates annually.annually. The leavesleaves were used as thatching, thethe trunkstrunks as house andand ramadaramada supports,supports, the fibersfibers inin clothing.clothing. Ladles andand spoonsspoons were mademade ofof thethe fronds.

Cacti, abundant in the Study Area, provided fruit that was eateneaten freshfresh oror drieddried forfor storage.storage. The tendertender new padspads were eateneaten asas aa green. Seeds werewere processed on grinding green. processed . grinding stones.

In addition to the staples, there werewere countless other plants thatthat providedprovided periodicperiodic suppliessupplies ofof food.food. The grassesgrasses and lowlow shrubsshrubs thatthat dominatedominate thethe lowerlower parts ofof thethe StudyStudy Area were importantimportant sourcessources ofof seedsseeds forfor NativeNative Americans.Americans. Deliberate burning was used asas aa means of increasingincreasing thethe pro-pro duction ofof grassgrass seedsseeds (Bean(Bean 1972:47).1972:47). Bean has listedlisted thethe following plants as producers of importanti�crtant amounts of seedsseeds used by thethe CahuillaCahuilla (1972:46),(1972:46), andand itit cancan be assumedassumed thatthat theythey were alsoalso importantimportant toto thethe NativeNative Americans*ofAmericans 'of thethe StudyStudy Area:Area:

3-43 -4 CHAPTER IV.IV. HISTORY

THE EARLY HISTORICAL PERIOD

At the beginning of the 16th century, the westernwestern hemihemi- sphere had scarcely been touched by thethe wave ofof EuropeanEuropean in-in vasion that was to bring it into the mainstreammainstream of recorded 'history, transformtransform its technology, and largelylargely replacereplace itsits human populations. Far to the south of thethe StudyStudy Area forfor the Allen-WarnerAllen -Warner ValleyValley EnergyEnergy System,System, inin whatwhat is nownow centralcentral Mexico, thethe SpanishSpanish had by 15201520 established settlements that were toto be permanent.permanent. No European hadhad come anywhere near thethe Mojave Desert, however.however.

By the early 1540s,l540s, SpaniardsSpaniards based inin Mexico were explor-explor ing among the agricultural peoples of Arizona and New Mexico, along the coast of California, and along the Colorado riverriver south of thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The Europeans brought to the area new and devastating infectious diseases, to which Native Americans had virtually no resistance,resistance, andand seedsseeds ofof wheat andand otherother OldOld World cultigens.cUltigens. Both diseases and seeds sometimes reached Native American groupsgroups via tradetrade routesroutes longlong before thethe Euro-Euro peans themselvesthemselves arrived.arrived.

The firstfirst Europeans toto arrivearrive inin the vicinity ofof thethe Study Area were members of the expedition of Juan dede Oñate,onate, which in 16041604 crossedcrossed fromfrom thethe Rio GrandeGrande ValleyValley westward, descending thethe Bill Williams ForkFork toto thethe ColoradoColorado River.River. Part of thisthis expedition visitedvisited aa Mojave village,village, apparentlyapparently inin Mohave Valley (Bolton(Bolton 1926:212ff.).1926:212ff.).

After thethe early expeditions, thethe SpanishSpanish were kept busy for a hundred and fifty years consolidating theirtheir hold on New Spain. It waswas notnot until 1769, whenwhen threats of Russian encroachencroach- ment fromfrom thethe north couldcould no longerlonger be ignored,ignored, thatthat theythey dis-dis patched expeditions toto bring thethe northwestern frontierfrontier inin AltaAlta California under control,control, byby establishingestablishing aa stringstring ofof missions.missions. The tasktask was sharedshared by FranciscanFranciscan missionaries andand military personnel.

From the beginning, Spain found it difficult to supply itsits Californiaealifornia outposts.outposts. The journey from Mexico'Mexico was longlong andand dan-dan gerous. Survival of missionmission and presidio depended largely on the food supplies furnishedfurnished by Native Americans, derivedderived fromfrom their fledgling effortseffort.s atat agricultureagriculture (under(under thethe directiondirection ofof farmers fromfrom NewNew SpainSpain andand well-well-meaning meaning butbut nonfarmingnonfarming priests) and fromfrom traditionaltraditional huntinghtmting andand gathering.gathering. The advisability ofof

44-1 -1 finding a feasible overland route fromfrom Mexico toto AltaAlta Cali-Cali fornia was plain.plain.

In 1768 PadrePadre FranciscoFrancisco Garces,Garcés, aa FranciscanFranciscan stationed near an inland frontier garrison in Sonora commanded by Captain Juan Bautista de Anza, began a series ofof independentindependent explorations that eventuallyeventually led himhim intointo thethe desertsdeserts throughthrough which the Colorado River runs (Forbes 1965:145; EngelhardtEngelhardt 1930:157ff.). In 1773, SebastianSebastián Taraval, a Native American from Baja California, managed to reach Sonora from Mission SanSan Gabriel, and was takentaken toto meetmeet GarcésGarces andand Anza.Anza. Taraval ledled Anza's firstfirst expeditionexpedition toto CaliforniaCalifornia inin 1774,1774, overover aa routeroute toto the south ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

Anza again set out forfor California in 1775,1775, thisthis timetime with 240 colonists, 530 horses, 165 pack mules,mules, and 350 cattle (Engelhardt 1930:158ff.;1930:158£f.; 95ff.).95ff.). GarcesGarcés and Taraval leftleft thisthis expedition at Yuma, andand exploredexplored thethe ColoradoColorado toto itsits mouth.mouth. They then headed upriver, wherewhere they encountered the people GarcesGarcés called the Jamajab, probably crossing southern Nevada as wellwell as Arizona andand CaliforniaCalifornia (Engelhardt(Engelhardt 1930:215ff.).1930:2l5ff.). GarcesGarcés noted that thesethese people, laterlater knownknown asas thethe Mojave,Mojave, were growinggrowing "wheat""wheat" onon thethe floodplainfloodplain ofof thethe Colorado.Colorado.

'TheThe Mojave wore shell beads, imported fromfrom thethe coastcoast overover a system ofof trails.trails. GarcesGarcés found these.tradethese·trade routes soso impres-impres sive that he made specialspecial mention ofof them,them, asas CasebierCasebier hashas pointed outout (1975:18ff.).(1975:18£f.). GarcésGarces and Taraval, accompaniedaccompanied byby friendly Mojave guides, followedfollowed thethe trailstrails westward toto MissionMission San Gabriel--aGabriel --a journeyjourney thatthat tooktook themthem acrossacross thethe breadthbreadth of the Study Area. Some of these trails may have been followedfollowed inin 1772 by Pedro Fages, who apparentlyapparently ledled aa partyparty ofof soldierssoldiers into the western Mojave Desert (Bolton(Bolton 1931;1931; BeanBean andand SmithSmith 1978:573).

At San Gabriel, Capt.Capt. FernandoFernando RiveraRivera yy MoncadaMoncada toldtold Gar-Gar cescés that he did not want thethe Native Americans ofof thethe ColoradoColorado River region to communicate withwith those of the missions,missions, and he ordered that Mojaves be arrested when they came to trade for shells (Engelhardt(Engelhardt 1930:218).1930:218). The priest replied, "Inter-"Inter national lawlaw permitspermits thethe commercecommerce ofof nationsnations withwith oneone another.another. How then can the legitimatelegitimate and most ancient trading of the nations ofof thethe [Colorado][Colorado] riverriver with those of the seasea be pre-pre vented?" He added that aa ban on trade would createcreate discord.discord.

GarcésGarces hoped toto establishestablish missions amongamong thethe ColoradoColorado River tribes, but Anza believed that garrisons should be established first.first. The latter's view prevailed, andand inin 17801780 fiftyfifty-three -three SpanishSpanish soldierssoldiers andand colonistscolonists arrivedarrived withwith their families. The new settlers took possession of and destroyed Native American cropscrops thatthat had been planted inin fieldsfields alongalong the ColoradoColorado--even - -eventhough though thisthis kindkind ofof appropriationappropriation waswas clearly forbiddenforbidden by SpanishSpanish lawlaw (Engelhardt(Engelhardt 1930:373).1930:373).

44-2 -2 These and similar encroachments co�vertedconverted the friendly Quechan, whowho lived on the Colorado south of the Mojaves,Mojaves, into militantmilitant defendersdefenders ofof theirtheir homeland.homeland. With thethe aidaid ofof Mojaves,Mojaves, inin 1781 they destroyed whitewhite settlements alongalong thethe ColoradoColorado with suchsuch thoroughnessthoroughness that Padre GarcésGarces waswas included among nearly aa hundred SpaniardsSpaniards who were killedkilled (Bancroft(Bancroft 1886:370;1886:370; Forbes 1965:201).1965:201). TheThe Quechans' stubborn defense of theirtheir lands closed the southern gateway to California to thethe Spanish . gateway Spanish until 1827.1827.

The Mission System

In the better-wateredbetter -watered landslands alongalong thethe coast,coast, thethe FrancisFrancis- can mission systemsystem continuedcontinued toto expand.expand. So did secular settle-settle ment, althoughalthough moremore slowly.slowly. Pedro Fages, who inin 17821782 waswas appointed governor of the Californias, officially objected to the policy of bringing Spanish settlerssettlers toto thethe area.area. Fages believed that such settlement would cause future conflict with established laws, which statedstated thatthat ChristianizedChristianized native peoples were eventually to be granted ownership of mission lands (Bancroft(Bancroft 1886:396).1886:396). Nevertheless, by 17841784 therethere were around 300 soldiers in California, and 200 other Spanish colonists asas well.well.

Herds turnedturned. out toto grazegraze onon thethe CaliforniaCalifornia hillshills multi-multi plied so rapidly that by 1803 the count of mission stock alone totaled around 68,000 cattle; 14,200 horses; 880 mules; and 1150 goats and pigs (Engelhardt(Engelhardt 1930:611).1930:611). Hundreds ofof NativeNative Americans were housedhoused andand employedemployed atat missionmission settlements,settlements, where thethe deathdeath raterate was soso high that thethe viceroy sentsent a medi-medi cal expert toto investigateinvestigate thethe causescauses (1930:628).(1930:628).

The "civilization" brought toto thethe Native AmericansAmericans dis-dis rupted every aspectaspect ofof theirtheir lives.lives. Their traditional practice of burning grasslandsgrasslands toto increaseincrease crops,crops, forfor example,example, waswas notnot recognized asas being beneficial (Bean(Bean andand LawtonLawton 1976).1976). The Spaniards drewdrew up lawslaws prohibiting thethe settingsetting ofof firesfires (Engelhardt 1930:481).1930:481).·

Nineteen missions had been established by 18041804 (Bancroft(Bancroft 1886:27ff.).l886:27ff.). A year later, a California governor complained to the viceroy thatthat alongalong thethe coast,coast, Anglo-Anglo-Americans Americans in search of fish, pearls, andand fursfurs were anchoringanchoring "with"with arrogantarrogant bold-bold ness inin ourour very harbors...withharbors ... with the same libertyliberty as if they were Spaniards."Spaniards."

The search forfor Native Americans who could be brought intointo the mission systemsystem continued,continued, andand fourfour "recruiting"recruiting expeditions"expeditions" were sentsent outout inin 18061806 (Engelhardt(Engelhardt 1930:641ff.).1930:641f£.). One of them may have enteredentered thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Led by Padre JoséJose MariaHaria dede Zalvidéa,Zalvidea, thisthis groupgroup crossedcrossed throughthrough Tejon Pass and into thethe eastern foothillsfoothills ofof thethe SanSan GabrielGabriel Mountains.Mountains. ZalvidéaZalvidea

44-3 -3 baptized "9"9 very oldold menmen andand 3838 agedaged womenwomen"; "; twotwo ofof the women claimed to be·be a hundred yearsyears old.old.

In 1819, Lt. Gabriel Moraga and some 50 soldierssoldiers setset outout from MissionMission San GabrielGabriel to punishpunish MojavesMojaves whowho hadhad attackedattacked soldiers at Mission SanSan Buenaventura.Buenaventura. Moraga's force followed the MojaveMojave River, apparently as far as Soda Lake (Casebier(Casebier 1972:20).

Between 1819, whenwhen a mission asistencia was established near Redlands, and the termination ofof the missionmission system in 1834, most of the Serrano in the westernwestern part of the StudyStudy Area were forciblyforcibly removed fromfrom their landland andand brought intointo mission settlementssettlements (Bean(Bean andand SmithSmith 1978:573).1978:573). Native Ameri-Ameri cans of other parts of the Study Area werewere able to maintain autonomy and identity to a greater degree during the mission period.

The missions hadhad becomebecome selfself-supporting - supporting byby 1810,1810, when the Mexican rebellion againstagainst SpainSpain began.began. California, because of its isolation, waswas less affected than werewere other parts of New Spain by thethe bitter conflictconflict that ended in 1821 with Mexico anan independentindependent nation.nation. Widespread resentmentresentment againstagainst the accumulated wealthwealth of the Catholic .ChurchChurch had beenbeen a majormajor factor underlying thethe rebellion,rebellion, however, andand independenceindependence brought with itit thethe secularizationsecularization of California mission land-holdings.

Prior to Mexican independence, fewer than 20 grants of Alta California landland had been made to individuals (Cleland(Cleland 1951:19). After secularization, the Mexican governors of California distributed formerformer mission landslands inin huge parcels,parcels, but thethe "Age"Age ofof thethe Dons"Dons" touchedtouched thethe StudyStudy AreaArea onlyonly peri-peri pherally. Spanish and Mexican influence on the cultureculture ofof the Mojave Native Americans, forfor example,example, hashas beenbeen assessedassessed as "weak" (Kroeber(Kroeber andand KroeberKroeber 1973:1).1973:1).

Fur Trappers, Merchants, andand ExplorersExolorers

Particularly significantsignificant toto thethe StudyStudy AreaArea was France'sFrance's sale of Upper LouisianaLouisiana toto thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates inin 1804.1804. The Louisiana PurchasePurchase broughtbrought intointo thethe unionunion St.St. Louis,Louis, Missouri,¥�ssouri, the established centercenter ofof thethe furfur trade.trade. As aa result,result, hun-hun dreds of adventurous young Americans setset outout towardtoward thethe west,west, hoping toto hunt andand traptrap theirtheir way toto wealthwealth (Dale(Dale 1973:68).1973:68). Jedediah Smith in 1826 was the first to reach California over-over land fromfrom thethe east.east.

The publication of Smith's hitherto unknown journal, whichwhich came to lightlight inin 1967,1967, shedssheds new lightlight onon thethe relationshipsrelationships between thethe peoplespeoples ofof southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia duringduring thethe 1820s.1820s.

4-44 -4 Smith's party came southward along the Virgin and Muddy Rivers to the Colorado, encountering along the way aa number ofof PaiutesPaiutes who grewgrew wheat, corn,com, pumpkinspumpkins andand tobacco.tobacco. Two HojavesMojaves were visiting oneone PaiutePaiute group.group. Smith's partyparty came upon the firstfirst MojaveMojave settlements in Cottonwood Valley,Valley, whichwhich waswas inundated byby the waters of Lake Mohave when Davis DamDam waswas built.built. While the partyparty waswas there, Mojave from the Mojave Villages arrived,arrived, including one or twotwo who couldcould converseconverse inin SpanishSpanish withwith aa member ofof Smith'sSmith's party.party. Travelling south alongalong thethe river,river, Smith found thethe Mojave livingliving wherever therethere were favorablefavorable situations for 30 miles (48(48 km) along the river, and wrote anan ethnographic description of them that accords with what was written by Whipple inin 18541854 andand KroeberKroeber inin 19251925 (Brooks(Brooks 1977:1977: 65-78).65 -78).

Unable to persuade any of thethe Mojave toto guideguide themthem acrossacross the desert, Smith andand his partyparty startedstarted outout byby themselves.themselves. One of their horses was stolenstolen while theythey were atat thethe Mojave Vil-Vil lages. Another was stolenstolen fromfrom themthem thethe firstfirst nightnight out,out, probably atat PaiutePaiute Spring.Spring. The nextnext day the party lost theirtheir way inin Lanfair Valley,Valley, turnedturned backback andand camecame uponupon twotwo NativeNative Americans followingfollowing theirtheir trailtrail--a --a man andand aa boy.boy. Keeping thethe one who had not escaped with them,them, theythey returned toto Paiute Spring, and then to the Mojave Villages, wherewhere they found allall, the lodges deserted. They camped, and the next morning a Native American youngster who spokespoke Spanish swamswam thethe river toto tell them that the Mojave had fledfled because theythey thoughtthought Smith'sSmith's party was returning toto killkill themthem forfor stealingstealing hishis horse.horse. Smith sent wordword that although his horse must be returned, he had no intention of punishing all of themthem forfor what aa "single scoundrel"scoundrel" had done.done. At thethe invitationinvitation ofof thethe Mojave, Smith'sSmith's party thenthen crossed back across the river andand moved downdown thethe river to thethe approximate localitylocality ofof presentpresent-day -day NeedlesNeedles wherewhere there was the heaviest concentrationconcentration ofof populationpopulation (1977:78(1977:78-83). -83).

Smith finallyfinally succeededsucceeded inin persuading twotwo Native Americans to act as guides for his party, got his horse back, and resumed his attemptattempt toto crosscross thethe MojaveMojave Desert.Desert. According toto Brooks,Brooks, he travelled via Paiute Springs,Springs, VontriggerVontrigger Spring,Spring, aa place near a smallsmall springspring inin thethe ProvidenceProvidence Mountains where therethere was no grass, probably acrossacross Kelso Wash toto Marl Spring,Spring, aa springspring that waswas probably somewhere in the Devil's Playground, a camp-camp site on the south side of Soda Lake where water was found by digging two feet down, and a site on the Mojave River near present-daypresent -day Afton. By this time the party was nearly out of food. One of his Native American guides said he knew where his people had aa cachecache ofof food,food, andand offeredoffered toto procureprocure some.some. The food turned out toto be somethingsomething thatthat lookedlooked likelike loavesloaves ofof bread, eacheach weighingweighing 88 toto 1010 poundspounds (3.6(3.6 toto 4.54.5 kg).kg). It tasted like sugar candycandy andand was made fromfrom aa kind ofof canecane grassgrass (Brooks(Brooks 1977:831977:83-90). -90). A quarter of aa centurycentury laterlater Williamson, making a railroad survey, noted thatthat inin AugustAugust thethe Native AmericansAmericans he encounteredencounceeed were "collecting"collecting aa kindkind ofof bulrushbulrush oror cane,cane, uponupon

4-54 -5 the leaves of which is foundfound a substance very likelike sugar....sugar .... They cut the cane and spreadspread it in the sunsun toto dry,dry, andand after-after wards, by threshing,threshing, separateseparate thethe sugarsugar fromfrom thethe leaf"leaf" (Wil-(Wil liamson 1856:33).1856:33). Smith notednoted variousvarious places where cane grew along thethe river.river.

It transpired that Smith's guides werewere Vanyumes from thethe vicinity. They belonged to Vanyume who resided along thethe Mojave RiverRiver somesome threethree daysdays traveltravel fromfrom thethe AftonAfton area-area-- - "My guides belonged to a tribe of Indians residing inin thethe vicinity calledcalled thethe wanyumaswanyumas. not numerous forfor this barren country could not support them."them." There were antelope andand mountain sheepsheep inin thethe area.area. Four days from Soda Lake a hitherto unmentioned Mojave who had been accompanying the party disap-disap peared. Smith's VanyumeVanyume guides "had expected to findfind theirtheir families here but were disappointed"disappointed" (Brooks(Brooks 1977:91).1977:91).

".· ·.wan After another day'sday's travel,travel, thethe partyparty arrivedarrived atat aa "..wan.. yu ma Lodge.Lodge. close byby werewere 2 or three families of the samesame tribe." The party was wellwell treatedtreated here.here. Smith and another member ofof hishis partyparty shotshot twotwo antelope.antelope. The Vanyume stagedstaged aa rabbit hunt and gave some of thethe 22 oror 33 dozendozen theythey caughtcaught toto the Smith party.party. This Vanyume lodge was apparentlyapparently inin thethe vicinity of Victorville, wherewhere GarcesGarcés hadhad found a villagevillage of about 40 Vanyume in 1776, andand had been similarlysimilarly welcomed. Smith's party then leftleft thethe Vanyume andand went upup thethe West ForkFork of the Mojave, intointo SummitSummit ValleyValley andand thethe LasLas FloresFlores RanchRanch area, ascending thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino MountainsMountains throughthrough SawpitSawpit Canyon as GarcésGarces had 5050 yearsyears earlier.earlier. This was the traditional route (1977:92(1977:92-93). -93).

Smith finally arrived atat the farmfarm buildings ofof thethe RanchoRancho de la1a Puente, about 2 Spanish leagues east ofof Mission SanSan Gabriel. At the farm the Native American inin chargecharge had aa bullock killed forfor them.them. It transpired that they were taken for Native Americans and that their hosts were puzzled thatthat they had guns,guns, andand that,that, comingcoming fromfrom thethe north, theythey werewere accom-accom panied byby aa gentegente dede razon,therazon,the identityidentity ascribedascribed toto thethe SpanishSpanish - speaker inin Smith'sSmithis-party party (1977:94(1977:94-104). -104).

When thethe party arrivedarrived atat SanSan Gabriel,Gabriel, Smith'sSmith's VanyumeVanyume guides werewere charged with being runaways fromfrom thethe MissionHission andand put inin prison (1977:105).(1977:105).

An expedition ofof 1827,1827, ledled by Ewing YoungYoung andand includingincluding James O.o. Pattie, angeredangered thethe Mojaves intointo defensivedefensive militarymilitary action at thethe ColoradoColorado River,River, andand when SmithSmith returnedreturned withwith aa second expedition laterlater thatthat year, itit was attackedattacked byby thethe Mojave. Only nine men of Smith's party of twenty escaped.escaped. TheThe survivors were befriended onon theirtheir way acrossacross thethe MojaveMojave DesertDesert by PaiutesPaiutes whom theythey encounteredencountered about eight miles up the Mojave River, and by Vanyumes atat aa villagevillage atat thethe headhead ofof thethe river.river. From eacheach groupgroup theythey acquiredacquired aa pairpair ofof horses.horses. They leftleft thethe

4-64 -6 river at a Vanyume village,village, possiblypossibly thethe same oneone they hadhad visited the year before, and went straight toto thethe placeplace wherewhere Cajon Pass cuts through thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Mountains.Mountains. Smith's party crossed to the other sideside of the mountains, where theythey killed three cows from mission herds to relieve theirtheir hungerhunger and then sent wordword to the mayordomomayordomo at the San Bernardino asistenciaasistencia thatthat theythey hadhad donedone so.so. Smith rested briefly in the valleyvalley and then returned through the pass, stopping at the villagevillage of Atongaibit before taking the trail north to the San JoaquinJoaquin AtonfaibitValleyVal ey (Sullivan(Sullivan 1936:1141936:114-128). -128).

InIn 1829 another partyparty ledled byby EwingEwing Young-Young--this -this one inclu-inclu ding explorer KitKit CarsonCarson--made - -madeits itsway way fromfrom NewNew MexicoMexico to the Colorado River, across the desert, and through Cajon Pass to Mission SanSan Gabriel,Gabriel, returningreturning alongalong thethe samesame route.route. Although members of thisthis expedition traded with the Mojave on their way.way west.west, so many Mojave warriors came into their camp on the return trip that they believedbelieved they hadhad only narrowlynarrowly escaped an attack (Casebier(Casebier 1975:27).1975:27). When Peter SkeneSkene Ogden brought a partyparty of beaverbeaver trappers to California in thethe winterwinter ofof 1829/1830.1829/1830, hostilities did erupt,erupt. with thethe resultresult thatthat 2626 Mojaves were killedkilled (1975:28).(1975:28).

These hostilities on thethe ColoradoColorado River were widely pub-pub licized.licized, and the reputation of the Mojaves asas aa fiercefierce andand hostile groupgroup spreadspread acrossacross thethe continent.continent. This reputation deflected travel northward, and the "Old SpanishSpanish Trail" overover which tradetrade andand immigrationimmigration waswas toto flowflow forfor thethe nextnext twotwo decades waswas not established along the most directdirect route but across Utah, southwardsouthward alongalong thethe Amargosa River,River, andand throughthrough Bitter SpringsSprings toto thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver at atForksForks-in-the-Road, -in- the -Road, aa spot about fivefive milesmiles downstreamdownstream fromfrom Yermo.Yermo. It then followed the Mojave TrailTrail acrossacross thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Mountains.Mountains.

The merchant Antonio Armijo, with a caravan of pack ani-ani mals, was thethe firstfirst recordedrecorded travellertraveller onon thisthis northernnorthern route,route, arriving in CaliforniaCalifornia inin JanuaryJanuary 1830. On his arrival atat It Forks-in-the-Road,Forks -in- the -Road,east eastof ofDaggett, Daggett,he hewrote, wrote, "...at••• at thethe ArroyoArroyo of the Hayatas.Hayatas, atat thethe endend ofof which comescomes inin thethe trailtrail fromfrom Moqui,Moqui. traveledtraveled byby thethe MoquisMoquis withwith thethe objectobject ofof tradingtrading shells with thethe saidsaid Hayatas"Hayatas" (Casebier(Casebier 1975:32).1975:32). "Moqui"" Moqui" referred to thethe Hopi pueblos; "Hayatas""Hayatas" isis thoughtthought by CasebierCasebier and other authoritiesauthorities toto referrefer toto thethe Mojave.Mojave. Armijo's wording suggests thatthat Armijo believed himself toto be inin Mojave territoryterritory when he reachedreached thethe MojaveMojave River.River.

Armijo's triptrip initiatedinitiated aa commercecommerce between New Mexico and California thatthat lastedlasted untiluntil 1848.1848. Woolen productsproducts were broughtbrought to CaliforniaCalifornia inin exchangeexchange forfor horseshorses andand mules.mules. TheThe routeroute Armijo firstfirst travelledtravelled camecame toto bebe calledcalled thethe "Old"Old SpanishSpanish Trail"Trail" and sometimessometimes thethe "Santa"Santa FeFe Trail."Trail." The shortershorter route which followed the traditional Mojave Trail andand passed throughthrough thethe Mojave villagesvillages onon thethe ColoradoColorado River was also sometimessometimes calledcalled

44-7 -7 the "Old SpanishSpanish Trail"Trail" (Casebier(Casebier 1975:311975:31-32). -32).

AnAn expedition led by William WolfskillWolfskill in 1830/1831 camecame down the Rio Virgen to the Colorado and through the Mojave villages,villages, 'enen routeroute toto California.California. Wolfskill andand GeorgeGeorge C.C. Yount, who was a member of this expedition, settledsettled inin Cali-Cali fornia and took significant parts inin thethe state'sstate's earlyearly history.history.

From then on, the numbernumber of peoplepeople coming into California over these routes increased steadily.steadily. Few left detailed recordsrecords ofof their travels across the Study Area,Area, becausebecause it waswas assumed that people knew what itit was likelike fromfrom earlierearlier accounts.accounts.

The effects of this streamstream of travellers,travellers, andand ofof thethe dis-dis solution of the mission systemsystem in 1834,1834, onon thethe NativeNative AmericansAmericans in the Study Area cancan onlyonly bebe inferred.inferred. It is knownknown that Native Americans continuedcontinued to carry on trade along the Old Mojave Trail. How longlong the villages along the river maintained their integrity is something that carefulcareful archaeological studystudy mightmight reveal.

In mountain areas off the major trailtrail systems,systems, traditionaltraditional ways may havehave continuedcontinued withwith littlelittle disruption.disruption. The fact thatthat military expeditionsexpeditions werewere nono longerlonger sentsent outout toto hunthunt NativeNative Americans who had fledfled fromfrom thethe missions may havehave createdcreated anan interval of relative tranquilitytranquility amongamong thosethose who were removedremoved by distance fromfrom thethe "rancho""rancho" system.system. Little if any of thethe Study Area was includedincluded within thethe Mexican landland grants,grants, althoughalthough it is possible thatthat ranchorancho livestocklivestock foundfound itsits way eastwardeastward into thethe western partpart ofof it.it.

The animalsanimals introducedintroduced byby EuropeansEuropeans--cattle, -- cattle, horses,horses, mules, sheep, andand goatsgoats--were - -weremore moreeasily easily capturedcaptured thanthan wildwild game,game, and during the early period many Native Americans inin outlyingoutlying areasareas considered themthem onlyonly asas aa foodfood resource.resource. Later, horses andand mules were soughtsought asas ridingriding andand packpack animalsanimals byby NativeNative Americans.Americans. From the beginning of thethe mission period onward, thethe takingtaking ofof cattle and other stockstock by Native Americans was increasinglyincreasingly anan irritation to the mission andand ranchranch herdsmen, andand atat thethe samesame time an economic opportunityopportunity forfor thethe NativeNative Americans.Americans.

Anglo-Anglo-American American adventurersadventurers Thomas(("Peglegtl) "Pegleg ") SmithSmith andand Jim Beckwourth enlistedenlisted thethe aidaid ofof aa UteUte chief,chief, Walkara,Walkara, andand in 1840 their combinedcombined party camecame south on thethe trailtrail fromfrom UtahUtah and crossedcrossed thethe StudyStudy AreaArea toto capturecapture atat leastleast 50005000 horseshorses andand mules fromfrom rangelandsrangelands (Bailey(Bailey 1954:35ff.).1954:35ff.). Other raidingraiding par-par ties alsoalso passedpassed throughthrough thethe areaarea fromfrom timetime toto time.time.

One raidraid thatthat attractedattracted aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof publicpublic attentionattention in southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia inin 18401840 involvedinvolved thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Out-Out laws, apparentlyapparently American,American, mademade offoff with threethree bandsbands ofof maresmares from Mission SanSan GabrielGabriel andand went onon toto raidraid somesome ofof thethe ranchosranchos in thethe area,area, takingtaking overover 3,0003,000 headhead ofof stockstock inin all.all. Some

44-8 -8 membersmembers of the expedition sentsent in pursuit ofof thethe rustlersrustlers had their mounts taken away or killed near thethe RanchoRancho dede laslas Animas, a swampy area southsouth of the site ofof Victorville. At another enCOtmterencounter that took place northnorth of the "Monument," aa naturalnatural landmarklandmark twelve miles northeast of RabbitRabbit Springs,Springs, the pursuers againagain gotgot thethe worstworst ofof it.it. The rustlers finally escaped to the north,north, passing through Bitter Springs, but half theth� animals they had stolen had been lostlost (Beattie(Beattie andand BeattieBeattie 1951:1401951:140-143). -143).

StraysStrays from the raidsraids stagedstaged onon SanSan BernardinoBernardino ValleyValley herds by rustlers in the 1830s1830s and 1840s remained inin thethe Vic-Vic tor Valley·Valley area, where stockstock multiplied untiluntil thethe 1940s.1940s. They were thenthen huntedhunted downdown fromfrom low-low-flying flying aircraftaircraft (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979:126).

John Charles FremontFrémont and a partyparty of explorers that included trappers Kit Carson andand Alexis Godey inin 18441844 camecame downdown thethe Central Valley of California, through TehachapiTehachapi PassPass toto thethe Mojave River, which they followed, apparently to wherewhere Camp Cady was laterlater established.established. There two Mexicans,Mexicans, the survivors ofof aa party of sixsix which had beenbeen attackedattacked byby NativeNative Americans,Americans, camecame into their campcamp seeking help. Fremont'sFrémont's party turnedturned north with them alongalong thethe main OldOld Mojave Trail.Trail. At Bitter SpringsSprings Carson and Godey were dispatched in pursuit ofof thethe attackers,attackers, who had alsoalso stolenstolen thethe horseshorses ofof thethe MexicanMexican party.party. The story of how Carson and Godey avenged the deathsdeaths ofof thethe 44 Mexicans andand collectedcollected many of thethe stolen 'horseshorses was reported and became part ofof American folklorefolklore (Casebier(Casebier 1975:36;1975:36; CarsonCarson 1935:82-84).1935:82 -84).

In 1845 GovernorGovernor PioPio PicoPico askedasked B.B. D. WilsonWilson to lead expeditions againstagainst thethe Native Americans andand putput aa stopstop toto their raids onon cattle.cattle. Of the three expeditionsexpeditions ledled byby Wil-Wil son, the firstfirst andand thirdthird involvedinvolved thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The firstfirst expedition was inin pursuit ofof erstwhileerstwhile Mission SanSan GabrielGabriel Native Americans who had formedformed aa band, headquartered onon thethe Mojave River,River, thatthat successfullysuccessfully raidedraided SanSan BernardinoBernardino cattlecattle herds forfor sustenance.sustenance. Wilson ledled part of his expeditionexpedition upup Santa Ana CanyonCanyon toto places theythey named BearBear ValleyValley andand BearBear Lake because soso manymany ofof thesethese animalsanimals werewere encountered.encountered. They then went downdown toto thethe Mojave Desert, possibly throughthrough thethe Lucerne ValleyValley area,area, andand rejoinedrejoined thethe restrest ofof Wilson'sWilson's party,party, who had comecome throughthrough CajonCajon PassPass andand downdown thethe river.river. This expedition diddid not findfind thethe Native Americans itit was seekingseeking until itit was beyond thethe StudyStudy Area, and the encounter ended inconclusively. In Wilson'sWilson's third expedition against the samesame group ofof rustlers,rustlers, battle was joined in earnest, ending only when allall thethe NativeNative AmericanAmerican menmen hadhad beenbeen killed.killed. The women and childrenchildren werewere broughtbrought backback toto SanSan Gabriel.Gabriel. ThisThis expeditionexpedition brought toto anan endend thethe raidingraiding byby indigenousindigenous NativeNative Americans.Americans. Shortly thereafterthereafter thethe UtesUtes fromfrom UtahUtah underunder ChiefChief Walkara,Walkara, whowho had continuedcontinued toto raid both wagon trains and ranchos in more

44-9 -9 accessible areas, extended their operations to San Bernardino Valley, where their raids were a problem forfor early settlerssettlers well intointo thethe 1850sl850s (Beattie(Beattie andand BeattieBeattie 1951:621951:62-67). -67).

THETHE AMERICAN PERIOD TO THETIiE 1870sl870s

The Study Area was formally incorporated intointo thethe UnitedUnited States in 1848 whenwhen MexicoMexico ceded it and much of the rest ofof the southwest to the United States by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, but American influenceinfluence had been steadilysteadily growinggrowing since 1840.1840. In 1845 the MormonsMormons beganbegan to settle in Utah, and in 1846 initiated contactscontacts with southernsouthern California.California. The activities of the Mormons were to have a significant effecteffect onon the Study Area inin oneone way oror anotheranother forfor overover aa decade.decade.

The discovery of gold in northern California in 18481848 lured thousandsthousands ofof fortune-fortune-hunters. hunters. Some of them from thethe eastern United States, and others from Sonora in northern Mexico, travelledtravelled throughthrough thethe StudyStudy Area toto thethe new goldgold fields. In the next two decades, thethe desertdesert was divideddi.vided upup into new spatialspatial andand politicalpolitical entities,entities, exploredexplored andand surveyed,surveyed, and exploited economicallyeconomically inin newnew ways.ways.

The Establishment ofof StatesStates

California. The population of California increasedincreased soso rapidly after thethe discoverydiscovery ofof goldgold inin 18481848 thatthat thethe statestate was admitted toto thethe unionunion inin 1850.1850. In 1852 a base line monument was erectederected onon MountMount SanSan Bernardino,Bernardino, andand surveyorssurveyors were sentsent out by the General Land OfficeOffice toto surveysurvey townshiptownship lineslines acrossacross the desert.desert. Unfortunately, thethe markers used in this early survey could rarelyrarely bebe foundfound byby laterlater surveyors.surveyors.

An urgency was feltfelt not only to divide the new state into townships and sections, but also to find out wherewhere it wouldwould be best toto laylayout out roadsroads andand railroads.railroads. The leadersleaders ofof expedi-expedi tions sent out to survey the desert for this purposepurpose wrotewrote reports thatthat areare importantimportant sourcessources of informationinformation about the Study Area inin thethe 1850s.l850s.

Nevada. All ofof presentpresent-day -day NevadaNevada southsouth of the 38th38th parallel waswas partpart ofof thethe PahPah-Ute -Ute County,County, Territory of Arizona until itit was transferredtransferred toto NevadaNevada byby CongressCongress inin May 1866. Two representativesrepresentatives were nonetheless sentsent toto thethe ArizonaArizona ter-ter ritorial legislaturelegislature asas latelate asas 1868,1868, but gradually thethe area took its place asas part of Nevada, which had become a statestate in

44-10 -10 1864 (Casebier(Casebier 1970:29; Marriage and Springmeyer 1957).1957).

The history of this .southernsouthern tip of Nevada has alwaysalways been closelyclosely linkedlinked with thatthat of California. All thethe early explorers and traders, whether Native American or Euro-Euro American, who camecame acrossacross thethe Colorado River atat thethe Mojave Villages and went fromfrom therethere intointo thethe desertdesert toto thethe west crossed what isis now Nevada.Nevada.

The population of southern Nevada was sparsesparse atat best.best. Aside fromfrom the area where trailstrails led west fromfrom thethe Mojave Villages, thethe NevadaNevada StudyStudy Area'sArea's Euro-Euro-American American populationpopulation in the l860s1860s consisted of minersminers in EldoradoEldorado Canyon.Canyon, and they probably livedlived near the river, outside the Study Area, even though they mined andand prospected within thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. MiningMining inin Eldorado CanyonCanyon beganbegan inin 1861.1861 .. By 1864 the mining population reachedreached aa peakpeak ofof aboutabout 90.90. Four towns were laidlaid out,out. three near the mines fourfour or five miles from the river and one onon thethe river.river. It is difficult to say whetherwhether any of these were within thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. In any event, they did not materialize asas towns.towns. Although sizable shipmentsshipments ofof oreore were made in 1865, they were not large enough to justify keepingkeeping the mines inin operation.operation. The miners left,left, andand by 18671867 therethere were only 33 men leftleft (Casebier(Casebier 1970).1970).

Ironically, it was at this point thatthat aa detachmentdetachment ofof troops arrived to protect thethe mining communitycommunity fromfrom PaiutePaiute attack. Pleas for military protection had been made while the mines were stillstill operating.operating. There had alsoalso been pressure for the military protection of steamboats transportingtransporting goodsgoods up the ColoradoColorado RiverRiver toto Callville,Callville, toto bebe carriedcarried overover landland to Utah.Utah. The firstfirst steamboatsteamboat had made thethe triptrip inin 1866;1866; byby 1867 the companycompany that owned itit was inin financialfinancial trouble,trouble, andand brought thethe venture toto anan endend (Casebier(Casebier 1970).1970).

Despite thethe factfact thatthat thethe situationsituation was soso dramaticallydramatically changed, the 62 men detached to defend thethe areaarea established Camp El Dorado on thethe riverriver inin JanuaryJanuary 1867.1867. This was thethe year when Major William PricePrice was working toto establishestablish aa peace with thethe Paiute,Paiute, whowho muchmuch outnumberedoutnumbered thethe Euro-Euro-Americans Americans in the area.area. In August, thethe combinedcombined totaltotal ofof nonnon-Indians -Indians at Callville, LasLas VegasVegas Ranch,Ranch. andand EldoradoEldorado CanyonCanyon waswas seven,seven, whereas therethere werewere sometimessometimes upup toto 200200 PaiutesPaiutes atat LasLas VegasVegas alone.alon�. Outposts of Camp El Dorado were establishedestablished inin thethe .variousvarious communitiescommunities toto keepkeep anan eyeeye onon thethe Paiutes.Paiutes. Troops were keptkept inin thethe areaarea untiluntil 1869.1869.

The sitesite ofof CampCamp ElEl DoradoDorado was inundatedinundated by thethe waters ofof Lake Mohave inin thethe 1930s.1930s. It waswas outside the StudyStudy Area, butbut was importantimportant toto itsits history.history.

44-11 -11 Mormons

In 1846 MilesMiles Goodyear,Goodyear, whowho hadhad developeddeveloped the first whitewhite establishment in Utah theth� year before in presentpresent-day -day Ogden, came acrossacross thethe OldOld Spanish TrailTrail onon hishis wayway toto thethe California settlements,settlements, wherewhere hehe sold buckskinsbuckskins andand elkskinselkskins andand boughtbought horses.horses. When he returnedreturned toto Utah inin JulyJuly 18471847. via northern California,California, hehe metmet thethe first bandband ofof MormonsMormons comingcoming westwardwestward intointo Salt Lake Valley.

Earlier that year, Mormons who had formedformed thethe Mormon Battalion to fight inin the Mexican War had broken aa wagon trailtrail across New Mexico and Arizona along thethe southernsouthern routeroute throughthrough the Colorado Desert.Desert. In AprilApril 1847, soreesome of the MormonsMormons were stationed in Cajon Pass to prevent cattle raiders from comingcoming through the pass fromfrom thethe desertdesert (Beattie(Beattie andand BeattieBeattie 1951:1951: 77-80;77 -80; HafenHafen and Hafen 1954a:221954a:22-23). -23).

Most members of the Mormon Battalion leftleft the Army inin the summer of 1347,1847, going to northernnorthern California and then across the Sierra Nevada toto GreatGreat SaltSalt Lake.Lake. That fall,fall, 1919 Mormons--includingMormons -- includingJefferson JeffersonHunt, Hunt, whowho hadhad beenbeen captaincaptain of aa company in the MormonMormon Battalion and waswas enthusiastic about the San Bernardino Valley-Valley--were -were sent to get cattle,cattle, feedfeed grain,grain, and fruit cuttingscuttings fromfrom southernsouthern California.California. This expedition returned to Salt Lake in May 1848, taking the route of the Old Spanish Trail describeddescribed toto themthem byby Goodyear.Goodyear.

Another party of Mormons, made up of men who had remained in San Bernardino ValleyValley when theirtheir enlistmentsenlistments expired,expired, fol-fol lowed. The wagon inin which theythey carriedcarried aa loadload ofof fruitfruit cuttingscuttings and graingrain--the --the firstfirst wagonwagon toto bebe takentaken overover thethe OldOld Spanish Trail--arrivedTrail -- arrived intact.intact. The era of the covered wagon had reached thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The milemile-long -long packpack traintrain thatthat carried goods fromfrom southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia toto SantaSanta FeFe inin 18481848 waswas thethe last of itsits kindkind (Hafen(Hafen andand HafenHafen 1954a:221954a:22-27). -27).

In the fall of 1849, a party of about aa hundred wagons left Salt Lake, guided by Jefferson Hunt andand mademade upup partlypartly of Mormons and partly of immigrants from the east on their way toto thethe goldgold fieldsfields ofof northernnorthern California.California. After tryingtrying unsuccessfully toto findfind aa shortershorter routeroute acrossacross thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, the members ofof thethe wagon traintrain splitsplit intointo severalseveral groups.groups. Only seven wagons under Hunt's leadership reached southern California (Hafen(Hafen andand HafenHafen 1954a:271954a:27-42). -42) .

Some of those who started out withwith this group perished en route, but most eventuallyeventually reachedreached California.California. Several parties camecame acrossacross thethe StudyStudy Area, somesome of themthem passing through Antelope ValleyValley (Hafen(Hafen andand HafenHafen 1954a:421954a:42-43; -43; Beattie and BeattieBeattie 1951:811951:81-82; -82; Weinman-Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979:129).1979:129).

Addison Pratt, aa member of Hunt's party, describeddescribed his epxeriences alongalong thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver inin aa diary.diary. He shotshot aa

4-124 -12 deer in a thicket of willowswillows nearnear the site of Helendale in December.December. The nextnext day, his wayway waswas obstructed by a tangle of brush, vines full of ripe wild grapes,grapes, andand tules.tules. HeHe finally waded acrossacross thethe ice'ice-laden -laden river,river, whichwhich was aboutabout 1818 inches deep.deep. HeHe ate some grapes, and noted that thethe area'sarea's many wolves werewere alsoalso fondfond ofof them.them. After campingcamping near thethe site of Oro Grande, the partyparty left the riverriver herehere toto gogo through Cajon Pass.Pass. Wagons had to be dismantled at UpperUpper Narrows,Narrows, nearnear the entrance toto thethe passpass (Hafen(Hafen andand HafenHafen 1954:1031954:103-105). -105).

From this time on, there waswas a steady streamstream of immigrantsimmigrants from thethe east.east. Many of themthem followedfollowed thethe OldOld SpanishSpanish TrailTrail through thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. By 1851 a route to the west of Upper Narrows had been chosen for a wagon road over which immigrantsimmigrants came across thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Hunt brought aa party of 520520 Mor-Mor mons toto SanSan BernardinoBernardino ValleyValley overover thisthis new routeroute inin thatthat year. Their church had decided to establish a settlement inin the valley, and this group, which brought 140 wagons, purchased San Bernardino Rancho fromfrom thethe LugoLugo Family.Family. They were welcomed, because itit was foreseenforeseen thatthat theythey were likelylikely toto provide flourflour and lumber to southern Californians, as well as protection from cattle rustlers comingcoming inin fromfrom thethe MojaveMojave Desert.Desert.

Because the Lugo landland grantgrant was impreciselyimpreCisely worded,worded, thethe Latter-DayLatter -Day SaintsSaints acquiredacquired onlyonly halfhalf ofof thethe 80,00080,000 acresacres they thought they were buying, andand thethe preciseprecise boundariesboundaries ofof theirtheir holdings were notnot settledsettled forfor manymany years.years. This situation ledled to trouble with otherother settlers,settlers, who wanted toto acquireacquire public land (Beattie(Beattie andand BeattieBeattie 1951:1701951:170-188). -188).

Native Americans

In 1852 a treaty was negotiated by aa representativerepresentative ofof the U.S.u.s. government,government, Dr.Dr. 0.O. M. Wozencraft, andand Native Ameri-Ameri cans in the SanSan BernardinoBernardino ValleyValley (1951:189).(1951:189). There is no record of any negotiationnegotiation withwith Native AmericansAmericans of the Study Area, who apparentlyapparently were notnot muchmuch inin thethe publicpublic eye.eye.

Immigrants who travelled thethe Old SpanishSpanish TrailTrail diddid notnot mention passing throughthrough Native American villages along the upper MojaveMojave River.River. It is likely that these villages had been removed toto areasareas inin thethe mountainsmountains thatthat werewere moremore secure.secure. The journals and diariesdiaries kept by immigrants coming across the desert in 1849 suggestsuggest thatthat Native American strategystrategy duringduring this period was toto staystay out ofof thethe way ofof thethe newcomersnewcomers asas much asas possible.possible. The immigrants, incidentally, raidedraided NativeNative American gardensgardens thatthat theythey camecame acrossacross andand stolestole suppliessupplies fromfrom empty dwellingsdwellings (Hafen(Hafen andand HafenHafen 1954a,1954a, b).b).

As thethe emigrationemigration increased,increased, competitioncompetition forfor thethe scarcescarce resources of the desert apparently created a critical problem

4-134 -13 forfor NativeNative Americans,Americans, and they beganbegan to steal livestock and attackattack emigrants,emigrants, especially those whowho travelled in small groups.groups.

Paiutes were among the Native AmericanAmerican groups that attacked Anglo-AmericansAnglo- Americans whowho refusedrefused to recognize andand/or /or respectrespect Indian rightsrights to control water, timber,timber, minerals,�inera1s, hunting-hunting-gathering gathering resources, andand agriculturalagricultural lands.lands. ��ereWhere Paiute rights were recognized and respected, however, peaceful interculturalintercultural relationshipsrelationships were established.established. For example, Mormon colonistscolonists and PaiutesPaiutes shared resources around the Las Vegas springssprings inin 1855, after the settlers brought together the Native American leadersleaders and made an agreement withwith them forfor permission toto make a settlementsettlement onon theirtheir landslands (Jensen(Jensen 1925:146).1925:146). The exchangeexchange of goods and services between Paiutes and Mormons continued, even though the Paiutes attacked travellers, mail carriers, andand U.S.U.S. militarymilitary forces.forces. After thethe Mormon colonistscolonists returned to Utah in 1857,1857, Paiutes continuedcontinued toto distinguishdistinguish between whites who respected IndianIndian territorialterritorial rightsrights andand those who diddid not.not.

American Expeditions

In 1849 the U.S.U.S. militarymilitary governor of New MexicoMexico (which(which thenthen included Arizona) had conducted a campaign against the Navajos, one of the tribes whose hostility had blocked the direct route between New Mexico andand California.California. A young lieutenant under his command, JamesJames H.H. SimpsonSimpson ofof thethe CorpsCorps of Topographical Engineers, prepared a report in which he urged that a direct route toto California be found, suggesting that the land along the 35th35th parallel would provide the best route. At this timetime therethere was alsoalso agitationagitation forfor aa trans-trans continental railroad, and thisthis parallel was suggested as a route forfor thethe westernwestern section.section.

Before the government could put together an expedition that would traveltravel allall thethe wayway toto CaliforniaCalifornia onon thisthis route,route, Santa Fe merchant and explorer Francois X. Aubry, after driving sheep to California along the more southerly route, led a party ofof 1818 menmen easteast fromfrom TejonTejon PassPass inin JulyJuly 1853.1853. Aubry reached the Mojave River 11 days later, probably a little south of the site of Victorville, whence he followed the usual trail eastward toto thethe sitesite ofof CampCamp Cady.Cady. There he turned toto thethe northeast, reachingreaching thethe ColoradoColorado eithereither byby wayway ofof LasLas VegasVegas Wash oror EldoradoEldorado Canyon.Canyon.

Despite troublestroubles withwith hostilehostile NativeNative AmericansAmericans inin Arizona,Arizona, Aubry drovedrove moremore sheepsheep toto CaliforniaCalifornia thethe nextnext yearyear andand againagain returned viavia thethe 35th35th-parallel -parallel route,route, thisthis time taking a wagon to showshow thatthat thisthis waswas practicalpractical (Casebier(Casebier 1975:431975:43-45). -45). He crossed thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver northnorth ofof thethe MojaveMojave villages,villages, thusthus

44-14 -14 avoidingavoiding the Mojaves,Mojaves, who might well have prevented thethe pas-pas sage ofof soso smallsmall aa groupgroup (1975:45(1975:45-46). -46). Aubry's deathdeath inin aa duel in New Mexico cut short his career as an explorer and trader (1975:45).(1975:45).

Congress had inin March 18531853 approvedapproved fundsfunds forfor fourfour Paci-Paci fic Railway Surveys, toto be completedcompleted within tenten months.months. Two of these surveyssurveys includedincluded partsparts ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Lt. Robert S. WilliamsonWilliamson entered fromfrom thethe westwest inin thethe summersteer ofof 1853,1853, having located two passes through the Sierra Nevada that mightmight be practicable forfor railroads.railroads. He then set out to settle thethe questionquestion--unanswered -- unanswered byby earlyearly mapmakers--ofmapmakers - -ofwhether whether oror notnot the Mojave RiverRiver waswas aa tributarytributary ofof thethe Colorado.Colorado. On his way toto the lower reaches of the Mojave River, Williamson passed through the StudyStudy Area.Area.

Lt. Amiel Weeks Whipple, .assignedassigned toto formallyformally surveysurvey aa route along thethe 35th35th parallel, camecame wesewardwestward throughthrough thethe Mojave villages,villages, crossedcrossed thethe ColoradoColorado inin latelate FebruaryFebruary 1854,1854, and arrived inin Los Angeles onon MarchMarch 21.21.

Whipple's partyparty--which - -which includedincluded aa botanist,botanist, a geologist, and an artistartist--travelled -- travelledup up thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver toto thethe MojaveMojave villages. Guided by Mojaves,Mojaves, the party followed at least one route of thethe Mojave Trail,Trail, naming watering places at Paiute Creek (spring),(spring), RockRock Spring,Spring, MarlMarl Springs,Springs, andand SodaSoda Lake.Lake. Williamson travelledtravelled intointo thethe StudyStudy Area fromfrom thethe west and explored the Soda Lake region, disproving the notion that the Mojave River ultimately drained intointo thethe Colorado River andand thence toto thethe sea.sea. (The PacificPacific ExplorationsExplorations and SurveysSurveys reports published inin 18561856 forfor both thethe vfuippleWhipple and Williamson parties are valuable sources,sources, providing informationinformation on thethe importance of thethe earlyearly historicalhistorical sitessites inin thethe StudyStudy Area.)Area.)

In the summer of 1853, Edward Fitzgerald Beale, thenthen California's SuperintendentSuperintendent of IndianIndian Affairs, had followed much ofof thethe OldOld-Spanish Spanish TrailTrail intointo CaliforniaCalifornia fromfrom SaltSalt Lake,Lake, taking thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver routeroute fromfrom ForksForks-in-the-Road. -in- the -Road. In 1857 Beale was appointed to survey a wagonwagon road along the 35th parallel. This survey has attracted historical notice becausebecause he also conductedconducted anan experiment��periment inin thethe use of camels as beasts of burden on the American deserts.deserts. Beale picked up thethe camels at a Texas port and brought 25 of them across the desert, along with 88 mulemule-drawn -drawn wagons,wagons, 5656 oror 5757 men,men, 300300 sheep, and more than 50 mules andand horses.horses.

Part of Beale's military escortescort dropped out before reach-reach ing the ColoradoColorado River,River, butbut thethe forceforce ofof 4343 wellwell-armed -armed menmen that arrived at the Mojave villages withwith him waswas sufficient to keep thethe Mojave fromfrom attacking.attacking. After reaching the Mojave River near thethe sitesite ofof Helendale, thethe wagon traintrain went on toto Fort Tejon inin thethe TehachapisTehachapis while Beale, with twotwo of thethe �amels,camels, went toto LosLos Angeles.Angeles.

4-154 -15 Beale'sBeale's ordersorders hadhad beenbeen to survey a wagonwagon routeroute as far west asas thethe ColoradoColorado River.River. Hence, his report diddid notnot des-des cribe thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. ButBut its publication,publication, withwith the news that a southern routeroute over whichwhich wagonswagons could travel had been found, did affect thethe area.area.

The expeditions of Aubry,Aubry, Williamson,Williamson, andand BealeBeale passedpassed through southernsouthern Nevada.Nevada. That of Whipple�1hipple maymay have.have.

The Establishment'Establishment of FortFort' Mojave

During 1857 and 1858, the United States had an alterca-alterca tion with thethe Mormons thatthat almostalmost brokebroke outout inin war.war. The Mormons consideredconsidered thethe feasibilityfeasibility ofof fleeingfleeing' toto southernsouthern California. They sent out scoutingscouting parties whose members apparently warned the Mojaves that Americans arriving fromfrom the east would taketake thethe Mojaves'Mojaves' landland awayaway fromfrom them.them. In August 1858,1858, thethe Mojaves fellfell upon emigrantsemigrants who hadhad reachedreached the river three days earlier,earlier, wounding somesome twentytwenty people and killing one; theythey killedkilled allall sevenseven membersmembers ofof anotheranother group.group. Three other groups of emigrantsemigrants on the way to the river heard about the incidentincident andand turnedturned backback toto NewNew Mexico.Mexico.

The Military Department of California took immediate action against the Mojave, ordering Major William Hoffman to proceed toto thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver onon aa reconnaissance.reccrmaLasance . His party assembled ata� Martin's Ranch,Ranch, nearnear thethe mouthmouth ofof CajonCajon Pass,Pass, and after crossingcrossing thethe desertdesert toto thethe MojaveMojave villagesvillages was attacked. Hoffman's force sustainedsustained no casualties,casualties, butbut onon returning he reported thatthat the overland route was not suitable for military use and that a large body of troops should be dispatched againstagainst thethe MojavesMojaves viavia thethe ColoradoColorado River.River.

This recommendation waswas carriedcarried out.out. Hoffman arrived atat the Mojave villages inin AprilApril 18591859 withwith nearlynearly sixsix hundredhundred men;men; the Mojaves surrendered,surrendered, acceptingaccepting termsterms hehe laidlaid down.down.

The peace was notnot aa lastinglasting one.one. There werewere several other battles beforebefore thethe MojavesMojaves gavegave up;up; FortFort MojaveMojave waswas established to make suresure thatthat therethere would bebe nono more.more.

Captain Winfield Scott Hancock, in charge of supplies for the new fort,fort, hiredhired menmen toto carrycarry inin suppliessupplies andand mailmail onon mules,mules, via thethe Mojave Road.Road. In AugustAugust 1859, he sentsent aa caravancaravan con-con sisting ofof twoewo wagons, somesome beefbeef cattlecattle andand aa packpack train,train, accompanied byby aa protectiveprotective forceforce ofof 4040 dragoons.dragoons. In October a train of tenten largelarge wagons carried over 25,000 pounds of freight, inin addition toto nearly 15,000 pounds of food for thethe stock. This experiment proved to the ArmyArmy that the �1ojaveMojave Road was practical forfor wagonwagon transport.transport. For the next threethree years, wagon trainstrains leftleft regularlyregularly withwith suppliessupplies forfor thethe fort.fort.

44-16 -16 Freight costs werewere reduced from the previousprevious 50 cents a pound toto about 66 centscents (Casebier(Casebier 1975:811975:81-106). -106).

AlthoughAlthough the troops stationed atat FortFort MojaveMojave subduedsubdued the Mojaves, thethe PaiutesPaiutes continuedcontinued toto attackattack Anglo-Anglo-Americans. Americans. In 1860, Capt. James H. Carleton waswas sent into the desert onon aa punitive expedition (Casebier(Casebier 1972:12).1972:12). His base, Camp Cady,Cady, waswas near ForksForks-in-the-Road, -in- the -Road,where wherethe theMojave Mojave RiverRiver surfaces.

Fort MojaveMojave and the military outposts in the desert establishedestablished to control the Paiutes werewere closed in 1861 after the Civil War started.started. During the 1860sl860s travel over the Mojave Road waswas directed more toward the mines that were being dis-dis covered in various partsparts ofof thethe desert.desert. Native Americans

. continued to bebe a threat to travellers until 1867 (see Chapter . (see Chapter V).

Mining

Beginning about 1850, mineral prospectorsprospectors on their wayway to other parts ofof thethe Mojave DesertDesert frequentlyfrequently usedused thethe MojaveMojave roads andand trails.trails. ThereThere waswas some mining within thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The Mormon party ledled by Jefferson Hunt in 1849 had found peapea- sized particlesparticles of gold near Salt SpringsSprings (Hafen(Hafen andand HafenHafen 1954a:96), andand newsnews ofof thisthis discoverydiscovery ledled several men toto orga-orga nize gold-gold-seeking seeking companiescompanies and headhead for thethe desert.desert.

The mining thatthat began at Salt Springs in the winterwinter of 1850, withwith rival companies working sideside by side,side, was apparentlyapparently the beginning ofof miningmining inin thethe MojaveMojave DesertDesert byby nonnon-Native -Native Americans. The Salt SpringsSprings mining was successfulsuccessful enoughenough toto inspire a party ofof 3030 prospectorsprospectors toto setset outout fromfrom LosLos AngelesAngeles in the fall of 18511851 toto looklook forfor mineralsminerals alongalong thethe MojaveMojave River. Although the Salt Springs mines werewere reported as being deserted in thethe summersummer ofof 1853,1853, sevenseven yearsyears laterlater oreore inin thethe area was said toto be yieldingyielding $2,500$2,500 aa ton (Walker(Walker 1977:82).1977:82).

San Bernardino County in 1857 'issuedissued deeds to lead and silver mines onon thethe desertdesert slopesslopes ofof thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Moun-Moun tains, and in May 1860 gold was discoveredhere. The 18681868 Bancroft Map ofof CaliforniaCalifornia showedshowed thethe SanSan Bernardino Mining District, which includedincluded both thethe mountains andand Lucerne Val-Val ley, as one of four mining districtsdi�tricts in the Mojave Desert (Walker 1977:821977:82-83). -83). The mines that produced gold,gold, silver,silver, limestone, tungsten, building stone and gemstonesge�tones are south of thethe StudyStudy Area (Map,(Map, CaliforniaCalifornia Division ofof Mines, no date)date) but thethe mining activityactivity nearby must have lessenedlessened thethe isolationisolation of portions ofof thethe StudyStudy· AreaArea adjacentadjacent toto it.it. It is probable that Native Americans of the Study Area provided some of thethe labor for the mines andand mademade miningmining claims.claims.

44-17 -17 SoldiersSoldiers stationed at Fort MojaveMojave found gold in thethe El-El doradodorado AreaArea in 1857 andand beganbegan toto minemine it.it. According toto locallocal traditiontradition NativeNative 'AmericansAmericans had mined at this Nevada sitesite forfor over 150 years before that.that. SpanishSpanish explorersexplorers and MormonMormon emigrantsemigrants werewere also saidsaid toto have mined there.there. In 1861 silver waswas also discovered inin thethe area,area, and mining intensified.intensified. In 1864,1864, a tenten-stamp -stamp millmill startedstarted operationoperation nearnear thethe mouthmouth of Eldorado Canyon, and the next year a post office was opened. Mining continuedcontinued inin thethe 'areaarea untiluntil thethe 1890s.l890s. The Techatticup mine discovereddiscovered inin 18611861 was oneone 'ofof the most productiveproductive (Myrick(Myrick 1963:280).

Another Nevada mining district was at Crescent, west of Searchlight.Searchlight. BetweenBetween 1863 and 18781878 MexicanMexican minersminers areare said to havehave extracted more thanthan $500,000$500,000 inin goldgold fromfrom thisthis area.area. The mining came to an end for a time whenwhen renegade MormonsMormons raided the camp,camp, killing mostmost ofof thethe minersminers (Paher(Paher 1970:284).1970:284).

The earliest documented discoveries of silver at Rock Springs are describeddescribed inin aa letterletter written toto thethe LosLos AngelesAngeles Star in 18631863 (Hamilton(Hamilton 1863).1863). The Rock Springs (or(or Macedonian) Mining District was activelyactively worked until 1866, when the com-com bined effectseffects ofof isolation,isolation, thethe hostilityhostility ofof locallocal NativeNative Ameri-Ameri cans, and a dropdrop inin thethe priceprice ofof silversilver mademade miningmining unprofita-unprofita ble (Casebier(Casebier 1976:304).1976:304).

As early as 1860,1860, CharlesCharles Alvord foundfound blackblack manganese laced with gold inin SpanishSpanish Canyon,Canyon, inin thethe mountains thatthat nownow bear hishis name.name. He waswas murderedmurdered and his minemine was nevernever redis-redis covered, although laterlater prospectors foundfound enoughenough quartzquartz toto qualify thethe areaarea asas aa miningmining district.district.

Settlement

By the 1860s,l860s, travellers were crossing thethe StudyStudy Area to the costalcostal landslands inin greatgreat numbers.numbers. Along thethe majormajor route,route, settlers raised beef cattlecattle andand foodfood cropscrops toto sellsell toto travelers, alongalong withwith hayhay forfor thethe emigrants'emigrants' livestock.livestock.

The main stationsstations alongalong thethe "Old"Old Mojave Road,"Road," proceedingproceeding westward fromfrom Hardyville onon the Colorado River,River, were:were:

Paiute SpringSpring Rock SpringsSprings Government HolesHoles Marl SpringsSprings Soda Springs Camp CadyCady ForksForks-in-the -in -theRoad, Road,where where aa trailtrail branchedbranched northwardnorthward toto Bitter SpringsSprings and,and, eventually,eventually, SaltSalt LakeLake City.City.

44-18 -18 PointPoint of Rocks Cottonwoods Fish Ponds Government StationStation Upper CrossingCrossi�g Lane's Burton's

In 1869 there waswas also a station at Las Flores Ranch. At that time,time, onlyonly eighteight nonnon-Native -Native AmericanAmerican families residedresided inin the Mojave Desert (Langworthy(Langworthy 1977:21).1977:21).

After Native American military actionaction ceasedceased toto bebe aa threat, thousands of cattlecattle and sheep were drivendriven alongalong thethe road each yearyear toto pasturespastures there.there. Herding livestocklivestock overover thethe Mojave RoadRoad had becomebecome aa thrivingthriving business byby 1870,1870, thethe jour-jour neys made feasiblefeasible byby thethe factfact thatthat therethere were somesome placesplaces where herds couldcould grazegraze forfor aa dayday oror two.two. Between 30,000 and 50,000 sheepsheep were drivendriven throughthrough thethe StudyStudy AreaArea inin 1875.1875.

Most miners andand soldierssoldiers who stayedstayed inin thethe StudyStudy Area forfor any length of time during thethe 1860s and 1870sl870s had small herds of domestic animals, and it can be assumed that there were many attemptsattempts toto raiseraise cattlecattle onon aa permanentpermanent basis.basis.

Antelope Valley attractedattracted farfar more settlerssettlers thanthan anyany other part ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The firstfirst white settlerssettlers arrived inin thethe 1860s.l860s. They were cattlecattle andand sheepsheep ranchers,ranchers, who slaughteredslaughtered thethe antelopeantelope forfor theirtheir meat andand hide; somesome 30,000 antelope were reportedly killed by heavy snowfallssnowfalls between 18821882 andand 1385.1385.

An efforteffort was mademade toto alleviatealleviate thethe isolationisolation of thethe MojMojaveave regionregion byby establishingestablishing postalpostal service.service. The firstfirs·t post office, at Rock Springs, was in operation from January 8 to December 6,6, 1366. Although the companycompany triedtried toto carrycarry mailmail on the MojaveMojave Road from California to ArizonaArizona by maintainingmaintaining relay stations atat Marl Springs,Springs, RockRock SpringsSprings andand PaiutePaiute Creek,Creek, the Native American defensedefense againstagainst thisthis invasioninvasion of their territory made traveltravel onon thisthis routeroute dangerous.dangerous. MilitaryMilitaryout outposts were set up at Rock Springs, MarlMarl Springs, and Paiute Creek; at Paiute Creek, the soldiers developed unusual esprit de corps andand constructedconstructed aa buildingbuilding andand corralscorrals ofof stone,stone, later calledcalled "Fort"Fort Paiute"Paiute" (Casebier(Casebier 1974:47).1974:47). In 1868 thethe effort of trying to establish regular movement of mail and passengers alongalong thethe MojaveMojave RoadRoad waswas abandonedabandoned (Casebier(Casebier 19 1976:76 : 304ff.).

44-19 -19 A WHITE MAN'SMAN'S WORLD,WORLD, 18701870-1900 -1900

BetweenBetween 1848 and 18701870 thethe Euro-Euro-Americans Americans whowho travelled through the Study Area came through a territory thatthat stillstill belonged to thethe Native Americans, who outnumberedoutnumbered themthem there,there, who were more familiar with it, and whowho exercised a measure of control thereby.thereby_ Native Americans were in 1848 thethe onlyonly humans who livedlived within thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. By 1870 this situa-situa tion was changing.chang�ng_ The Mojave andand thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute had both agreed toto keep thethe peace on the government's terms.terms. TheirTheir numbersnumbers werewere being reduced by disease and hunger asas well as byby gùnfire,gUnfire, andand Euro-Euro-Americans Americans werewere beginningbeginning to live inin the Study Area.Area. In miningmining areas NativeNative AmericansAmericans werewere being incorporated intointo thethe largerlarger economiceconomic system.system.

There werewere other changes in the last 30 years of the cen-cen tury that had to do withwith technological, economic and political changes that were takingtaking placeplace inin thethe nationnation asas aa whole.whole. The Study Area was farfar fromfrom thethe centerscenters ofof power,power, butbut decisionsdecisions being made therethere hadhad theirtheir effecteffect onon it.it. The most dramatic changes had to do withwith mining and railroads, but they werewere not thethe onlyonly changes.changes.

Mining andand Railroads

In the 1870sl870s mining inin thethe Mojave became anan industryindustry organized onon aa corporatecorporate scale.scale. Native Americans were employedemployed in the mines oror withdrewwithdrew intointo thethe mountains.mountains. The erstwhile Macedonian Mining District was reactivated in the 1870sl870s as the New York District.District. Clark Mining District was centered atat oneone of several sites that have been named Ivanpah, and small miningmining camps dotteddotted thethe ProvidenceProvidence MountainsMountains/Mid /Mid HillsHills/New /New York Mountains region.region. Even though the typical mining operation was no longerlonger anan independentindependent venture but one carried out by a company financedfinanced with capitalcapital providedprovided byby investors,investors, thethe minesmines were rarely profitable until thethe Santa Fe Railroad was built through thethe Mojave DesertDesert inin thethe earlyearly 1880s1880s (Casebier(Casebier 1976:1976: 304304-305). -305).

The railroad along thethe 35th35th parallel, which hadhad inspiredinspired so muchmuch exploration during thethe 1850s,l850s, was finallyfinally builtbuilt byby Southern Pacific inin 1882/3,1882/3, asas aa move inin aa complexcomplex strugglestruggle among competing firms,firms, eacheach attemptingattempting toto establishestablish transcon-transcon tinental railrail services.services. The Southern Pacific Railroad had aa track throughthrough Mojave,Mojave, California.California. The Atlantic && PacificPacific RailroadRailroad--owned - -ownedjointly jointlyby by thethe St.St. LouisLouis && SanSan FranciscoFrancisco Rail-Rail road andand thethe Atchison, TopekaTopeka & SantaSanta FeFe--was- -was completingcompleting a system throughthrough SantaSanta FeFe toto Needles,Needles, whence itit hadhad rightsrights toto aa route westward.

44-20 -20 In 1883 the Southern Pacific beganbegan laying tracks into the desert fromfrom MojaveMojave--through -- through Boron,Boron, Kramer,Kramer, Hinkley, Waterman's (near(near presentpresent-day -day Barstow),Barstow), Calico Station (later(later Daggett); thenthen--alphabetically -- alphabetically orderedordered along thethe lineline--came --came the stations at Amboy, Bristol, Cadiz,Cadiz, Danby,Danby, Edson,Edson, Fenner,Fenner, Gaffs,Goffs, Homer, Ibex, and Java; and finally,finally, Needles.Needles. (Bristol and Edson became Bengal and Essex; and Siam,Siam, Kartoum,Kartoum, Nome,Nome, and Klondike were laterlater additions.)additions.)

The Atlantic & Pacific line, approaching fromfrom thethe east,east, reached thethe ColoradoColorado River in May, but bridging the river took until August. When thisthis line and thethe SouthernSouthern PacificPacific met at Needles thatthat August, little fanfare accompanied the completion ofof thisthis compositecomposite transcontinentaltranscontinental route.route. The cooperating but competing railroads diddid not make itit easyeasy toto transfer betweenbetween lineslines--passengers -- passengers hadhad toto carrycarry theirtheir own luggage. Neither freight nor passengers provided much busi-busi ness, and, atat first,first, trainstrains ranran onlyonly threethree timestimes aa week.week. In 1884, thethe SouthernSouthern PacificPacific soldsold itsits MojaveMojave-Needles -Needles line toto the Atlantic && Pacific.Pacific. The line waswas acquired by thethe SantaSanta Fe inin 1890.1890.

When thethe Atlantic & Pacific line was being built throughthrough the eastern Mojave, tank cars brought waterwater from Newberry Springs forfor thethe railroadrailroad workers.workers. For years, railroads con-con tinued to transport water for domestic purposes to eastern Mojave settlementssettlements (Myrick(Myrick 1963:787).1963:787).

The railroads encouraged the development of miningmining and other industriesindustries inin thethe desertdesert throughoutthroughout thethe 1880sl880s andand 1890s.1890s. In the depression ofof 18931893 thethe AtlanticAtlantic && Pacific,Pacific, thethe St.St. Louis && SanSan Francisco,Francisco, andand thethe SantaSanta Fe railroads all went into receivership; inin thethe subsequentsubsequent reorganization,reorganization, thethe Atlantic && PacificPacific waswas absorbedabsorbed byby thethe SantaSanta FeFe (Myrick(Myrick 1963:1963: 788).788) .

Chinese workersworkers had built much of thethe railroad throughthrough the Mojave,Mojave, and theythey continued toto be aa partpart ofof thethe laborlabor forceforce after thethe trainstrains beganbegan toto operate.operate. At Bagdad, where thethe ter-ter minal forfor auxiliaryauxiliary locomotiveslocomotives was located,located, ChineseChinese were employed toto cookcook forfor traintrain crews.crews. When aa choleracholera epidemicepidemic broke out,out, ChineseChinese victimsvictims werewere buriedburied onon nearbynearby AshAsh Hill,Hill, the danger of contagion making itit impracticalimpractical toto returnreturn theirtheir remains toto ChinaChina inin thethe usualusual fashionfashion (Myrick(Myrick 1963:787).1963: 787) . Mojaves, Chemehuevis,Chemehuevis, PaiutesPaiutes andand other NativeNative Americans were also involvedinvolved inin thethe buildingbuilding andand operatingoperating ofof railroadsrailroads within thethe StudyStudy AreaArea (Smith(Smith 1977:94).1977:94).

Settlements were also located along aa lineline thatthat startedstarted out inin 18921892 asas thethe NevadaNevada SouthernSouthern Railroad,Railroad, andand laterlater (ca.(ca. 1895) became thethe CaliforniaCalifornia EasternEastern Railway.Railway. These stationsstations included Vontrigger, Lanfair, Ledge, Purdy,Purdy, BarnwellBarnwell (at(at first named Manvel), Leastalk (now(now Ivanpah), Vanderbilt, and

4-214 -21 an earlierearlier Ivanpah.Ivanpah. The railroad waswas proposed as a way of bringing ore toto Needles, where thethe Colorado River would powerpower a stampstamp mill.mill. But minesmines in the area werewere not as rich as had been hoped, andand financingfinancing·the the railroadrailroad provedproved difficult.difficult. It was not completedcompleted until around 1900, after a copper mine inin the Ivanpah areaarea becamebecame productive.productive. Mojave NativeNative Americans,Americans, sometimes inin crews numbering 150,150, diddid allall thethe gradinggrading forfor thethe railroad bed by hand, with only occasional assistance from explosives (Myrick(Myrick 1963:845).1963:845).

Calico Station, on thethe Atlantic & Pacific,Pacific, became DaggettDaggett in 1883 (Myrick(Myrick 1963:766).1963:766). Since then, the name Calico (after the brightlybrightly coloredcolored rockrock formations nearby)nearby) has been used onlyonly forfor thethe oldold miningmining town,town, somesome sevenseven milesmiles (11(11 km)km) north ofof Daggett.Daggett. Silver, gold, and borate mines were worked nearby, and aa number ofof shortshort rail lineslines transportedtransported oreore toto mills. A narrow gauge,gauge, 7-7-mile-lon� mile -long track,track, whichwhich carriedcarried ore from the Oro Grande Mining Company'sCompany s Waterloo mine toto itsits mill onon thethe Mojave, reportedlyreportedly reducedreduced transportationtransportation costscosts from $2.50 to 7ç7¢ aa tonton (Myrick(Myrick 1963:822).1963:822).

The construction of thethe California SouthernSouthern Railway fromfrom San Bernardino to Barstow by wayway of Cajon Pass stimulated the development of communitiescommunities inin thethe western StudyStudy Area.Area. When the first train rolled throughthrough Hesperia and Mormon Crossing in 1885, there were only one or two log structures at each place. The railroad companycompany (later(later acquiredacquired byby. thethe SantaSanta Fe)Fe) officially named thethe stopstop atat Mormon Crossing "Victor,""Victor," inin honor ofof JacobJacob N.N. Victor,Victor, constructionconstruction superintendent.superintendent.

A mill forfor processing gold ore was built at Victor inin 1887 (Myrick(Myrick 1963:857), and the town later became a center for processing many otherother mineral resources.resources. Its name was changed toto Victorville inin 19011901 afterafter thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates PostPost Office Department decreeddecreed thatthat Victor,Victor, California,California, waswas tootoo easy toto confuseconfuse withwith Victor,Victor, Colorado.Colorado. By that time, thethe settlement had becomebecome the commercial center ofof VictorVictor ValleyValley and itsits largestlargest community.community.

Oro Grande, onon thethe OldOld SpanishSpanish Trail,Trail, beganbegan asas a agoldgold - mining campcamp butbut becamebecame aa permanentpermanent settlementsettlement afterafter thethe rail-rail road was established.established. A mill was built here forfor processingprocessing ore. In 1889, workers at thethe Carbonate Mining CompanyCompany nearnear Oro Grande discovered thatthat ore theythey werewere processing contained a remarkable proportion of free gold, which the company also began toto recover (Engineering(Engineering andand MiningMining JournalJournal 1899).1899).

4-22LL-22 Agriculture

Stock raising. After 1870,1870, more settlerssettlers filedfiled forfor home-home steads alongraisin� thethe Mojavejave River.River. Great herds of sheepsheep andand otherother livestock continued to be driven along the Old Mojave Trail.Trail. The eastern part of thethe Study Area may have been exploitedexploited asas a cattle grazing areaarea fromfrom asas earlyearly asas thethe 1870s.l870s. Large scalescale cattle raising there began when the Rock Springs Land andand Cattle Company was incorporatedincorporated inin 18941894 (Casebier(Casebier 1976:318).1976:318).

Range cattlecattle beganbegan grazinggrazing inin thethe Daggett-Daggett-Barstow Barstow area inin the 1870s, withwith as manymany as 50,000 headhead of cattle roamingroaming on unfenced publicpublic lands.lands. In the 1880s, the grandfather ofof thethe High Desert Cattlemen's Association's current president home-home steaded all the land he could acquire on the east side of presentpresent-day -day Barstow,Barstow, plantingplanting alfalfaalfalfa andand unitinguniting withwith his neighbors toto build thethe first bridge over the Mojave River (Mitchell 1977).1977). Accounts byby manymany otherother MojaveMojave ValleyValley oldold - timers have alsoalso beenbeen publishedpublished (Keeling(Keeling 1977).1977).

Sheep were raised inin thethe area,area, andand sometimessometimes numberednumbered 65,000. For nearly a century,century, transhumancetranshumance hashas been practicedpracticed by Basque sheepherderssheepherders who bring their flocks from MontanaMontana and Idaho for winter grazinggrazing inin thethe valley.valley.

In the region east and south of Barstow and Daggett, here referred toto asas thethe MojaveMojave Valley,Valley, thethe presencepresence ofof groundwatergroundwater made irrigationirrigation farmingfarming possible.possible. As much asas 565565 billion gallons (2(2 trillion liters)liters) ofof groundwatergroundwater may be availableavailable in some yearsyears inin thethe areaarea encompassingencompassing Forks,Forks, Barstow,Barstow, VictorVictor - ville, andand HinkleyHinkley ValleyValley (California(California DepartmentDepartment ofof PublicPublic Works 1934:Table1934:Table 38).38). In Barstow, it has been estimatedestimated thatthat 31.2 million gallons (117.8(117.8 million liters)liters) aa dayday areare available.available.

Normally, the Mojave River disappears as a streamstream near Victorville, toto flowflow undergroundunderground toto aa pointpoint somesome thirtythirty-two -two miles (51(51 km)km) northeastnortheast ofof Barstow.Barstow. In years of largelarge runoff,runoff, however, surfacesurface flowflow maymay continuecontinue pastpast DaggettDaggett (Weinman(Weinman - Roberts 1979:156).1979:156).

The earliest formal claim for waterwater rights was filed inin 1861,1861,. and irrigationirrigation systemssystems were establishedestablished inin thethe earlyearly 1870s.l870s. The SanSan Bernardino water commissioners distributeddistributed the first irrigation rights in 1879, allotting sixsix ditches near thethe LowerLower NarrowsNarrows (Thompson(Thompson 1929).1929).

In 1886, land in Victor Valley was purchased by a group of Ontario, California,California, investorsinvestors who hadhad formedformed thethe HesperiaHesperia Land && WaterWater Company.Company. Deeds stipulated that if liquor were ever sold, served, or given away on the lots or adjacent streets, thethe landland would revertrevert toto thethe company.company. The salessales tactics of the development company were less sobersober thanthan itsits stand on alcoholic beverages mightmight suggest.suggest. Customers were

4-234 -23 met by salesmen who offered themth� pink lemonade and lithographs of the "future Hesperia" showingshowing thriving residential andand commercial districts.districts. Some of the promoters tied oranges toto Joshua trees in the effort toto convince unwary buyers thatthat oranges were actually growinggrowing inin thisthis region.region.

In the prosperous l880s1880s such tactics werewere successful, andand lots werewere sold sightsight unseen to buyers in the East and eveneven Europe. In 1887, after the Hesperia Company had been sold toto New York investors, winter floods destroyed the pipeline built to bringbring waterwater from the SanSan BernardinoBernardino'Mountains. Mountains. Orchards and vineyards died for want of water, and Hesperia's boom daysdays were overover (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979).1979).

Between 1890 and 1895, sixsix irrigation districts were formed in thethe Antelope Valley.Valley. Only one operated successfully,successfully, and manymany of itsits colonistscolonists leftleft duringduring aa 10lO-year -year drought thatthat began inin 1893.1893. Near Lancaster and Palmdale, wells drilleddrilled toto depths ofof 200,500200�500 feetfeet (60(60-l50 -150 m)m) oftenoften produced artesianartesian flows.flows. Lush and profitable crops of alfalfa werewere grown on irrigated fields, attracting soso many jackrabbits that farmers launched annual drives againstagainst them.them.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURYCEh�Y BEGINSBEGINS

Railroads and Mining

Early in the 1900s, another major railroad was completedcompleted through thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad (later(later thethe UnionUnion Pacific)Pacific) ranran fromfrom DaggettDaggett toto Las Vegas, Nevada.Nevada. Between Daggett and Riverside, this rail-rail road used thethe tracktrack of a line built in 1885 and acquired byby the Santa Fe in 1905; itit ran throughthrough CajonCajon PassPass toto Hesperia, Victorville, OroOro Grande,Grande, Bryman,Bryman, Helendale,Helendale, Hodge,Hodge, Lenwood,Lenwood, and Barstow.Barstow. This arrangement brought another route throughthrough the Study Area toto thethe coastcoast (King(King && CasebierCasebier 1976:309;1976:309; Myrick 1963).1963).

Mining continuedcontinued toto be an important industry in the Study Area, itsits levellevel ofof activityactivity being dependent on thethe demand for minerals.

In the Crescent Mining District inin Nevada,Nevada, atat leastleast tenten incorporated mining companiescompanies were activeactive inin 1905,1905, when aa townsite was stakedstaked out.out. One of them was the Toltec Gem Company, which beganbegan operationsoperations inin 18971897 afterafter aa NativeNative Ameri-Ameri can prospector foundfound depositsdeposits ofof turquoiseturquoise (Paher(Paher 1970:284).1970:284)�

44-24 -24 Turquoise deposits inin thisthis district had been worked byby NativeNative Americans inin prehistoricprehistoric times.times.

The town of Nelson,Nelson, Nevada,Nevad� waswas establishedestablished in 1905 when Eldorado was abandoned.abandoned. When the smelter built toto processprocess its ore blew up inin 1909,1909, mining atat NelsonNelson slowedslowed down.down. OperaOpera- tions resumedresumed in the 1930s when a paved road to the towntown permitted oreore toto bebe truckedtrucked toto thethe railroad.railroad. The mines laterlater closed when labor costscosts made themthem uneconomical.uneconomical.

At Searchlight,Searchlight, Nevada,Nevada, thethe mill of thethe QuartetteQuartette MiningMining Company that waswas built in 1903 waswas one of the first to make extensive use of thethe cyanidecyanide smeltingsmelting process.process. Quartette mine produced somesome $2.2$2.2 millionmillion inin goldgold betweenbetween 18981898 andand 1911.1911. It was thethe principal producerproducer ofof thethe SearchlightSearchlight area.area. The other major mines were thethe DuplexDuplex MineMine andand GoodGood HopeHope Mine.Mine. Before thethe mill was built, ore had been hauled by wagon toto Manvel andand thenthen byby traintrain toto Needles.Needles. By 1907 there were 44 working mines inin SearchlightSearchlight andand thethe citycity reportedly had aa population ofof upup toto 5,000.5,000.

A sixteensixteen-mile -mile narrownarrow gaugegauge railroadrailroad waswas builtbuilt from the Quartette Mining Company'sCompany's minemine toto itsits millmill onon thethe ColoradoColorado River inin 19011901 andand 1902.1902. Passengers could taketake thethe traintrain toto the river andand catchcatch aa riverriver steamboatsteamboat forfor Needles.Needles. By 1906 the company was able toto operateoperate itsits mills inin Searchlight,Searchlight, using water fromfrom wells, andand thethe narrownarrow gaugegauge railroadrailroad waswas abandoned. To provide a means of transportationtransportation forfor thethe community,°thecommunity, the SantaSanta FeFe Railroad'sRailroad's subsidiary,subsidiary, the Barnwell andand Searchlight Railway,Railway, laylay standardstandard gaugegauge trackstracks inin 19061906-1907 -1907 from Barnwell toto Searchlight.Searchlight. From March 31,31, 19071907 therethere was daily service fromfrom GoffsGoffs toto BarnwellBarnwell toto Searchlight.Searchlight. On Sundays thethe traintrain went fromfrom BarnwellBarnwell toto Ivanpah.Ivanpah. Severe stormsstorms washed outout somesome of thethe railbed in 1923, and the line, whichwhich by then had been running trainstrains onlyonly twicetwice aa week, was allowedallowed to discontinue serviceservice (Myrick(Myrick 1963:8481963:848-854; -854; PaherPaher 1970:1970: 280-284).280 -284) .

The rails from Searchlight'sSearchlight's narrow gaugegauge railroadrailroad were taken up in 1910 and used toto build thethe YellowYellow PinePine lineline betweenbetween Jean and Goodsprings, Nevada.Nevada. This line carriedcarried thethe copper,copper, lead, and zinc ore fromfrom thethe Yellow PinePine mines toto aa mill atat Goodsprings andand fromfrom therethere toto thethe SP,SP, LALA && SLSL RailroadRailroad atat JeanJean (Myrick 1963:7531963:753-754). -754).

The most importantimportant mine ofof thethe SunsetSunset Mining DistrictDistrict inin Nevada, thethe LucyLucy GreyGrey mine,mine, waswas locatedlocated inin 1905,1905, althoughalthough somesome ore had been discovereddiscovered inin thethe areaarea inin thethe 1890s.l890s. A cyanidecyanide mill waswas installedinstalled nearnear thethe minemine inin 1912.1912. This areaarea isis 1919 miles west ofof SearchlightSearchlight andand 88 miles northeast of Nipton (Paher( Paher 1970:285).1970:285).

In the early 1900s there was a narrow gaugegauge railway fromfrom

4-254 -25 Amboy, onon thethe SantaSanta FeFe railroadrailroad betweenbetween BarstowBarstow andand Needles,Needles, and gypsum quarriesquarries inin BristolBristol Lake toto thethe southsouth andand east.east. The track was 1kl� milesmiles (2.4(2.4 km)km) long andand carscars werewere pulledpulled byby mules. In 1913, the track was rebuilt to a quarry at SaltusSaltus 3 milesmiles (4.8(4.8 km) away, and a small steam locomotive was pur-pur chased. Other changes were made in succeeding years until the gypsum quarrying was discontinueddiscontinued inin 19241924 (Myrick(Myrick 1963:1963: 835-840).835 -840).

The Ludlow and Southern Railway Company was built inin 1902-19031902 -1903 fromfrom LudlowLudlow 88 .milesmiles (13(13 km)km) southsouth toto thethe BagdadBagdad Chase mine,mine, one of San Bernardino County's richest sources of gold andand copper.copper. The railroadrailroad ceased regularregular operation in 1916. The mine operatedoperated intermittentlyintermittently untiluntil 1954.1954. Half of San Bernardino's gold production from 1880 to 1950 had come from thisthis oneone minemine (Myrick(Myrick 1963:8271963:827-835). -835).

In 1906, Mrs. E. M. Potts initiated the exploitation of limestone deposits about aa mile northeast ofof OroOro Grande.Grande. Within twoewo yearsyears sheshe hadhad raisedraised enoughenough fundsfunds toto buildbuild aa kiln,kiln, thus establishing thethe production of cementcement asas aa newnew VictorVictor Valley industry.industry.

The Golden State Portland CementCement Company,Company, inin which PottsPotts was aa drivingdriving force,force, inin 19151915 laidlaid aa standardstandard-gauge -gauge railway from the limestone quarry to OroOro Grande,Grande, aa distancedistance ofof nearlynearly two miles (3(3 km).km). Riverside Cement Company tooktook over thethe operation andand expandedexpanded itit inin 1923.1923. Although the railroad was later abandoned, cement continuescontinues toto be anan importantimportant OroOro Grande productproduct (Myrick(Myrick 1963:8581963:858-860). -860).

An eveneven largerlarger cementcement plant was built at Leon in 1915 by the Southwestern Portland CementCement Company, which also built thethe Mojave Northern Railroad to transport limestone from mountainmountain quarries. The line served asas aa commoncommon carriercarrier inin earlyearly years,years, although most of itsits passengers worked inin thethe quarriesquarries (Myrick(Myrick 1963:860-869).1963:860 -869).

Agriculture and SettlementSettlement

Homesteaders attemptedattempted drydry farmingfarming inin thethe ·easterneastern MojaveMojave about 1910, afterafter therethere hadhad beenbeen considerableconsiderable rainfallrainfall forfor several years. The most numerous and successful efforts were made atat LanfairLanfair (earlier(earlier Paradise)Paradise) Valley.Valley. Attempts toto obtain water byby drillingdrilling wellswells werewere onlyonly marginallymarginally successful.successful. Water had to be hauled fromfrom springssprings atat GovernmentGovernment Holes,Holes, which werewere public property, oror obtainedobtained fromfrom thethe railroad.railroad. The Rock Springs Land & CattleCattle CompanyCompany ownedowned thethe rightsrights toto allall otherother available water.water.

As the rainy cyclecycle camecame toto anan end,end, moremore andand moremore home-home steaders gave up.up. When thethe railroadrailroad abandonedabandoned thethe branchbranch lineline

4-264 -26 from ManvelManvel to Searchlight in 1923, the last remainingrema�n�ng settlerssettlers left. A ,fewfew ruined buildings are located here, and muchmuch of the land in LanfairLanfair ValleyValley is still privatelyprivately owned (Casebier(Casebier 1976:1976: 320320 ff.).

TheThe RockRock Springs LandLand & Cattle Company continued toto monomono- polize the cattle industryindustry inin thisthis areaarea untiluntil 1927.1927. Its formerformer rangerange is nownow shared byby its successor, the OX Cattle Company, and a number of smaller ranches (Casebier(Casebier 1976:317- 319).

After 1900, agriculture developed steadily in the western part of thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Ranches appeared easteast ofof Barstow,Barstow, around Helendale, andand inin thethe HinkleyHinkley Valley-Valley-Harper Harper LakeLake dis-dis tricts. Although many claimsclaims forfor homesteads werewere filed,filed, relatively few were developed as farms or ranches, because sources of .waterwater were seldomseldom dependable.dependable. Good wells were found inin thethe middle Mojave Valley, where the water table ranged fromfrom 55 toto 3030 feetfeet (1.5(1.5 toto 99 m).m).

The communities in the westernwestern Study AreaArea that areare nownow becoming a part of the southern California metropolitanmetropolitan area began as farmingfarming communities.communities. Some of them stillstill remain agricultural.

Adelanto

The farm community of Adelanto began toto attractattract settlerssettlers in 1917.1917. The town was named by E. U. Richardson, inventorinventor ofof the Hotpoint electric iron,iron, who derived itit fromfrom thethe SpanishSpanish word forfor "progress""progress" (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979:164).1979:164).

Apple Valley

Early settlerssettlers inin thisthis valleyvalley calledcalled itit "Happy"Happy Valley,"Valley," the English translationtranslation ofof itsits NativeNative AmericanAmerican name.name. This name was apparently garbled,garbled, becausebecause byby 19021902 thethe placeplace waswas being calledcalled AppleApple Valley.Valley. In the years thatthat followed,followed, orchards were plantedplanted (Sylvester(Sylvester 1965).1965).

Llano del Rio

A colony establishedestablished atat BigBig RockRock CreekCreek inin 18951895 soonsoon dis-dis banded, butbut aa secondsecond efforteffort--a - -a socialistsocialist communecommune calledcalled "Llano del RioRio"--lasted " -- lastedfrom from 19141914 toto 1918. Aldous HuxleyHuxley camecame toto live inin one ofof thethe colony'scolony's houseshouses inin 1938,1938, andand remainedremained toto write atat leastleast oneone book.book.

4-274 -27 Lucerne Valley

This valley's firstfirst permanent settler, James Goulding, arrivedarrived in 1897 and eventually 'foundedfounded BoxBox "S""s" Ranch.Ranch. There was a gradual transitiontransition fromfrom cattlecattle raising toto alfalfaalfalfa growing in the valley around 1912, and the valley was then namednamed "Lucerne," thethe SwissSwiss termterm forfor alfalfaalfalfa (Belden(Belden 1957;1957; Weinman-RobertsWeinman -Roberts 1979:167).1979:167).

Palmdale

Palmdale is said toto have been established by a wagon train ofof immigrants whowho werewere mostlymostly GermanGerman and Swiss,Swiss, andand until 1919 thethe settlementsettlement was calledcalled "Palmenthal.""Pa1mentha1."

RECENT YEARS

During thethe Depression ofof thethe 1930s,1930s, peoplepeople occasionallyoccasionally occupied abandoned homesteads ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, wherewhere somesome ofof them workedworked old mining claims.claims. Most ofof thisthis temporarytemporary popula-popula tion returned to urban areas when employment opportunities increased duringduring thethe 1940s.1940s.

The economy ofof thethe StudyStudy Area has changedchanged duringduring recentrecent decades. Urban growthgrowth has been particularly notable inin Palm-Palm dale, the population having nearly quadrupled between 19501950 and 1960.1960. Housing tracts similarsimilar toto thosethose ofof Los Angeles are no longerlonger uncommon.uncommon.

Interstate HighwaysHighways 15 and 40 (66)(66) pass through the Study Area, followingfollowing ancientancient tradetrade routesroutes throughthrough thethe desertdesert (Map(Map C).C). Providing services forfor highway travelerstravelers hashas becomebecome particularlyparticularly important to the economy of Barstow, which has been describeddescribed as being sisituatedtuated "a tank of gas fromfrom Los Angeles,Le s LesLas Vegas, being gas Ange J Vegas, and Needles"Needles" (Lantis(Lantis etet al.al. 1963:49).1963:49). Barstow is alsoalso anan important railroad center, where thethe SantaSanta Fe's dieseldiesel repairrepair shops as well as extensiveextens�ve freightfreight yardsyards areare located.located.

The largerlarger townstowns ofof thethe StudyStudy Area alsoalso provideprovide servicesservices and supplies to thousands of people who work atat military installations. It hashas beenbeen estimated that 29,000 military personnel andand 10,00010,000 peoplepeople working forfor civiliancivilian contractorscontractors were employedemployed inin thethe Mojave Desert between thethe Korean war andand 1960. In the 1960s, a sixth of the desert waswas still occupied by military bases.bases.

4-284 -28 The MarineMarine Corps Training Center near Twentynine Palms,Palms, the MarineMarine Corps Supply Centers at Nebo and Yermo, andand GeorgeGeorge Air Force Base are entirely within thethe StudyStudy Area, asas areare partsparts of Edwards Air Force Base and Fort Irwin }lilitaryMilitary Reservation (presently inactive). Historical sites encompassed inin military areas are includedincluded inin thethe listing.listing.

The rural economy of the area has been modified duringdurinp, past decades, creating a "contemporary agricultural mosaic' (Lantis etet al.al 1963:49). (Lantis .. 1963:49). Along the Mojave River andand inin thethe better-wateredbetter -watered valleys,valleys, cattlecattle andand alfalfaalfalfa are still raised, along with wheat andand barley.barley. Occasional orchards stillstill pro-pro duce pears,pears, almonds, andand peaches.peaches.

Within the past decade, specialized recreational vehicles have brought isolatedisolated parts of thethe Study Area within reach ofof the average weekend traveller.traveller. Sites have been subjectedsubjected toto increasing vandalism in recent years, asas proved beyond doubtdoubt by the photographs includedincluded inin thethe CasebierCasebier series.series.

Map C shows thethe historical places mentioned inin thisthis chapter andand listedlisted onon TableTable 7 7-I1-II in ChapterChapter VII.VII.

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MOJAVE

TheThe MojaveMojave areare aa Yuman-Yuman-speaking speaking groupgroup whosewhose true name isis AhaAha macavemacave (pronounced(pronounced ahaaha makav)makav),, meaning "people"people who livelive alongalong thet íßewater" waaté (Sherer(Sherer 1967:2-3).1967T23) . The namename waswas apparently corrupted by fur traderstraders inin thethe latelate 1820sl820s andand thethe 1830sl830s (1967:9(1967:9-11). -11). The English version of thethe name has been spelledspelled both 'Mojave"''Moj ave" andand " ''Mohave."Mohave." Inasmuch as bothboth ·thethe Fort MojMojaveave Tribal Council andand the Colorado River Indian Tribal Council have chosen to use thethe ''Mojave''"Mojave" spelling, that version should nownow be considered thethe correct version.

According to Sherer and the MojavesMojaves with whom she worked on a study of the Mojave clanclan system,system, Mojave landslands stretched along the Colorado River from the site of Hoover Dam southward to about a hundred miles below ParkerParker DamDam (Sherer(Sherer 1965:5).1965:5). Their land adjoinedadjoined thatthat ofof otherother Yuman-Yuman-speaking speaking peoples on the south (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1978:41978:4-16ff. -16ff. presentpresent somesome ofof the protoproto- historical background ofof thethe riverriver peoples).peoples). The southernsouthern neighbors ofof thethe Mojaves when thethe SpanishSpanish arrivedarrived were thethe PanyaPanya (Ha1chidhoma),(Halchidhoma), withwith whomwhom they were generally atat odds.odds.

The Mojave consideredconsidered themselves a nationalnational entity and thought of their landland asas aa countrycountry (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:727).1925:727). As Kroe-Kroe ber put it,it, "the"the manman standsstands inin relationshiprelationship toto thethe groupgroup asas aa whole." Within thethe national entityentity were patrilineal clans,clans, of which therethere werewere 2222 inin thethe mid-mid-laDOs. 1800s. Clan names were bestowed by the creatorcreator Mutavilya, andand were borne only by women, even though they wereMutavilaa, passedpasse onon throughthrough thethe men.men. Men were spokenspoken ofof as beingbeing of a clan and werewere actually called by the clan namename in ceremoniar-contexts,ceremonialcontexts, butbut werewere commonlycommonly referredreferred toto byby nicknames,nicknames, which might be changedchanged fromfrom timetime toto time.time.

The clan names were archaicarchad c nounsnouns of three kinds, which applied to things in the sky or heavens, to desert and mountainmountain plants and animals,animals, andand toto thingsthings underground or in the water (Sherer 1965:391965:39-41). -41). Because all the women inin aa clanclan were givengiven the same name, they also had nicknames,nicknames, whichwhich followed their clan names (Sherer(Sherer 1965:121965:12-16). -16). Women's nicknamesnicknames described the entity specified by theirtheir clanclan name, whereaswhereas men'smen's nicknamesnicknames were unrelatedunrelated toto thethe clanclan namename (1965:12(1965:12-16). -16). For both men andand women, only thethe clanclan namename hadhad lastinglasting significancesignificance (1965:24).(1965:24).

The hereditary greatgreat chieftainchieftain ofof thethe Mojave,Mojave, AhaAha macavemacave pipatahon (alternately,(alternately, AhaAha macavemacave yaltanyaltanack ack oror AhaAha macavemacave Eipatahonhuchach),uchach), camecame fromfrom aa familyfamily inin thethe Malika clan,clan, and was chosenchosen by thethe peoplepeople becausebecause ofof hishis outstareoutstanding ing qualities.qualities. In order to keepkeep his position, however, he had to ,keepkeep the confidence of the people. If he lost that, he couldcould bebe replaced.replaced. When therethere was no leaderleader ofof thethe MalikaMalika clanclan whom thethe peoplepeople trusted,trusted, aa headhead chief waswas chosen fromfrom anotheranother clanclan (Sherer(Sherer 1966:2ff.).1966:2ff.).

55-1 -1 Within thethe MojaveMOjave nation were threethree subgroups:subgroups: the northern, central,central, andand southern.southern. The great chieftain of the Mojave in 1859 waswas also the hereditaryhereditary chief of the northernnorthern subgroup. This subgroup's territory waswas betweenbetween Boulder Dam (Black Canyon)Canyon) and the head ofof MohaveMo�ave Valley.Valley. The central group occupiedoccupied M09aveMohave Valley; the southern group, the areaarea south of Needles Peaks (Sherer(Sherer 1966:29).1966: 29) . Each of thesethese sub-sub groups had chiefschiefs--the --the centralcentral groupgroup havinghaving had 55 inin 1859.1859. At that time therethere were 77 chiefschiefs inin all.all.

Chiefs werewere distinct from the heroes of military conflictconflict or warwar leaders, who alsoalso rankedranked veryvery highhigh inin prestige.prestige. Other pe�sonspersons of prominence attained their rank by dreaming in aa shamanistic manner,manner, thusthus acquiringacquiring specialspecial powerspowers that'providedthatprovided them withwith skills important forfor the Mojave community.community.

�ojaveMojave leadersleaders were expectedexpected toto be generousgenerous andand liberalliberal with theirtheir goodsgoods andand possessions.possessions. They inin effecteffect administeredadministered various communitycommunity activitiesactivities--economic, -- economic, recreational,recreational, politipoliti- cal, and religious.religious.

Desert Mojave apparentlyapparently livedlived inin thethe MojaveMojave DesertDesert asas far westwest as Soda Lake at some period before thethe arrivalarrival ofof the Spaniards. Their occupation of thethe ProvidenceProvidence Mountain/Mountain/ Old WomanWoman Mountains/SodaMountains/Soda Lake area and their replacement by the Chemehuevi areare documenteddocumented inin ethnographicethnographic accountsaccounts collec-collected by HarringtonHarrington (n.(n.d.), d.) , Kelly (1930s)(1930s),, Eisen (1898)(1898),, and others. These accountsaccounts areare summarizedsummarized byby KingKing andand CasebierCasebier (1976).(1976).

There isis aa Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, butbut not aa Mojave,Mojave, traditiontradition thatthat the Chemehuevi camecame fromfrom thethe north andand foughtfought aa longlong warwar forfor this desertdesert area,area, killingkilling mostmost ofof thethe desertdesert Mojave.Mojave. The Mojave who were not killedkilled fledfled toto joinjoin thethe riverriver Mojave.Mojave. Archaeological datadata suggestsuggest thatthat thisthis war camecame to anan end sometime betweenbetween A.D.A.D. 15001500 andand 17001700 (1976:17(1976:17-18). -18).

It is uncertain whether thethe Mojave were inin Mohave Valley,Valley, through part of which thethe StudyStudy AreaArea extendsextends acrossacross thethe Colorado River,River, inin 16041604 whenwhen thethe Ofiateonate expeditionexpedition encounteredencountered the MojaveMojave (Kroeber(Kroeber 1953:3), but theythey werewere.there there inin 17761776 whenwhen GarcesGarcés visited themthem (1953:4).(1953:4). Mojave guides conductedconducted him across the Mojave DesertDesert alongalong aa wellwell-established -established trail. The party on its way west met several groups of MojavesMojaves coming eastward. GarcesGarcés also met MojaveMojave traders in the Santa Clara Valley andand atat aa rancheríarancheria inin what isis now KernKern County.County. On his return triptrip acrossacross thethe Mojave DesertDesert hehe againagain metmet MojaveMojave traders (Kroeber(Kroeber 1953:4).1953:4).

GarcésGarces foundfound thethe PanyaPanya livingliving inin thethe ParkerParker-Blythe -Blythe valleyvalley and the Chemehuevi inland, west of the Whipple Mountains and west ofof ChemehueviChemehuevi Valley.Valley. Between 18251825 andand 18301830 thethe MojaveMojave drove outout thethe Panya.Panya. After occupying the conquered area for about aa year, thethe Mojave returnedreturned toto MohaveMohave Valley.Valley. The Chemehuevi then moved intointo the vacated area, although Mojave

5-25 -2 and YumaYuma families continued toto make some use ofof thethe area.area. This waswas apparently aa part ofof aa generalgeneral movementmovement ofof thethe Chemehuevi southwardsouthward (Kroeber(Kroeber 1953:91953:9-10). -10). The Chemehuevi and the MojaveMojave werewere jointly occupying Cottonwood IslandIsland atat this timetime (1953:10(1953:10-14). -14).

Mojaves were well known for their "military spirit" and actedacted as a nationalnational entity forfor both offenseoffense andand defense.defense. In effect, they had aa formalformal military system.system. Unlike most southwestern Native Americans,Americans, they trained men formallyformally inin combat, military theory,theory, andand militarymilitary strategy.strategy. Their weapons were primarily bows andand arrows,arrows, shields,shields, lances,lances, throwingthrowing sticks, andand clubs.clubs. The Mojaves' familiarity with combat,combat, andand their willingnesswillingness to engageengage in it for the protectionprotection of terri-terri tory oror tribal honor, were well known andand were majormajor factorsfactors in the settlement ofof thethe Southwest.Southwest.

Mojave military strengthstrength was recognized hundreds ofof miles away. They carriedcarried on internationalinternational relationships andand tradedtraded with their immediateimmediate neighbors andand with peoples asas farfar awayaway as the PacificPacific Coast (for(for example, thethe Gabrielino,Gabrielino, Luiseño,Luiseno, and Chumash).

were with the chan The Mojave were alliedallied with theirtheir neighbors,neighbors, the Quechan,Que , who were inin anan enmityenmity relationshiprelationship with thethe Panya,`4aricopa,Panya, liaricopa, and Cocopa. For the most part, the Mojave had friendlyfriendly rela-rela tionships withwith their desert neighbors, thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi andand thethe northern SerranoSerrano (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1978:1978:5-3ff.). 5 -3ff.) .

The Mojave werewere tall,tall, largelarge-boned -boned people,people, who used faceface paint more often andand more effectivelyeffectively thanthan diddid otherother Califor-Califor nia IndiansIndians (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:729).1925:729). Their environmentenvironment waswas warm,warm, and men often wore no clothingclothing atat all;allj womenwomen ordinarilyordinarily worewore a skirt. Both sexes were much concernedconcerned with personalpersonal adorn-adorn ment, however. Men dresseddressed theirtheir hairhair elaborately.elaborately. Body painting and tattooingtattooing were usedused byby bothboth menmen andand womenwomen forfor d�corationdecoration as well asas forfor ritualritual purposes.purposes.

Houses wer�were made with a frameframe of logs and poles, thatched with arrowweeds andand coveredcovered withwith sand.sand. Mojave houses seemedseemed to blendblend "gradually into thethe surroundingsurrotmding soil"soil" (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:1925: 731). The interior was usually aa squaresquare ofof approximatelyapproximately 2020 to 25 feet.feet. Prestigious Mojave men constructedconstructed largerlarger houseshouses in whichwhich a large number ofof peoplepeople slept.slept. The Mojave were notnot involved in the sweathouse practices characteristiccharacteristic ofof mostmost California groups (1925:735).(1925:735).

Agriculture contributedcontributed significantly toto Mojave subsist-subsist ence. Crops planted on the bottomlands of the Colorado River matured quickly, primarily becausebecause ofof thethe warmwarm climate.climate. The principalprinCipal crops grown by the Mojaves were corn, beans, pump-pump kins, wheat, watermelons, andand cantaloupescantaloupes (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:735).1925:735). The agricultural labor was done by both men andand women, with the important planting seasonseason inin MayMay andand June..June . Several native

5-35 -3 herbs and grasses werewere also plantedplanted onon thethe floodplains, and the seeds of thesethese were gathered.gathered.

Corn, wheat,wheat, and beansbeans werewere processedprocessed on a rectangular metate. The pods and beans of the mesquite (Prosopis(Prosopis juli-juli flora), another important food resource, werewere crushed with aa stone pestle inin aa wooden mortar.mortar. Like other Native American groups in the area, the MojaveMojave ate the mealmeal raw, used it toto make·make a nutritious drink, or baked it in the formform of doughdough (Kroeber 1925:736).1925:736). The screwbean was alsoalso used.used.

Individual trees were often ownedowned by individualindividual Mojaves.Mojaves. One of the ways usedused toto indicateindicate ownershipownership waswas toto hanghang arrowarrow - weeds in aa tree,tree, which meant that its yield had already been claimed (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:737).1925:737).

Fish, another important foodfood resource forfor thethe Mojave,Mojave, "were taken withwith seines or driven up shallow sloughssloughs intointo scoops" (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:737).1925: 737) . The fish werewere broiled on charcoal or put inin aa stew.stew. Although game waswas notnot plentiful in the val-val leys, the Mojave hunted thethe availableavailable gamegame animals.animals.

In MojaveMojave oral tradition, agriculture and pottery were associated. Pottery was becoming aa wellwell-developed -developed craftcraft at the time of European contact, and the Mojaves areare well known among westwest coast Native Americans forfor theirtheir pottery.pottery. The shapes used werewere more distinctive than were thosethose made inin other parts of southernsouthern California,California, andand thethe variationvariation inin decoration greater.greater. Pottery was used forfor water jars, cookingcooking pots, parching traystrays forfor grains,grains, ovaloval platters,platters, openopen bowls,bowls, plates, rattles,rattles, fetishes,fetishes, andand toys.toys.

Basketry was made withwith lessless carecare thanthan waswas pottery,pottery, although the MojaveMojave mademade trays, fish traps or scoops, andand wickerhoods for cradles (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:738).1925:738). They were goodgood weaversweavers,, who wove bags or wallets fromfrom variousvarious fibers,fibers, andand made bothboth woven and braided belts.belts.

Occasionally thethe Mojave used stonestone axes,axes, acquiredacquired inin trade, or stones tied to handles to split thethe ground forfor agri-agri culture (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:739).1925:739). They used rafts forfor crossingcrossing the Colorado RiverRiver--a --a typetype easilyeasily mademade byby lashing two bundles of ruletule together.together. Four to six persons could be carriedcarried onon these rafts, which were pushedpushed withwith longlong polespoles oror byby swimmers.swimmers.

Shell currency was used by the Mojave, as among theirtheir neighbors. Clamshells were quite favored, andand were worn asas decorative jewelry.jewelry. In historichistoric times the MojaveMojave acquired fired glass beads, which both men andand women used forfor decora-decora tions. Shoulder capescapes ofof beadsbeads werewere commoncommon (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:740).1925:740).

Mojave recreationrecreation includedincluded hoop-hoop-and-pole and -pole games,games, a type of football,football, shinny,shinny, variousvarious guessingguessing gamesgames (particularly(particularly thethe

55-4 -4 one commonlycommonly known asas peon),peon), andand thethe grassgrass game.game. Women enjoyed playing dice,dice, usingusing staves.staves.

RitesRites· of Passage

Marriage was forfor thethe mostmost partpart aa flexibleflexible arrangement;arrangement; a manman and woman livedlived togethertogether atat will.will. Divorce was a possible solution toto aa mismatched marriage.marriage. Kroeber (1925:747)(1925:747) suggests that MojaveMojave attitudes toward sex and marriagemarriage contributed to the fact that womenwomen appeared to havehave a higherhigher social positionposition or degree of freedom thanthan diddid women amongamong many otherother NativeNative American tribes.tribes. Polygamy was quite commoncommon andand was oftenoften sororal. There werewere special attitudes concerning twins, whowho were thoughtthought toto bebe more sacredsacred thanthan otherother children.children.

Rituals, as with most Native Americans, were conductedconducted toto celebrate the various important times in an individual's life.life. Young girls, forfor example, were "baked"baked inin hot sandsand forfor fourfour nights";nights "; duringduring thisthis timetime theythey werewere sungsung overover andand resocializedresocialized regarding the values of young womanhood,womanhood, such as working hard, not gossiping,.gossiping,;etc. etc. (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:748).1925:748). Specific dietarydietary res-res trictions were often associatedassociated with rituals.rituals.

The Mojave had aa tabboo againstagainst thethe use ofof personal names, especially thethe names ofof deceaseddeceased persons.persons. Death was (and(and still is) an important reasonreason forfor ceremony.ceremony_ Ritual mourning lasted for a considerable time, withwith grief expressed very openly. Cremation was thethe usualusual way ofof disposingdisposing ofof thethe dead.dead. Mortuary rituals includedincluded thethe singingsinging ofof complexcomplex songsong cycles,cycles, considerable oratory, and finally the destruction of signifi-signifi cant amountsamounts ofof property.property. Many people fromfrom widely disperseddispersed areas came to participate in the ceremonies, which lasted forfor several days.days.

Religious Life

MojaveMojave religious life centeredcentered onon thethe conceptconcept thatthat allall reality is basedbased upon dreaming.dreaming. All shamanisticshamanistic power, goodgood fortune, economic success, militarymilitary success, and abilities are dreamed. Consequently, these things are notnot thought to be learned.

Time isis compressedcompressed inin MojaveMojave oraloral literatureliterature--the - -the eventsevents of years occurringoccurring withinwithin instants-instants--and -and isis closely related toto space. Cycles of traditional songs sung on public occasions relate the precise timetime andand place of events in illoill0 temporeteopore (creation time).time). The specific geographical places where events take place area=e not limitedlimited toto Mojave territoryterritory but extend well intointo surroundingsurrounding land.land. There areare atat leastleast thirtythirty such song cycles,cycles, each designateddesignated by name andand having many

5-55 -5 · variationsvariations (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:755).1925: 755) .

TheThe cycles, whichwhich are "enormously long,"long," usuallyusually begin withwith the creation of either one person or a pair of brothers (who mayormay or maymay notnot have'ahave a following),"following), and end with theirtheir transformation into animalsanimals oror landmarks.landmarks. What is important in the cycles is not the plot, but the journeys ofof thethe heroes; these are sometimes described as having taken two or three days, butbut are actually timeless life-histories. LocalLocal- ities on the river, in the desert, or among distant mountains areare named,named, and somesome are describeddescribed inin detail.detail.

A. L. Kroeber collected and publishedpublished aa great manymany of the MojaveMojave narratives (1925;(1925; 1948;1948; 1951;1951; 1972).1972). Place names "inin this literature center on the Mohave Valley and thethe Colo-Colo rado River areas toto thethe north andand south,south, where thethe MojavesMojaves lived. The heroes and heroines of the storiesstories travelledtravelled widely, farfar toto thethe easteast and west as well as to the north and south. The following list of places?laces from Kroeber's publica-publica tions is far from inclusive, but it illustrates thethe extentextent toto which thethe oral literatureliterature ofof thethe Mojave refers toto placesplaces within thethe StudyStudy Area:Area:

The god Mastamho,Mastamho, in the course of training shamans toto heal,heal, tooktook peoplepeople toto Avi-Avi'-hamoka, hamoka, "'three"'three I mountains,mountains,' which isis towardtoward Tehachapi fromfrom Mojave station" (1925:776).(1925:776).

In the Mojave SaltSalt Song,Song, fourfour mountainmountain-sheep -sheep brothers travel from thethe Colorado River area west-west ward toto Hayakwiranya-Hayakwiranya-mat'ara, mat'ara, "east ofof Mojave station in Kawaiisu or Vanyume land"land" (1925:762).(1925:762).

Another version ofof thethe SaltSalt SongSong comescomes toto anan end "at Yava'aviYava'avi-ath'i, -ath'i, nearnear Daggett,Daggett, in Vanyume country" (1925:762).(1925:762).

In a MojaveMojave epic that was related asas historyhistory rather thanthan asas aa religious narrative,narrative, twotwo leadersleaders took their people onon aa longlong journey.journey. They went first toto thethe west andand settledsettled downdown atat Kat3oak-Kat�oak kunuve andand Amat-Amat-kohoye, kohôye, twotwo placesplaces said toto bebe 2424 miresmiles (38(38 km)km) southsouth ofof Barstow.Barstow. They stayedstayed there 5 years (Kroeber(Kroeber 1951:77,151).1951:77,151).

In thethe lastlast songssongs ofof thethe Akwaka,Akwaka, oror DeerDeer cycle ofof songs,songs, twotwo brothersbrothers--apparently -- apparently mountainmountain lion andand jaguarjaguar--having -- having sunksunk intointo thethe groundground north of Mojave territory,territory, emergedemerged fromfrom itit "far"far westwest atat Avi-Avi-kwinyehore, kwinyehore, beyondbeyond San Bernardino" (1925:762).(1925:762). The feline brothersbrothers createdcreated twotwo deerdeer whowho "journeyed"journeyed eastward across the SanSan Bernardino Range, throughthrough the Mohave Desert,Desert, pastpast thethe NewNew YorkYork MountainsMountains

55-6 -6 and AvikWame,Avikwame, across thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver atat Idho�ki:rJa'iraIdho- kuva'iraand' andKar'a'eva Karaeva nearnear FortFort Mohave,Mohave, " by the foot of Boundary Cone..."Cone ... (1925:762),(1925:762).

In a longer version of thethe DeerDeer Tale,Tale, grass was given toto thethe Mojave people atat 'AviO-kits'ekil'yke,Avi- kitsekilyke, aa placeplace "north"north oror westwest of " Calico.Calico." The deer restedrested atat Ava-Ava'- sOasa'ore,'ore,' aa mountain easteast oror northeastnortheast ofof CalicoCalico nearnear which aa prehistoricprehistoric trailtrail usedused toto passpass (1948:43).(1948:43).

° Tumanpa Van�eVanyume songssongs tell thethe storystory ofof aa journey thatthat beginsbeg�ns atat thethe ColoradoColorado River,River, "progresses toto Matavil a -vova nearnear BarstowBarstow, andand "progresses I ends at ends at AviveskWikaveiAviveskwikaveik,Mat'avilka-vova, south of Boundary Cone at the rim of Mohave Valley"Valley" (1925:759).(1925:759). The oral literature upon which thethe songssongs inin thisthis cycle are based maymay have been borrowed from the Vanyume; on the other hand, the songssongs may havehave nothing more to do with thethe Vanyume thanthan thatthat their territory is includedincluded inin themthem (1925:759).(1925:759).

AnalyaO-katha,Analya -katha, "northwest"northwest ofof thethe Providence Mountains," isis included inin the Chuhuecha cyclecycle of songs about two insectinsect brothers and theirtheir experiences. People who know these songs "do"do not become shamansshamans inin old age" and thethe songssongs were thereforetherefore consideredconsidered "good"good singings"singings" (1925:763).

Avi-Avi-kwe-havasu, kwe- havasu, oror "blue-green"blue -green mountains"mountains" (Providence Mountains),Mountains), figure in the Tumanpa short narrative as thethe place fromfrom which TumanpaTumanpa and his sister sawsaw threethree birds havinghaving aa battleatb the with threethree insectsinsects (1972:23).(1972:23). The mountains are alsoalso visitedvisited byby Umas-Umas-kwitsit-patse kwitsit -patse andand hishis people inin thethe VinimulyeVinimulye-Patse -Patse song series (1948:24).(1948:24).

The storystory behindbehind thethe TumanpaTumanpa akyulva,akyulva, Tumanpa uta'uta, atatuana,atatuana, taravikataravika oror halvad-nalvad �,hompa, inin atat leastleast oneone versionversion takestakes theethe journeyJourney �brotherof a brother andand sistersister "first"first intointo thethe Provi-Provi " dence Mountains..."Mountains ... (1925:759).(1925:759). In another story,story, a hero lives inin thethe Providence Mountains forfor a year. Umas-Umas-e1yithe elyithe diesdies fromfrom battlebattle woundswounds therethere in the Vinimulva-hapacha songsong cycle,cycle, aa kindkind ofof clan legendlegendvinimul�a-hapacha (1(1 §25:7;0).25:760).

The New York Mountains figure inin many Mojave songs. A version of thethe Vinimulva hapacha cyclecycle ends at Aviwatha, oror thethe NewNew YorkYork MountainsMountains (1925:(1925: 760). The deer made out of clay inin thethe Deer cyclecycle came past thethe New York Mountains toto Avikwame,AvikWime, andand

5-75 -7 the songs based on this series begin at the New York MountainsMountains (1925:762(1925:762-763). -763). The Ohwera songsong cycle "revolves at least in part about the New York MountainsMountains and the Chemehuevi country northnorth- west of thethe Mohave" (1925:764).(1925:764). It is not clear whether itit isis Kroeber's opinion or thethe Mojave's that the MojaveMojave Desert places are inin Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, or sometimes Vanyume, territory.territory.

The two places thatthat figurefigure asas most sacredsacred in MojaveMojave oral literature areare' Aha'av'ulypo andand ' Aha"'av''tilyPo If Avikwame. Aha'av'ulypo, "housepost"housepost water,"water, isis in EldoradoEldoradoAha"av'ul�o, Canyon, wwhichich joins thethe Colorado River northeast ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Aha'av'ulypoAha'av'ulyPo is associated withwith the creator Matavilya, thethe first offspring of Sky and Earth,Matavilta, who foundound by stretching out his arms that this place was thethe center of the earthearth (1925:770).(1925:770). Aha'av'ulypo figures as the starting place for many journeys described in thethe oraloral literature.literature.

Matavilya was replaced by his sonson oror youngeryounger brother Mastamho, whowho waswas greatergreater thanthan he.he. Mastamho, afterafter takingtaking hishis peoplepeople onon aa journey,journey, created Avikwame (Spirit(Spirit MOuntain,Mountain, Newberry MounMoun- tain) and built himselfhimself aa househouse there.there. From here Mastamho completed thethe creationcreation processprocess andand allot-allot ted lands to thethe Walapai, Yavapai,Yavapai, Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, Yuma, Kamia, andand Mojave.Mojave. He taughttaught thethe Mojave,Mojave, who were thethe youngest,youngest, howhow toto farm,farm, makemake pottery,pottery, speak, andand count.count. Shamans dream ofof Mastamho's house on Avikwame, where theirtheir shadowsshadows receivedrece�ved power from Mastamho in the timetime of thethe beginnings (1925:770-771).(1925:770 -771). Avikwame isis thereforetherefore aa placeplace ofof great power andand sacredness.sacredness.

The Colorado River and the Mojave lands along it figure extensively in the oral literature. Many of the heroes journeyedjourneyed upup oror downdown thethe river.river. For example, the Goose cycles,cycles, which areare curingcuring songs,songs, tell of the wanderings ofof flocksflocks ofof birdsbirds whowho be-be come people and eventuallyeventually come toto claimclaim landslands inin Mohave ValleyValley (1925:766(1925:766-769). -769). The Hipahipa, anan epic warwar story of which Kroeber givesgives onlyonly aa frag-frag ment, takestakes partpart largelylargely inin thethe Mohave Valley�Talley andand must have involvedinvolved thethe StudyStudy Area, thethe herohero Amainyavererkwa havinghaving journeyedjourneyed northnorth fromfrom thethe Amain�avererkwaFort Mojave_ojave areaarea toto AmmoAmmo-heva, -heva, whichwhich Kroeber iden-iden tifies with HardyvilleHardyville (1925:773).(1925:773).

In the Tumanpa shortshort narrative, thethe party ledled by TumanpaTumanpa camecame toto Amat-Amat-ku-vataaanye, ku- vataaanye, "a little sharp peak opposite HardyvilleHardyville �oror Hardy) inin upper

55-8 -8 Mohave Valley, about sixsix miles N of Ft. Mohave." , Tumanpa gave it its name 'so,.thatso that everyone wouldwould know it.it. InIn the,the narrativenarrative it is notednoted that itit isis near Mat'áre-Ma't' are'-mai-muya, mai -muya, aa well-knownwell -known "playfield.""playfield." " came next to Avi- kwa- ahwata," The party came next to "Red"Red Rock,Rock, Avi-'kWa'-ahwata t a red bank on the west sideside of thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver about 44 milesmiles (6 km)km) northnorth ofof FortFort MojaveMojave wherewhere the river turns southsouth atat aa rightright angle.angle .. Tumanpa and an old woman argued about whether thisthis was a bend in thethe river oror itsits endend (1972:24).(1972:24),

In the Vinimulye -Patse tale, Avi-Av'i ... kulaparve,rve Viniinulye-P'atse tale,' kul.apa , "three or four miles north of Ft. Mohave, onon thethe west bank of thethe river, where thethe mesa oror cliffcliff is whitish"whitish" is the home of Savilyuyave's people (Kroeber 1948:26).

The Quail People,People, Ipa-Ipa-'ahma, 'ahma, livedlived at Amat-nyamasave-kwohave,Amat -nyamasave- kwohave, "twotwo or three miles north ofof Ft.Ft. Mohave"Mohave" (1948:26).(1948:26).

Ethnohistory

The visit of the onateOñate party to the Mojave villages inin 1604, that of GarcêsGarces in 1776, and subsequentsubsequent eventsevents which brought thethe Mojave intointo thethe mainstream ofof southwesternsouthwestern historyhistory in the mid-nineteenthmid -nineteenth centurycentury havehave beenbeen describeddescribed in Chapter IV. The MojaveMojave by 1830 had made it plain that theythey intendedintended to maintainmaintain control of their homeland and that traffic through it wouldwould pass only atat theirtheir sufferance.sufferance. Traffic from New Mexico duringduring thethe 1830sl830s andand 1840s1840s tooktook thethe longlong way aroundaround through Utah on the Old Spanish Trail inin order toto avoid hos-hos tile Native Americans.Americans. Casebier points out thatthat thethe Mojaves,Mojaves, rather than thethe Yumas, Hopis,Hopis, Walapais,Walapais, YavapaisYavapais oror Apaches,Apaches, probably posedposed thethe greatestgreatest threatthreat (1975:30(1975:30-32). -32).

When John CharlesCharles FrémontFremont travelledtravelled easteast onon thethe Mojave Trail in 1844, he met a party of sixsix Mojaves, one of whom had been a "Mission Indian" before the missions were broken up. This man,man, whowho spoke Spanish fluently, told FrêmontFremont that some ofof the MojaveMojave had formerly lived along the MojaveMojave River and among thethe mountains boundingsboundings itsits valleyvalley toto thethe north,north, and that along thethe river theythey had raised various kinds of melons (Frémont(Fremont 1845).l8�5). FremontFrêmont himself bypassed the Mojave villages, takingtaking thethe OldOld SpanishSpanish TrailTrail toto thethe north.north.

In 1851 anan exploringexploring expeditionexpedition ledled byby Lt.Lt. LorenzoLorerizo SitSit - greaves of thethe U.S.U.S. CorpsCorps ofof TopographicalTopographical EngineersEngineers visitedvisited the Mojave villages.villages. Although therethere were apparentlyapparently petro-petro glyph warnings againstagainst enteringentering Mojave territory,territory, which were pointed out by NativeNative American guides,guides, thethe Mojave werewere friendlyfriendly

55-9 -9

.. " ...IIL enough untiluntil ordersorders werewere givengiven that they bebe ejected from the visitors' camp.camp. Eventually the Sitgreaves partyparty left, one man having sustainedsustained anan arrowarrow wound (Sitgreaves(Sitgreaves 1851).1851).

The Sitgreaves expedition waswas thethe firstfirst ofof aa numbernumber of official exploratory and militarymilitary expeditions that arrived following the AmericanAmerican.acquisition acquisition ofof California.California. The next to come through the Mojave villages was thatthat ledled by Lt.Lt. AmielArniel Weeks Whipple inin 1854.1854. Whipple maintainedmaintained good relations with the Mojave. He reported thatthat thethe 'chiefschiefs saidsaid theirtheir councilcouncil had decided that they approved of opening upup a road through Mojave country.country. They had selected a good guide to lead thethe Americans along a route wherewhere there wouldwould bebe sufficient waterwater and grass, and they expressed a wish that more travellerstravellers would come theirtheir way toto tradetrade clothingclothing andand utensilsutensils forfor theirtheir farm products (Whipple(lihipp1e 1856).1856).

Between 1854 and 1857,1857, thethe easterneastern Mojave desertdesert was sur-sur veyed, and many of thethe parties ofof surveyorssurveyors must havehave comecome intointo contact with thethe Mojaves.Mojaves. The surveyors brought wagons, using a roadroad along the route over which the Mojave guides had ledled Whipple's partyparty inin 18541854 (Casebier(Casebier 1975:571975:57-58). -58).

In 1858 Edward Fitzg�ra1dFitzgerald Beale, whowho had come through the Mojave villages twicetwice within thethe precedingpreceding year,year, recommendedrecommended that a militarymilitary post be established on the Colorado to protect travellers comingcoming throughthrough thesethese heavilyheavily populatedpopulated villages-villages- - Beale had counted 800800 Mojave men around his campcamp on his secondsecond visit (Lesley(Lesley 1929:143).1929:143).

In the meantime, hostilities had eruptederupted betweenbetween thethe United StatesStates governmentgovernment andand thethe LatterLatter-Day -Day SaintsSaints (Mormons)(Mormons) in Utah. A U.S. army detachment, dispatched against the Mormons inin thethe fall of 1857,1857, bivouacked inin thethe mountains during thethe followingfollowing winter.winter. By spring a peaceful settlementsettlement had been negotiated.negotiated.

In the face ofof thethe militarymilitary threat,threat, however,however, thethe LatterLatter - Day Saints had sentsent scoutsscouts intointo thethe easterneastern Mojave desert andand the Colorado River area to detect any sign of militarymilitary force approaching from the south, to find a place to movemove to should they be forced out of Utah, and to winwin the friendship of the Mojaves. Small groups ofof LatterLatter-Day -Day SaintsSaints visitedvisited the Mojave villages inin thethe fallfall ofof 1857,1857, andand thatthat winter thethe principalprincipal Mojave chiefschiefs visitedvisited southernsouthern UtahUtah andand thethe MormonMormon missionsmissions Mojave . there.

5-105 -10 It waswas an eventfuleventful winter.winter. In December of 18571857 andand thethe following January, George Alonzo Johnson made thethe firstfirst steamship exploration upup the ColoradoColorado to the lower end of Cottonwood Valley; on returning, Johnson encounteredencountered thethe eastbound Beale party, which was visiting thethe Mojave villagesvillages for the second time.time.

In February a second steamer, tmderunder the commandcommand ofof Lt.Lt. Joseph Christmas Ives,Ives, arrivedarrived atat thethe Mojave villages.villages. A land party carrying supplies followed Ives, who went somesome thirty milesmiles farther up the Colorado River thanthan had Johnson. When thethe IvesIves groups returned,returned, theythey foundfound thatthat thethe Mojaves,Mojaves, previously friendly,friendly, had become hostile, having beenbeen toldtold byby Mormons thatthat thethe Americans had comecome toto taketake awayaway theirtheir lands.lands.

In the summer of 1858 at least five trains of emigrants bound forfor CaliforniaCalifornia attemptedattempted toto taketake thethe 35th35th parallelparallel routeroute that publicitypublicity about Beale'sBeale's expeditionexpedition hadhad broughtbrought to their attention. Two of these emigrant parties reached the Mojave villages on or about August 27, having had a very difficult journey acrossacross thethe westernwestern deserts.deserts.

According toto Chooksa homer,homar, who toldtold the storystory of Mojave wars toto A. L. Kroeber inin 1903,1903, the Mojave chiefschiefs were divideddivided as to whether or not toto attackattack thethe emigrants.emigrants. Five of them argued that the whites would take away the wives and children of the Mojave,Mojave, would kick and push the MojaveMojave away, and might keep themthem confinedconfined inin anan enclosedenclosed place.place. Others, including some of the elders, tried to dissuade them from warfarewarfare on the grounds thatthat thethe newcomers were everywhere,everywhere, onon allall sides.sides. Those in favor of attack carried the day, and the MojaveMojave warriors tooktook up theirtheir clubsclubs andand bows, painted theirtheir facesfaces black andand theirtheir hair red,red, andand put on feathersfeathers toto prepare forfor battle.

The Chemehuevi across the river, whowho hadhad expressed a desire toto fightfight with thethe Mojaves, hadhad beenbeen notifiednotified ofof thethe intended attack.attack. As thethe Mojave warriors camecame downdown fromfrom oneone mesa toto thethe emigrants'emigrants' campcamp near thethe river,river, the Chemehuevi approached fromfrom thethe west, comingcoming upup thethe riverriver bankbank (Kroeber(Kroeber and Kroeber 1972:11-13). The battle thatthat followedfollowed was longlong remembered. The emigrants turnedturned back toto SantaSanta Fe;Fe; twentytwenty to twentytwenty-five -five ofof themthem hadhad beenbeen badlybadly wounded,wounded, andand eighteight people hadhad beenbeen killed.killed. Four Mojave were shotshot andand oneone waswas killed.

The emigrantsemigrants lostlost mostmost ofof theirtheir stockstock toto thethe NativeNative American forcesforces andand were ableable toto returnreturn toto New Mexico only because theythey were succoredsuccored by otherother emigrantemigrant parties that theythey met onon thethe trail.trail. After learninglearning ofof thethe MojaveMojave attacksattacks onon thethe first two parties, thethe otherother groupsgroups ofof emigrantsemigrants turnedturned back,back, sharing theirtheir foodfood andand suppliessupplies (Rose(Rose 1859;1859; CasebierCasebier 1975:80).1975:8Q).

When thethe news of thethe firstfirst battle reachedreached thethe commandercommander

55-11 -11 of the MilitaryMilitary Department of California, he dispatched Major William Hoffman with an infantry company and 50 dragoons across the desert. Hoffman waswas to choose a site on the Colorado River for a militarymilitary post, which would ensure thethe safetysafety ofof emigrantsemigrants and ofof those whowho werewere to carry the mail along thethe roadroad thatthat Beale had explored.explored.

Hoffman reported to his superiors thatthat thisthis routeroute waswas impassible forfor supply trains,trains, andand thatthat itit would be necessary to send a large enough command to control both sides ofof thethe river if thethe Mojave were toto bebe keptkept fromfrom attacking.attacking. In a clash withwith the Mojaves,Mojaves, Hoffman's forces had nono casualties andand the MojavesMojaves did, butbut the MojavesMojaves retained control of the riverriver crossing (Casebier(Casebier 1975:83).1975:83).

In MarChMarch 1859 the MojavesMojaves repelled a party led by Samuel A. Bishop that was trying toto bring supplies toto Beale,Beale, who was coming westward fromfrom AlburquerqueAlburquerque withwith a aroadroad-working -working party.party. An estimated 1500 Mojave andand Chemehuevi warriors were ableable toto prevent thethe 43 men inin Bishop'sBishop's partyparty fromfrom crossingcrossing thethe river,river, even though a numbernumber of the Native AmericansAmericans butbut nonenone of the non-Indiansnon - Indianswere were killedkilled (Casebier(Casebier 1975:891975:89-90). -90). Chooksa homar told KroeberKroeber that Yara tav, the headhead chief of the southern subgroup ofof thethe MojMojaves, aves , was opposed toto fightingfighting thethe newcomers,newcomers, although the five militant chiefschiefs wanted toto fightfight again.again. The peace party was sufficiently powerful that shots were purposely aimed toto comecome closeclose to,to, butbut miss,miss, thethe whites.whites. In the end, thethe five militantmilitant chiefs attacked; two of them werewere shot byby Bishop's men,men, oneone fatallyfatally (Kroeber(Kroeber andand KroeberKroeber 1973:181973:18-19). -19).

In the meantime, Hoffman had assembledassembled 600600 menmen atat thethe mouth ofof thethe ColoradoColorado andand proceededproceeded up thethe river,river, aa steamboatsteamboat following with supplies.supplies. In the face of aa forceforce ofof thisthis size,size, the MojaveMojave surrendered.surrendered. On April 23 the Mojave chiefschiefs met with thethe American armyarmy officersofficers andand negotiatednegotiated aa peace.peace. The Mojave agreedagreed toto letlet military posts andand roadsroads be built, not to molestmolest the property or liveslives of thosethose who travelledtravelled throughthrough their country, and toto hand overover aa number of hostages. The their country J and hand number of hostages. The great chieftain Homoseh quahoteguahote was chiefchief spokesmanspokesman forfor thethe Mojave.Moj ave. Five other chiefs apparently participated, includingincluding three who had beenbeen inin favorfavor ofof fightingfighting (1973:20(1973:20-23). -23).

The Mojave helped build Fort Mojave, butbut diddid not imme-imme diately adapt toto thethe waysways ofof thethe intruders.intruders. In 1859, forfor example, they would not eat most of thethe foodfood offered themthem asas payment forfor theirtheir help, nor wouldwould theythey taketake money.money. They accepted wheat flour,flour, clothingclothing thatthat couldcould bebe transformedtransformed intointo breechclouts oror blankets,blankets, cloth,cloth, andand knives.knives. After aa yearyear had passed, accordingaccording toto ChooksaChooksa homar,hamar, theythey had learnedlearned toto accept money asas paymentpayment forfor theirtheir workwork andand forfor melons.melons. They used most of thethe moneymoney forfor gamblinggambling oror forfor buyingbuying horseshorses (Kroeber and Kroeber 1973:24).1973:24).

In late June of 1859,1859, sevenseven ofof thethe ninenine MojaveMojave hostageshostages

55-12 -12 who had been imprisonedimprisoned atat YumaYuma escaped.escaped. Chooksa homar toldtold Kroeber that whenwhen three of them passed near Parker,Parker. throughthrough territory that the MojaveMojave hadhad taken from thethe PanyaPanya somesome thirtythirty years earlier,earlier, they found both Mojaves and Yumas livingliving there,there, this beingbeing richriCh countrycountry withwith muchmuch gamegame (1973:26(1973:26-27). -27).

The two MojaveMojave hostageshostages whowho hadhad remainedremained in custody instead of fleeing werewere shot byby soldiers, and a mourning ceremonyceremony was held in their honor some fivefive or six miles southsouth ofof FortFort MojaveMojave (1973:27).(1973!27). After the ceremony,ceremony, war again broke out between the Mojave and the soldiers, but by thethe end of August thethe Mojave admitted themselves finallyfinally defeated.defeated. They agreedagreed toto give upup the bendbend in the river wherewhere the ¥�javeMojave villages had been andand where the fortfort had been built.built. After this the Mojave apparentlyapparently settled down toto adjustadjust somewhatsomewhat toto aa newnew lifelife stylestyle (1973:32(1973:32-34). -34).

In 1861,1861, justjust beforebefore Fort MojaveMojave waswas abandoned because the Civil WarWar hadhad begun,begun, its commander wrotewrote a letter stating thatthat Homoseh quahoteQuahote hadhad resigned as great chieftain but would re-re main as chief of thethe northern Mojave.Mojave. Yara tav became head chief,Chief, but,but, notnot being a member .ofof thethe Malika clan,clan, waswas notnot eligible to become greatgreat chieftain.chieftain.

The Mojave'sMojave's brief period ofof peacepeace waswas brokenbroken inin 1863,1863, after gold waswas discovered in the area and minersminers swarmed in to stake claims.claims. Interaction between Native AmericansAmericans andand thethe miners, although often amicable, led to trouble oftenoft-en enough that Fort MojaveMojave waswas regarrisoned inin 1865.1865. It waswas occupied until 1890.1890.

There was inin thethe midmid-1860s -1860s a growing factionalfactional splitsplit between Mojave groups.groups. When thethe Colorado River IndianIndian Reser-Reser vation was established by anan actact ofof CongressCongress inin 18651865 (13(13 Stat.Stat. 559) to accommodate 10,000 Native Americans, the Mojave head chief YaraYara tavtav led about 800 MojavesMojaves south from MohaveMohave ValleyValley to the reserved area.area. This group thought that the best way to deal with U. S.S. officialsofficials was toto cooperatecooperate withwith them.them. Government efforts to persuade thethe rest of the Mojaves and members of other SouthwesternSouthwestern tribestribes toto settlesettle atat thisthis reser-reser vation met withwith indifferent success, although some Chemehuevi were successfully settledsettled onon reservationreservation landslands west of thethe river inin thethe 1870s.1870s. Other groups that came to the reservation in the 19th century stayed forfor onlyonly brief periods.periods.

It proved very difficult to establish a viable irrigation system on thethe Colorado RiverRiver reservation,reservation, andand onlyonly 500500 acresacres were being successfullysuccessfully irrigatedirrigated inin 1900.1900. The reservationreservation has been expanded duringduring thethe presentpresent century,century, andand thethe ParkerParker and Headrock damsdams have made itit possiblepossible toto irrigateirrigate thousands-thousands of acres.acres. A long series of courtcourt battles has been fought,fought, inin which thethe MojavesMojaves havehave triedtried toto establishestablish claimsclaims toto theirtheir lands.lands.

The history of CRIR'sCRIR's longlong strugglestruggle forfor independenceindependence has been described inin somesome detaildetail inin PersistencePeraistence andand PowerPower (Bean(Bean

55-13 -13 and Vane 1978:51978:5-27 -27 toto 55-35), -35) , and willwill notnot be repeated here. What is pertinent to this study isis thatthat the MojaveMojave atat CRIRCRIR have lived far from thethe AWVES Study Area forfor more thanthan aa cen-cen tury. Their sense of ethnic identityidentity isis stillstill toto somesome extentextent tied upup withwith the traditional lands, but places closer toto thethe reservation withwith whichwhich they are more familiar are of more immediate concernconcern inin theirtheir dayday-to-day -to -day living.

During the early 1860sl860s thethe amityamity thatthat had existedexisted between the ChemehueviChemehuevi and the MojaveMojave beganbegan to breakbreak down, probably because their traditional territorial agreements were erodederoded by the continuingcontinuing pressurespressures ofof Euro-Euro-American American intrusions.intrusions. Each group began toto livelive inin fearfear ofof thethe other.other.

Both the Mojaves in Mohave Valley and thosethose who had moved to the ColoradoColorado River Indian Reservation werewere involved in the conflict with thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi (Kroeber(Kroeber andand KroeberKroeber 1973:391973:39-46). -46). Although Chooksa homar asserted that the war between the twoewo groups waswas brought to an end when "the Mohave went to the government to have them writewrite letters to the Chemehuevi to be friends," A.A. L.L. KroeberKroeber comments, "If peacepeace waswas ever formally made,I do not know it."it." Chemehuevis and MojMojavesaves avoided each other forfor aa longlong time.time.

During this period of conflictconflict the old Mojave head chief-chief tain, Homoseh quahote, apparentlyapparently regainedregained hishis position,position, al-al though hehe maymay fiuahote,haveave had only nominalnominal authority, if any, over those MojavesMojaves who had gonegone southsouth underunder YaraYara tav'stav's leadership.leadership. Although thethe severalseveral thousandthousand MojMojavesaves who remained inin Mohave Valley favoredfavored continuingcontinuing oppositionopposition toto thethe Euro-Euro-Americans, Americans, their opposition was directeddirected towardtoward efforts to make them move toto thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver Reservation.Reservation. The "Fort"Fort Mohave Indians" werewere allies ofof thethe U.S.U.S. military againstagainst thethe WalapaisWalapais and other hostile Native American groups.groups. Although thethe twoewo branches of thethe Mojave have remained separate, they have con-con tinued to maintain aa friendlyfriendly relationship.relationship. For example, thethe Mohave Valley group sharedshared wheat with those on the reservation in 18691869 (Sherer(Sherer 1966:111966:11-13). -13).

When thethe railroadsrailroads werewere built,built, beginningbeginning inin thethe 1860s,l860s, Mojave men helped inin construction.construction. Once in operation, rail-rail roads provided various sourcessources ofof income.income. Some of the Mojaves moved to the towntown of Needles, which was foundedfounded to serve the railroads. Mojave men held railroad jobs and workedworked for mermer- chants, whilewhile womenwomen and old men made a living byby selling clay water jars andand wood toto NeedlesNeedles residents,residents, andand artifactsartifacts toto tourists (Sherer(Sherer 1965:541965:54-55). -55).

The relationshiprelationship betweenbetween MojavesMojaves andand Euro-Euro-Americans Americans in the 1880s isis illustratedillustrated byby anan incidentincident thatthat occurredoccurred inin Needles. A soldiersoldier fromfrom FortFort Mojave was foundfound deaddead atat the edge of town,town, andand aa MojaveMojave whowho hadhad beenbeen drinkingdrinking heavilyheavily waswas arrested forfor murder.murder. The resident deputydeputy sheriffsheriff persuadedpersuaded the angry citizens not toto lynchlynch thethe accused,accused, who claimedclaimed toto

55-14 -14 be innocent. Meanwhile, thethe sheriffsheriff arrangedarranged toto havehave thethe prisoner talk withwith Chief John Asukit, a Mojave who had guided Major Powell through Grand Canyon and waswas generallygenerally trustedtrusted byby the people of Needles_Needles. Asukit, convincedconvinced ofof thethe suspect'ssuspect's innocence, said hehe himselfhimself wouldwould assume responsibility for findingfinding the murderer. ShortlyShortly thereafter AsukitAsukit broughtbrought in two MojaveMojave youths whowho hadhad confessed to the crime, one of themthem his own son.son. Because the soldier hadhad beenbeen murderedmurdered after cheating the youngyoung menmen of some money,money, they werewere sentenced to only two yearsyears in San Quentin prison,prison, butbut Asukit'sAsukit's son died before the term was upup (Bettye(Battye 1940;1940; ShererSherer 1965:33).1965:33).

In 1890 Fort MojaveMojave waswas transformed into a boarding schoolschool for Indian children.children. Although its operation was transferred toto the DepartmentDepartment of the Interior from the WarWar Department, the authority givengiven educators remained similar to that of the milimili- tary. The Bureau of IndianIndian Affairs believed thatthat by forcingforcing children to adapt to newnew ways, futurefuture generationsgenerations ofof NativeNative Americans wouldwould be channeled into the mainstream of AngloAnglo- American society.society. Asukit, acting great chieftainchieftain of thethe Mojaves, assisted the superintendent in enforcing the compul-compul sory educati.oneducation law, as he had onceonce assistedassisted soldierssoldiers inin subduing hostile NativeNative Americans.Americans.

Until 1931, all Mojave young people between thethe agesages ofof 6 and 18 werewere required to livelive atat the school.school. Some of thethe young womenwomen took advantage of the opporttmityopportunity to go on to other schools forfor furtherfurther education.education. At firstfirst thethe studentsstudents were allowedallowed toto keepkeep theirtheir MojaveMojave names andand were givengiven EnglishEnglish "first names" toto useuse withwith them.them. Girls used theirtheir clanclan names as surnames and boys thethe nicknames byby whichwhich theythey werewere known.known.

Then thethe Department of thethe InteriorInterior began toto insist thatthat all membersmembers of a family have the same surname, whichwhich wouldwould facilitate the developmentdevelopment ofof aa systemsystem forfor landland allotments.allotments. A new superintendent of thethe FortFort Mojave school, appointed inin 1903, was given thethe additionaladditional assignmentassignment ofof actingacting asas IndianIndian agent with authority over allall NativeNative AmericansAmericans withinwithin 3030 milesmiles of the school.school. Two years laterlater thethe schoolschool authoritiesauthorities presen-presen ted a list of English surnamessurnames thatthat were toto bebe assignedassigned toto Mojave families.families. The name forfor eacheach familyfamily was chosen��osen byby thethe oldest childchild enrolledenrolled inin school.school. This naming system involved the imposition not only ofof EnglishEnglish names butbut alsoalso ofof thethe English naming system,system, wherein names are passed down fromfrom the father to all his childrenchildren ratherrather thanthan onlyonly toto hishis daughters.daughters.

Had each Mojave clanclan beenbeen givengiven oneone EnglishEnglish name,name, thethe new systemsystem mightmight havehave worked.worked. But as it was applied,applied, people in a given clanclan had anywhereanywhere fromfrom oneone toto 1818 surnamessumames assigned to them, andand incredibleincredible confusionconfusion waswas thethe result.result. Because Mojave males diddid not useuse theirtheir clanclan names,names, schoolschool authoritiesauthorities did not know which menmen belongedbelonged toto thethe samesame clan.clan.

Mojaves useuse their EnglishEnglish names when interactinginteracting with

5-155 -15 outsiders, includingincluding governmentgovernment agencies.agencies. Within thethe groupgroup they useuse theirtheir clan names toto varyingvarying degrees,degrees. Women often include their clan namename withinwithin their English name (Sherer(Sherer 1965:42-46).1965:42 -46).

Early in the twentieth century the Mojave were againagain being pressed to move to the Colorado River IndianIndian Reserva-Reserva tion, andand their lands in MohaveMohave ValleyValley werewere being taken fromfrom them. The government hadhad grantedgranted everyevery-other -other section of their traditionaltraditional lands to the railroad, and waswas planning toto dam the ColoradoColorado River,River, whichwhich wouldwould ruinruin their lands for farm-farm ing. In 1910 and 1911 the 14,000 acres (5700(5700 ha) thatthat had belonged to the old Fort Mojave militarymilitary post, andand an addi-addi tional 17,32817,328 acres (7012 ha), werewere set aside as the Fort Mojave Reservation byby ExecutiveExecutive OrderOrder (Sherer(Sherer 1966:181966:18-24). -24).

By the time the Fort Mojave Indian Reservation was setset aside, the northernnorthern group of MojavesMojaves werewere nono longer a rural people, but hadhad becomebecome urban.urban. Most of themthem worked inin thethe community of Needles.Needles. Only a few were still farming on thethe fort side of the reservation when thethe Fort MojaveMojave schoolschool closed in 1931.1931. Most of these people moved toto Needles atat that time to put their children inin public schoolsschools there.there.

As mentioned briefly inin Chapter IV,IV, thethe building andand . subsequent operation, maintenance, andand expansionexpansion ofof railroadsrailroads through MojaveMojave traditional lands havehave variouslyvariously impacted the economy as well as thethe lifestylelifestyle ofof thethe MojaveMojave people,people. Rails from the east and thethe west met atat NeedlesNeedles inin 1883.1883. Mojaves were employedemployed by thethe railroads, and inin 18841884 were supplyingsupplying the motivemotive power for freight cars that took supplies from the rail line toto thethe steamersteamer landing,landing, from which theythey were thenthen transported upstream toto FortFort Mojave (Myrick(Myrick 1963:771).1963:771).

From 1883 toto 1923 railroads expanded,expanded, particularly inin the eastern part ofof thethe AWVESAWVES StudyStudy Area.Area. Mojaves andand otherother Native American employeesemployees participatedparticipated inin thisthis expansion,expansion, which included moving thethe river crossingcrossing 99 miles southsouth toto the Topock narrows inin 1890,1890, continuallycontinually enlargingenlarging operationsoperations and maintenancemaintenance facilities, rerouting trackage as the river changed course, and completing a double track in 1923 (Myrick changed course, completing . (Myrick 1963:786,792).

By 1920 the Santa Fe railroad had 1400 employees stationed at Needles (1963:789).(1963:789). Mojaves not only worked forfor thethe rail-rail road but also soldsold artifactsartifacts toto thethe numerous passengers who dined at thethe NeedlesNeedles HarveyHarvey House.House.

After thethe 1930s,1930s, changeschanges inin railroadingrailroading affectedaffected Mojaves negatively, asas thethe availabilityavailability ofof railroadrailroad-related -related jobs gradually decreased.decreased. The Santa Fe moved itsits roundhouse fromfrom Needles to Barstow, where itit hadhad built aa larger,larger, more modern Harvey House.House. With thethe decline andand subsequentsubsequent demisedemise of

5-165 -16 railroad passenger service, whatwhat hadhad onceonce beenbeen a significant market for thethe sale by MojMojavesaves of their handcrafhandcraftedted artifacts completely disappeared.disappeared.

Silt that had built'upbuilt up between Hoover andand ParkerParker damsdams caused a flood in 1940 that inundatedinundated approximately 4,0004,000 acres (1600(1600 ha) ofof thethe FortFort MojaveMOjave IndianIndian Reservation.Reservation. The homes of the remaining farmers were washed awayaway (Sherer(Sherer 1965:1965: 7, 64).64). As of 1965, therethere were onlyonly twotwo farmersfarmers amongamong thisthis

. group of Mojaves (1965:7).(1965:7).

After another floodflood inin 1947,1947, thethe tribetribe boughtbought somesome six-six teen acresacres of land just outside the city of Needles, and built about fifty cottages for the Fort Mojave people whose homeshomes had been destroyed.destroyed. These cottages and associated communitycommunity buildings make up Mojave Village, where many Fort Mojave people now live.live.

Only recently has itit been possible forfor thethe MojaveMojave toto gaingain enough controlcontrol of the reservation lands to makemake plans for development and hope toto carrycarry themthem out.out. As of 1965, thethe tribetribe had 438 registered members.members. Under a constitution approved by the Secretary of the Interior in 1957, a Tribal Council of seven membersmembers governs theth� tribetribe andand carriescarries outout itsits business.business. The tribe for a long time was unable to get Bureau of IndianIndian Affairs approval ofof itsits plan forfor landland development,development, butbut inin 19641964 the BureauBureau approved the leasing of about 12,000 acres (4860(4860 ha) of the reservation, includingincluding thethe sitesite ofof FortFort Mojave.Mojave. The lessees agreed to use the land for recreational develop-develop ments inin which $22$22 million were toto be investedinvested within tenten years. Mojaves were toto be employedemployed inin theirtheir projects (Sherer(Sherer 1965:8,64,70).

Mojave andand otherother NativeNative American placeplace names areare shownshown onon Map D.D. These have been derived primarily from sources in the literature, similar to the Kroeber publications that have been analyzedanalyzed inin thisthis chapter.chapter.

55-17 -17 (U 11l ...... t-' OPtrito s al}H.bev O) I "-1:: ' .. :.:.:�

NATIVE AMERICAN PLACE NAMES ""4�,

t..1 Mojevt ......

tc 1Chsmchucvi .. , tsSerranotVanyumc \ t ..,'anJ / o NATIVE "4 Location satrapolatsd O ...... M ..) ... of •. •.

. s....Routs salt Song a .4DMDO kcar . "' ''''','911; F.·· s • lo�.'.nCJ.\r.po'atld ..... •• , ,(. p.... Lo LlÌo I .... :.,Strrano/V.n'julftc �l.AfllON oA..,i-"wi")I�hon I."

foi ·�r� ,(.hcmc.h"."i

Vouttsm .aou� Moj.ltt IDutc omla.amr.ltd h.. *sin est;RreiOtr Ws. Fo.� 19.!,19.1,.911 ¡L a..41910. _. ... (HI m lit 11.""...... ,Soutt.n. of

1 "'b. Pl�('E "IS; I1 �,t

r 1C _ �o'" \ "...it ... 1 ' s \ 1 1 , NAMes .. \ .,.r AI iwhu) \ 1 , tmns a an.utd art 1 .4 sAeiw ah ì .' .tas, STUDY AREA BOUNDARY / .�:�':...��to I:YVw a%= , .á+eb A ,\ , \ tAaiat9ruAeit.i,Amaoal rc1 .<) a) ÿ Tw.11 stuc) Aw/ op toi Kett sr 1f.1 At1a,vvllwm.ul^ tW) 1i SnuJit w,,. rnwtxuuqAvraleslw \ tusata s ahwslsW anya / ÑTl'-I irtsx1 `t~OJìrt a1rtR1 AnslyaIttttD tw o.n

41 PLACE saltkaam qwsml.0 Yiatal ", jn ., . ��":.t�

yr '" NAMES MAP D. NATIVE AMERICAN PLACE NAMES '. SOUTHERN NUMIC-NUMIC-SPEAKING SPEAKING PEOPLEPEOPLE

,TheThe Native AmericansAmericans living in the Great Basin when Euro-AmericansEuro- Americans arrivedarrived latelate inin thethe 18th18th centurycentury spoke related'related languages classified as "Shoshonean" and assignedassigned toto thethe lar-lar ger Uto-AztecanUto- Aztecan languagelanguage familyfamily (Brinton(Brinton 1891; Hopkins 1965).1965).

. There are three branches ofof ShoshoneanShoshonean languages:languages: Takic, Tubatulabalic,Tubatulaba1ic, andand Numic.Numic. Takic languages apparently diverged from Tubatulabalic-NumicTubatulabalic -Numic somesome 45004500 yearsyears ago,ago, withwith Tubatula-Tubatula balic diverging from Numic about 500500 yearsyears laterlater (Hopkins(Hopkins 1965:1965: 57)57)..

Between a thousand and two thousand years ago, according to current understanding,understanding, NumicNumic beganbegan toto separateseparate intointo three'three branches: Western NumicNumic (Monachi(Monachi-Paviotso); -Paviotso); Central Numic (Panamint-Shoshoni);(Panamint -Shoshoni); andand SouthernSouthern Numic (Kawaiisu(Kawaiisu-Ute) -Ute) (Fowler and Fowler 1971:51971:5-7; -7; HopkinsHopkins 1965).1965). By the 19th19th centurycentury thesethese three groupsgroups seemed to fan out from the southern rimrim ofof thethe Great Basin,Basin, whichwhich maymay indicate that this region had been thethe homeland ofof thethe protoproto-Numic -Numic languages.languages. Southern Numic lan-lan guages areare moremore like Tubatulabalic than are either thethe CentralCentral and NorthernNorthern Numic languages.languages. It is probable that people speaking SouthernSouthern NumicNumic languages remained in thisthis ancientancient homeland longerlonger thanthan diddid thethe otherother groupsgroups ofof Numic-Numic-speakers, speakers, perhaps because until about 800BOO years agoago theythey were restrainedrestrained from expandingexpanding eastward byby the presence of agricultural peoples.

In the middlemiddle and late 19th century, thethe followingfollowing dis-distribution of Numic languages was discernable:discernable:

Western Numic.Numic. Spoken by people who livedlived inin the area extending from Owens Valley inin Cali-Cali fornia northwardnorthward toto easterneastern OregonOregon andand Washington.Waskington.

Central Numic. Spoken by people occupying aa wedge-shapedwedge- shaped areaarea thatthat includedincluded California's Panamint Mountains, centralcentral andand northeastern Nevada, and much of Idaho,Idaho, northwestern Utah,Utah, and Wyoming.

Southern Numic.Numic. Spoken by people living in the southern Sierra Nevada, parts of thethe Mojave Desert, southern Nevada, northwestern Arizona,Arizona, much ofof Utah,Utah, andand partpart ofof Colorado.Colorado.

It isis thethe SouthernSouthern NumicNumic-speaking - speaking peoplepeople whowho werewere asso-asso ciated with thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Southern Numic may bebe saidsaid toto consist of twoewo languages:languages: Kawaiisu andand Ute.Ute. The latterlatter isis spoken in a number of dialectsdialects (Hopkins(Hopkins 1965;1965; LambLamb 1958).1958). See Table 5 -I.-I.

5-1B5 -18 UTO-AZTECANUTO-AZTECAN

Shoshonean I I Takic NuncNumic Tubatulabalic

I Others

1 1 Serrano Vanyume

Western Southern Central

Ute Kawaiisu

Southern Southern Northern Red Lake Fish Lake Pahvant Timpanoa-Timpanoa Paiute Ute Ute Ute Ute Ute guts

.� o

.... Others QI > QI ..J 1 '-' " Chemehuevi Las Vegas Moapa Shivwits UinkaretsU.inkarets RaibabKaibab J,.J Moapa CJ

RELATIONSHIP OF CHEMEHUEVI, SOUTHERN PAIUTE, TAKIC, AND KAWAIISU DIALECTSDIALECTS WITHINWITHIN THETHE UTO-UTO-AZTECAN AZTECAN LANGUAGELANGUAGE FAMILY (After Fowler and FowlerFowler 1971:61971:6-7; -7; HopkinsHopkins 1965; Lamb 1958;1958; Kelly 1934)1934)

*�ereTtrere isis aa continuumcontinuum ratherrather thanthan aa sharpsharp line of differen-differen tiation between the languages or dialects inin thesethese speechspeech communities.

55-19 -19 Although various early explorers wrotewrote accounts of their encounters withwith Numic-Numic-speaking speaking peoples,peoples, thethe firstfirst personperson toto dodo extensiveextensive ethnographicethnographic andand linguisticlinguistic studiesstudies among them was John Wesley Powell.Powell. H�He worked with somesome Western andand Cen-Cen traltral NumicNumic groupsgroups butbut hadhad moremore extensiveextensive contactscontacts withwith Southern Numic subgroups:subgroups: the NorthernNorthern Ute, the Pahvant Ute,Ute, andand thethe SouthernSouthern Paiute. The Southern Paiute groups studiedstudied by Powell included the Kaibab, Shivwits, Uinkarets,Uirikarets, Moapa,Moapa, Las Vegas, and ChemehueviChemehuevi (Fowler(Fowler andand FowlerFowler 1971:71971:7-8). -8). Each of these in turn consisted of a number ofof locallocal groups.groups.

The Kawaiisu andand twotwo ofof thethe SouthernSouthern PaiutePaiute groupsgroups--the --the Las Vegas Paiutes andand thethe Chemehuevi-Chemehuevi--have -have livedlived withinwithin the AWVES Study Area inin thethe historicalhistorical period.period. It is very diffi-diffi cult toto saysay howhow manymany otherother NumicNumic groupsgroups havehave beenbeen involved in its history,history, inasmuchinasmuch asas almostalmost anyany membermember ofof the SouthernSouthern Numic-speakingNumic - speakinggroup groupmay mayappear appear inin historicalhistorical andand ethnographicethnographic literature as a "Ute" or "Paiute.""Paiute."

The Southern Paiutes

"Chemehuevi" is the Mojave word forfor thethe SouthernSouthern Paiutes;Paiutes; hence the early explorers whowho metmet MojavesMojaves beforebefore they met Paiutes called thethe latterlatter Chemehuevi.Chemehuevi. Later explorersexplorers who camecame to thethe StudyStudy AreaArea fromfrom thethe UtahUtah area,area, wherewhere therethere werewere UtesUtes and other Paiutes, used thethe termterm Paiute.Paiute. Today, thethe termterm ChemehueviChemehuevi generally refers to the southernmost Southern Paiutes; their territorial boundaryboundary lay south of the ProvidenceProvidence Mountains and north of the Clipper Mountains, running northeastward toto thethe Mojave boundary thatthat was justjust southsouth ofof thethe 35th35th parallel.parallel. Immediately toto thethe northnorth ofof ChemehueviChemehuevi territoryterritory waswas that of the LasLas VegasVegas Paiute,Paiute, whichwhich extended northward beyond LasLas VegasVegas and to Death Valley onon thethe northwest.northwest. On the western edge itit included the BlackBlack Mountains,Mountains, AvawatzAvawatz Mountains,Mountains, and Old Dad Mountains, but excludedexcluded SodaSoda LakeLake (Kelly(Kelly 1934:5551934:555-556, -556, map).map).

The Chemehuevi, according to Kelly's Chemehuevi and Las Vegas consultants, split from the Las Vegas group "shortly before the middle of the lastl!ist century," pushing southsouth toto Che-Che mehuevimehuevi Valley and farther south along the river where thethe Panya (Halchidhoma)(Halchidhoma) had onceonce livedlived (1934:556).(1934:556). Laird's datadata also suggests considerable timetime depthdepth (1976:8).(1976:8). The Cheme-Cheme huevi were livingliving southsouth ofof ChemehueviChemehuevi ValleyValley byby 1776,1776, and apparently were friendly with the Panya before thethe Panya were expelledexpelled byby thethe MojaveMojave aboutabout 18271827 (Roth(Roth 1976:791976:79-81). -81). There is no information as to whether the Chemehuevi were anan ethnic group distinct from the Las Vegas group atat thesethese earlyearly dates:`datesfr There are, however, datadata which showshow thatthat by thethe 1870s18705 the Las Vegas group was segmented into twotwo alliancesalliances (Fowler(Fowler and Fowler 1976:105)--bands1976:l05)--bands or tribes (Kelly(Kelly 1934)1934) oror confeder-confeder ations dependingdepending onon one'sone's choicechoice ofof terminology.terminology.

* Laird consistentlyconsistently usesuses thethe termterm ChemehueviChemehuevi toto designatedesignate the ChemehueviChemehuevi-and and LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes.Paiutes.

55-20 -20 The namesnames that different ethnographers gave the ChemehueviChemehuevi and the two LasLas VegasVegas groups,groups, andand theirtheir latelate-19th-century -19th- century lea-lea ders, varyvary mainlymainly in style of phonetic transcription:transcription:

Powell and IngallsIngalls Kelly Laird (1870s) (1930s)(1930s) (Late 19th century)

Southerners Chemehuevi Chemehuevi Tantivaitsiwi

.DesertDesert People TirinlwiTiriniwi TiiraniwiwiTilraniwiwi

Northerners TantritsTantií.ts Tantiitswi

High Chiefs:

Southerners

Desert People To-ko-purTo -ko -pur TukupiriTukúpiri Tukupira

Northerners Ku-ni-kai-vetsKu -ni -kai -vets

Powell and IngallsIngalls (Fowler(Fowler andand FowlerFowler 1971:1041971:104-105) -105) in-in cluded inin thethe confederationconfederation underunder HighHigh ChiefChief Ku Ku-ni-kai-vets-ni- kai -vets aa group ofof 161 peoplepeople at LasLas Vegas, wherewhere he was chief,chief, asas wellwell as groups of 34 in the vicinity of Colville,Colville, 1818 atat IndianIndian Spring and 57 on Cottonwood Island,Island, eacheach with itsits ownown chief.chief. In thethe confederationconfederation underunder HighHigh ChiefChief To-To-ko-pur, ko -pur, coco-chief -chief at Potosi and Pahrump Spring where 5656 people lived,lived, theythey listlist groups ofof 8585 inin thethe KingstonKingston MountainMountain-Ivanpah-Providence - Ivanpah- Providence MounMoun- tain area, 31 at AshAsh Meadows,Meadows, and 68 at ArmagosaArmagosa (Fowler and Fowler 1971:104).1971:104). Kelly sayssays thatthat Ash MeadowsHeadows was ShoshoneShoshone territory, wherewhere some LasLas Vegas Paiutes livedlived amongamong ShoshoneShoshone (1934:557). In the 1930s the terms TantiitsTantiits and T!rinlwrTiriniwi still meant respectively "Northerners""Northerners" andand "DesertD7 esertPeople," People," butbut the Las Vegas peoplepeople identified the�e1vesthemselves withwith either name,name, depend-depend ing onon whetherwhether they werewere contrasting themselves with southernerssoutherners or river shore people (1934).(1934).

Laird and Kelly place the Desert People somewhat farther west than did Powell and Ingalls in the 1870sl870s (Fowler(Fowler andand FowlerFowler 1971:6). This may indicate thatthat therethere was a latelate movement westward. On thethe other hand, Powell andand IngallsIngalls may simplysimply not have known how far west the Desert People had spreadspread by 1870.

Powell and Ingalls noted that 300300 Chemehuevi livedlived inin Chemehuevi Valley on the ColoradoColorado River,River, southsouth ofof thethe Mojave.Mojave. These people were saidsaid to speak thethe samesame languagelanguage asas thethe twotwo alliances toto thethe northnorth (Fowler(Fowler andand FowlerFowler 1971:61971:6-7). -7). Kelly's research in the 1930s showed thatthat all Las Vegas peoplepeople spokespoke an identical language, whereas thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi spokespoke aa somewhatsomewhat different dialect.dialect.

5-215 -21 It appears that the Southern PaiutesPaiutes as they moved southsouth segmented intointo threethree groupsgroups sometimesometime beforebefore the l870s,1870s, and that thereafterthereafter thethe twotwo northernmostnorthernmost groupsgroups mergedmerged as their numbers decreased.decreased. Subsequently, the Chemehuevi have divideddivided their numbersnumbers betweenbetween two -reservations,reservations, andand thethe LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes areare inin thethe processprocess ofof segmenting into a LasLas Vegas group and a Pahrump group.group.

To a considerable extent, the various Las Vegas PaiutePaiute and ChemehueviChemehuevi groupsgroups shareshare aa commoncommon ancestryancestry that hashas been somewhat elucidated by ethnohistoricethnohistoric research.research. In order toto narrate the ethnohistory of the two groups, it is necessary toto use some term to designatedesignate PaiutesPaiutes whowho maymay havehave beenbeen "Northern"Northern- ers," "Desert People," or "Southerners." The term "Chemehuevi/ Paiute" is usedused inin thisthis context,context, andand maymay also bebe usedused whenwhen it isis obviousobvious thatthat membersmembers ofof two or all groups are involved.involved.

"Las VegasVegas Paiutes"Paiutes" oror simplysimply "Paiutes""Paiutes" is usedused for "Northerners" andand/or /or "Desert"Desert People." Because of thethe closeclose association betweenbetween thethe groups,groups, "Chemehuevi""Chemehuevi" sometimes includes some LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes,Paiutes, and "Las VegasVegas Paiutes" sometimessometimes includes Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, butbut the terms are used as precisely asas thethe data permit.

Ethnography

It is important to recognize thatthat thethe SouthernSouthern PaiutePaiute were not the wanderingwandering bandsbands of isolated people so often con-con jured up byby historians oror eveneven anthropologists.anthropologists. In an areaarea near St. George, Utah, wherewhere their wealthwealth and power were greatest, Southern Paiute chiefs owned "relatively"relatively largelarge irri-irri gated fields," and each chief married aa number ofof wiveswives whowho were daughters of other chiefschiefs (King(King 1976:3).1976:3). The Study Area was an outlying part of Southern Paiute territory, but within it there werewere bothboth high chiefs and others ofof somewhatsomewhat lowerlower status (Laird(Laird 1976:24ff.).

The Paiute socialsocial structurestructure waswas heldheld togethertogether byby arian elaborate system of mutual reciprocity.reciprocity. For example,example, when aa group found nono pinyonpinyon nutsnuts in its ownown groves it could visit the groves of relatives who might livelive severalseveral mountainmountain rangesranges away, in a different environment.environment.

A bilateral kinship systemsystem and group exogamyexogamy providedprovided aa maximum number ofof relatives.relatives. In the late 19th century, Paiute willingness toto "marry"marry out"out" eveneven amongamong nonnon-Indians - Indians helpedhelped themthem adapt toto aa new cultureculture (Roth(�oth 1976).1976).

The custom of inviting relatives toto many ceremonialceremonial eventsevents at which gifts were exchangedexchanged servedserved asas anan additionaladditional failfail-safe -safe mechanism. Part of thethe power ofof chiefschiefs laylay inin theirtheir responsi-responsi bility forfor managing ceremonialceremonial events.events. The samesame systemsystem waswas operative over much ofof CaliforniaCalifornia (Bean(Bean 1972;1972; 1976b).1976b).

55-22 -22 The bilateral kinshipkinship system as it operated among the Southern PaiutePaiute alsoalso mademade it possible for an individual oror aa family thatthat hadhad come uponupon hardhard times, or hadhad fallen out with other membersmembers of its group, toto join anotheranother group.group. This aspect of the system, combinedcombined withwith group exogamy, makes itit aspect of the system, group, exogamy, makes difficult toto determinedetermine wherewhere the "ethnic' and territorial boundaries of a Southern Paiute band maymay have been duringduring various periods because people may have had multiple politi-politi cal identities at different timestimes inin theirtheir lifelife careers.careers. Moreover, information maymay havehave beenbeen somewhat vaguelyvaguely recorded by ethnographers.

Although there was some variation in the life styles of Southern Paiutes,Paiutes, depending on the naturalnatural and social environ-environ ments in whichwhich they found themselves, a number of commoncommon patterns were shared.shared. For the mostmost part, these people were hunters andand gatherersgatherers whosewhose dietdiet includedincluded wildwild gamegame--mammals -- mammals such as antelope, deer, mountain sheep,sheep, rabbits,rabbits, squirrels,squirrels, wood rats and desert chipmunks; reptiles such asas lizards,lizards,

chuchuckwallas,ckwa1 las , rattlesnakes,rattlesnakes, and desert tortoises; birds and bird eggs; andand insects.insects. Many groups planted gardens near springs, leftleft them to grow, and came backback to harvest their crops (Fowler(Fowler andand FowlerFowler 1971:471971:47-49). -49).

They used thethe bow andand arrow:arrow: sinew-backedsinew- backed bowsbows ofof willowwillow for hunting,hunting, and short,short, strongstrong bowsbows forfor warfare.warfare. Arrows had chipped-stonechipped -stonepoints points andand werewere featheredfeathered toto makemake them fly straight (Laird(Laird 1976:5,6).1976:5,6). These were succeededsucceeded byby firearmsfirearms in the 19th century (Fowler(Fowler andand Fowler 1971:48).1971:48).

Full use waswas also mademade of the plant resources of thethe desert. The Southern Paiutes harvested agaves,agaves, yuccas,yuccas, sages,sages, arrowweed, tu1e,tule, mesquitemesquite and screwbean pods andand seeds,seeds, nuts from pinyonpinyon and oak, grass seeds,seeds, wild grapes,grapes, andand berries.berries. The creosote bushbush waswas used for medicine; jimsonweed, forfor medi-medi cine and hallucination.

Bears and foxes, as wellwell as eagles, bluejays, craws,cro�s, owls,owls, and buzzards were sacred.sacred. These animals and birds peopled sacred storiesstories andand songs.songs. The feathersfeathers of birds were used ceremonially (Laird(Laird 1976:5,6).1976:5,6).

Temporary brush houses were constructed, as werewere larger and moremore carefully made shelters that could be used forfor weeksweeks or monthsmonths (Laird(Laird 1976:104ff.).1976:104f£.). The latterlatter were usuallyusually mademade of willowwillow saplings, sometimes tied together with wild grape-grape vine, andand were aboutabout sixsix feetfeet high.high.

They developeddeveloped basketrybasketry toto aa finefine art.art. Their coiledcoiled andand twined baskets werewere different fromfrom those of otherother southernsouthern Californians (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:597), and were elaboratelyelaborately decorateddecorated with diagonaldiagonal twining.ewining.

5-235 -23 Among their games waswas a women'swomen's dice game played with nut shells filledfilled withwith gumgum and inlaid withwith shell; thesethese dicedice were similar to those used by the Yokuts (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:597).1925:597). TheyThey also playedplayed handhand games, gambling onon thethe outcome.outcome. There were hand game songs, knownknown asas birdbird songs,songs, thatthat werewere sung whenwhen these games werewere played.

TheThe telling of religiousreligious andand otherother stories waswas a highlyhighly developed artart form.form.. Coyote and his elder brother, Puma,Puma, figured often'inoften in stories.stories. They werewere personifications ofof food.food. A powerful old woman was alsoalso aa commoncommon figure.figure. The death of an olderolder brotherbrother andand the resultantresultant mourningmourning ceremonies were features ofof manymany stories, and the concept of a great, sacredsacred mountain was common.common.

The Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute hadhad hereditaryhereditary songssongs thatthat conveyedconveyed territorial hunting rights.rights. In the late 19th century therethere were two important hereditary song groups (probably(probably clans),clans), one owningowning the MountainMountain Sheep Song and the other, the DeerDeer Song. There waswas also a Salt Song.Song, whichwhich covered some of the same territory as thethe DeerDeer Song.Song. Various locations where thethe owner ofof thethe song hadhad the right to hunthunt werewere described inin thethe song. The Quail Song and the Day Owl Song also hadhad to do withwith territorial huntinghunting rights,rights, and the Skunk Song may have had similar associationsassociations (Laird(Laird 1976:91976:9-19). -19).

One variantvariant of the MountainMountain SheepSheep SongSong concerned the New York Mountains;Mountains; another, the Providence Mountains; andand another,another, the Granite Mountains. The itinerary detailed in the Salt Song proceeds south from Las Vegas along the Dry Lakes, pastpast thethe New YorkYork Mountains,Mountains, through the hills toto thethe DanbyDanby areaarea "where"where there isis aa rocksaltrocksalt mine,"mine," and then goes southeast out of thethe Study Area (Laird(Laird 1976:111976:11-17). -17).

Hereditary familiesfamilies had aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof powerpower andand prestige,prestige, the chieftainship beingbeing a sacred as well asas aa political office.office. Chiefs and their families could wear turquoiseturquoise ornaments,ornaments, eateat quailquail-beans -beans (black-eyed(black -eyedpeas), peas), andand speakspeak Chief'sChief's language. One of the last highhigh chiefs controlled the area aroundaround Daggett,Daggett, andand probably as far east asas thethe ProvidenceProvidence MountainsMountains (Laird(Laird 1976:1976: 24; Kelly n.d.;n.d.; KingKing 1976:61976:6-7). -7).

Runners and messengers werewere held in high esteem and had great social prestige.prestige.

Rituals, songs,songs, andand otherother culturalcultural featuresfeatures werewere sometimessometimes influenced by thosethose of thethe Mojave andand otherother peoplepeople ofof thethe re-re gion. Spirits ofof thethe deaddead werewere active.active. Mortuary ritesrites were accordingly of great importance, especially �hosethose commemorating the death of important people, and therethere were longlong seriesseries ofof mourning songs.songs. The deaddead were customarilycustomarily buried, andand itit was forbidden toto speakspeak theirtheir names.names. People who dieddied awayaway fromfrom home were cremated.cremated. According toto Kelly'sKelly's informant,informant, Matavium,Matavium,

55-24 -24 no material goods werewere cremated withwith the corpse; instead, gifts and offerings werewere burnedburned at the mourningmourning anniversary.

Other ceremonies werewere held for the installation ofof chiefschiefs andand to celebrate births, marriages, andand firstfirst-fruit -fruit harvests (King 1976:8;1976:8; Steward 1938:184).1938:184).

Shamans acquired song powers,powers, usuallyusually inin dreams,dreams, afterafter long meditation. They hadhad spiritspirit-f�iliars - familiars asas helpers. The task ofof shamansshamans waswas toto heal,heal, andand this waswas accomplished by night-longnight -long ritualritual singingsinging andand dancing,dancing, culminatingculminating in thethe revelation ofof thethe particularparticular evilevil intent or thought that had caused thethe illnessillness (Laird(Laird 1976:351976:35-36). -36). Sacred caves,caves, where supernatural beingsbeings werewere visitedvisited andand ritual paraphernalia was stored, were important.important. Those that LairdLaird mentionsmentions are not in the Study AreaArea (1976:38(1976:38-39). -39).

Jimsonweed waswas used to induce dreaming, often forfor thethe purpose ofof findingfinding aa misplacedmisplaced objectobject oror identifying an enemy (1976:39-40).(1976:39 -40).

The Ghost DanceDance--a --a revitalizationrevitalization movementmovement of the latelate 19th century,century, whichwhich involvedinvolved aa beliefbelief that the end of the world waswas at handhand and that only Native Americans who danceddanced the Ghost Dance would survive-survive--was -was danceddanced beginningbeginning in 1889 and 1890, broughtbrought byby missionaries fromfrom thethe northnorth (Laird(Laird 1976:1976: 44-45).

There is also evidence inin oral traditiontradition thatthat aa scalpscalp dance was held afterafter militarymilitary victoriesvictories (Laird(Laird 1976:431976:43-44). -44).

Water, earth, andand skysky comprisedcomprised thethe world.world. Numerous stories about the creation of the worldworld and the beings inin itit were told.told. Times and seasons were correlated with astronomicalastronomical phenomena and with seasonalseasonal changes.changes. Spring began thethe year,year, and winter was recognizedrecognized withwith aa name.name. The solstices were significant. Directions were mentioned inin pairs:pairs: north andand south, east andand west.west. Close track was kept of meteorological phenomena.

Ethnohistory

The Chemehuevi and Paiutes camecame fromfrom thethe north aboutabout A.D. 1500 (Rogers(Rogers 1945, cited byby C. KingKing 1976:18), apparently replacing the Desert Mojave as occupants ofof thethe easterneastern partpart ofof the Study Area.Area. The Mojave retained the rightright to travel through the area, however,however, and their trails were paralleled inin many places (particularly(particularly across valleys) by thethe trailstrails ofof thethe Chemehuevi/Paiutes;Chemehuevi / Paiutes. These trails were placed just far enough apart so that those whowho usedused them wouldwould notnot directly encounter each other.other.

55-25 -25 Roth shows that the Chemehuevi probablyprobably movedmoved south as far asas PaloPalo VerdeVerde ValleyValley some time betweenbetween 1776, when GarcésGarces recorded their presence near the Whipple Mountains,Mountains; andand 1827,1827, when the Mojave expelled thethe PanyaPanya (Halchidhoma)(Halchidhoma) fromfrom Cali-Cali fornia. After this expulsion, the Chemehuevi occupied the area along the Colorado where the Panya had been (Roth(Roth 1976:1976: 81). They also occupied the mountainsmountains andand deserts of the eastern StudyStudy Area.Area. Mojave andand Paiutes apparently livedlived sideside pyby side on Cottonwood Island,Island, which isis nownow coveredcovered byby LakeLakeMo Mo- jave�.jave.. By the middle of,theof the 19th century, desert Paiute werewere apparently pushing westwardwestward intointo thethe Daggett-Daggett-Barstow Barstow area,area, which hadhan been VanyumeVanyume/Serrano /Serrano territoryterritory (Euler(Euler 1966:39).·1966:39).

The first contact made between Europeans andand Chemehuevi/Chemehuevi/ Paiute in the Study Area probably occurred inin 1776,1776, when GarcesGarcés stoppedstopped atat aa 1fChemevet""Chemevet" villagevillage that was probably CowCow Hole Camp on thethe easterneastern edgeedge ofof SodaSoda Lake.Lake. Five days laterlater he stopped atat two villagesvillages in the Providence Mountains (possibly(possibly at Rock Springs), which hehe alsoalso designateddesignated asas ""Chemevet" Chemevet" (King(King 1976:207-208).1976:207 -208).

None of thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute appearappear inin the literature during the ensuing yearsyears whenwhen the missionmission system was being established alongalong the California coast, but it is probable that some ofof the coastal NativeNative AmericansAmericans whowho fled from thethe missions reached their settlements, and therethere may havehave beenbeen some contact betweenbetween Southern Paiutes and the Spanish soldierssoldiers who werewe�e sentsent inin pursuitpursuit ofof deserters.deserters.

There is very little mention of thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi oror PaiutePaiute in accounts left byby the explorers and fur traders who began toto come through the MojaveMojave VillagesVillages in the late 1820s, or by those whowho later developed and travelled the Old Spanish Trail through the StudyStudy Area.Area. Of 24 accounts of journeys acrossacross the MojaveMojave DesertDesert betweenbetween 1829 and 1854, only one mentions anan encounter with Paiutes (Euler(Euler 1966:73).1966:73). Jedediah Smith'sSmith's expedition, onon its wayway westwardwestward in 1827, came upon two Paiute lodges at a placeplace that waswas apparently about eight miles (12.8(12.8 km) up the Mojave River fromfrom Soda Lake (Sullivan(Sullivan 1934:33).1934:33).

This dearth of informationinformation isis puzzling.puzzling. Inasmuch as thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute werewere livingliving inin thethe easterneastern MojaveMojave inin 1776177� when GarcésGarces travelled across it and werewere very muchmuch in evidence after 1860, it is probable that theythey were therethere duringduring thethe first halfhalf of the 19th centurycentury asas well. For example, thethe numerous archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites inin thethe ProvidenceProvidence MountainsMountains-Mid -Mid Hills-NewHills -New YorkYork MountainMountain area,area, wherewhere therethere are many springssprings asas well as woodland cover and other plant resources, suggest a sizable prehistoricprehistoric populationpopulation that is likely to havehave carried over into thethe historichistoric era.era.

The firstfirst seriousserious Euro-Euro-American American encroachment intointo tradi-tradi tional ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute territoryterritory occurred inin thethe midmid-IBCOs -1800s

5-265 -26 when travellers, and then settlers, seized control of desertdesert water sources.sources. As thethe Euro-Euro-American American populationpopulation increased,increased, land rightsrights werewere usurpedusurped notnot only by individuals but alsoalso byby organized commercial ,operationsoperations such as cattle ranches, mines,mines, and associated settlements.settlements. Although thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute people violentlyviolently defendeddefended theirtheir lands,lands, theirtheir effortsefforts provedproved ineffectual. In mostmost conflicts withwith settlers, and later the United States Army, ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute warriorswarriors werewere outnumberedoutnumbered by forces that were better equipped.equipped.

As a result of white settlement, traditional Native Ameri-Ameri can resources rapidly declined.declined. Domesticated animals brought by the new settlers disturbed the ecosystem; grazinggrazing herdsherds consumed plantsplants that hadhad beenbeen gathered in former timestimes asas human food.food. Desert springs and other water sourcessources were seized,seized, and the ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute couldcould nono longerlonger plantplant crops inin sur-sur rounding areas.areas. Game animals began to disappear, asas thethe new-new comers hunted themthem without restriction.restriction. Dispossessed of theirtheir traditional sources ofof subsistence,subsistence, thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiutes /Paiutes adopted new strategies:strategies: they beganbegan to supplement theirtheir tradi-tradi tional resourcesresources byby workingworking for the people who had takentaken overover their lands.lands.

The Las Vegas Paiutes came under thethe influenceinfluence ofof thethe Latter-DayLatter -Day SaintsSaints inin the 1850s.l850s. By 18551855-56 -56 therethere waswas aa MormonMormon mission at Las Vegas, whichwhich Paiutes from Charleston MountainsMountains as wellwell as the Chemehuevi are known toto havehave visited.visited. The Mormons gave guns to the PaiutesPaiutes andand ChemehueviChemehuevi andand recruitedrecruited them as allies against otherother Euro-Euro-Americans, Americans, thisthis being a period when thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates andand Utah'sUtah's LatterLatter-Day -Day SaintsSaints came close to having allall-out -out warwar (Roth(Roth 1976:95;1976:95; Casebier 1976:66-71).1976:66 -71).

Some of the exploratory expeditions acrossacross thethe Mojave Desert inin thethe 1850sl850s camecame uponupon ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute settlements. Whipple, whosewhose expedition camped beside Paiute CreekCreek where there waswas goodgood grass,grass, noted,noted, "A little basin of rich soilsoil still contains stubblestubble ofof wheatwheat and corn, raised by the Pai-Pai Utes of thethe mountains.mountains. Rude huts, withwith rinds of melons and squashes scattered around,around, show the placeplace to have been but recently deserted.deserted. Upon the rocks, blackenedblackened by volcanic heat, there are many Indian hieroglyphics" (Whipple(Whipple 1856).1856). Whipple's artist, Heinrich Baldwin M6llhausen,Móllhausen, wrote thatthat wherever thethe expeditionexpedition foundfound water,water, itit foundfound "turtle"turtle shellsshells"; "; desert tortoisestortoises werewere a favorite food of the Native Americans

(MUllhausen(Möllhausen 1858)1858)..

In the hostilities between MojavesMojaves andand Euro-Euro-Americans Americans in 1858 and 1859, the ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute werewere alliesallies of the Mojave.Nojave. The subsequent pacificationpacification ofof thethe MojaveMojave andand thethe negotiatednegotiated peace changed the relationship between thethe twotwo groups.groups. The Mojave's relative strengthstrength had alreadyalready beenbeen weakened:weakened: unlike the Chemehuevi/Paiute,Chemehuevi /Paiute, theythey hadhad notnot adoptedadopted the use ofof firearms.firearms.

5-275 -27 Moreover.Moreover, thethe guerilla-guerilla-warfare warfare ofof the ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute was proving more effective against Euro-AmericansEuro- Americans thanthan the tra-tra ditional battlebattle tactics of the Mojave, whichwhich stressed hand-hand to-handto -hand combat.combat.

In this period thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute apparentlyapparently stole livestock from Euro-AmericansEuro- Americans andand occasionallyoccasionally killedkilled travel-travel lers. At Fort Mojave, established in 1859, the U.S. Army enrolled the MojaveMojave as allies in expeditions againstagainst thethe Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute andand otherother NativeNative AmericanAmerican groups.

Wagon trains began to transporttransport suppliessupplies regularlyregularly acrossacross the MojaveMojave DesertDesert toto FortFort MojaveMojave inin 1859, and Paiute hostility increased. After a herdsmanherdsman and two leaders of a wagonwagon train were killed by "Pah"Pah-Utes" -Utes" inin thethe desertdesert inin 1860, Captain JamesJames H. Carleton withwith 80 dragoons waswas dispatched on an expeditionexpedition to punishpunish the Paiutes.Paiutes. Carleton established headquarters atat "a sitesite onon thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver wherewhere thethe waterwater comes to the sur-sur face aboutabout tenten milesmiles downriverdownriver from the·the pointpoint wherewhere the Salt Lake Trail branches off intointo thethe desert,"desert," callingcalling itit CampCamp Cady.Cady.

In addition, Carleton established redoubts, or smallsmall camps, at Soda Springs (Hancock's(Hancock's Redoubt) andand BitterBitter Springs.Springs. His troops ranged far and widewide over the desert andand killed aa number of Paiutes inin skirmishes.skirmishes. In July peace was estab-estab lished, butbut CarletonCarleton nevernever broughtbrought thethe PaiutesPaiutes the gifts he had promised if they would be helpful to travellers and cease their "depredations" (Casebier(Casebier 1975:1261975:126-128). -128).

The U.S.u.S. Army withdrew itsits troopstroops fromfrom thethe Mojave DesertDesert in earlyearly 1861 whenwhen the CivilCivil WarWar began.began. Shortly thereafterthereafter Euro-AmericansEuro- Americans beganbegan toto minemine in ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute territory, and soon becamebecame dependent upon the hardworking laborlabor forceforce of local Native AmericansAmericans whowho werewere drawn into thisthis new eco-eco nomic activity.activity. Some of the firstfirst mines werewere atat Potosi,Potosi, Eldorado Canyon, Rock Springs, and the La PazPaz areaarea (Casebier(Casebier 1975:131; RothRoth 1976:102).1976:102).

From this time on the Chemehuevi andand PaiutesPaiutes were incor-incor porated increasingly into the economy of the United States.States. Their relationship withwith the Mojave waswas sometimes friendly,friendly, sometimes hostile (Roth(Roth 1976:100).1976:100). Although thethe onlyonly mining within the Study Area during thisthis period was atat RockRock Srpings,Srpings, Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute whowho hadhad livedlived inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea werewere prob-prob ably involved inin mining-mining--there -there waswas aa greatgreat deal of moving from placeplace to place among thesethese NativeNative Americans.Americans.

Along thethe Mojave Road and the Old Spanish Trail, Paiutes made travel dangerous and the driving of livestock risky duringduring the latelate 1860s.l860s. Euro-Euro-Americans Americans whowho hadhad settledsettled along the Mojave Road demanded military protection, andand troopstroops werewere againagain sentsent to Camp CadyCady inin 1865.1865. On July 29 of that year the officer inin charge observed a bandband ofof about 36 PaiutesPaiutes going up the river

5-285 -28 acrossacross fromfrom thethe camp,camp, decideddecided theythey werewere hostile,hostile, andand attackedattacked them.them. InIn thethe ensuingensuing battlebattle threethree soldierssoldiers werewere killedkilled andand oneone waswas wounded.

The army immediately sent reinforcements toto CampCamp Cady.Cady. OnOn AugustAugust 1717 aa contingentcontingent got lost in attempting a surprisesurprise attack onon a rancheriaranchería about 1515 miles southsouth ofof CampCamp Cady.Cady. In a second attemptattempt thethe rancheriarancheria waswas located, but it was deserted.deserted.

In 1867, after a period of peace, there were soso many attacks onon mailmail ridersriders along the MojaveMojave Road that the armyarmy established outpostsoutposts atat SodaSoda Springs, MarlMarl Springs, and Pah-Pah UteUte (Paiute) Spring, and a campcamp atat RockRock Spring.Spring. In November Major WilliamWilliam Redwood Price, in command at Fort Mojave, arranged a peace withwith aboutabout 6060 "well"well-armed -armed PahPah-Ute -Ute warriors."warriors." NativeNative AmericanAmerican hostageshostages werewere heldheld at the fort as insurance thatthat thethe termsterms ofof the agree��ntagreement would be kept.

Although the Native Americans whowho mademade the agreement may not havehave beenbeen responsible for the attacks alongalong thethe Mojave Road, theythey werewere apparently able toto enforceenforce thethe peace.peace. The treaty waswas confirmed,confirmed, so far as the Indians werewere concerned, by written statements given to each of the "captains" ofof thethe group thatthat camecame toto talk, and it waswas later officially approved by Generals McDowell andand HalleckHalleck (Casebier(Casebier 1973:601973:60-64). -64).

At the westernwestern end of the Study Area,Area, hostilities erupted in 1867 between Euro-Euro-Americans Americans andand thethe NativeNative Americans who had beenbeen coming into San Bernardino Valley fromfrom thethe MojaveMojave Desert. After aa band of Native Americans had burned and lootedlooted in the LakeLake ArrowheadArrowhead and Bear Valley areas, locallocal settlerssettlers organized, meetingmeeting first at Las Flores Ranch andand thenthen aboveabove Victorville on the Mojave River.River.

The Native Americans, whowho werewere probably Chemehuevis and Paiutes (and possibly Serranos and others), assembledassembled atat Chimney Rock overlooking RabbitRabbit Lake.Lake. They were warned ofof aa surprise attack Euro-AmericansEuro- Americans hadhad planned,planned, andand mostmost ofof themthem escaped. They were pursuedpursued byby Euro-Euro-Americans Americans 32 days, however, and many of themthem lostlost theirtheir lives.lives. From thethe point ofof viewview ofof the settlers, this campaign ended "Native American troubles"troubles" in the area (Beattie(Beattie andand BeattieBeattie 1951:421).1951:421).

Between 18651865 andand 18671867 thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute also warred upon thethe Mojaves.Mojaves. Most of thethe conflict was along thethe Colorado River, wherewhere the two groups raidedraided eacheach others'others' settlements.settlements. At least one battlebattle waswas conducted in traditional style, withwith Paiute women watching fromfrom thethe nearby mountainside (Kroeber(Kroeber and KroeberKroeber 1973:431973:43-44). -44).

The ChemehueviChemehuevi were involved,involved, but not toto asas greatgreat aa degreedegree as the Paiutes.Paiutes. In the course of thethe hostilities somesome Cheme-Cheme huevihuevi/Paiutes--possibly /Paiutes -- possiblymembers membersof ofthe the desertdesert groupgroup becausebecause they continued toto frequentfrequent thethe ProvidenceProvidence Mountains-Mountains--took -took refuge

55-29 -29 with CahuillasCahuil1as nearnear BannIngBanning and werewere gradually incorporated into this CahuillaCahuilla communitycommunity (Roth(Roth 1976:1101976:110-111). -111). Others found jobsjobs onon thethe SouthernSouthern PacificPacific Railroad, which was build-build ing its line through the Colorado Desert andand CoachellaCoachella Valley.Valley. Descendants ofof some ofof thesethese peoplepeople areare nownow incorporatedincorporated into the Cabazon Band of Cahuilla Indians at CabazonCabazon ReservationReservation (Vane field notes, .1978).1978). Still other ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute took refuge withwith the Serranos (Johnston(Johnston 1965:3; RothRoth 1976:111).1976:111). Their descendants later joined Coachella Valley groups.groups.

In the 1870sl870s the government began trying toto persuade asas many NativeNative AmericanAmerican groupsgroups asas possiblepossible toto livelive onon thethe newlynewly established ColoradoColorado RiverRiver Indian Reservation, along with thethe Mojave group thatthat hadhad movedmoved there.there. For the most part, thethe Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute resistedresisted thethe government'sgovernment's efforts,efforts, but Chemehuevi ChiefChief Espans,coyer,Espanscoyer, whosewhose peoplepeople occasionally obtained food atat CRIR,CRIR, wantedwanted to havehave them movemove there in 1867 (Kroeber(Kroeber 1973:87). They maymay havehave movedmoved there, butbut did notnot stay (Roth(Roth 1976:115).

In 1874 the reservation boundaries were extendedextended toto includeinclude some areasareas traditionallytraditionally usedused byby Chemehuevi, and some southern Chemehuevi apparently moved onto thethe reservation.reservation. A year laterlater there werewere 350 ChemehueviChemehuevi residents at CRIR, but in subsequent years they were not mentioned (Roth(Roth 1976:115).1976:115).

The Paiutes werewere not involved in the "Calloway Affair"Affair" of 1877, inin whichwhich ChemehuevisChemehuevis shot a whitewhite manman whowho had shot one of them, precipitating aa crisiscrisis inin PaloPalo VerdeVerde Valley.Valley. As part of the resolution of this affair, Chemehuevi livingliving inin thethe Palo Verde and Chemehuevi valleys were forced toto leaveleave theirtheir homes, crops, and jobs and move onto the ColoradoColorado RiverRiver IndianIndian Reservation, where theythey remainedremained untiluntil 1885.1885. Between 1886 and 1887, halfhalf ofof themthem werewere reportedreported to bebe in Chemehuevi Valley andand the others scattered throughoutthroughout ArizonaArizona andand California.California. A considerable numbernumber werewere in Needles, working forfor railroads.railroads.

Until 1910, the Chemehuevi and Paiutes remained independent of government control.control. They were self-self-sufficient sufficient andand fittedfitted well into thethe economiceconomic system.system. After the school at Fort Mojave opened in 1891, some of the Chemehuevi children attendedattended schoolschool there (Roth(Roth 1976:1221976:122-125). -125). Non-IndianNon - Indianmen menwho who hadhad marriedmarried Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute wiveswives tendedtended toto bebe suresure thatthat their childrenchildren attended the school (1976:127,133).(1976:127,133).

By the early 1900s,1900s, most Las Vegas PaiutePaiute malesmales werewere employed as cowboys,cowboys, miners,miners, oror wagonwagon drivers.drivers. The evidence of oral history gathered duringduring thisthis studystudy suggestssuggests thatthat fami-fami lieslíes werewere often separated by these subsistence strategies.strategies. Wives andand childrenchildren usuallyusually remainedremained alongalong thethe ColoradoColorado River,River, especially in the Cottonwood Island region, to tend family farms whilewhile husbandshusbands travelled in searchsearch ofof wage labor.labor. The collecting of "Indian foods"foods" andand thethe useuse ofof traditionaltraditional sitessites remained important duringduring thisthis period.period.

55-30 -30 Traditional activities had sometimes been interruptedinterrupted byby non-nativenon -native commercialcommercial operations,operations, butbut werewere resumedresumed wheneverwhenever possible. At Paiute Spring, for example, Las Vegas Paiutes had been excluded from nearby fieldsfields betweenbetween 18541854 andand 1866,1866, and totally excluded fromfrom 18671867 untiluntil 18681868 whenwhen thethe so-so-called called FortFort PaiutePaiute nearnear the spring was garrisoned. As Euro-Euro-American American travellers beganbegan to use routes other than thethe MojaveMojave Road,Road, fewer outsiders visited thethe spring.spring. The Las Vegas Paiutes were again permitted periodic access to the spring and asso-asso ciated agriculturalagricultural areas,areas, andand theythey tooktook advantage of such opportunities. During the first decades of this century, atat least one Paiute family,family, thethe Smiths,Smiths, tooktook upup fullfull-time -time resi-resi dence at the springspring asas farmersfarmers (Casebier(Casebier 1974:591974:59-60). -60).

Chemehuevi settlements at the turn of the century were concentrated inin anan areaarea thatthat includedincluded thethe hayhay and woodwood reserve of FortFort �fojMojave;ave; thethe city ofof Needles;Needles; BeaverBeaver Lake,Lake, across the river from FortFort Mojave;Mojave; andand thethe westwest sideside ofof the Colorado River as far north asas Hardyville. Included among those who livedlived there werewere families whowho had originated inin thethe northern, desert,desert, and southern ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute groups.groups. Some had returned from the BanningBanning andand TwentynineTwentynine PalmsPalms areas,areas, andand there werewere probablyprobably some SouthernSouthern Paiutes from the north of Las VegasVegas PaiutePaiute terri-terri tory (Roth(Roth 1976:1521976:152-154). -154).

There were still desert Paiutes in areas encompassing thethe Providence, Kingston, and Ivanpah mountainsmountains and associated valleys, and atat PaiutePaiute Springs.Springs. In addition, Chemehuevi who lived nearnear Needles,Needles, Banning, and Twentynine PalmsPalms camecame toto thisthis part of the desert seasonallyseasonally forfor hunting andand gathering.gathering. This subsistence pattern fostered intermarriages betweenbetween thethe variousvarious groups.

This Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute lifelife stylestyle camecame toto anan endend inin the early 1900s, whenwhen thethe governmentgovernment beganbegan toto set upup an allotment system. Previously, these Native Americans had for the most part beenbeen "squatters'"sqPatters'·' on on landland inin thethe publicpublic domain.domain. The Indian agents, the ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute, /Paiute, andand thethe governmentgovernment landland officeoffice could notnot reach agreement on the allotment system,system, however,however, except withwith respect to a few allotments inin ChemehueviChemehuevi Valley,Valley, which became aa reservationreservation duringduring thisthis period.period. In the 1930s1930s the ChemehueviChemehuevi lostlost their claims to theirtheir lands in the BeaverBeaver Lake and Needles areas, lower Chemehuevi Valley, the river areas northnorth of Fort Mojave,Mojave, and the mountain areasareas toto thethe west.west. The waterswaters impounded by Parker Dam flooded the lands along the river in Chemehuevi Valley, wherewhere the Chemehuevi Reservation had beenbeen (Roth(Roth 1976:1581976:158-165). -165).

The Chemehuevi also lost jobs in the earlyearly 1900s,1900s, asas thethe demand for unskilled laborlabor steadilysteadily declined.declined. Machinery replaced laborers on farms and in mines and the river steam-steam boats stopped operating asas of 19101910 afterafter aa longlong periodperiod ofof decline. During the Depression, the railroad roundhouseroundhouse was moved from Needles to Barstow, reducing not onlyonly jobsjobs onon thethe

5-315 -31 railroad butbut alsoalso opportunitiesopportunities toto sell crafts and services to train passengers.

In the meantime,meantime, ·aa rqilroadrailroad hadhad beenbeen built to Parker inin 1905, andand successfulsuccessful irrigationirrigation waswas inauguratedinaugurated at CRIR in 1912. Gradually moremore and moremore Chemehuevi and Paiutes moved to the reservation, some moving firstfirst toto Blythe.Blythe. Most of those whowho hadhad movedmoved to CRIR by 1912 were Chemehuevi.Chemehuevi. Some were Mexican-Mexican-Chemehuevi. Chemehuevi. The 10 or 12 families who moved there betweenbetween 1916 and 1927 included northern PaiutePaiute andand peo-peo ple who had livedlived atat BeaverBeaver Lake.Lake. In 1927 there were stillstill Chemehuevi communitiescommunities atat NeedlesNeedles andand BeaverBeaver Lake,Lake, butbut probably not in the desertdesert mountians. More Paiute families had moved to LasLas Vegas,Vegas, andand othersothers hadhad gonegone toto thethe MoapaMoapa ReservationReservation in Nevada (Roth(Roth 1976:1651976:165-168). -168).

After 1927, fivefive familiesfamilies moved toto NevadaNevada fromfrom CRIR.CRIR. Northern ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute werewere reluctantreluctant to livelive atat thisthis reservation, feeling that itit was not inin theirtheir territory.territory. Some joined the group that hadhad movedmoved first to Twentynine Palms and then to Banning. Others wentwent to Victorville or coastal Cali-Cali fornia. A considerable number who were enrolled atat CRIRCRIR diddid not livelive there.there. One family moved toto Mexico.Mexico. Some continued cattle raising inin ChemehueviChemehuevi Valley.Valley. Most small independentindependent Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute communitiescommunities hadhad disappeareddisappeared (Roth(Roth 1976:1976: 168-176).168 -176).

No Euro-AmericanEuro- American activityactivity ofof thethe early period had asas great an economic and spatial impactimpact onon thethe LasLas VegasVegas PaiutesPaiutes as a project of the 1930s, thethe dammingdamming ofof thethe ColoradoColorado River.River. Newly created lakes flooded Paiute landslands allall alongalong thethe river,river, drowning traditional community sites and eliminating the major agricultural component ofof subsistence.subsistence. The loss of farmland was critical, because wagewage labor alone was not sufficient toto support families.families.

More and more Paiute familiesfamilies were forcedforced outout ofof theirtheir traditional homelands inin searchsearch ofof subsistence.subsistence. Some of them moved to Pahrump Valley, where they shared resources with Paiute relatives.relatives. Some wentwent to the city of Las Vegas and became urbanurban wagewage workers.workers. Many of these people still reside in the Las Vegas IndianIndian Colony.Colony. Others dispersed andand no longer maintain contactcontact with thethe colony.colony.

The Indian Reorganization Act of 19341934 made itit possible toto organize tribal governments, butbut nono attempt waswas mademade to orgaorga- nize aa ChemehueviChemehuevi oror LasLas VegasVegas PaiutePaiute tribe.tribe. At CRIR however, the ColoradoColorado RiverRiver IndianIndian TribesTribes came into being,being, and all whowho were listed on a 1937 census of the reservation were recognized as members.

The fact that there was no ChemehueviChemehuevi tribetribe becamebecame aa prob-prob lem whenwhen it waswas necessarynecessary to decide whowho wouldwould get the money

5-325 -32 the MetropolitanMetropolitan WaterWater District hadhad to pay for thethe landslands itit flooded. In 1940 Congress passed a bill awarding $82,000$82,000 toto be held in trust by the government for thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi tribe,tribe, without stipulating which ,ChemehuevisChemehuevis had anan interestinterest inin thethe money. Controversy over this issue split the Chemehuevi intointo factions.

The Chemehuevi Business Committee was organized inin 1951,1951, apparently to file a Chemehuevi claim beforebefore the Indian ClaimsClaims Commission. The money awarded by this.this commissioncommt s s Lon became áa fur-fur ther point ofof contentioncontention (Roth(Roth 1976:1911976:191-199). -199).

In 1964 the government invited all known ChemehuevisChemehuevis toto a meetingmeeting atat whichwhich theythey wouldwould votevote onon whetherwhether to settle the Chemehuevi claimclaim againstagainst thethe governmentgovernment for about a millionmillion dollars. The government's offer waswas accepted, but a number ofof issues raisedraised atat thethe meetingmeeting havehave continuedcontinued to bebe mattersmatters of concern (1976:201(1976:201-202). -202).

Congress passedpassed a billbill in 1964 that gave the Colorado River IndianIndian TribesTribes clearclear titletitle toto ColoradoColorado RiverRiver Indian Reservation. Two years later the Chemehuevis voted not toto approve aa CongressionalCongressional proposalproposal thatthat thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi ValleyValley Reservation bebe mergedmerged withwith the Colorado River Reservation and that thethe resultingresulting entityentity bebe paidpaid bothboth thethe fees receivedreceived from the MetropolitanMetropolitan WaterWater District and the ChemehueviChemehuevi ClaimsClaims money (1976:203(1976:203-204). -204).

There followed during subsequent years a number of meet-meet ings at whichwhich an effort waswas made to resolve thethe issuesissues thatthat divided the Chemehuevi.Chemehuevi. California offoff-reservation -reservation ChemehueviChemehuevi and Mexican-Chemehuevi--twoMexican -Chemehuevi- -twogroups groupswhose whose sensesense ofof ChemehueviChemehuevi identity hadhad been weak up toto thisthis timetime--took --took activeactive partsparts in the controversies. Eventually a Special Committee onon Cheme-Cheme huevi Affairs waswas formed, representing the diverse Chemehuevi interests. The Metropolitan Water District payment was releasedreleased to this group., which which setset aboutabout writingwriting aa constitutionconstitution andand establishing aa ChemehueviChemehuevi ReservationReservation inin Chemehuevi ValleyValley (1976:204-216).(1976:204 -216).

The new constitution was approved in 1971,1971, andand individualindividual Chemehuevi hadhad to decide whetherwhether to becomebecome members of the new reservation. Most of those whowho werewere already enrolled atat CRIR chose to retain theirtheir membershipmembership there.there. The 312312 ChemehuevisChemehuevis who enrolled in the Chemehuevi Reservation inin 19711971 representrepresent about a fourth of the numbernumber whowho applied for Chemehuevi abori-abori ginal claims money,money, and about half the numbernumber of people enrolled at CRIR who have somesome ChemehueviChemehuevi blood.blood. Forty percent of the adultadult membershipmembership ofof thethe reservationreservation areare MexicanMexican-Chemehuevis - Chemehuevis who have livedlived offoff-reservation -reservation since the 1920s19205 andand 1930s.19305. About 15 percentpercent are northernnorthern Paiute, some of whomwhom had joined thethe Las Vegas Paiute IndianIndian colonycolony inin thethe 1920s1920s andand 1930s1930s (1976:507(1976:507-512). -512).

5-335 -33 Kawaiisu

During the historic period, the resourcesresources of the western Study AreaArea werewere utilizedutilized byby thethe Kawaiisu,Kawaiisu, whosewhose languagelanguage hadhad diverged from that ofof the'Utesthe Utes beforebefore the separation of the Northern, Pahvant, and Southern Ute languageslanguages (Lamb(Lamb 1958;1958; Hopkins 1965).1965).

The boundaries of traditional Kawaiisu territories are uncertain, in partDart becausebecause early historicalhistorical recordsrecords are incom-incom plete. Their lands seem to havehave centeredcentered in the "Sierra NevadaNevada/Tehachapi /Tehachapi watershedwatershed betweenbetween thethe SanSan JoaquinJoaquin ValleyValley and the MojaveMojave Desert." Kawaiisu territory extended northward toto the South ForkFork of the Kern River, eastward as'faras 'far as PanamintPanamint and DeathDeath valleys,valleys, and on the westwest adjoined thethe territoryterritory ofof the Yokuts (Hopa(Hopa 1979:107).1979:107). The southern boundary may have extended upup the northernnorthern slopes of the San Gabriel Mountains. The traditional occupants of the southwestern Study Area may in fact havehave beenbeen either Serrano or Kawaiisu, however (Kroe-(Kroe ber 1925:6161925:616-618). -618).

As mightmight be expectedexpected of aa people whose landslands werewere con-con tiguous withwith those of such diverse groups as the Penutians toto the north,north, Chumash toto thethe west,west, Takic-Takic-speakers speakers to the southsouth and Southern Paiutes to the east, thethe KawaiisuKawaiisu hadhad aa composite culture. In manymany ways,ways, their culture was similarsimilar toto thatthat ofof their Numic-speakingNumic- speaking neighborsneighbors toto thethe east,.east, butbut the fact thatthat the KawaiisuKawaiisu hadhad access to acorns as wellwell as to suchsuch desert resources as mesquitemesquite and screwbeanscrewbean accounted forfor somesome sig-sig nificant differences. They apparently establishedestablished permanentpermanent villages in their mountainmountain territory, from whichwhich theythey travelled seasonally. They intermarried freely withwith other groups and shared resourcesresources withwith them (Hopa(Hopa 1979:108), and itit appears that they werewere granted permission to hunt and gather onon terri-terri tories belonging to somesome of theirtheir neighbors.neighbors.

Kawaiisu religion was syncretic.syncretic. They were much concernedconcerned with supernatural beings, dreams,dreams, andand visions.visions. The hallucinohallucino- gen Datura metaloidesmetaloides was used ceremonially,ceremonially, aa culturalcultural elementelement probably borrowed from their neighbors toto thethe southsouth andand west.west.

Garcés,Garces, who apparently stopped at a Kawaiisu village in 1776 as he travelled from the Central ValleyValley toward the MojaveMojave River, reported that the people therethere hadhad treatedtreated himhim gener-gener ously (Hopa(Hopa 1979:107).1979:107). The subsequent destruction of the Kawaiisu as a coherent cultural systemsystem went largelylargely undocu-undocu mented. These Native AmericansAmericans werewere thought to be extinct in the 1870s (Powers(Powers 1877:393), trappers,trappers, settlers,settlers, andand minersminers having taken over theirtheir territory.territory.

A number of KawaiisuKawaiisu marriedmarried Euro-Euro-Americans, Americans, andand their descendants inin many instancesinstances adoptedadopted Euro-Euro-American American identities (Hopa 1979:1071979:107-112). -112). Zigmond, during his fieldwork inin thethe

5-345 -34 1930s, located aboutabout fortyforty-five -five Kawaiisu-speakersKawaiisu- speakers whowho werewere then living atat variousvarious placesplaces throughoutthroughout southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia (Ms.(Ms. 4,4, citedcited byby HopaHopa 1979:108)1979:108)..

Today there are at least three families of Kawaiisu descent in Tehachapi,Tehachapi, and others live in the SanSan Fernando Valley, Pasadena, andand SanSan Bernardino.Bernardino.

Feather baskets in the Los Angeles County Museum areare attributed to a womanwoman whowho lived in Victorville many years ago. CSRI's Kawaiisu consultant believes thethe basketmaker waswas his mother's auntaunt oror cousin.cousin.

Other Numic-Numic-speaking speaking Peoples

To an unknown extentextent thethe Numic-Numic-speaking speaking people fromfrom thethe north of thethe StudyStudy Area have atat various timestimes comecome southsouth toto avail themselves of thethe resourcesresources ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. The closest ofof these are the Owens ValleyValley Paiute, speakers ofof aa Western Numic language,language, andand thethe PanamintPanamint-Shoshoni, -Shoshoni, speakersspeakers of a Central Numic language.language. These groups camecame southsouth toto hunt in the mountainsmountains of thethe Study Area, oror toto gathergather plantplant materials (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). So far as is known,known, they did not consider the Study Area.Area theirtheir territory.territory. Ethnographically, these .groupsgroups are very likelike thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi andand Paiute.Paiute.

5-355 -35 SERRA,,'IOSERRANO

Ethnography The Spanish term Serrano, whichwhich translates literally toto "mountaineer," isis commonlycommonly apappliedapplied toto fourfour NativeNative AmericanAmerican groups ofof southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia thatthat livedlived inin oror nearnear thethe Study Area: the Serrano proper,proper, the Vanyume,Vanyume, the Tataviam,Tataviam, and the Kitanemuk. The Serrano proper and the Vanyume are thought toto have occupied the westernwestern and centralcentral parts ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, but it is byby nono meansmeans certain"wherecertain where territorial boundariesboundaries lay when the Spaniards arrived.arrived. GarcesGarcés placed the eastern boundary of the VanyumeVanyume several Spanish leagues east of thethe sinksink ofof thethe Mojave RiverjRiver; that is, about a thirdthird ofof the wayway from ther�there to the Providence Mountains. The westernwestern boundaryboundary of the Vanyume may have been inin thethe Daggett-Daggett-Barstow Barstow areaarea oror maymay havehave extended to the head of thethe Mojave River.River.

It is generally agreed that the territory ofof thethe SerranoSerrano extended along the east side of the San Bernardino Mountains from Cajon PassPass through Yucaipa Valley, and into thethe desertdesert as far as V�ctorvilleVictorville on the northnorth and Twentynine PalmsPalms onon the east, butbut there is a possibility that the areaarea where thethe Mojave River emerges fromfrom the SanSan Bernardino Mountains waswas territory belonging toto thethe Kawaiisu,Kawaiisu, aa NumicNumic-speaking -speaking groupgroup (Kroeber 1925:614).

The literatureliterature isis inconclusive:inconclusive: Starting out from Cuca-Cuca monga in 1819, Moraga'sMoraga's expedition came first to the Vanyume or Serrano village of Amuscooiabit after travellingtravelling 99 leagues;leagues; to Guapiabit, 18 leagues;leagues;AmUSCO�iabit andan toto Tooipabit,Topipabit, 3838 leagues.leagues. At Cacaumeat, 41 leagues from Cucamonga, people apparentlyapparently spokespoke a Serrano dialect.dialect. Sisuguina, 45 leagues from Cucamonga, maymay have been Serrano.Serrano. Angayaba, 60 leaguesleagues fromfrom Cucamonga,Cucamonga, waswas Chemehuevi (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:615).An�ayaba,19 5:615).

The extreme westernwestern part of the Study AreaArea maymay also have been either Serrano or Kawaiisu territory,territory, accordingaccording toto Kroeber (1925:616).(1925:616). He says thatthat ifif thethe SerranoSerrano ownedowned thethe northern slopes of the San Gabriel MountainsMountains in the area of Sheep, Deadman,Deadman, BigBig RockRock andand LittleLittle RockRock Creeks,Creeks, they occupiedoccupied the desert to the north,north, but that the areaarea near thesethese creekscreeks may have been KawaiisuKawaiisu territory.territory. Some Serrano listedlisted thethe Agutushyam of thethe Tehachapi Mountains (a(a KawaiisuKawaiisu group)group) asas a Serrano band.band.

Kroeber named three groups in or north of the San Bernar-Bernar dino Mountains: the Pauwiatum, coyotecoyote moiety; thethe Kupacha,Kupacha, wildcat moiety;moiety; andand thethe Kuyawat,Kuyawat, probablyprobably wildcatwildcat moiety.moiety. East of these werewere the Vanyume groups MawiatumMawiatum on the Mojave River, andand thethe AmahaAmaha-vit -vit east ofof them.them. There may bebe aa confu-confu sion between thethe AmahaAmaha-vit -vit andand thethe MojaveMojave (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:618).1925:618).

5-365 -36 Gifford said that the Kaiyuwat lived north ofof thethe SanSan Bernardino Mountains, acrossKait¥wat from�om San Manuel Reservation. The MaviatumMaviatum inhabitedinhabited thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver regionregion northnorth of the San BernardinoBernardino MountainsMountains and west of the Kaiyuwat. East of the KaiyuwatKaiyuwat livedlived thethe AmakhivitAmakhàvit (Gifford(GiffordKaifuwat. 1918:179).19 8:179). He says the YuhaviatYuhaviat oror "pine men"men" living at San Manuel ReservationReservation originally camecame 'fromfrom inin oror northnorth ofof thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino MounMoun- tains. After the white people came, the Yuhaviat camecame toto San Manuel,Manuel, replacingreplacing Gabrielino people who had livedlived inin thisthis area earlier. Also at San ManuelManuel in Gifford's time were somesome cembersmembers ofof the Pauwiatum,Pauwiatum, a coyote clan, othersothers of whomwhom lived 'northnorth of the San Bernardino Mountains.Mountains. A wildcat clan,clan, thethe Kupatca werewere listed as living in thethe San BernardinoBernardino Mountains. Benjamin Morongo,Morongo, an informant, listed the AgutasA utas asas thethe peo-peo ple of the TehachapiTehachapi Mountains (Gifford(Gifford 1918:184).1918:184).

Morongo related the Morongo creationcreation story to Gifford. In aa battlebattle afterafter the death of the creator Kukitat, onlyonly oneone Morongo man survived.survived. He married a Kaiyuwat woman; thatthat is,is, a womanwoman from aa groupgroup occupying an area in the north SanSan Ber-Ber nardino Mountains thatthat waswas probablyprobably inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea (1918:184)(1918:184)..

In Kroeber'sKroeber's analysis of Shoshonean dialects, he placed the MohineyamMöhineyam dialect as that of a MojaveMojave River group (1909:(1909: 253-256).253 -256). The dialect shares some characteristics with that spoken byby thethe Kitanemuk,Kitanemuk, the Serrano group that livedlived inin thethe Tehachapi Mountains.

Strong points out that thethe locallocal lineageslineages ofof thethe SerranoSerrano were the autonomous land-holdingland-holding groups,groups, soso thatthat therethere waswas not a Serrano territory in the larger sense butbut only the ter-ter ritories of thethe variousvarious lineages.lineages. These, he says, centeredcentered in the San Bernardino Mountains.Mountains. The Serrano were broughtbrought into the missions,missions, however, and when thethe mission systemsystem brokebroke up, the mainmain group that resumed the traditionaltraditional way ofof lifelife were the people of thethe Marona clan,clan, whose homehome waswas inin thethe Mission CreekCreek areaarea (Strong(Strong 1929:51929:5-11). -11).

Of the clansclans namednamed by Strong, the coyote clanclan Mav!atemMaviatem was said to have lived in the vicinity of Victorville, north of the San Bernardino Mountains,Mountains, andand the Amutcakaiem, moietymoiety unknown, livedlived atat thethe "base"base ofof thethe SanSan BernBernardinos,h ardinos," south of Victorville. Strong's informants knewknew little of the northernnorthern group of clans, which includedincluded thesethese twotwo clans.clans. The northern group probablyprobably constituted a ceremonial grouping,grouping, similarsimilar toto one centered inin thethe Mission CreekCreek-Morongo -Morongo areaarea andand another centered in the Twentynine PalmsPalms area.area. In the 1920s therethere were said to be "one or two survivors of thesethese groups" stillstill living near VictorvilleVictorville (Strong(Strong 1929:111929:11-13). -13). PresentPresent-day -day people at San ManuelManuel knowknow of individuals whowho lived in that region until recently, butbut there is nono indication that anyany Serrano still live there or anywhere else withinwithin the StudyStudy Area.

Both thethe Vanyume andand SerranoSerrano werewere Takic-Takic-speakers speakers of

55-37 -37 Shoshonean stockstock withinwithin thethe largerlarger Uto-Uto-Aztecan Aztecan languagelanguage family. Whether thethe Vanyume spokespoke aa separate Takic languagelanguage or a dialect of SerranoSerrano isis notnot known.known. The primary distinc-distinc tion betweenbetween the two groups seems to have been political.political. The VanyumeVanyume werewere allies of the MojaveMojave and the Chemehuevi, who frequently opposedopposed the Serrano proper (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:614).1925:614).

The Vanyume werewere early casualties of mission relocation projects and other European encroachment intointo theirtheir territory.territory. Never numerous, they werewere extinct by 1900,1900,' before ethnographers had a chance to make firsthand observations (Bean(Bean and Smith

1978:570) ..

The Serrano are closely related in language, culture, and social organization to the Cahuilla andand ChemehueviChemehuevi people,people, with whom theythey have been politicallypolitically andand economicallyeconomically allied.allied. The Cahuilla and Chemehuevi are respectively the southern andand eastern neighbors ofof thethe Serrano.Serrano.

Very littlelittle isis actuallyactually knownknown aboutabout thethe Serrano.Serrano. In the early part of the century, several sc�olarsscholars interviewed Serrano-speakingSerrano -speaking peoplepeople residingresiding atat MorongoMorongo IndianIndian ReservationReservation and San ManuelManuel Indian Reservation (Gifford(Gifford 1918;1918; KroeberKroeber 1925;1925; Strong 1929; Benedict 1924).1924). By that time the Serrano had lived so long outside theirtheir traditiontraditional al territoryterritory thatthat their memories of specific locationslocations were not clear.clear. For that matter, the anthropologists did notnot try to do extensive research on SerranoSerrano history.history.

The unpublished papers of John P. Harrington (most(most of which were not availableavailable forfor thisthis study) may yield significantsignificant information about Serrano landland useuse andand revealreveal moremore detailsdetails about their occupancy ofof thethe MojaveMojave Desert.Desert. Strong (1929:7)(1929:7) gives specific locations of more Serrano traditional settle-settle ments thanthan doesdoes anyany otherother ethnographer.ethnographer.

It is notnot clear how many SerranosSerranos therethere were beforebefore whitewhite contact. There may have been between 1000 and 3000, although the higher figurefigure seemsseems unlikely.unlikely. The Serrano occupied aa heterogeneous environment.environment. It included parts of thethe Mojave Desert, a very aridarid andand high-lyinghigh -lying area. A unique plant ofof this desert is the Joshua tree (Yucca(Yucca brevifolia), which waswas an important SerranoSerrano foodfood (see(see ChapterChapter III)III). . Serrano terri-terri tory extended intointo thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Mountains,Mountains, a abetterbetter - watered region where aa great variety of foodfood was availableavailable atat different timestimes ofof thethe year.year.

Besides thethe Joshua tree,tree, thethe mostmost importantimportant plantplant resourcesresources available to the Serrano werewere the acorns of various species of oak in the mountain valleys; other species of yucca, including the Spanish bayonetbayonet (Yucca whiplei); seedsseeds fromfrom variousvarious sagessages (Salvia sp.);sp.); severalseveral specieswhiP¥lei); 0or cacti (the(the barrel cactuscactus [Echinocactus acanthodes]acanthodes] beingbeing especially important);important); nuts, berries, andand otherother fruits.fruits. The Serrano traded regularly with

5-385 -38 their neighborsneighbors andand exchangedexchanged rightsrights ofof accessaccess toto foodfood-gathering - gathering areas; forfor example,example, theythey werewere allowed toto gogo into certain Cahuilla food-gatheringfood - gatheringareas, areas,in inexchange exchange forfor allowingallowing thethe CahuillaCahuilla to come into SerranoSerrano foodfood-ga'thering -gathering areas.areas.

Important animal resourcesresources includedincluded the antelope (now(now extinct),extinct) , desert bighornbighorn sheep, mulemule deer, and such small game as rabbits,rabbits, variousvarious species of rats, reptiles (including(including lizards,lizards, chuckwallas, andand snakes),snakes), andand birdsbirds--especially -- especially the quail.

The Serrano hadhad exchange relationships withwith the Gabrielino to the westwest and the Mojave to the east, asas well asas withwith the Chemehuevi andand Cahuilla.Cahuilla.

Serrano villagesvillages werewere located, asas aa rule,rule, nearnear primaryprimary water resources.resources. Village populations probably ranged from 3030 to 100 people, depending upon circumstancescircumstances atat anyany givengiven time.time. These villagesvillages werewere occupied byby patrilineages,patrilineages, whichwhich werewere divided intointo moietiesmoieties muchmuch like those of their neighbors, thethe Cahuilla (Bean(Bean 1972:831972:83-119). -119). Each village had aa chiefchief whowho waswas a politico-religiouspolitico -religious leader,leader, anan assistantassistant toto this man, andand various other importantimportant politico-politico-religious religious leaders.leaders.

The second most important person in the village was thethe shaman. Next in importance were ritualritual andand ceremonialceremonial leaders,leaders, who were formally involved in the performance of esoteric ceremonies necessarynecessary for the ongoing SerranoSerrano lifelife andand thethe maintenance of political and economic relationships withwith their neighbors.

The politicopolitico-religious -religious leaderleader ofof the Serrano, whowho waswas called aa ki·ka?,kika', hadhad aa positionposition similarsimilar toto thatthat of the netnet of the Cahuilla or the n6·tnó.t of the Luiseno.*Luiseño.*He was assisté3assisted byby other functionaries, particularlyparticularly thethe paxa·?,paxa2, who alsoalso held aa position similar to one found among the Cahuilla, Luiseno,Luiseño, and other groups.groups. The paxa.?paxa' assistedassisted thethe ki.ka?kika" inin thethe adminis-adminis tration of ceremonial ritual, political, ánand deconomiceconomic affairs.affairs.

These leaders and their assistants were carefulcareful to main-main tain a balance betweenbetween the subsistence resources of their constituents and the ecology ofof theirtheir territories.territories. They paid close attention to food -gathering potential, controlling and food-gathering potential J controlling managing thisthis as well asas thethe tradingtrading relationships of thethe Serrano asas aa group.group. The economic viability ofof thethe group was largely maintainedmaintained by means of ritual exchange suchsuch asas thatthat described amongamong thethe CahuillaCahuilla (Bean(Bean 1972).1972).

The most important ritual in Serrano lifelife was apparentlyapparently that whichwhich celebrated the death and transformation of the soulsoul

*? *9 is the phonetic symbol forfor a glottal stop.stop. The raisedraised dotdot after a letter increases itsits timetime value.value. An accentaccent overover aa vowel means itit receivesreceives primaryprimary stress.stress.

55-39 -39 into the afterlife.afterlife. This ceremony lasted from several days to a week,week, and involved notnot onlyonly other Serrano villagesvillages but alsoalso many neighboring peoples suchsuch asas thethe Cahuilla,Cahuilla, Luiseño,Luiseno, Gabrielino, and Chemehuevi.Chemehuev�.

In addition to mortuarymortuary rituals, there werewere rites of passage celebrating the birthbirth of children, their naming, thethe beginning of puberty, and individual status changes such asas a man'sman's becomingbecoming aa shaman,shaman, paxa.?,paxa.?, ki.ka?,kika?, oror ceremonialceremonial singer.singer.

The Serrano also celebrated the various featuresfeatures ofof thethe changingchangdng year, such as the beginning of thethe acornacorn oror pinyonpinyon harvests, whichwhich werewere markedmarked byby "first fruits" or thanksgiving ceremonies. Rituals werewere sometimes heldheld in an attempt to control the environment:environment: to stop rainrain oror to bring it, for example. Ceremonies werewere conducted in order toto curecure thethe sick,sick, or to prevent or alleviatealleviate aa difficultdifficult birth.birth. Some of these ceremonies involvedinvolved takingtaking jimsonweedjimsonweed (Datura meteloides)meteloides) or wild tobacco (Nicotiana)(Nicotiana) forfor sacredsacred hallucinogenic purposes.purposes.

People lived in villages asas permanent sedentarysedentary groups,groups, but wouldwould movemove occasionally from one partpart of the Serrano terri-terri tory to another, depending on weather conditionsconditions andand thethe availability of waterwater and various plant andand animalanimal resources.resources. People werewere mostmost aptapt toto leave the villagevillage at the times of year when they collected food inin quantityquantity atat distantdistant locations.locations. When major resources such as pinyons, acorns, Joshua tree blossoms or fruit, barrelbarrel cactus, and other foods werewere ready for harvesting,harvesting, mostmost of the people in aa village would movemove into the harvestharvest area, and collect as much foodfood asas possiblepossible for storage in order to have supplies availableavailable throughoutthroughout the year. Men oftenoften leftleft thethe villages onon hunting partiesparties toto acquire large game like antelope, deer, andand desertdesert bighornbighorn sheep.

The SerranoSerrano livedlived inin circular,circular, domedome-shaped -shaped houseshouses withwith willow framesframes andand tuletule thatching.thatching. Very often, structuresstructures toto provide shade werewere builtbuilt alongside the houses,houses, and much of the ,family'sfamily's daily activities took place under thesethese ramadasramadas.

Major villages also had a ceremonialceremonial house inin which (or(or near which)which) thethe politicopolitico-religious -religious leader lived.lived. These houses were 'usedused primarily for religious rites, but also for political meetings. Near most homes were storage granaries forfor mesquite pods, acorns, and other foods that could be gathered in largelarge quantities.

Serrano materialmaterial culture waswas very muchmuch like that of their Takic-speakingTakic -speaking neighbors,neighbors, thethe CahuillaCahuilla (Bean andand Smith 1978). Like the Cahuilla, the Serrano werewere potters who used the coil-and-paddlecoil -and- paddletechnique, technique,and andthey they decorateddecorated theirtheir workwork withwith patterns similar toto thosethose ofof thethe Cahuilla,Cahuilla, Mojave,Mojave, andand Yuma.Yuma. Water jars, bowls, parching trays,trays, andand spoonsspoons oror ladlesladles werewere made ofof pottery.pottery.

55'-40 -40 Serrano basketry,basketry, again like that qfof their neighbors,neighbors, was developed from a set of highly complex aestheticaesthetic principles,principles, and waswas elaboratelyelaborately designed (Bean(Bean and Smith 1978)1978).. Baskets were used forfor storage, as,as, vesselsvessels forfor parching and cooking, storage, parching cooking,. as capscaps andand gamblinggambling trays, and in various otherother ways.

Various fibers werewere used for makingmaking skirts, shoes, rabbitrabbit nets, carrying nets, ropes, floor mats,mats, and other articles. Bone or woodwood waswas usedused for mortarsmortars and pestles,pestles, withwith whichwhich foods werewere processed. Other artifacts made by the Serrano were various musicalmusical instruments, ornaments, pipes, fire drills, and weapons. Projectile points forfor arrows,arrows, darts,darts, and spears werewere mademade from obsidian,obsidian, quartz,quartz, andand similar materials.

5-415 -41 Ethnohistory

Father Francisco Garces in 1776 waswas the first European .. Garces 1776 first European to visitvisit the Vanyume and Serrano, when he camecame alongalong thethe Mojave trailtrail fromfrom thethe Mojave villages toto Mission SanSan Gabriel.Gabriel. In 1806 Father Jose Maria ZalvidéaZalvidea recorded thethe experiencesexperiences of an expedition sent out from Mission Santa Barbara thatthat visited the villages of Atongaibit and Guapiabit on the Mojave River. This expedition waswas apparently one of the firstfirst attemptsattempts to bring thethe VanyumeVanyume/Serrano /Serrano intointo thethe missionmission system. At each village fivefive elderlyelderly peoplepeople werewere baptized.baptized. By this time thethe Vanyume/SerranoVanyume /Serrano werewere probablyprobably familiarfamiliar withwith the mission system,system, inasmuch as converts whowho escapedescaped from the missionsmissions tended to seek refuge with inlandinland groups.groups.

In 1810.1810 somesome 800800 NativeNative AmericansAmericans, representing an alli- I representing alli ance ofof MoMojaves, j ayes ,Angayabas fromfrom thethe easterneastern MojaveMojave RiverRiver area,area, Serranos, and escapedescaped missionmission converts, attemped to overthrow Mission SanSan Gabriel.Gabriel. There had been threethree previous attemptsattempts to overthrow thisthis mission.mission.

The Vanyume/SerranoVanyume /Serrano continuedcontinued toto bebe recruitedrecruited intointo the mission system, especially after the establishment of an asistencia in San Bernardino ValleyValley inin 1819.1819. Father Joaquin Pasqua!Pasqual Nuez,Nuez, the diarist of the Moraga expeditionexpedition sentsent against the MojaveMojave that year,year, describes AtongaibitAtongaibit as a "pagan village" (Casebier(Casebier 1975:20).1975:20). This indicates that some Vanyume or Serrano hadhad notnot by then been incorporatedincorporated intointo thethe missions.missions.

The American explorer Jedediah Smith seems to have been the last person to record visiting aa Vanyume village.village. Two Vanyume sixteen-sixteen-year-olds year -oldsguided guided himhim fromfrom thethe MojaveMojave villagesvillages to MissionMission SanSan Gabriel.Gabriel. Their peoplepeople mademade 8 8-to-IO-to -10 poundpound loaves of panocha fromfrom canecane grassgrass alongalong thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver--a --a confec-confec tion similar to that made in Mexico toto thethe presentpresent day.day. When the expedition's food supplies gave out,out, the boysboys retrieved loaveloavß of this candy from a cache in the desert westwest of Soda Lake.

There seems to havehave been at least two villages along thethe Mojave River atat thisthis time,time, oneone ofof which thethe SmithSmith partyparty visited.visited. When the expedition reached Mission San Gabriel, the twotwo boys were imprisonedimprisoned asas missionmission runawaysrunaways--a --a measuremeasure of thethe lengthslengths to whichwhich the missionsmissions wouldwould go to retain their converts (Brooks(Brooks

1977) .

The Vanyume disappeardisappear fromfrom thethe historical recordrecord afterafter Smith's second triptrip throughthrough theirtheir territoryterritory inin 1827.1827. When Fremont arrived in 1844, no Native Americans were livingliving alongalong the MojaveMojave River (Kroeber(Kroeber 1972:33).1972:33). The Mojave whose oraloral literature Kroeber recorded in the early 1900s1900s stillstill had aa

5-425 -42 cycle ofof songs they called Tamanpa Vanyume, howeverhowever (1972:(1972: 32).

Kroeber talked with an old Vanyume woman who was livingliving among the UojavesMojaves in thethe earlyearly 1900s.1900s. She "had been brought to thethe MohaveMohave asas aa girlgirl oror child aboutabout thethe time mostmost of her people 'werewere massacredmassacred--allegedly -- allegedlyby byMexicans; Mexicans; oror accordingaccording toto two ChemehueviChemehuevi accounts, by the MohaveMohave themselves"themselves" (1972:33).(1972:33).

When the missionsmissions broke up in 1834, Native Americans who had beenbeen in the missionsmissions joined those whowho hadhad not,not, stayed in the vicinityvicinity of the missions,missions, or were incorporated intointo thethe larger society. Serranos tended to settle in the San Bernar-Bernar dino ValleyValley and other valleys to the south ofof thethe SanSan Bernar-Bernar dino Mountains,Mountains, butbut therethere continued toto bebe considerable useuse of the mountainmountain areaarea asas well.well. During this time therethere was aa resurgence of traditional life.life.

In the l870s1870s and l880s,1880s, whenwhen the reservations werewere being established, the governmentgovernment sentsent outout agentsagents whowho urgedurged NativeNative Americans toto move ontoonto reservations.reservations. Serrano were askedasked toto join the Cahuilla at MorongoMorongo Indian Reservation near Banning and some of themthem did.did. In 1893 San ManuelManuel Reservation was established near Highland.Highland. Some of the Serrano therethere areare descended from the SerranoSerrano whosewhose traditionaltraditional territory waswas in the Study Area. There has been a great deal of intermarriage between San ManuelManuel people and those on Coachella Valley reser-reser vations, other Native Americans, andand whites.

Until recent years there have been individualindividual Serrano families living in the Victorville areaarea thatthat areare relatedrelated toto those at SanSan Manuel.

Other TakicTakic-speaking -speaking People

There are occasional referencesreferences in thethe literatureliterature toto the Cahuilla being in the Study Area toto taketake partpart inin cere-cere monial events or to hunt and gather, but there is no sugges-sugges tion that it waswas considered theirtheir territory.territory.

The northern part of thethe western Study Area, generally considered Vanyume territory, waswas little known in thethe early historic period.period. There is archival evidence of Kitanemuk occupation in a part of itit (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979c).1979c). The Kitanemuk were neighbors of thethe Kawaiisu inin thethe Tehachapi areaarea inin thethe late 19th century, and had a somewhat similar cultureculture even though their language waswas related more closely to that of the Serrano thanthan toto thatthat ofof thethe Kawaiisu.Kawaiisu.

5-435 -43 THETHE URBAN NATIVE �MERICANSAMERICANS OF BARSTOW AND DAGGETT

IntroductionIntroduction

OfOf the several hundredhundred Native AmericansAmericans whowho live in the Barstow andand DaggettDaggett areas,areas, aa largelarge percentagepercentage are Navajos, and people from the Laguna and Acoma Pueblos inin NewNew Mexico.Mexico. They were largely drawn to the area byby employment opportunities that originated at thethe timetime ofof WorldWorld WarWar II.II.

For most of the centuries since the arrival of thethe Span-Span ish overover fourfour hundredhundred yearsyears ago,ago, thethe NavajoNavajo havehave hadhad anan economy based onon pastoral migrationmigration (Ruffing(Ruffing 1978:57). By thethe midmid-20th -20th century manymany ofof them werewere nono longerlonger ableable toto makemake an adequate living in traditional ways,ways, andand measuresmeasures initiated byby the United States governmentgovernment to ameliorateameliorate their situation had failed. Some NavajoNavajo therefore found it necessarynecessary to seek work outside the reservation. A considerable number of themthem were recruited duringduring the KoreanKorean warwar toto workwork atat the MarineMarine Corps Supply Center near Barstow.Barstow. It is the remainingremaining families from this group that make up thethe Navajo componentcomponent ofof thethe Native American populationpopulation inin thethe Barstow-Barstow-Daggett Daggett area.area. They retain close ties with the Navajo Reservation.

The other major groupsgroups ofof NativeNative AmericansAmericans inin thethe BarstowBarstow - Daggett area come respectively from the AcomaAcoma and Laguna Reservations inin western NewNew Mexico.Mexico. They speakspeak Keresan lan-lan guages, whichwhich Sapir (1929:137) classifiedclassified as beingbeing relatedrelated to Hokan languages, and are descendants of peoples who have practiced agriculture and lived in sedentary villages or pueblos forfor hundredshundreds ofof years.years. Railroads began to recruit them for workwork in Barstow during World War II,II, andand employmentemployment by the railroads has continued to attract them, four of thethe respondents to CSRI's interviews in Barstow having arrived within thethe lastlast fourfour years.years. The Laguna group is unusual, inin that it constitutes aa formally organized colony of the Laguna pueblo in New Mexico,Mexico, havinghaving a local governorgovernor whowho is responsiresponsi- ble toto thethe governorgovernor ofof thethe parentparent pueblo.pueblo.

Little aboutabout thesethese urbanurban NativeNative AmericansAmericans ofof thethe DaggettDaggett - Barstow area has appearedappeared inin thethe ethnographicethnographic literature.literature. The data that follow were assembled by CSRI ethnographer Diane Rothenberg inin thethe coursecourse ofof herher fieldfield survey.survey.

Population DemographicsDemographics

Various estimatesestimates of thethe Barstow area'sarea's NativeNative AmericanAmerican population that were supplied toto CSRI ethnographers areare notnot consistent. The Indian Center survey,survey, conductedconducted beforebefore 1977,1977,

55-44 -44 gives a total of 1107 Native Americans inin thethe immediateimmediate area.area. The CountyCounty ofof SanSan BernardinoBernardino census ofof 1975 gives a count of 350 Native Americans inin thethe CityCity ofof Barstow.Barstow. This discrepancy probably resultsresults from the fact that muchmuch of the Native AmeriAmeri- can population lives outsideoutside thethe citycity limits.limits.

The figures for children of school age (K(K through grade 12) areare equallyequally inconsistent,inconsistent, withwith thethe BoardBoard ofof EducationEducation identifying 143143 childrenchildren and the Indian Center reporting 200.200. Several respondentsrespondents saidsaid itit waswas theirtheir impressionimpression that there had been a recent decline inin thethe Native American population.population. Assistant Lowman indicated that the Navajo Club, which had 300 membersmembers whenwhen it waswas organizedorganized fivefive yearsyears ago, had recently disbanded because of a loss of membership, andand thatthat onlyonly 1212 Navajo families remain in the Daggett community.community.

Another indexindex of demographic trends (highly(highly extrapolated)extrapolated) may be church participation.participation. The Assembly of God Church inin Daggett, whichwhich waswas builtbuilt byby andand forfor its NativeNative AmericanAmerican commucommu- nity, now reports almost no Native American members. The only Catholic church in the area reports a Native American enroll-enroll ment of 100 families (about(about whomwhom its spokesperson otherwise knows nothing).

In termsterms of enrolled membership,membership, 37 separateseparate tribaltribal affi-affi liations are represented within thethe Barstow community.community. No breakdown for each tribe is available, but thethe consensusconsensus isis that the three largest aggregatesaggregates areare the Navajo,Navajo, Laguna,Laguna, and Acoma (in(in orderorder ofof size).size). If there is a current population decline, it wouldwould appearappear to bebe largely through the loss of Navajos.

The only aggregate withwith a formal organization is that of the Laguna, who constitute-constitute--along -along withwith railroadrailroad communities in Winslow,Winslow, Arizona, andand Richmond,Richmond, California-California--true -true coloniescolonies of the parent pueblo inin NewNew Mexico.Mexico. The Laguna colony inin Barstow is formally organized, with a locallocal governorgovernor respon-respon sible to the governor ofof thethe parentparent pueblo.pueblo. The members ofof the colony look to Laguna Pueblo for assistance inin adminis-adminis trative mattersmatters (although(although they contend assistanceassistance isis notnot alwaysalways forthcoming, as in the 1964 housinghousing disputedispute withwith the Santa Fe Railroad, to be discussed later), and they are assessed dues by the pueblo in lieu of work clearing irrigationirrigation ditches.ditches. The colony recently complained about thisthis financialfinancial obligation,obligation, but Laguna PuebloPueblo refusedrefused toto revokerevoke it.it. Because thethe proceeds from uraniumuranium miningmining onon the LagunaLaguna reservationreservation are divided on a per capita basis, and distribution is not made toto any member remiss inin payingpaying "ditch-"ditch-dues," dues," thethe financialfinancial inducement to pay them isis strong.strong. The Acoma community inin BarstowBarstow alsoalso payspays colonial "ditch-"ditch-dues" dues" toto AcomaAcoma PuebloPueblo inin Arizona,Arizona, but otherwise is organized onlyonly informally.informally. The informal leaderleader ofof thethe Acoma community is chairman of the board of the IndianIndian CenterCenter andand isis also presidentpresident ofof thethe BarstowBarstow ParentParent-Teacher - Teacher Association.

55-45 -45 There maymay bebe some significance in the fact that the other Acoma whowho serves on the Indian Center board also divides her interests betweenbetween the Native AmericanAmerican community and the larger community. A recent graduate of Barstow Community College, she hashas beenbeen legally blindblind forfor 14 years and is an active membermember of AccessAccess-California -California (an(an organizationorganization for the handicapped), serving onon the county BoardBoard of Directors and participating onon thethe state level; she attends nationalnational con-con ventions of thethe handicapped.handicapped. She is attempting toto interestinterest the City of Barstow inin institutinginstituting anan AccessAccess-California -California propro- gram, andand waswas preparingpreparing to address the city council the day she waswas interviewed.

This respondent provided some interesting insights intointo the naturenature of the multi-multi-tribal tribal NativeNative AmericanAmerican community. In response to a CSRI ethnographer's comment about the reluctance of the Navajo community to participateparticipate in the survey, she remarked thatthat thethe EnglishEnglish-language - language skillsskills ofof NavajosNavajos areare often inadequate, andand that they are handicapped inin theirtheir dealingsdealings with thethe "white"white world"world" asas aa result.result. She notednoted that attendance at Indian Center meetings isis very poor (but(but increasesincreases atat socials), andand thatthat thosethose whowho dodo attendattend meetingsmeetings frequentlyfrequently complain afterwardafterward thatthat theythey hadhad notnot understoodunderstood whatwhat hadhad beenbeen discussed.

English is,is, ofof course,course, thethe lingualingua francafranca ofof thisthis multimulti - tribal community,community, as it is within tribally mixed marriages. Of the 5 married Acoma people surveyed, 44 (80(80 percent) are married toto otherother-than-Acoma; - than -Acoma;of ofthe the6 6married married Lagunas,Lagunas, 4 (67 percent)percent) areare marriedmarried toto otherother-than-Lagunas; - than -Lagunas; ofof thethe 55 fromfrom miscellaneous tribes, 5 (100(100 percent) are married within ano-ano ther population, only 1 to a Native American;American; of the 8 marriedmarried Navajos, 3 (38 percent) areare marriedmarried toto otherother-than-Navajo. - than -Navajo.

Although allall reservationreservation-born -born respondentsrespondents reportedreported them-them selves to bebe fluent in their native language, andand many ofof their children havehave some degree of fluency in the language of one or both parents, English would appearappear toto bebe thethe firstfirst lan-lan guage forfor manymany--if --if notnot mostmost--of - -of thethe otherother-than-Navajo - than -Navajo familiesfamilies in the community.community. (The employmentemployment ofof LowmanLowman to survey thethe Navajo community in Daggett waswas extremely fortunate, as she speaks that language withwith reasonable fluency andand understands it even moremore fully.)fully.)

Relationship toto BarstowBarstow SchoolSchool SystemSystem

An interviewinterview with thethe actingacting assistantassistant superintendentsuperintendent for educational services of the Barstow school district pro-pro vided information about language proficiency asas well asas aboutabout local Native American involvement with thethe public educationaleducational process. The Barstow school district administers aa TitleTitle IVIV

55-46 -46 program to serve the 143 students whowho have been declared as Native Americans by theirtheir parents.parents. The program is writtenwritten and administered byby the assistant superintendent, with the help ofof an elected committee ofof IndianIndian parents.parents. Three instructional aidesaides andand oneone communitycommunity coordinatorcoordinator areare hiredhired withwith partpart of the funds. The parents' committee reviews all decisions, requests for aid,aid, andand medicalmedical andand dentaldental billsbills thatthat involve Title IV funds, and also participatesparticipates in the recruitmentrecruitment and hiring of personnel. There is only one Native American teacher, althoughalthough the numbernumber stipulatedstipulated onon thethe basisbasis ofof populationpopulation percentagespercentages is seven;seven; thisthis situation isis attributedattributed toto aa lacklack ofof qualified candidates (which wouldwould seemseem toto indicateindicate therethere is nono activeactive recruitment outside thethe community).community).

In anticipation of the desires of the Native American community, thethe BoardBoard ofof EducationEducation purchasedpurchased materialsmaterials relevantrelevant to the teaching of Native AmericanAmerican culture inin thethe schools.schools. The ten-memberten -member parents'parents' committeecommittee rejectedrejected suchsuch teaching, however,however, insisting that emphasis be placed on mainstream skills:skills: readread- ing, math,math, language, and vocational training.training. They specifically expressed aa desiredesire toto havehave theirtheir childrenchildren becomebecome proficientproficient in English.

The assistant superintendent reported that the Native American students in the Barstow school district test on a level equivalent with other students.students. The Navajo children from DaggettDaggett score slightly lower than thethe otherother NativeNative Ameri-Ameri can children, however,however, and the efforts of the instructional aides are directed specifically toward correcting deficiencies among these Navajo children.children. This observation relates directly to the greatergreater useuse of the Navajo language inin socialsocial interactioninteraction among Navajos, and the linguistic handicap theythey suffersuffer asas com-com pared to other Native American groupsgroups inin thethe BarstowBarstow area.area.

The assistant superintendent of schools noted thatthat Native American studentsstudents appear to participate somewhatsomewhat lessless thanthan dodo others in extracurricular school activities, and suggested that theirtheir slightlyslightly higher-higher-than-average than - average dropoutdropout raterate mightmight be connected with thisthis lacklack ofof participation.participation. It also seemsseems possible that thethe bus ride toto Daggett, where 1212 of thethe Navajo families live, isis partiallypartially responsible.responsible. Native American students do take part in band and in sports, and there is an active Indian Club at both the high school and junior college levels.

The one Native American teacherteacher inin BarstowBarstow isis aa Navajo.Navajo. She is married toto anan Acoma.Acoma. Raised in the traditionaltraditional manner, in New Mexico, sheshe isis thethe onlyonly college-college-educated educated membermember of her family. She reported that her socialsocial interactionsinteractions areare allall within thethe PuebloPueblo oror thethe whitewhite populations.populations. Some people inin the Native AmericanAmerican community suggest that local Navajos tend to bebe withdrawnwithdrawn and socially distant within the larger commu-COttmlU nity. The self-self-perceived perceived differencesdifferences inin personalitypersonality between

55-47 -47 the NavajoNavajo and PuebloPueblo groupsgroups in BarstowBarstow werewere reported to CSRICSRr ethnographers by both Navajos and other NativeNative Americans.Americans. The NavajosNavajos areare describeddescribed as "country people"people" whowho are shy and soft-spoken,soft -spoken, andandwhose whose socialsocial focusfocus isis withinwithin family groups,groups, whereas the Pueblo populations seesee themselves,themselves, andand areare seen,seen, as "urban" and comparatively urbane.urbane. This city-city-country country disdis- tinction,tinction, which-which relatesrelates so suggestively to the distinctionsdistinctions in spatial andand social organizationorganization on the parent reservations, is reflectedreflected in the concentration ofof pueblo-pueblo-derived derived peoplepeople within the city of Barstow, and in the dispersal of Navajos in thethe moremore openopen spaces of the outlying communities.communit�es.

The Navajo teacher said that she viewsviews herself as being representative ofof the last ofof aa type ofof NativeNative AmericanAmerican whowho has "a foot in eacheach world." She hopeshopes that her children, andand Native AmericanAmerican children in thethe Barstow areaarea inin general,general, willwill be upwardly.upwardly mobile within aa whitewhite context.context. Her children, sheshe feels, wouldwould nevernever bebe able to adjust to reservation living,living, asas she andand herher husbandhusband had considered doing when he retired.

The selfself-perception -perception ofof beingbeing aa membermember of a transitionaltransitional generation waswas also expressed by a Laguna woman, whose chil-chil dren frequently visitvisit the reservation but feelfeel completelycompletely out of place there.there. In fact, except for the Mojave director of the YMCA,YMCA, aa recentrecent graduategraduate ofof thethe UniversityUniversity ofof OregonOregon with a majormajor in publicpublic administration whowho sees hishis future in Indian administration,administration, only 4 respondents of thethe 2222 who werewere born andand/or /or raisedraised inin BarstowBarstow expressedexpressed anyany inclinationinclination for reservation life;life; ofof thesethese 4,4, onlyonly thethe 22 whowho werewere reservationreservation - born indicated that thisthis was aa real possibility.

Relationships with Parent Communities

The threethree major tribaltribal groupsgroups inin BarstowBarstow andand DaggettDaggett maintain tiesties with their parent communities, aided by the free railroadrailroad passes provided to railroad employeesemployees andand theirtheir families. These ties includeinclude spendingspending vacations onon thethe reser-reser vation, and returning for ceremonial and other obligatory occasions. The BarstowBarstow-born -born childrenchildren ofof allall three groups reported that they visit thethe reservation frequentlyfrequently andand par-par ticipate in ceremonies there.there.

Many people were awayaway duringduring thethe timetime ofof thethe CSRICSRI survey.survey. Lagunas were participating inin aa ceremony.ceremony. Many Navajos were absent, Lowman explained, because this waswas the time of both the Winslow andand GallupGallup fairs.fairs. Other Navajo families return to the reservation atat thisthis timetime ofof yearyear toto cutcut firewoodfirewood toto supply the reservation populationpopUlation forfor thethe winter.winter. Lowman added that the people whowho regularly perform work duties on the reservation maintain homeshomes andand flocksflocks there.there.

5-485 -48 ManyMany Pueblo respondents mentionedmentioned that they have homes onon reservations, whichwhich areare presentlypresently occupiedoccupied byby other family members. A retired railroad worker, the husband of aa Laguna woman, was back at his ZuñiZuni reservation supervising thethe con-con struction ofof aa homehome that they willwill occupy this year; hehe waswas also preparingpreparing forfor the Shalako ceremony,ceremony, in whichwhich hehe wouldwould be an importanttmportant functionary.

Barstow, then, isis thethe placeplace wherewhere thethe reservationreservation-born -born generation resides,resides, butbut itit isis notnot thethe placeplace wherewhere they "live" in any active Native American sensesense ofof thethe word.word. These peo-peo ple are sojourners in anan alienalien environment to whichwhich they feel little related,related, andand they areare particularlyparticularly sensitivesensitive to the claims that others,others, suchsuch asas thethe MOjaves,Mojaves, havehave to the placeplace and its history.history_ This feeling is strongly expressed inin par-par ticular by the reservationreservation-born -born generation;generation; forfor example,example, they report that peoplepeople returnreturn toto the reservationreservation beforebefore death,death, or that bodiesbodies are shipped therethere forfor burial. This generation's Barstow-bornBarstow -born childrenchildren alsoalso expressexpress viewsviews aboutabout havinghaving aa close relationship to reservation land.land.

For the reservationreservation-born -born generation,generation, thethe reasonreason forfor beingbeing in Barstow (where(where some have lived for as long asas 3535 years)years) isis economic. The three primary sources of Native American employ-employ ment cited are (in(in order of descending importance) the Santa Fe Railroad,Railroad, the Union Pacific Railroad, and thethe Marine CorpsCorps Supply Depot.Depot. Other people areare employedemployed inin tourist-tourist-related related businesses (motel(motel maintenance, forfor example)example) andand inin publicpublic services such as the Board of Education and thethe ParksParks Depart-Depart ment.

No Native American owns a business inin thethe BarstowBarstow area.area. Both the Native Americans and thethe other residentsresidents ofof thethe community perceive the economic level of thesethese twotwo groupsgroups toto be equal,equal, however.however. Only one respondent reported receivingreceiving public assistance atat thethe presentpresent time.time. When asked whether unemployed people return toto thethe reservation, respondentsrespondents pointed out that people whowho are out of workwork tend to remainremain in California, wherewhere welfarewelfare payments are higherhigher than in Ne'tvNew Mexico or Arizona.

While the reason for being in Barstow is economic, the reason advanced for returning toto thethe reservation afterafter retire-retire ment isis alsoalso largelylargely economic.economic. Respondents repeatedly explained that a retirement incomeincome couldcould gogo much furtherfurther onon the reservation: there are no property taxes,taxes, andand landland andand medical servicesservices areare readilyreadily available.available. The general impression gleaned from thethe reservationreservation-born -born generationgeneration isis thatthat they would return toto thethe reservationreservation forfor both practicalpractical andand culturalcultural reasons, but would probably divide their timetime between thethe reservation and Barstow, where theythey expect theirtheir childrenchildren toto be living.living.

55-49 -49 Furthermore, mostmost of the people interviewed saidsaid theythey like the Barstow area.area. One young Laguna-Laguna-Navajo Navajo couple, transferred toto BarstowBarstow byby thethe SantaSanta FeFe RailroadRailroad withinwithin the last three years,years, reportedreported that they had come reluctantly, but havehave found the community entirely to their liking and intend to remain. Not moremore than two or three people said they feelfeel that the larger community discriminates againstagainst them.

The people whowho havehave been born and raised in Barstow face a problem their parents dodo notnot have.have. They feel themselvesthemselves committed to BarstowBarstow as aa permanentpermanent home; only 4 out ofof 1818 individuals (22 percent)percent) whowho do notnot plan to return toto reser-reser vation living indicated any expectations of leavingleaving Barstow.Barstow. But as a group, they are worried about economiceconomic opportunitiesopportunities in the area.area. The Santa Fe Railroad's hiring policiespolicies appar-appar ently givegive preferentialpreferential treatment to children·ofchildren of employees,employees, but there is aa growing feelingfeeling that railroadrailroad policiespolicies and promises are changing and that other employmentemployment opportunitiesopportunities are scarce.scarce. Several respondentsrespondents indicated that theythey might have to leave Barstow (reluctantly)(reluctantly) toto seekseek economiceconomic oppor-oppor tunity elsewhere;elsewhere; however,however, a larger number saidsaid theythey regard unemployment as a problem of national scopescope andand dodo notnot feelfeel that leaving the area would help them.them.

For the BarstowBarstow-raised -raised generation,generation, social interaction isis perceived to be in the arena of thethe largerlarger community.community. Members of this group reportreport that they choosechoose their friends (and are in turn chosen) on the basis of personal attractiveness,attractiveness, with-with out reference toto ethnicethnic identification.identification. Of the 17 people inin the sample under 3030 yearsyears ofof ageage whowho areare BarstowBarstow-raised -raised (only 1 person in thisthis ageage groupgroup waswas reservation-reservation-raised), raised), 1212 peoplepeople (71 percent)percent) are unmarried, 33 (17 percent)percent) are married toto whites, andand 22 (12(12 percent)percent) areare marriedmarried interinter-tribally. -tribally.

Respondents reported that in Barstow there is little stress on activities specific toto Native Americans, andand nono capitalization on such activities in termsterms ofof touristtourist trade.trade. One man, with his daughters, participates in the southwestern powwow circuit and has manymany medalsmedals and trophies displayed in his home.home. A few people attend annual powwows in Apple Valley sponsored byby the Apple Valley Chamber of Commerce,Commerce, butbut thisthis does not seem to be of any specialspecial interestinterest toto thethe community.community. A few people were reported toto engageengage inin "Indian""'Indian" crafts.crafts. Specifically named werewere five silversmithssilversmiths andand severalseveral women weavers, allall saidsaid toto bebe Navajo.Navajo. A BarstowBarstow touristtourist shopshop dis-dis plays a smallsmall selectionselection ofof oneone silversmith'ssilversmith's work.work. The usual outlets for salesale of craftcraft itemsitems areare thethe IndianIndian CenterCenter (infre-(infre quently); private ordersorders (more(more frequently);frequently); andand tradingtrading postsposts in New Mexico and Arizona (most(most often).often).

5-505 -50 Living'Living Accommodat'ionsAccommodations

The Native AmericanAmerican population lives in housing dispersed throughout the city of Barstow and in surroundingsurrounding communities.communities. When people from the LagunaLaguna and AcomaAcoma pueblospueblos first arrived toto work on thethe railroad inin 1942,1942, housinghousing waswas providedprovided--in --in the formform ofof converted refrigerator carscars--in --in twotwo enclaveenclave communitiescommunities near the railroadrailroad tracks (Keeling(Keeling 1977:211).1977:211). Tents were erectederected near these permanent structuresstructures toto accommodateaccommodate newnew arrivals,arrivals, visitors, and family spillover, and the earth ovens built near-near by remained until recently.recently. Although there was no feelingfeeling thatthat this housinghousing waswas the propertyproperty ofof thethe NativeNative AmericansAmericans whowho lived in it, it waswas their understandingunderstanding that theythey would continuecontinue toto be supplied withwith fredfree housing.

In,1964,In 1964, the housing was condemned andand thethe inhabitantsinhabitants were servedserved notice toto move.move. According to them, neither com-com pensation nornor assistance waswas providedprovided toto makemake this move,move, and the LagunaLaguna colonycolony triedtried to getget their parent pueblo toto intercede.intercede. The pueblo apparently tooktook nono action.action. Demolition operationsoperations were begun while residents were stillstill occupyingoccupying theirtheir homes.homes. It waswas reportedreported that mostmost people purchased theirtheir ownown homeshomes atat this time, tending to movemove into new tracts being constructedconstructed around thethe city.city. According to a local real estate agent, thethe Native AmericanAmerican population is a very stable one; itsits members either buy homes oror rentrent onon aa longlong-term -term basisbasis and are very reliable tenants.tenants. The agent confirms the impression that theirtheir housing is totally integratedintegrated intointo thethe largerlarger community.community.

History of the Native American CommunityCommunity Although occasional reference is mademade in the literature to Paiute Indians in the general area of Barstow afterafter 19001900 (Keeling 1977:41,48),1977:41,48), the NativeNative AmericanAmerican population living here whenwhen Europeans first arrived either hadhad beenbeen eliminated or had moved elsewhere by thethe lastlast quarterquarter ofof thethe 19th19th cen-cen tury (Walker(Walker 1977:1977:191).191). Only one of the families interviewedinterviewed had connections withwith Barstow beforebefore 1942; these people could trace their local ancestry for four generations, throughthrough aa Blackfoot grandmother enrolled as a California MissionMission Indian (from thethe SacramentoSacramento Valley)Valley) and a German emigrant grandfather who camecame toto thethe areaarea asas aa miner.miner. They knew of no other NativeNative American familyfamily with similarsimilar rootsroots inin Barstow.Barstow. The contem-contem porary Native American community, then,then, hashas aa briefbrief history.history.

According toto oraloral tradition,tradition, thethe firstfirst people fromfrom Laguna arrived in 1942 toto work on thethe SantaSanta FeFe RailroadRailroad underunder aa verbal agreement made sometime in thethe unspecified past between Laguna PuebloPueblo andand thethe railroad.railroad. In exchangeexchange forfor aa rightright-of -of- way throughthrough thethe reservation, thethe railroadrailroad agreedagreed toto provideprovide employment and housinghousing throughout its system for Laguna Native Americans. "Railroad colonies" ofof LagunaLaguna peoplepeople devel-devel oped inin Winslow, Arizona, andand inin LosLos Angeles,Angeles, SanSan Bernardino,Bernardino,

5-515 -51 and Richmond, California.California. (Those in LosLos AngelesAngeles and SanSan Ber-Ber nardino are said to be defunct, and that in Richmond toto be losing population rapidly.)rapidly.)

The colonies maintai�edmaintained connections withwith one another as well as with Laguna Pueblo.Pueblo. There appears to be a railroad subculture amongamong thethe Lagunas,Lagunas, withwith railroadingrailroading going back three generations. The networks that have been establishedestablished are ofof greatgreat assistanceassistance in easingeasing newnew arrivalsarrivals into the comcom- munity, as well as inin maintaining aa sensesense ofof LagunaLaguna identity.identity. The Santa FeFe RailroadRailroad expandedexpanded itsits BarstowBarstow operationsoperations in response to WorldWorld WarWar II; steam engines werewere replaced, and a diesel shop waswas established inin BarstowBarstow inin 1945.1945. Since thatthat time the shop has beenbeen expanded and modernized (Keeling(Keeling 1977:1977: 168-169)·.168 -169). Employment for people from Laguna Pueblo, and forfor those from AcomaAcornawho who followedfollowed shortlyshortly afterward,afterward, hashas dependeddepended directly on thisthis expansion.expansion.

The Navajo segment of the community appears to have come to BarstowBarstow asas a resultresult of a MarineMarine commander's effortsefforts toto employ peoplepeople from southwestern Indian reservations atat thethe u.S.U.S. Marine Corps Supply Center during thethe KoreanKorean War.War. AlAl- though manymany ofof the newnew employees from reservations foundfound adjustment difficultdifficult and returnedreturned home, many others stayedstayed and are stillstill employedemployed atat .the-the MarineMarine facilityfacility (Keeling(Keeling 1977:1977: 74). The personnel office at the supply depot reports that . 27 NativeNative AmericansAmericans (21 menmen and 6 women)women) were employedemployed therethere as of March 31,31, 1979.1979.

55-52 -52 CHAPTER VI.VI. ATTITUDE SURVEY RESULTSRESULTS

MOJAVEMOJAVE

The attitudinal study to determine the response of the Mojave to Southern California EdisonEdison Company'sCompany's proposalproposal waswas conducted byby JacksonJackson YoungYoung betweenbetween AugustAugust 23 and 30,30, 1979.1979. Approval to conduct the study was grantedgranted by thethe tribaltribal chairman ofof the Colorado River Indian Tribes onon August 13,13, and byby the tribal chairman of the Fort Mojave IndianIndian Reser-Reser vation on August 23.23.

Both tribal councils expressed annoyance that SCEseE had not notifiednotified them in advance that anan ethnographerethnographer wouldwould bebe arriving to carry out fieldfield investigations.investigations. A similarsimilar over-over sight hadhad occurred whenwhen CSRI ethnographers conducted studiesstudies for SCE in 1978 (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1978:21978:2-15), -15), and members ofof the council of the Colorado River Indian Tribes made itit clearclear that theythey considered this second failure to communicatecommunicate toto bebe particularly improper.improper.

Included in the present study were 40 Native Americans of Mojave affiliation, 20 fromfrom thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver IndianIndian Reservation and 20 from the Fort Mojave IndianIndian Reservation.Reservation.

Tribal elders and other people withwith a high degree of status, prestige,prestige, and knowledgeknowledge werewere sought forfor thethe surveysurvey (especially formerformer tribaltribal chairmen, and present and formerformer members of tribaltribal councils).councils). Four key Colorado RiverRiver reser-reser vation respondents, with whom Young had establishedestablished aa working relationshiprelationship duringduring thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo VerdeVerde fieldwork in 1978, were interviewed more thanthan once;once; theythey providedprovided valuable referrals to other Mojaves livingliving atat bothboth reserva-reserva tions. One of these key respondents introducedintroduced YoungYoung toto thethe chairman atat FortFort Mojave.Mojave.

Interview schedules (see(see Appendix A) were usedused asas aa framework in interviewing allall respondents.respondents. The interviewsinterviews were openopen-ended -ended wheneverwhenever respondentsrespondents werewere willingwilling to provide additional information.information. At the Colorado River reservation,reservation, private interviews were conductedconducted with eacheach respondentrespondent (except forfor 44 marriedmarried peoplepeople whowho werewere interviewed inin pairs). At Fort Mojave, 2020 respondentsrespondents werewere interviewedinterviewed asas aa group,group, on three separate occasions, andand severalseveral individualsindividuals werewere interviewed privately followingfollowing eacheach groupgroup meeting.meeting. These meetings were arranged by the tribaltribal council,council, forfor thethe mutual convenience of the ethnographer and the elders who tooktook part in the study.study.

66-1 -1 Areas ofof Concern

One elder atat the ColoradoColorado RiverRiver reservationreservation (a former tribal chairmanchairman who.haswho has considerableconsiderable prestige)prestige) said he does not believe therethere areare manymany--if --if any--Mojavesany-- Mojaves todaytoday whowho have specific informationinformation about thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. This view was corroborated severalseveral t�estimes by other respondents.

General Attitudes

The general attitude of the MOjaveMojave people at Fort Mojave toward thethe proposedproposed projectproject appeared to be influencedinfluenced byby negotiations currentlycurrently in progressprogress betweenbetween SCE and the tribe regarding aa proposalproposal to constructconstruct a powerpower plant on Fort Mojave Indian Reservation. The general attitude of the people inter-inter viewed at Fort Mojave isis that:that:

They are not highly concerned aboutabout thethe proposedproposed HVTLs,HVTLs, as long as they do notnot impact Avikwame (Newberry(Newberry Mountain), either reservation, thethe Colorado River,River, oror tribal water rights.rights.

They areare interested in getting whateverwhatever they have sufficient bargainingbargaining power to demand, in return for their approval.approva�.

A cooperative attitude toto outsiders isis aa stronglystrongly held value. (This is alsoalso an important attitude at Colorado River Reservation.)Reservation.)

They feel an urgent needneed forfor additionaladditional electricity,electricity, especially if it could be supplied at a lower cost to tribal consumers.consumers.

At thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver IndianIndian ReservationReservation (CRIR),(CRIR), represen-represen tative responsesresponses toto the proposedproposed project includeinclude thethe following:following:

I "amam against more transmissiontransmission lines.lines. The areaarea isis polluted with lineslines andand massivemassive structures.structures.

There should be some effort made regarding popula-popula tion control. To place more and more people inin anan area wherewhere they must rely on anan importedimported oror falsefalse environment isis wrong.wrong.

The Mohave were aa peoplepeople who roamedroamed thisthis entireentire area. I have no idea about thethe number ofof resting areas or sleepingsleeping circlescircles locatedlocated here.here.

The HVTLs will pollute thethe areaarea visuallyvisually andand aes-aes thetically, andand areare alsoalso noisy.noisy. Underground placement or completecomplete disallowancedisallowance areare thethe onlyonly

6-26 -2 solution, unlessunless technologically some improve-improve mentment is made.

When something-like this occurs that isis againstagainst nature and the environment, someonesomeone or somethingsomething is always affected. But wewe can nevernever judge today whywhy yesterdayyesterday is no more,more, or whatwhat tomorrow will be.

California should concentrate on studying the impact ofof overpopulation,overpopulation, rather·thanrather than looking to meansmeans to support more population.population.

Typical ofof the responsesresponses mademade at FortFort MojaveMojave Indian Reservation (FMIR)(FMIR) were these:these:

The company should hirehire Indian peoplepeople on the project.

It is difficultdifficult to grasp the objectives of the project and the reason forfor thethe interviews.interviews.

No mattermatter whatwhat we say,say, they'llthey'll dodo itit anyway.anyway.

We'd be more willing to go along with thethe proposal if our power rates would comecome down.down. (FMIR respondentsreapon eTnts reportedreported thatthat singlesingle elec-elec tric bills often range between $135-$198.)$135-$198.)

If seESCE is going toto get help (by(by ourour support)support), we should get help fromfrom them,them, too.too.

Be sure that the project, includingincluding the power plants, does not impact our water rirights.ghts.

We are Californians, too, and we have been here longerlonger thanthan thethe newcomers.newcomers.

We know about the tax loopholes, soso SCEseE couldcould find a wayway to give us more powerpower forfor lessless money.money.

Disposition ofof Remains andand Artifacts.Artifacts. To thethe question,question, "What should bebe done if burials oror cremationcremation sitessites areare inad-inad vertently encounteredencountered duringduring constructionconstruction ofof thethe lineline?" ?" thethe group atat ColoradoColorado RiverRiver reservationreservation answered, "Fence off sites and reroutereroute the line." Those at Fort Mojave answered,answered, "Reroute"Reroute the line."

To the question, "What shouldshould be donedone with artifactsartifacts ifif they are uncovered?"uncovered ?" thesthesee responsresponseses ,o1erewere recorded:

Give themthem toto thethe properproper owners.owners.

66-3 -3 Bring them to the Colorado River IndianIndian TribesTribes Museum.

They should be studied,studied, placedplaced inin aa museum.museum.

The tribal museum might bebe interestedinterested inin them.them.

If they can identify the tribe, artifacts should be returned toto thatthat tribe.tribe.

Items determined to bebe of MOjaveMojave origin should be returned to the tribetribe or inin cases where theythey don't wishwish to accept articles, otherother localslocals should be contacted.contacted.

Need for Energy.Energy. At CRIR, 1212 respondents (60(60 percent)percent) believe thatthat CaliforniaCaIifornia needs more energy and thatthat thethe SCEseE project is a good way toto getget it.it. At FMIR, 1818 people (90(90 percent) share this view, for a MojaveMOjave totaltotal ofof 3030 (75(75 percent).percent). Three peoplepeople atat CRIRCRIR (15 percent)percent) think California needs more energy butbut thethe HVTLsHVTLs are notnot a good way to get it;it; atat FMIRFMIR 22 people (10(10 percent) tooktook thisthis position.position. The Mojave totaltotal forfor this viewview is 5 (12.5(12.5 percent).percent).

Three respondents (15(15 percent) at CRIR do not know whether California needsneeds moremore energy,energy, oror diddid notnot wishwish toto expressexpress anan opinion. No one at FMIR expressedexpressed thesethese views.views.

Two peoplepeople at CRIR (10(10 percent) do not know whether thisthis project is aa goodgood wayway to get neededneeded energy for California, or did notnot wishwish to express anan opinion.opinion. At FMIR no one has thesethese views.

Uses of the StudyStudy Area.Area. Six respondentsrespondents (30(30 percent) at CRIR indicated they are unfamiliar with NativeNative AmericanAmerican usesuses of the Study Area; 99 (45 percent)percent) atat FMIRFMIR gave the same answer, for aa MojaveMojave total of 15 (37.5(37.5 percent).percent).

Thirteen peoplepeople (65(65 percent) at CRIR said they are familiarfamiliar with Native American uses of the Study Area inin general, but not specifically; 1111 (55 percent) at FMIR responded with thisthis ans-ans wer, giving a Mojave totaltotal ofof 2424 (60(60 percent).percent). One respondent at CRIR said hehe is familiar withwith a few specific use areas; he represents 2.5 percent of thethe Mojaves interviewed.interviewed.

Knowledge ofof thethe Past.Past. Seven respondents (35(35 percent) at CRIR indicated that they are unfamiliarunfamiliar withwith the prehistory and history of the Study Area;Area: 16 (80(�O percent) gave thisthis answeranswer atat FMlR,FMIR, for a Mojave total of 2323 (57.5(57.5 percent).percent).

Twelve people (60(60 percent) at CRIR said theythey know aboutabout prehistory and history fromfrom theirtheir ownown experience,experience, oraloral history,history, or other internal sources; four (20(20 percent) gavegave thisthis answeranswer

66-4 -4 lJ1 0\ SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES OF NATIVE AMERICANS TABLE 6 -I. I 3. 2. 1.

MOJAVE Fort b. a. Knowledge d. b. a. Knowledge d. Attitude c. c. b. Fort Mojave Indian Reservation (FMIR) and Colorado River Indian Reservation (CRIR) e. c. a. Very Have Familiar Do Know Unfamiliar Unfamiliar Familiar Do express Think Think sources. California, Croup CRIR Think FMIR Total Mojave ------.------� No. Respondents 20 20 40 not not No. Z No. r No. Z about learned familiar toward of of California California 1. California Attitude toward California's energy needs: know know an with with Native prehistory a. Think California needs more energy and this is a good way to get it. 12 60 18 90 30 75 Indian SUMMARY with with opinion. it whether whether or b. 3 2 California's 5 Think California needs more energy but this is not a good way to get it. about 15 10 12.5 with a from it c. do 0 0 0 American 0 0 few it. Think California does not need more energy. it. 0? does needs needs in Reservation d. not own prehistoric, Do not know whether California needs more energy, or do not wish to it 3 0 3 and

general, 0 OF California 15 specific express an opinion. this 7.5 wish not from more more experience

e. KNOWLEDGE Do not know whether this is a good way to get needed energy for history 2 2 5

use 10 0 energy is 0' California, or do not wish to express an opinion. need books to a energ energ ----- of but use

2. exp goo rna Knowledge of Native American use of Study Area: ne a h n S (FMIR) ress d -- or areas. not re Y f Y eds eeds: istoric, tudy a. Unfamiliar with it. , 6 30 9 :45 15 37.5 -----� way oral but and Study TABLE AND schooling. b. energy. more 13 65 11 '55 24 Familiar with it in general, but not specifically. specifically. 60 Area: an MOJAVE to this c. 1 this 5 1 history, 0 0 2.5

Familiar with a few specific use areas. ATTITUDES and Area: opinion. and get energy, d. Very familiar with prehistoric, historic, and present use areas. 0 0 0 0 0 0 6-1. is is Colorado needed 3. present not Knowledge of prehistory and history of Study Area: a or a. 7 good Unfamiliar with it. or 35 16 80 23 57.5 a other b. 1 5 1 OF do energy Have learned about it from books or schooling. good 0 0 2.5 way use

4 NATIVE c. River not Know about it from own experience, oral history, or other internal 12 60 20 No. 16 40 way areas. internal sources. to wish Respondents for get to Indian

AMERICANS

get to it. Group it. Reservation 12 13 12 No.; 0 CRIR 0 1 2 1 3 7 6 3 20 j 15 60 65 10 15 60 35 30 0 0 % 5 5 No 11 18 16 o FMIR 4 0 o o o 0 9 21 20 .f i i , I. I I 155 : ' ! ' :45 . 10 90 80 20 0 0 % 0 0 01 0 (CRIR) No. 15 24 30 16 23 Total 0 010 5 1 2 1 3 . 40 , 175 • • I ! '60 I I I 112.5 I 137•5 , I I I I I I I I I I • I 140 • I 57.5 0 5 2.5 7.5 2.5 % � , I I I I I ! I i I I I I I I : I Table 6 -I. (Continued) CRIB FMIR Total

0\ 0\ No.1 % 4. a.Knowledge of seasonal migrations: Do not know of any seasonal migrations. t 17 85 16Nom X 80 33No.¡ 82.5 % 4. 8. 6. 5. c.b. Know about migrations from books or other schooling. 7. 30 0 40 0 70 0 Table d. a. Attitude b. b. c. a. d. d. c. b. a. c. b. a. Opinion d. c. Opinion d. possibilities: Native c. Knowledge d. HaveKnow specificabout migrations knowledge from of seasonaltribal tradition. migrations. b. a. Opinion 0 15 0 0 20 0 0 17,5 0 6- Have Know Know Do No Think Think Think Think Think No Think Think Think No Think No Think Think Think the employment 5. individual

Attitude toward appearance of transmission lines: I. opinion. not opinion. American opinion. opinion. about about about a. individual's about about

10 50 specific 75 Think the proposed lines will have a negligible effect on landscape, 20 100 toward 30 of they they they the they the the the the the they they (ConU.nued) b. Think the proposed lines will damage the landscape. 4 20 0 0 4 10 know seasonal proposed proposed proposed proposed proposed c. effect effect vroposed effect 1 5 1 migrations migrations may may will will will will opportunities. 0 Think the proposed lines will ruin the landscape. s 0 2,5 appearance of group:

d. employment 5 25 0 5 No opinion. 0 knowledge 12.5 any have have decrease have have 6. improve of of of Opinion about effect of proposed transmission lines on economy of employment Native American group: migrations: lines lines seasonal lines lines lines lines a no proposed proposed a. proposed no Think the proposed lines will improve economy of group and increase an serious 2 10 0 0 2 from 5 from of individual s employment opportunities. effect of adverse opportunities. recreational effect will may will will will will b. Think they will have no effect on economy of group and the individual's recreational 9 transmission books seasonal employment opportunities. 45 10¡ 50 19 tribal 47.5 migrations. opportunities. -�--.----. have lines transmission c. transmission negative have on have damage

Think they will have an adverse effect on economy of the ruin group and improve the individual's employment opportunities. on 0 0 0 0 0 0 effect health. or positive

d. economy 9 No opinion. 45 10 50 19 traditio 47.5 no on a the illigrat 7. other possi negli Opinion about effect of proposed transmission lines on recreational the heal poss effe econ eff on lin possibilities: Ian

a. 1 5 1 1 economy of omy dscape. andscape. gible es: n. ect th ibUities. ct. bilities. lines Think they will improve recreational possibilities. lines 0 0 ions. 2.5schooling. b. effect 9 9

of 0 Think the proposed lines will have no effect. group 45 0 22.5 on c. Think they will decrease recreational possibilities. of 2 10 0 0 2 5 Native on on effect health. group on d. No opinion. of 8 40 20 100 28 70 recreational and economy

8. health. Opinion about effect of proposed lines on health of Native Americans: the Americans: on and a. Think the proposed lines may have positive effect on health. the 0 0 0 0 0 0 group

b. 9 landscape, 9 of

Think they may have no effect on health. individual's 0 c. Think they may have a serious negative effect on health, increase 2 1045 0 0 2 22.5 5 d. No opinion. and 9 45 20 100 29 72.5 10 17 No.! 9 a 8 0 9 9 4 2 9 1 9 5 0 2 1 0 2 3 CRIR i 140 • • 110 I I I , I ! , 45 45 45 45 45 10 10 50 15 85 25 20 0 0 5 0 5 0 % 10 10 20 20 201100 No. 16! 0 0 0 0 O' 0 0 0 01 01 01 41 01 FMIR 01 • I • I I I I • • i i I I I I 100 100 50 50 80 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 19 29 19 No.1 28 30 33 4 9 0 0 1 Tota1 2 9 1 2 0 5 0 2 7 ! i J 47.5 47.S 72.5 12.5 10 22.5 10 75 17 82.5 22.5 5 0 0 5 2.5 0 0 % 5 2.5 ,5 : I I ! I ! I I I I I I i I I i I at FMIR,FMIR, forfor a MojaveMojave total of 1616 (40(40 percent).percent)�

One person at CRIR had learned about history andand prehis-prehis tory from books.books .

. Native American MigrationsMigr·ations' inin thethe Past.Past. When asked about seasonal migrationsmigrations into the Study Area, 1717 people (85(85 percent)percent) at CRIR saidsaid theythey diddid notnot knowknow ofof any;any; 16 (80(80 percent) at FMIR do notnot knowknow ofof any,any, givinggiving aa total MOjaveMojave responseresponse of 33 (82.5(82.5 percent). Three CRIR people (15(15 percent) saidsaid theythey knowknow aboutabout migrations from tribal tradition; 4 (20(20 percent) at FMIR answered similarly,similarly, givinggiving aa total for MojaveMojave respondents of 7 (17.5 percent).

None of the respondents was specific about thethe areasareas ofof migration, except for "those up and down the Colorado River."

Appearance ofof thethe HVTLs.HVTLs. At CRIR, 10 respondents (50(50 percent) thinkthink thethe proposea-HVTLsproposed-HVTLs willwill havehave nono noticeablenoticeable effect on thethe landscape.landscape. FourFour.people people (20(20 percent) atat CRIRCRIR think thethe proposedproposed lineslines willwill do some damage toto thethe landscape.landscape. One personperson believesbelieves the proposed lineslines will ruinruin thethe land=land scape, andand 55 peoplepeople (25 percent)percent) have no opinion aboutabout thethe appearance of thethe HVTLs.HVTLs.

None of the 20 people interviewed at FMIR foreseeforesee anyany damage; thus,thus, the MojaveMojave total for this position isis 3030 (75(75 percent).

Economic Effects.Effects. Only two respondents (10(10 percent) atat CRIR thinkthink thethe proposedproposed HVTLsHVTLs willwill improveimprove the economy of the group oror thatthat theythey willwill increaseincrease individual opportunitiesopportunities for employment. This represents 5 percent of thethe Mojaves inter-inter viewed. No one expressed thisthis view atat FMIR.FMIR. Nine people (45 percent)percent) atat CRIRCRIR believebelieve the proposed lines will have nono noticeable effect on Mojave economy.economy. At FMIR the number of people whowho havehave this viewview is 10 (50(50 percent), for a total of 19 (47.5(47.5 percent). Nine people (45(45 percent) at CRIRCRIR andand 10 (50 percent)percent) atat FMIRFMIR havehave nono opinion about the economiceconomic impactimpact of the HVTLs,-HVTLs, for a totaltotal Mojave responseresponse ofof 1919 (47.5(47.5 percent).percent).

Effects onon Recreation.Recreation. Only one respondent at CRIR believes the HVTLs would improveimprove recreationalrecreational possibilities.possibilities. Nine peoplepeople (45 percent)percent) believebelieve the HVTLs would have virtually no effect on recreational possibilities; thesethese 99 represent 22.5 percentpercent of the Mojaves interviewed.interviewed. Two people (10(10 per-per cent) at CRIR believebelieve the proposed lines wouldwould decrease recreational possibilities;possibilities; this is 5 percent of the Mojave total. At CRIR, 8 people (40(40 percent) expressedexpressed no opinionopinion about the impact on recreation.recreation.

At FMIR, none of thethe 2020 respondents have an opinion, for a MOjaveMojave totaltotal ofof 2828 (70(70 percent)percent). .

66-7 -7 Effects onon Health.Health. Nine (45(45 percent) of thethe respondents at CRrRCRIR believebelieve the HVTLsHVTLs have little or no effecteffect onon health;health; this representsrepresents 22.522.5 percentpercent of all the MojavesMOjaves interviewed.interviewed. Two peoplepeople atat CRIRCRIR (10 percent)percent) thinkthink therethere mightmight be a negative effecteffect onon health�health; these peoplepeople constitute 5 percent of the MOjaveMojave total.total. Nine people (45(45 percent) atat CRIRCRIR havehave nono opinion.

All 20 people interviewed at FMIRFMIR havehave nono opinion about the impactimpact onon health,health, givinggiving aa totaltotal ofof 2929 MojavesMojaves (72.5(72.5 perper- cent) whowho expressed no opinion.opinion.

Effects on Sacred or Religious Sites.Sites. Five respondents (25 percent)percent) atat CRIRCR2R thinkthink that religious or sacred sitessites would wouldwould notnot bebe affectedaffected byby the HVTLs;HVTLs; 1 person thinks sacred sitessites wouldwould bebe negativelynegatively impacted; 88 (40 percent) expressed nono opinion;opinion; and 6 (30(30 percent) did not respond.respond. At FMIR, 5 peoplepeople (25 percent)percent) expect nono effect on sacred sites; 11 personperson expectsexpects negativenegative impact; 11 (55(55 percent) havehave no opinion;opinion; andand 3 (15 percent)percent) made no response.

The total MojaveMojave response to this question includesincludes 1010 people (25 percent)percent) whowho anticipate no effect onon sacredsacred sites;sites; 2 (5 percent)percent) whowho believebelieve there would be negative impact;impact; 1919 (47.5 percent)percent) whowho expressedexpressed nono opinion; andand 99 (22.5(22.5 percent)percent) who did not respond.

Effects on Burial or CremationCremation Sites.Sites. None ofof thethe 4040 Mojaves interviewed identified specific burial or cremation sites withinwithin the StudyStudy Area.Area.

Four respondents (20(20 percent) at CRIR believe thatthat HVTLs would havehave nono impact on burialburial or cremation sites; 3 (15(15 perper- cent) believebelieve there wouldwould be negative impact; 88 (40(40 percent)percent) have no opinion; andand 55 (25 percent)percent) made nono response.response. One CRIR respondentrespondent spontaneously expressed great concernconcern aboutabout burials and said that burialburial sites, if encountered, should be fenced off and thethe lineline rerouted.rerouted.

At FMIR, all 20 respondents anticipate no impactimpact toto burial or cremationcremation sites.sites.

Totals for the Mojaves interviewed include 2424 people (60(60 percent) whowho anticipate nono impact; 3 (7.5(7.5 percent) who expect negative impact; 8 (20(20 percent) with no opinion; andand 55 (12.5(12.5 percent) who did not respond.respond.

Effects onon RockRock Art.Art. None of thethe Mojaves interviewedinterviewed identified specific sites wherewhere there are petroglyphs or pictographs.

Three people (15(15 percent) atat CRIRCRIR believebelieve thethe projectproject would have no impactimpact onon petroglyphpetroglyph oror pictographpictograph sites;sites; 77 (35 percent)percent) expected negative effects;effects; 44 (20(20 percent)percent) hadhad nono

66-8 -8 TABLE 6 -II. \0 0\ SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES MOJAVE Total I

(N = 40) Religious Burials Places Petroglyphs Cairns, Mines, Village, Zones Trails, Zones Archaeological Negative Impact Negative Impact No Opinion No Response No where No.' where X X No. % X

where No.¡ mineral No.: or shrines, springs habitation 2 5 25 19 or 9 22.5 Religious or sacred sites 10 cremation 47.5 and significant significant sacred 3 7.5' traditional 24 60 8 20 5 12.5 or Burials or cremation sites sites pictographs etc. Petroglyphs and pictographs clay 7 17.5 23 57.5 4 10 6 15 sites or SUMMARY 1 2.5 0 0 2 sites 5 37 92.5 deposits Cairns, shrines, etc. camp animal plant Places where traditional events took place 4 10 events 25 62.5 6 15 5 12.5 sites

species 7 6 0 0 27 67.5 17.5 15 OF Zones where significant plant species grow species took Zones where significant animal species are found li 2.5 28 ¡ 70 7 17.5 4 10 ANTICIPATED place

7 17.5 grow 24 60 6 15 3 7.5 Mines, mineral or clay deposits are

8 MOJAVE 1 2.5 28 70 3 7.5 20 TABLE

Village, habitation or camp sites found Trails, springs 9 22.5 25 62.5 1 2.5 5 12.5 (N = IMPACTS

4 4 7 6-'1L

25 40) Archaeological sites 10 62.5 10 17.5 Total ON SITE Negative No.1 Impact 4 2 I 7 3 0 7 1 4 I 9 CATEGORIES , 17 10 17 10 22.5 5 2.5 7.5 0 2.5 2.5 % .5 .5

No.1 Negative

24 10

25 23

24 28 27

25 28

25 Impact 0 i � No 60 57.5 25 62.5 67.5 70 60 62.5 70 62.5 0 % No.1 19 Opinion 4 8 6 2 7 4 6 7 1 3 . No i 47.5 10 15 20 17 15 17 10 5 2.5 7.5 % .5 .5 . Response No. 37 9 6 4 5 6 5 8 3 7 5 No I i , • ! 12.5 12.5 15 22.5 15 92.5 10 12.5 17 20 7.5 % .5 e---a 0\ o I Petroglyphs Religious Cairns, Burial Mines, Places Village, Trails, Zones Zones SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES Archaeological TABLE 6 -III. where where or where mineral 'springs Ft. Mojave Indian Reservation shrines, habitation or (N = 20) cremation and significant significant sacred traditional No or sites No No

Negative pictographs Negative

etc. Impact Opinion .Response clay No. Impact % No. % No. % No. sites sites or 1 5 3 SUMMARY deposits 5 camp 25 11 55 15 animal Religious or sacred sites plant events 0 0 20 '100 0 0 0 0

Burial or cremation sites sites specie OF spec! 0 0 20 0 0 0 0

Petroglyphs and pictographs took IN ANTICIPATED 0 0 0 0 0 0 20" Ft. 100 _. S Cairns, shrines, etc. es place grow __

are 0 0 0 0 0 Places where traditional events took place 0 20 100 Hojave

found 0 0 . 0 0 20 100 0 0 Zones where significant plant species grow TABLE

0 0 20 100 0 0 (N 0 0 Zones where significant animal species are found Indian IMPACTS = Mines, mineral or clay deposits 0 0 20 100 0 0 0 0 6·- 20) 0 0 20 100 0 0 0 0 III.

Village, habitation or camp sites Reservation Trails, springs 1 5 19 95 0 0 0 ON 0 0 0 20 100 0 0 0 SITE 0

Archaeological sites _�mpact Negative No. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 CATEGORIES I i ! I

% 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5

• ,. Negative

No.

20 20

19 20

o Impact

5 No i 1100 �lOQ I I I : ! 100 roo 100 100 100 100 25 95 % 0 No.-Y 11 Opinion 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0 No i ! ',55 0 0 % Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .Response No. 20' o o 3 o o Q 0 0 0 0 No ,. i I I I t : : I t 1100 I I 1.15 ; I I I ; 0 a % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TABLE -IV. t-' � o SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES I Mines, Archaeological Trails, Village, Places Cairns, Religious Petrog1yphs Burial Colorado River Indian Reservation (N = 20) Zones Zones No �lere where mineral where or - No No shrines, springs Negative Negative habitation or Impact % Impact i cremation Opinion y No.Response x significant and No.t significant No.¡ No., sacred traditional

or 1 5 5 Religious or sacred sites sites 25 8 40 6 30 pictographs etc. Burial or cremation sites clay 3 15 4 20 8 40 5 25 or sites sites SUMMARY

camp deposits 7 35 3 15 4 20 6 30 animal Petroglyphs and pictographs plant Cairns, shrines, etc. 1 5 events 0 0 2 10 17 85 sites

4 species species 5 6 5

20 25 Colorado Places where traditional events took place 30 25 OF I took !

------7 7 Zones where significant plant species grow 0 0 35 35 6 30 ANTICIPATED place grow

Zones where significant animal species are found are 1 5 8 40 7 35 4 20 --- 7 4 River Mines, mineral or clay deposits found 35 20 6 30 3 15 TABLE Village, habitation or camp sites 1 5 8 40 3 15 8 40 (N :: 8 40 6 i 30 1 5 5 25 Indian IMPACTS

Trails, springs 6-IV. Archaeological sites 4 20 5 ! 25 4 20 7 35 20) Reservation ON SITE Negative No. 4 8 1 1 4 0 1 7 I 7 3 Impact CATEGORIES I t 40 35 20 15 20 35 0 5 5 % 5 5 .

, No.

Negative

8 8 4

6 0

5 7 5 3 Impact

5 No t I ! I I I f I t I i 40 40 30 25 35 20 25 15 25 20 0 % No. 4 Opinion 4 1 8 8 3 6 7 6 7 2 No I i 40 15 40 30 20 35 35 10 30 20 % 5 . No. Response 17 8 4 5 6 6 7 3 6 5 5 No •• t I I , I I I i i 40 15 30 85 30 35 20 25 30 25 25 % I I I op4n40njopinion; whilewhile 6 (30 percent)percent) made no response. One respondent spontaneously expressedexpressed concern,concern, sayingsaying thatthat rockrock artart is impor-impor tant toto futurefuture generationsgenerations andand the HVTLs should eithereither gogo around oror span rock artart sites.sttes.

At FMIR, all 2020 respondentsrespondents believebelieve therethere willwill bebe little or nono impact on rock art by thethe HVTLs.HVTLs.

Combined MojaveMojave response includes 23 people (57.5(57.5 percent)percent) who believebelieve there willwill bebe nono impact; 7 (17.5(17.5 percent) who expect negativenegative impact;impact; 44 (10 percent)percent) withwith nono opinion;opinion; and 6 (15 percent)percent) whowho did not respond.respond.

Effects on Traditional Events.Events. Five respondents (25(25 per-per cent) atat CRrRCRIR feelfeel thatthat placesplaces wherewhere traditionaltraditional events took place wouldwould notnot suffersuffer negativenegative effectseffects fromfrom the HVTLs;HVTLs; 4 (20(20 percent) thinkthink such placesplaces wouldwould be damaged; 66 (30(30 percent)percent) expressed nono opinion; and 55 (25 percent)percent) mademade no response.

At FMIR, all 20 people whowho werewere interviewed anticipate no negative impact toto traditionaltraditional places.places. Thus, thethe overalloverall Mojave response to this question includesincludes 2525 peoplepeople (62.5(62.5 percent) whowho expectexpect nono impact; 4 (10(10 percent) who expectexpect nega-nega tive impact; 66 (15 percent)percent) whowho expressed no opinion; andand 55 (12.5(12.5 percent)percent) whowho did not respond.

Effects on Plants.Plants. At CRIR, 77 respondentsresnondents (35(35 percent)percent) antic1pateanticipate nono negat1venegative impact to areas where plants grow;grow; 7 (35 percent)percent) hadhad nono opinion;opinion; and 6 (30 percent) did not respond.

At FMIR, all 20 respondents expectexpect no negative impactimpact toto affect plants. Overall HojaveMojave response includes 27 people (67.5 percent)percent) whowho anticipate nono impact;impact; 7 (17.5 percent) who expressed nono opinion; and 66 (15 percent)percent) whowho made no response.

Actually, most MOjaveMojave use thethe MojaveMOjave Desert inin thethe samesame way nonnon-native -native AmericansAmericans do.do. One respondent said,said, "We"We don'tdon't use that area any more,more, exceptexcept toto drivedrive through."tihrough ;"

Effects on Animal Life.Life. Eight people (40(40 percent)percent) atat CRIR thirikthink the HVTL project would have no impactimpact uponupon animals;animals; 1 expects negativenegative impact; 77 (35(35 percent) hadhad nono opinion;opinion; 44 (20 percent)percent) did not respond.

At FMIR, all 2020 respondents thinkthink thethe HVTLs would have no effect on animals.animals. The Mojave totaltotal includesincludes 2828 peoplepeople (70(70 percent) who anticipate no impact;impact; 1I personperson whowho anticipatesanticipates negative impact; 7 (17.5(17.5 percent) with no opinion; and 4 (10(10 percent) who diddid notnot respond.respond.

Mines, Mineral oror ClayCla Deposits.De osits. At CRIR,CRIR, concernconcern isis based largely on a desirees�re to protect places where thethe onlyonly

66-12 -12 rema�nkngremaining MojaveMojave whowho makesmakes potterypottery inin thethe traditionaltraditional mannermanner procuresprocures hishis materials. Nobody except the potter himself knowsknows wherewhere thesethese placesplaces areare located,located, butbut somesome maymay bebe withinwithin thethe StudyStudy Area. The popottertter from time to time goes out intointo thethe desertdesert onon "secret"secret missions"missions" toto procureprocure materials,materials, which includeinclude specialspecial kindskinds ofof rockrock forfor variousvarious colorcolor effectseffects desireddesired in hishis finished products. Concern for these places was ex-ex pressed byby 77 (35 percent)percent) ofof those interviewed at CRIR.CRIR. Four respondents (20 percent)percent) atat CRIRCRIR expect no impact fromfrom thethe project; 66 (30 percent)percent) voicedvoiced nono opinion; and 3 (15 percent)percent) made no response.

At FMIR all 20 respondents anticipate��ticipate no impact toto mines or deposits,deposits, givinggiving anan overalloverall MojaveMojave responseresponse of 2424 people (60 percent)percent) whowho believebelieve there willwill be no impact,impact, 77 (17.5(17.5 percent) whowho expectexpect therethere maymay bebe negativenegative impact; 6 (15(15 per-per cent) whowho havehave nono opinion;opinion; andand 3 (7.5 percent)percent) who .mademade no response.

Village or Habitation Sites.Sites. Eight respondents (40(40 per-per cent) Villale atat CCRIRIR believebelieve thethe projectproject wouldwould havehave no effect on village oror habitationhabitation sites; 1 person thinks itit would havehave negative impact; 3 (15 percent) did not express anan opinion;opinion; and 88 (40 percent)percent) did not respond.respond.

At FMIR, all 20 people believe therethere wouldwould bebe nono impact.impact. The MOjaveMojave totaltotal includesincludes 28 peoplepeople (70 percent) whowhO expect no impact; 11 whowho anticipates negative impact; 33 (7.5(7.5 percent)percent) with no opinion; and 8 (20(20 percent) who diddid notnot respond.respond.

Several respondentsrespondents werewere aware that MojavesMojaves usedused the Study Area in prehistoricprehistoric times, particularly while making tradingtrading expeditions throughthrough thethe desert,desert, butbut nobodynobody identified specificspecific places wherewhere these campsites were located.located. The generalgeneral res-res ponse was,was, "They camped along the trail where therethere was water."water."

Trails, Springs. All the Mojaves interviewed know thatthat Trails, Mojaves . in historichistoric anS�rings.prehistoric times their ancestors used thethe trails andand springssprings ofof the StudyStudy Area,Area, butbut there seems toto be little oror nono specific knowledgeknowledge regarding thesethese placesplaces today.today. Six peoplepeople (30 percent)percent) at CRIR believe thethe HVTL projectproject would not affectaffect trails or springs, but 8 (40(40 percent) thinkthink itit would. (One ofof these respondentsrespondents favors "total protection" fcrfer the "Old'·Old MojaveMojave Trail.Trail. ")It) One person atat CRIRCRIR gavegave nono opinion and 5 (25(25 percent) diddid notnot respond.respond.

At FMIR, 19 people (95(95 percent) do not anticipateanticipate nega-nega tive impact, but·lbut 1 personperson does.does.

The MojaveMojave total includes 25 people (62.5(62.5 percent) who expect nono effect on trails andand springs;springs; 99 (22.5 percent) who anticipate negativenegative impact; 11 person with nono opinion;opinion; andand 55 (12.5 percent)percent) whowho did not respond.respond.

66-13 -13 Archaeological Sites.Sites. At CRIR, 5 respondents (25(25 per-per cent) anticipateanticipate nono impactimpact toto archaeologicalarchaeological sites from the HVTLs;HVTLs; 44 (20(20 percent)percent) anticipateanticipate negativenegative impact; 4 (20(20 perper- cent) havehave nono opinion;opinion; an�and 7 (35(35 percent) diddid not respond.respond.

All 20 respondents at FMIR thinkthink therethere would bebe nono effecteffect on archaeologicalarchaeological sites.sites.

Combined MOjaveMojave responsesresponses include 25 people (62.5(62.5 percent) who expect nono impact;impact; 44 (10 percent)percent) whowho anticipate negative impact; 44 (10 percent)percent) withwith nono opinion; and 77 (17.5(17.5 percent)percent) who made no response.

One CRIR respondentrespondent spontaneously expressed concern forfor bothboth archaeologicalarchaeological andand historicalhistorical sites,sites, sayingsaying they shouldshould be avoidedavoided becausebecause they are important to future generations.generations. Specific Sites.Sites. The site that looms above all others inin importance toto thethe MojavesMojaves is Avikwame,Avikwame, or Spirit Mountain (Newberry MountainMountain on topographic maps).maps). This is the creation site forfor Mojaves,Mojaves, QuechansQuechans (Yumas), Maricopas, Dieguenós,Dieguenos, andand other NativeNative AmericansAmericans ofof thethe Southwest,Southwest, aa sitesite thatthat isis clearlyclearly protected underunder thethe AmericanAmerican Indian Religious Freedom Act.

Five respondentsrespondents at CRIR and ewotwo at FMIR expressed great concern aboutabout thethe possibilitypossibility that the mountainmountain might bebe im-im pacted--morepacted- -morerespondents respondents thanthan expressedexpressed concernconcern aboutabout anyany other specific site.site. They said any construction projects should stay asas farfar asas possiblepossible from it; that it was thethe oneone placeplace where HVTLs cannot bebe placed.placed. Had the proposed HVTLs crossed the mountain,mountain, itit is certain that every respondent would have expressed extreme conceLa.concern.

Both MojaveMojave groups havehave a majormajor concern for their own reservation lands, whichwhich are outside thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. In addi-addi tion, theythey havehave greatgreat concernconcern for the Colorado River andand their rights to itsits water.water. Two FMIR and 3 CRIR respondents spontaneously mentionedmentioned the river as somethingsomething thatthat shouldshould notnot be impacted.impacted.

One FMIR respondent said thatthat the HVTLs shouldshould avoidavoid thethe Mojave Desert, or compensation shouldshould bebe givengiven toto thethe MojavesMojaves for its use. Three CRIR respondents saidsaid thatthat thethe HVTLsHVTLs should bypassbypass the MojaveMojave Desert toto thethe north, thatthat thethe MojaveMojave Desert is sacred because itit was namednamed forfor thethe MojaveMojave people.people.

One FMIR respondent said that the Old Mojave Trail shouldshould be avoided if possible,possible, and otherwise spanned because "It's in our hearts;hearts; we sing toto it."it." Three CRIRCRIR respondents expressedexpressed concern about the trail spontaneously, saying that it should be provided "total protection" or protected ifif thethe lineline must cross it.it. Their concern is based on its being sacredsacred because it waswas usedused by and named forfor thethe MojaveMojave tribe.tribe.

66-14 -14 CRIR respondents spontaneously expressed somesome concernconcern forfor several other specificspecific sites.sites. These includeinclude aa minemine 1818 milesmiles (29 km)km) northnorth ofof GoffsGoffs wherewhere twotwo respondentsrespondents had relatives working; the Barstow area,,area" wherewhere oneone respondentrespondent said there were burials;burials; and FortFort Paiute,Paiute, whichwhich two respondents saidsaid should bebe protected,protected, remarkingremarking that people have beenbeen vandal-vandal izing thethe site.site.

Concerns for specificspecific placesplaces areare chartedcharted onon TablesTables 6 6-XII-XII and 66-XIII. -XIII.

6-156 -15 a-a 0\ 0\ TABLE 6 -V. PLACES SENSITIVE TO IMPACT I Barstow Mine *Symbols Mojave Fort Old Avikwame Colorado CRIR Mojave Specific Place adjacent '. How many 3 Average Mojave Paiute 18 Impact Mitigation

Specific respondents Respondent Respondent Place concerned? Why significant? Sensitivity*Desert Suggestions area mi. for River, Trail mountains 5 N 4 Avikwame Impact Most sacred Stay as faraway as of possible spontaneously spontaneously.mentions 3 Sacred to Mojaves "from Goffs 4 Avoid Colorado River, adjacent mountains Sensitivity time immemorial" How concerned? 3 3 "Protect," even if line respondents Old Mojave Trail andSacred, named because for, theused Mojave by, must cross. "Provide TABLE 2 1 l many 3 5 3 3 mentions tribe total protection." Rating: rn Mojave Desert 3 Sacred,the Mojave because tribe named for 3 Bypass to the north 6-V. the the PLACES of Ilistorical--was Burials Most Why Relatives and for Sacred, Sacred, Sacred the tribe time site site Mine 18 mi. N of Goffs 2 Relatives worked there 3 CRIR Colorado Mojave Ft. named significant? immemorial" sacred as as Mojave 3 to Hoj

1 because because Barstow area Burials SENSITIVE of somewhat worked Mojaves for, ave tri.be extreme 2 River 3 Fort Paiute Historical- -was an outpost, Protect, as people have the an on named for Ft. Mojave, on W side used been vandalizing there sensitive. of Colorado River "from W Mojave outpost sensitivity. TO by, side for IMPACT Sensitivity* *Symbols for Impact Sensitivity 3Rating: Average 4 Respondent spontaneously mentions the site as somewhatof extreme sensitive. sensitivity. Impact 4 Respondent spontaneously mentions 3 3 3 3 3' 4 must Bypass "Protect," Avoid Mitigation been Protect. Suggestions possible Stay total cross. vandalizing as protection.1I to far as the even away people "Provide north if as line have " � 0\ I Mojave *Symbols Colorado Avikwame Old Specific Place 4 TABLE 6 -VI. 3 2 PLACES SENSITIVE TO IMPACT Mojave Respondent Respondent Respondent

FMIR Mojave Desert River for

How many Trail Average Impact Mitigation SpecificPlace concerned?respondents Why significant? Impact Sensitivity* Suggestions spontaneously expressed spontaneously 4 • Avikwame 2 oneExtremelycannot place be sacredwhere placed" -HVTLs -"the Sensitivity Do not impact much How concerned? respondents

2 4 Do not impact 'TABLE

mentions "It's our pride and joy" mentions 1 1 many Colorado River 2 2 concern rn Old Mojave Trail 1 "It's in our hearts;Rating: we 2 Avoid if possible, F, sing about it." span if not 6-VI. when the V the 2 Why site songs--clear site "In sing one Extremely "It's cannot land, 1 "In our hearts it's our lilt's Select an alternate Mojave Desert site

land, too; it's in our route, or compensate PLACES FMIR our place songs --clear to Tehachapi." tribe for its use significant? as as about our is too; in be of hearts somewhat mentioned. our Mojave where pride placed" sacred--Uthe SENSITIVE extreme it's it." hearts; to

*Symbols for Impact Sensitivity Rating: it's and HVTLs Tehachapi." 2 site is mentioned. in Respondent expressed much concern when sensitive. site as somewhat sensitive.

3 our Respondent spontaneously mentions the sensitivity. our site as of extreme sensitivity. joy" 4 Respondent spontaneously mentions the we TO Sensitivity· Average Impact IMPACT 4 4 2 2 Avoid Do Mitigation Do Select span Suggestions route, tribe not not if if for an or impact impact not possible, alternate compensate its use LASLAS VEGAS PAIUTE

AA Southern PaiutePaiute peoplepeople whowho called themselves Tudinu traditionally occupiedoccupied allall ofof the northeasternnortheastern Study Area, asas well as muchsuch of itsits centralcentral region.region. Euro-AmericansEuro- Americans called them "Las VegasVegas Paiutes." The territorial boundaries firstfirst published byby KellyKelly in 1934 have been generally acceptedaccepted byby both scholars and present-daypresent -day descendantsdescendants ofof thesethese people. For example,example, aa versionversion ofof Kelly'sKelly's mapmap waswas approved by thethe Las VegasVegas TribalTribal CouncilCouncil for useuse in JohnJohn Alley'sAlley's The Las Y!&!!Vegas Paiutes: A Short HistoryHistory (1977).(1977). The post-post-contact contact EIStoryhistory ofof thethe group has been summarizedsummarized inin ChapterChapter V.V.

The peoplepeople interviewed for this study have reportedreported thatthat in thethe 1950s,1950s, thethe lastlast remainingremaining PaiutePaiute family in the Study Area movedmoved from a homehome nearnear Searchlight, Nevada toto thethe Colora-Colora do River Indian Reservation.Reservation. The fact thatthat therethere areare nono LasLas Vegas PaiutePaiute peoplepeople livingliving in the Study AreaArea today does not meanmean thatthat theythey havehave leftleft willinglywillingly nornor that they presently lack anan interestinterest inin thethe area,area, although it maymay partially ac-ac count forfor thethe inabilityinability oror reluctancereluctance of some respondents toto pinpoint certain culturalcultural-historical -historical featuresfeatures thatthat they define as important.

Method

Today the descendants ofof thethe TudinuTudinu residereside primarilypri�rily atat two locations: the Las VegasVegas IndiananIndian ColonyColony andand PahrumpPahrump ValVal- ley. More than a hundred people live at the colony within the City ofof LasLas Vegas;Vegas; itit isis thethe onlyonly officially recognized ,tribaltribal unit representing thethe LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes.Paiutes. Initial contactcontact with the chairmanchairman ofof thisthis organization,organization, Mrs.Mrs. Gloria Yazzie, was made byby CSRI researchresearch consultants Richard Stoffle andand Michael Evans, whowho explained thethe AllenAllen-Warner -Warner ValleyValley Energy System pro-pro posal and requestedrequested official permission to conductconduct interviewsinterviews at the colony; permission waswas received.received.

Some fifty additional Paiutes reside inin PahrumpPahrump Valley.Valley. Although the colony and valley people are closelyclosely related,related, timetime and distance havehave served to separate them as sociopoliticalsociopolitical en-en tities. Pahrump Valley Pauites now desire a separate tribal designation and administration.administration. In 1978 they requested per-per mission to o,rganizeorganize as a tribal unitunit from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and they have elected aa chairman,chairman, aa council,council, andand ad-ad ministrative officers.officers.

Stoffle and Evans contactedcontacted thethe electedelected chairman,chairman, Mr.Hr.

6-186 -18 Richard Arnold,Arnold, toto discussdiscuss interviewinginterviewing amongamong thethe PahrumpPahrump Paiutes. Also discussed was whether this group wanted itsits responses toto bebe combinedcombined withwith thosethose ofof thethe LasLas VegasVegas Indian Colony councilorcouncil or to be reported separately.separately. Because thethe Pahrump PaiutesPaiutes areare closely relatedrelated to the peoplepeople at the col-col ony, andand becausebecause thethe BIABIA hashas notnot yet acted on thethe proposal toto organize, itit waswas suggestedsuggested thatthat thethe interviewsinterviews bebe combinedcombined in one report,report, toto bebe reviewedreviewed byby representatives of both PahrumpPahrump Valley and Las Vegas IndianIndian Colony.Colony. Mr. Arnold thenthen assisted the researchersresearchers byby taking them to Pahrump Valley andand helpinghelping them contact residents there.there.

The report presentedpresented herehere isis derivedderived fromfrom inin-depth -depth interinter- views withwith 1818 LasLas VegasVegas andand PahrumpPahrump ValleyValley residents,residents, andand from 9 responses to a mailed questionnaire.questionnaire.

The initial interviews focused on "key" respondents, who are recognizedrecognized byby theirtheir peerspeers as "the people who know thethe mostmost about the Study Area."Area." These key respondents were men and women ranging from 65 to 80 years of age who had livedlived inin thethe Study Area asas children.children. All couldcould speakspeak Paiute.Paiute. Interviews with them suggested that they maintain aa clearclear andand keenkeen memorymemory of traditional places andand events.events. Interviews withwith these people were especially valuablevaluable inin assessingassessing traditionaltraditional andand postpost-con -contact use of the StudyStudy Area.Area. Younger people were alsoalso inter-inter viewed, toto elicitelicit opinionsopinions moremore directly concerned with thethe current and future use ofof thethe area.area.

The colony chairman suggested that at least twelve people be interviewed, in order to have a representative number ofof responses. Interviews werewere conducted with totaltotal openness;openness; re-re spondents werewere freefree to choose their own subjects and toto spendspend as muchmuch time discussing them asas theythey wished. In this way,way, both the scope andand thethe intensityintensity of concern for places and culturalcultural items emerged.

A survey form to bebe completed byby respondents and returned by mail waswas also developed (see(see AppendixAppendix A).A). This form, which was recommended byby the chairmen of the twotwo groupsgroups asas thethe bestbest means ofof contacting thethe maximummaximum numbernumber ofof people,people, waswas discusseddiscussed with respondents duringduring thethe interviews.interviews. The survey formform in-in cluded aa listlist ofof placeplace namesnames taken from an accompanying map, and respondentsrespondents werewere askedasked to record their degree of concernconcern about these places. English place names were used because re-re spondents werewere unfamiliarunfamiliar with Paiute placeplace names.names.

Most of the items onon thethe surveysurvey formform referrefer toto issuesissues raised by respondents. This procedure assuresassures thatthat thethe itemsitems are culturally relevant, and has also been used toto increaseincrease the validityvalidity .ofmin�surveysof mini-surveys usedused inin assessingassessing social impactimpact (Finsterbush 1977).1977). The researchers moved one stepstep beyond thisthis procedure, in asking the respondents to the survey to scale the degree ofof their concerns regarding various culturalcultural items.items.

66-19 -19 Because there is nono official Las Vegas tribal roll, allall people over 18 years of age who areare recognized asas beingbeing LasLas Vegas Paiutes,Paiutes, and membersmembers of their immediate families, werewere . sent survey forms.forms.

The responses of 36 Paiute people from Las Vegas Indian Colony andand PahrumpPahrump ValleyValley to the'potentialthe potential impactimpact ofof thethe pro-pro posed power transmission lineslines on Native American culturalcultural items and placesplaces areare summarizedsummarized inin TablesTables 6 6-XI-XI andand 6 6-XII.-XII. It should bebe notednoted thatthat thethe responsesresponses areare composites,composites, derivedderived from interviews and mailed surveys.surveys.

In orderorder toto arrivearrive atat somesome wayway ofof expressingexpressing degrees of concern, answersanswers indicating nono concern werewere assigned aa value of "0"0"; "; thosethose indicatingindicating tru.chmuch concern,concern, aa valuevalue of "2.""2." The values werewere then totalledtotalled andand averaged.averaged.

Cultural Items

Responses to cultural items of probableprobable significance and potential concernconcern areare summarizedsummarized inin TableTable 6 6-XI.-XI. These cate-cate gories werewere initiallyinitially formulated from interviews and fromfrom aa review ofof the literature on SouthernSouthern PaiutePaiute culture.culture. That thethe categories areare appropriateappropriate is corroborated by the fact thatthat none of the respondents suggested additional culturalcultural itemsitems that mightmight be impacted.impacted.

The cultural items of concern,concern, in descendingdescending order,order, are:are: burial sites (1.8);(1.8); springssprings (1.8);(1.8); medicinemedicine plantsplants (1.6);(1.6); trails-shrinestrails- shrines (1.6);(1.6); religiousreligious areasareas (1.6);(1.6); birdsbirds (1.6);(1.6); smallsmall ground animalsanimals (1.5); food plantsplants (1.5); large ground animals (1.3); basketrybasketry plantsplants (1.3); rock carvings andand paintingspaintings (1.0);(1.0); and clayclay/rock /rock minesmines (1.0).(1.0). The interpretation ofof thesethese in-in tensity scores mustmust bebe undertaken with caution.caution. Although dif-dif ferent levels ofof concernconcern areare indicated byby the difference be-be tween thethe ratingsratings ofof 1.8 for the burialburial site and the 1.0 forfor a clay mine,mine, it is improbable that differences ofof .1.1 oror .2.2 areare significant.

It is to be expected that sitessites where theirtheir ancestorsancestors havehave been buriedburied are important toto people.people. The factfact thatthat water,water, plants, and animals are likewiselikewise importantimportant toto PaiutesPaiutes isis notnot surprising. Like most Native Americans, they understand the ecology of their traditional territory.territory. The special oasisoasis environment of desert springs provide habitats forfor plants andand animals, and semipermanent residences for people. DisruptionDisruption of aa spring maymay destroy plant varieties, and thisthis destructiondestruction in turn reducesreduces the area's ability to supportsupport certaincertain typestypes ofof animals. Because oasis habitatshabitats have been significant in the survival ofof PaiutePaiute NativeNative Americans for asas longlong asas theythey havehave resided in this region, any disruption of a spring also has a

66-20 -20 � N � CULTURAL ITEMS RANKED BY INTENSITY OF LAS VEGAS PAIUTE CONCERN* TABLE 6 -VII. I Medicine Cultural Trails-shrines Large Burial Springs Food Birds Basketry Small Religious .""No Clay/rock (N = 36) Rock No response and plants art response or Some Much Average ground ground Weighted Cultural Item "much �.- No concern , Concern Concern Total sites Intensity No. --- No. No. plants plants % % Item CULTURAL mines areas

concern," i

2 6 3 8 animals 31 animals 86 65 1.8 SpringsBurial sites 2 and 6 5 14 29 81 63 1.8 ITEMS Medicine plants 3 "no ; 8 7 19 26 72 59 1.6 No No concern" Trails - shrines 2. 3 8 9 25 24 67 57 1.6 No. RANKED concern response 2 2 5 5 5 3 3 3 9 5 3 7 Religious areas 3 8 7 19 26 72 59 1.6 or I I 25

; 14 14 14 5 19 7 14 % 6 6 8 8 8 Birds 14 19 8 24 67 55 1.5 BY 5 responses ; 14 8 22 23 64 54 1.5

Small ground animals INTENSITY TABLE No. Concern 11 14 17 17 19 3 8 11 31 22 55 (N 9 5 8 61 1.5 3 7 Food plants 7 7 Some

; = 5 14 14 39 17 47 48 I 1.3 were 6-VII. 25 14 36) 47 53 47 22 19 19 19 31 Large ground animals 39 % 5 i 14 17 47 14 39 45 8 1.3 Basketry plants OF

7 given Rock art 19 17 47 12 33 41 1.1 LAS No. Concern 26 24 24 29 26 31 22 23 17 ; 12 14 8

9 25 19 53 8 22 35 1.0 Much

Clay /rock mines VEGAS • ' a 67 86 67 61 64 81 47 22 72 72 33 39 % value

*"No response and "no andconcern" "much responsesconcern," were2. given a value of 0; "some concern,' ,1; PAIUTE

Weighted of

Total 63 65 59 48 55 57 41 45 55 59 54 0; 35 CONCERN* "some Intensity Average concern. .. 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.3 l.0 1.1 II I J 1; high potentialpotential ofof disturbing Paiute burial andand livingliving sites.sites.

Native AmericanAmerican Places

A list of 18 English namesnames for places within thethe StudyStudy Area wherewhere thethe LasLas VegasVegas PaiutePaiute whowho werewere interviewedinterviewed said they and their ancestorsancestors hadhad lived provides the basis forfor thethe re-re sponses presentedpresented inin TableTable 66-VIII -VIII andand MapMap E.E.

Because the Paiutes whowho were interviewed demonstratedqemonstrated little concernconcern duringduring thethe interviewsinterviews for places in thethe extremeextreme western partpart ofof the Study Area, these are not listedlisted inin thethe table.

The places that the Las Vegas Paiute feel the most con-con cern for,for, inin termsterms ofof HVTLsHVTLs crossing through them, are thethe McCullough MountainsMountains (1.8); Ivanpah Mountains (1.8);(1.8); PaiutePaiute Valley (1.8); PaiutePaiute SpringSpring andand CreekCreek (1.8); EldoradoEldorado ValleyValley (1.7); LanfairLanfair ValleyValley (1.7); NewNew YorkYork MountainsMountains (1.7);(1.7); Clark Mountain (1.6); HackberryHackberry MountainMountain (1.6);(1.6); and Homer Mountain (1.6). Lower levels of concern were expressed for the Provi-Provi dence MountainsMountains (1.4); Shadow Valley (1.2);(1.2); ClipperClipper Valley (1.0); OldOld DadDad MountainsMountains (.9); SodaSoda MountainsMountains (.8); Soda Lake (.8); thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver (.7); and the Bristol Mountains (.6).(.6).

Again, caution should be used in assigning significance to small differences.differences. The pattern thatthat emergesemerges fromfrom thesethese responses isis that the farther a site is fromfrom Paiute residen-residen tial areas atat LasLas VegasVegas and Pahrump Valley, thethe lessless isis thethe concern expressed forfor thatthat site.site. The present homes ofof thethe Paiute areare apparently of greater concern thanthan areare theirtheir tradi-tradi tional lands withinwithin the Study Area, even though therethere isis evi-evi dence thatthat placesplaces such as Shadow Valley and ClipperClipper Valley were culturally and economically importantimportant toto thethe LasLas VegasVegas peoples before they were forced outout ofof theirtheir traditionaltraditional lands.lands.

Concern for Sites and CulturalCultural ItemsItems

In some cases, respondents apparently do not have specific knowledge of sitessites andand culturalcultural items,items, eveneven thoughthough theythey ex-ex pressed strong general concern forfor thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. In many in-in stances, aa respondent'srespondent's generalgeneral knowledgeknowledge couldcould notnot bebe relatedrelated to aa specific location inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Generally, zoneszones ofof plant and animal habitation were specified more often than were burial sitessites andand occupationoccupation areas.areas.

Concern forfor SpecificSpecific Plants.Plants. The plants respondentsrespondents com-com monly mentioned werewere Indian spinach (probably(probably ChenopodiumChenopodium berlandieria); "yucca tree;"tree;" mesquitemesquite (Prosopis(Proso'Ois juliflora);juliflora);

6-226 -22 TABLE 66-VIII. -VIII.

ENGLISH NAMES FOR INDIANINDI&� PLACES RANKEDRANKED BYBY

INTENSITY OF LAS VEGAS PAIUTE CONCERN*

Degree of Concern Total Weighted Average Place Weighted 0 1 2 Respondents Average Intensity

McCullough Mts.Mts. 3 I1 29 33 59 1.8

Ivanpah Mts. 3 0 30 33 60 1.8

Paiute Valley 3 0 29 32 58 1.21.8

Paiute Spring & Creek 3 0 30 33 60 1.8

Eldorado Valley 3 2 26 31 54 1.7

Lanfair Valley 3 3 25 31 53 1.7

New York Mts. 4 I1 29 34 59 1.7

Clark Mt. 4 5 25 34 55 1.6

Hackberry Mt.Mt. 4 6 22 32 50SO 1.6

Homer Mt.Mt. 3 8 20 31 48 1.3

Providence Mts.Mts. 4 12 15 31 42 1.4

Shadow ValleyValley 5 16 11 32 38 1.2

� Clipper ValleyValley 7J 16 8 31 32 1.0

Old Dad Mts. 13 9 9 31 27 .9

Soda Mts. 20 2 10 32 24 .8.s

Soda Lake 20 2 10 32 24 .8

Mojave River 21 0 11 32 22 .7

Bristol Mts.Mts. 21 1 9 31 19 .6

*Findings based on responses fromfrom 3636 persons.persons. "No concern" was assigned a value of 0; "some concern" 1;1; andand "much"much concern,"concern," 2.2.

6-236- 23 .p. l'...) 0\ las Vers • / I _jl-V,dorv'lI';:-- Boulder City

PLACES OF PAIUTE CONCERN ,I!-� MAJOR / IF ----- " WITHIN THE STUDY AREA PLACeS WITHIN / Q

pR. CooJw.kr� /

-: , __ I \ $ Of 1, THf HAJ"OR ---- PROPOSED TA /' PROPOSED

�--- .f l.Clark Mk. I/J r T sruov . ti,` // Mountain Pass ? a \Z1) d. , PAIUTf .: _ --,--" 7

Qe ARfA ..--, J ¡- -5- _.r J ` /" \\I 7 -,1 / TIL ...... / " /I òa `' Baker ~ 4 I oI CONCERN MAP / ./ /"" . . .`I .

/ p. , // /' ./___ q, ,. 6 Sóda lake I$�.h.' 1.7 Lonfalr /I.� '" \ tCims Vslley

I' 9 pia.'

E. r /,/ I / __ _..,/'

'0"" I. i \ Hack berry Mt. . ,/ 3p` Mojave �

// .-

1. � _ -- /..iNomerMt. ././" Places // í/ % i \ /_ '�. ..J

i `.I rt: \ / .i i ' ,I'

, I, talodalak. ./O

/ ` , ,.) ''IT- / //'" . _ P 4 1/ ..... \ Coolwater c9_,.

/ ./ . \ // / `n / -. ':.-

/ ,,/ .: �q! '\.... // of \ ,J>

I ...... Pis9ah steoj ...... 0

-/ "� / <1<- n ; ^ g �, -

__ ".0,;' / _.;>:-- Major .... � -.

/ ", cdOsd/ /1 ` / v...... ----_/ .--� / ' 'v / s'. '\. /_---'7. // . \... ,f /.,�./,/ • -;;

//r � ', ";'j \`-_ � C( \; ;.<- �,,� _...__-r _

I -i ,'I> ... 1/ Paiute

Vtorvlll¢ ,��.�. -�.J"'{ :1 <: I' .. O�1' () -: / \ A. _ \ // I: � ( .'� :::; l' / . .... � ...... � / "m. '"

/ ./

/ 4y binp u //

/ / Concern

// '.7lonf' // H.ock�rry ,,;J' / ----/ L ...

- /I'J7t... •• "he' " ./ /"£' Vc1" MAP E.

�. Places of Major Paiute Concern . ," I� .... \-J ,/ v ��

0(-1//.

::: V.IIc�

/ lit.

&.#'.

lit, _d/

'i:''''' I

�.

/ �8P1vt.·15

J I /-. I, IIouldcr('ty / · -s '-. � /7,3jbncr'l1t. � ". \ . �I � /�" "-, \ � I I'" \ I 01 I '6 I .P" "'- � -'L '- .\" / W �'!iaw. )! , : � e . 10 · : · .. \ .. ' \ \ - . . devil's clawclaw (Proboscidea sp.);sp.); creosotecreosote bushbush or "greasewood" (Larrea divaricata);divaricata); pinyonpinyon pinepine (Pinus(Pinus sp.); barrel cactuscactus (Echinocactus sp.);sp.); pricklyprickly pearpear cactuscactus (Opuntia sp.);sp.); andand Indian teatea (Ephedra(Ephedra viridis).

Plants mentionedmentioned byby from I1 to 55 peoplepeople includedincluded "wild"wild grasses;" JoshuaJoshua tree (Yucca Brevifolia); willows (Salix(Salix sp.);sp.); a small willow-likewillow -like bushbush withwith red berriesberries calledcalled sysyluyump; u ÿump; ocotillo (Fouguieria(Fouquieria splendens);splendens); wildwild wheat;wheat; waterwater berries called pahop; reedsreeds usedused toto holdhold willowswillows together inin baskets; and acornsacornsPahoZ; (fromfrom Quercus sp.).sp.).

Although the respondents' knowledgeknowledge of and concern for plants vary,vary, thesethese andand perhapsperhaps other plantsplants are being used by Las Vegas and Pahrump people today.today. Dried samplessamples ofof most plants werewere present inin respondents'respondents' homes.homes. A potpot ofof greasegrease - wood waswas even brewingbrewing on one woman's stovestove duringduring anan interview.interview. Attempts toto growgrow plantsplants inin thethe yyardsards ofof homeshomes alsoalso indicateindicate the importanceimportance toto thethe LasLas VegasVegas Paiute of native plants.plants.

Concern forfor Animals.Animals. The most commonly mentioned animalsanimals for whichwhich concernconcern waswas expressedexpressed werewere jackrabbits,jackrabbits, cottontail rabbits, turtles, lizards, eagles, andand desertdesert bighornbighorn sheep.sheep. Also mentionedmentioned byby 11 toto 55 respondentsrespondents werewere bears,bears, coyotes, chip-chip munks, bobcats,bobcats, deer, pheasants, doves,doves, andand quail.quail.

Singled out for specific concern werewere the eagle and thethe desert tortoise.tortoise. Both continue to have a specialspecial emotionalemotional andand/or /or religiousreligious significance.significance. Eagles are considered sacredsacred by most Las Vegas Paiute.Paiute. In one interview, a familyfamily of sevenseven adults spentspent aboutabout halfhalf anan hourhour discussing tortoises; whenwhen these people see a tortoise on the road, they stop their cars and move the animalanimal toto safety.safety.

There was general agreement that HVTLs andand associatedassociated access roadsroads bringbring moremore huntershunters and more offoff-road -road vehiclesvehicles to an area, and thatthat moremore guns and more cars mean more dead ani-ani mals.

Places

The following places were mentioned spontaneouslyspontaneously asas be-be ing of concern:

Concern forfor BarnwellBarnwell Area.Area. One person's family livedlived forfor generations nearnear the town of Barnwell,Barnwell, California.California. There areare historic structures such as old homesteads inin thisthis area,area, andand at least three of his relatives were buried southsouth ofof Nipton, about five miles fromfrom Ivahpah.Ivahpah. He saidsaid thatthat somesome halfhalf aa dozen Indian families had lived in the Barnwell areaarea untiluntil thethe late 1950s.

6-25 Concern for Mountain Pass.Pass. Near Mountain Pass, therethere areare said toto bebe grinding stonesstones andand agave-agave-roasting roasting pits (on(on thethe north sideside ofof Interstate Highway 1515 near thethe microwavemicrowave tower).tower). According toto respondents,respondents, bedrockbedrock or large boulder grinding rocks areare significant,significant, becausebecause thesethese processingprocessing tools indicate that aa reliablereliable food source was locatedlocated nearby.nearby.

Concern for Mesquite Valley.Valley. In Mesquite Valley,Valley, espe-espe cially aroundaround MesquiteMesquite Lake,Lake, there are bedrock mortars andand boulder grinding stones.stones. The mesquite that growsBrows here was used as food.food. The respondentsrespondents saidsaid thatthat mesquitemesquite podspods and seeds varyvary inin taste,taste, andand notnot all stands are equallyequally desirabledesirable as food.

Concern for Shadow Mountain.Mountain. There areare IndianIndian mines atat Shadow Mountain. The deposits were used mainly forfor stone tools inin thethe precontactprecontact period,period, butbut rare minerals were alsoalso mined in historichistoric times by NativeNative Americans.Americans. Many people areare reluctant toto talk about mines,mines, because theythey feelfeel thatthat thesethese may have commercial valuevalue inin thethe future.future. Shadow Valley re-re lated toto Clark Mountains.

Concern for Avawatz Mountains. There areare grindinggrinding stonesstones and stands of mesquitemesquite just north ofof thethe AvawatzAvawatz Mountains.Mountains.

Concern for Silurian Lake.Lake. Just north of SilurianSilurian Lake there areare stands of mesquite asas wellwell asas grindinggrinding stones.stones.

Concern forfor RabbitRabbit HoleHole Springs.Springs. There are Paiute habi-habi tation sites and grinding stonesstones just southsouth ofof AlexanderAlexander Hills,Hills, near Rabbit HoleHole Springs.Springs.

Concern for Pauite SpringSpring andand Creek.Creek. One of the major occupational zones for the Las Vegas Paiutes was PaiutePaiute SpringSpring and Creek, and their concern for thisthis areaarea has beenbeen noted pre-pre viously. According to respondents, Paiute SpringSpring has been made more accessible because ofof thethe roadsroads builtbuilt byby thethe Metro-Metro politan Water-DistrictWater District of SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia (MWD).(MWD). HistorHistor- ian DennisDennis Casebier has documented thethe steadysteady destructiondestruction ofof the site ofof FortFort Paiute, as improved roads make itit easiereasier forfor people to reach thethe areaarea (1974:11).(1974:11).

In investigating the Fort PaiutePaiute site,site, StoffleStoffle andand EvansEvans observed that MWD's access roadroad has attainedattained thethe statusstatus ofof aa public road:road: the county roadroad departmentdepartment has markedmarked itsits iter-iter section with the standardstandard signsign usedused atat highwayhighway crossroads.crossroads.

Concern forfor LanfairLanfair Valley.Valley. Throughout Lanfair Valley there are habitationhabitation sitessites andand plant processingprocessing locations.locations. Burials can be expected inin manymany areas,areas, especiallyespecially aroundaround springs.springs. The lush valley isis stillstill inhabitedinhabited byby numerousnumerous eagleseagles andand largelarge hawks. Many ofof thethe plantsplants mentionedmentioned byby respondentsrespondents were seenseen growing in the valley, even thoughthough itit isis now beingbeing usedused asas aa

6-266 -26

r cattle ranch. Desert tortoises are found throughout thethe valley.valley.

Concern for SearchlightSearchlight Area.Area. The Anglo-Anglo-American American towntown of Searchlight, Nevada,Nevada, isis thethe center ofof a region that has tradi-tradi tional andand historichistoric importance toto thethe Pauite.Pauite. Searchlight isis at thethe headhead ofof PaiutePaiute Valley,Valley, andand itit waswas the home of thethe lastlast Paiutes whowho lived in thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. According to more than one respondent,respondent, manymany familiesfamilies livedlived nearnear Searchlight before re-re locating to the north. The last family to leave the area hunt-hunt ed andand gathergather plantsplants inin thethe traditional fashion until the 1940s1940s or 1950s.1950s. It is therefore a significant area to manymany living people.

Eldorado Substation andand Valley.Valley. StrongStrong feelings ofof anger were expressedexpressed byby one family regarding thethe EldoradoEldorado area.area. These respondentsrespondents maintainmaintain that burialsburials of known persons were disrupted inin thethe valleyvalley byby thethe constructionconstruction ofof the Eldorado power substationsubstation andand associatedassociated structures, mentioningmentioning itit by name.

Concern for New York Mountains.Mountains. According toto many respon-respon dents, thethe bestbest pinyonpinyon gatheringgathering area is in the New York MonnMoun- tains. The ecological factors that support the growth of the pine trees that produce highhigh-quality -quality pinyonspinyons alsoalso support a great varietyvariety of other plant and animalanimal resources.resources. Such anan area cancan alsoalso bebe expectedexpected toto contain habitationhabitation sites and bur-bur ials.

Concern forfor Goffs.Goffs. To thethe northwest ofof Goffs,Goffs, which hashas a population of aboutabout twentytwenty-five, -five, isis aa ranchranch ofof the historic period, as wellwell as a gold or silver mine of one of thethe Las Vegas Paiute families.families. This site was occupied until atat leastleast the 1930s.

Concern forfor Cima.Cima. Just north of Cima isis thethe IvanpahIvanpah Val-Val ley, wherewhere NativeNative AmericanAmerican cowboys workedworked on various ranches between 19001900 andand thethe latelate 1940s.1940s. This area has both tradi-tradi tional and historic interest.interest.

Specific Question Analysis

In addition to the scaled responses toto culturalcultural itemsitems andand traditional placesplaces that maymay be negativelynegatively impacted by the power lines, thethe questionnairequestionnaire included 10 questions designed toto elicit certain types of information thatthat have have beenbeen defineddefined as useful by previous socialsocial impact-impact assessments.assessments. The followingfollowing is primarilyprimarily a presentation ofof thethe 1818 questionnairequestionnaire responses,responses, although some of the comments made duringduring thethe 1818 interviewsinterviews

6-276 -27 are included.

Reaction toto SCESCE Proposal.Proposal. Of the 18 respondents to the question, "How"How dodo youyou feelfeel aboutabout SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia Edison's proposal toto buildbuild moremore transmissiontransmission lines across the Mojave Desert?"Desert ?" 7 7people people (39(39 percent)percent) dodo notnot like the proposal.proposal. Five (28 percent)percent) saidsaid theythey diddid notnot havehave anythinganything toto saysay aboutabout the proposal, andand 66 (33 percent)percent) saidsaid they think it is a good idea.;dea.

These reactions were slightly more positive thanthan werewere those expressedexpressed inin intervi�w:;.interviews. Th-eThecomment; comment ofof aa PahrumpPahrump responrespon- dent summarizessummarizes this mixturemixture ofof emotions:emotions:

I hatehate to see a powerpower line going through that terri-terri tory becausebecause I knowknow there is a lot of stuff out there. But I know it has toto be done.done. At least, now they (SCE) are payingpaying us the courtesy of asking our feelings.

It shouldshould bebe notednoted thatthat somesome ofof the hostilityhostility toward this propro- posal hashas beenbeen created byby previous projects that have destroyeddestroyed places and cultural items whichwhich Native Americans consider im-im portant.

California Energy Needs.Needs. In response toto thethe question,question, "Do youyou think that CaliforniaCalifornia needsneeds toto havehave moremore energyenergy?" ?" 6 peoplepeople (33 percent)percent) said no,no, 11 (61(61 percent) saidsaid yes, andand one person said,said, "What"What moremore dodo theythey wantwant?" ?" The energy short-short ages of California and the rest of the country are recognized by the LasLas VegasVegas Paiute,Paiute, butbut there is a general feeling thatthat itit is notnot fair to destroy NativeNative AmericanAmerican resources to make way for "progress." Urban-dwellingUrban -dwelling PaiutesPaiutes fromfrom California areare much moremore positive toward the need for more energyenergy thanthan areare Nevada Paiutes.Paiutes.

Means ofof GettingGetting Energy.Energy. In response toto thethe question,question, "If they need more energyenergy isis thisthis aa goodgood wayway toto getget itit?" ?" 6 peoplepeople (33 percent)percent) said no,no, 6 (33(33 percent) said they dodo not know, and 6 (33(33 percent)percent) saidsaid yes.yes. One of thethe positive re-re sponses seemsseems to representrepresent the feelings of many persons inter-inter viewed: "I guess it is the best way if there isis no otherother way."

Image of Power Lines.Lines. In response to the question, "What"What are your feelings whenwhen youyou see,see. largelarge powerpower lines and their towers crossing the desertdesert?" ?" 99 peoplepeople (50(50 percent)percent) said they do notnot like them, 2 (11(11 percent) saidsaid theythey don'tdon't mindmind them,them, and 5 (28(28'percent) percent) hadhad nono comment.comment. Two had aa mixedmixed reaction.reaction. Negative commentscomments included:included:

It destroys thethe natural beautybeauty ofof thethe land.land.

It scares me.me.

66-28 -28 It's uglyugly butbut it is therethere forfor aa purpose.purpose.

TheThe positivepositive responsesresponses included:

It's the best place forfor them.them�

I feel proud,proud, it's there servingserving aa purpose.purpose.

One ofof the 2727 respondents seemed to like the appearanceappearance of the HVTLs. The others were generallygenerally pleased thatthat theythey could notnot seesee them from theirtheir homes.homes.

Effect on Recreation.Recreation. In response to thethe question,question, "Do"Do you expectexpect thethe transmissiontransmission lines toto havehave any effect on whatwhat youyou do for recreationrecreation?" ?" 77 (39 percent)percent) said yes, 10 (56(56 per-per cent) saidsaid theythey expectedexpected nono effect, and 1l,made made no response.response. OfOf thethe respondentsrespondents whowho saidsaid yes, 2 said they lovelove "the"the desertdesert and sightseeing,"sightseeing," implyingimplying that there would bebe aa negativenegative vis-vis ual impact on recreational enjoyment.enjoyment. One person impliedimplied thethe HVTLs wouldwould negativelynegatively impactimpact hunting,hunting, andand oneone felt that they "would interfereinterfere withwith our trips to the mountains." No oneone suggested the HVTLsHVTLs would have aa positivepositive effect.effect. Of thethe 1010 people whowho said they expected the HVTLs to have nono negative effect onon recreation,recreation, 6 werewere from an urban CaliforniaCalifornia communi-communi ty.

Effect on Health.Health. In response to the question, "Do you expect the transmission lineslines toto have anyany effecteffect onon youryour health?"health ?" 1414 respondentsrespondents (78(78 percent)percent) said no,no, 2 (11(11 percent)percent) do notnot know,know, 2 (11(11 percent) saidsaid yes.yes. As toto possiblepossible adverseadverse effec�s,effecs, thethe responseresponse waswas simply,simply, "it"it saddenssaddens me."

"Radiation" is aa major concern,concern, which respondentsrespondents repeat-repeat edly mentionedmentioned as a cause of "plants"plants dryingdrying upup andand dying."dying." Air pollution fromfrom coal-coal-burning burning facilitiesfacilities is seenseen asas havinghaving aa neg-neg ative effect on health.

Effect onon EconomicEconomic Development.Development. In response toto thethe ques-ques tion, "wil!"Will the transmission lineslines have anyany effecteffect onon IndianIndian economic developmentdevelopment?" ?" 1010 respondentsrespondents (56(56 percent) saidsaid no,no, 5 (28 percent)percent) said yes, and 3 (17(17 percent) saidsaid theythey dodo not know. Specific negative effects mentioned were the disruption of the land's natural beauty, andand thethe destructiondestruction ofof historichistoric sites that could perhaps become anan economiceconomic resourceresource forfor thethe Las Vegas people inin thethe future,future, throughthrough thethe development of tourist facilities.facilities.

In a twotwo-hour -hour interview,interview, thethe tribal chairman ofof thethe LasLas Vegas Indian Colony expressedexpressed severalseveral concernsconcerns regarding the potential impact of thethe SCESeE proposal onon economiceconomic developmentdevelopment plans. The colonycolony hashas aa veryvery smallsmall landland basebase--12.2 --12.2 acresacres (4.9(4.9 ha)--andha) --and populationpopulation is increasing.increasing. ReservationReservation-based -based "smoke

66-29 -29 shops," wherewhere taxtax-free -free cigarettescigarettes areare soldsold byby the tribe,tribe, are thethe onlyonly economic resource.resource. The legalitylegality ofof sellingselling taxtax - free cigarettes toto nonnon-Indians - Indiansat atthese these shopsshops isis presentlypresently bebe- ing questioned,questioned, andand a negativenegative decision couldcould shutshut downdown thethe only economic resource ofof thethe LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes.Paiutes.

The economic development plan of the Las Vegas Paiute Colony specifiesspecifies thethe desire to expand the reservation boun-boun daries, preferablypreferably into an area that has both spacespace forfor hous-hous ing andand thethe potentialpotential for economiceconomic development.development. The chairman suggested thatthat aa sitesite suitable for either tourism oror industryindustry would serve the colony's needs.

One of the possible tourist sitessites discusseddiscussed waswas PaiutePaiute Springs and the associated "Fort"Fort Paiute"Paiute" site.site. As notednoted prepre - viously,.viously,.thisthis placeplace has had major importance inin PaiutePaiute social,social, religious and economic life, both before andand afterafter contactcontact withwith Euro-Americans.Euro- Americans. The site has strongstrong emotionalemotional appealappeal toto liv-liv ing Paiutes,Paiutes, and its special oasis and historic featuresfeatures givegive it economic potential. The site's rock art isis graduallygradually beingbeing damaged byby vandalsvandals and removed by curio hunters, andand thethe oldold fort constructed by thethe U.S.U.S. ArmyArmy isis alsoalso beingbeing destroyed.destroyed.

The Paiute Springs site could be developed into a museummuseum or park,park, to bebe operated by Paiute Park Rangers, and itit couldcould also bebe usedused as a residential area for Paiutes who cannotcannot be accommodated in thethe colony.colony. Such a project would provide jobsjobs and also protect aa valuablevaluable site.site. In the opinion of Chairman Yazzie, the values of both Native Americans andand thethe largerlarger society wouldwould bebe protected,protected, were this site to be returned toto its originaloriginal owners forfor developmentdevelopment andand preservation.preservation.

Mitigation ofof IndianIndian ToolsTools andand HabitationHabitation Sites.Sites. In re-re sponse to the question, "If Paiute tools or living sites are uncovered by power line construction, what shouldshould be donedone with them?"them ?"7 respondents (39(39 percent) said these shouldshould be returned to the Indians, 4 (22 percent)percent) said they should be studied by a museum,museum, 2 (11(11 percent) saidsaid thatthat theythey shouldshould bebe leftleft alone,alone, and 4 (22(22 percent) made nono response.response. One said SCESeE shouldshould not be there in the first place, one saidsaid he doesdoes not know, oneone did notnot respond, and one said "You"You shouldshould not be on thethe landland to tmcoveruncover these things." Responses from thethe interviewsinterviews sup-sup port the position thatthat anyany NativeNative AmericanAmerican artifactsartifacts foundfound dur-dur ing construction shouldshould bebe returnedreturned toto thethe IndianIndian people.people. The general feeling is that the artifacts shouldshould thenthen be placed inin a cultural heritage museum or other center,center, at thethe expenseexpense ofof the power company, along with completecomplete documentationdocumentation of where the artifacts camecame from.from.

Mitigation ofof IndianIndian BurialBurial Sites.Sites. In response to thethe question, "If'If thethe burialburial sitessites ofof Indian people are uncovered by power lineline construction,construction, whatwhat shouldshould bebe donédone withwith themthem?" ?" 7 respondentsrespondents (39(39 percent) said thesethese shouldshould be reburiedreburied on

6-306 -30 the nearestnearest reservationreservation byby the Indians, at thethe company'scompany's ex-ex pense; 7 (39 percent)percent) said they should be leftleft undistrubed,undistrubed, and that the powerpower line should be routed elsewhere; 33 17 per-per cent) did notnot respond, and one person said, "They"They shouldshouId bebe marked and preserved.preserved."It

There is some disagreement between the responses to the mailed questionnaire and thosethose recordedrecorded duringduring thethe interview.interview. Most ofof thethe peoplepeople interviewedinterviewed--16 --16 (89(89 percent)percent)--said --said thatthat any skeletal remainsremains encounteredencountered should bebe left undisturbed where they are found.found. When this possibility was discussed, thethe most common reasonreason givengiven forfor leaving such remains in place is their possible deterioration.deterioration. Because the Paiute have occupied thethe Study AreaArea forfor hundredshundreds ofof years,years, the recommendation is under-under standable. There are also religious reasons for notnot desiring reinterment.

Listening toto IndianIndian Opinion.Opinion. In response toto thethe question,question, "Do you believebelieve that Indian people's opinions recorded inin thisthis study willwill bebe heardheard andand listened to byby Southern California Edison?"Edison ?"no no respondentsrespondents saidsaid theythey believedbelieved thethe company would listen to their opinions.opinions. Some of them commented thatthat thethe company should listen.listen. The level of distrust these Native Americans have forfor Southern CaliforniaCalifornia Edison,Edison, inin particular,particular, and majormajor national·corporations,national corporations, in general, is clearlyclearly very high.

6-316 -31 CHEMEHUEVI

In early August 1979, CSRI sent Richard StoffleStoffle and Michael Evans toto. contactcontact somesome membersmembers ofof thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi TriTri- bal Council by phone regarding thethe study.study. The council mem-mem bers said that Stoffle and Evans should visit thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi reservation and present'present thethe proposalproposal inin person.person.

Evans and Stoffle visited the Chemehuevi reservation in mid-mid-August. August. Over a period of three days, a representative majority of the ChemehueviChemehuevi.Tribal Tribal CouncilCouncil was contactedcontacted eithereither in person or by phone.phone. A resolution was drawn up by thesethese council membersmembers for discussion atat aa futurefuture meeting.meeting.

Chemehuevi Tribal Council Resolution No. 7979 isis reprintedreprin'ted in Appendix B.B. The interpretation here isis thatthat ofof CSRICSRI re-re searchers StoffleStoffle and Evans, whowho werewere present duringduring thethe de-de velopment of the resolution and have sincesince been inin contactcontact with council members.members.

In general, council members apparentlyapparently feelfeel thatthat nono bene-bene fits cancan comecome from the construction of additional power lineslines on or nearnear Chemehuevi traditionaltraditional territory.territory. The council be-be lieves thatthat thethe tribe's claim to portionsportions of the Study Area has already been clearly presented in previously published research (Laird(Laird 1976; King and Casebier 1976) and thatthat thethe intensity ofof ChemehueviChemehuevi concern hashas also been documented (Bean and Vane 1978).1978). They see no reason forfor additional in-in terviewing of Chemehuevi peoplepeople atat thisthis time.time. They believe that should the·the southernmostsouthernmost routeroute (Highway(Highway 66)66) bebe chosen by Southern California EdisonEdison forfor HVTLs,HVTLs, onon-site -site walkoverswalkovers by representatives of thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi TribeTribe wouldwould bebe necessary.necessary.

The resolution does not indicate a lacklack of concernconcern forfor future projects,projects, nornor unwillingness to participate in futurefuture ethnographic assessmentsassessments ofof impact.impact.

The most consistentconsistent concernconcern expressedexpressed byby councilcouncil members focused on SCE's "general lack of response" to the 1978 Devers-Devers Palo Verde study.study. A number of council members participated directly in all levelslevels ofof thethe researchresearch forfor thatthat study.study. They arranged for interview appointments, accompaniedaccompanied CSRICSRI ethnog-ethnog raphers to interviews, servedserved asas translators,translators, helped toto de-de velop items for the mailed questionnaire andand toto analyzeanalyze re-re sponses, and served as "key" consultants in checking the ac-ac curacy of the ethnographers'ethnographers' interpretations.interpretations. As aa conse-conse quence of this extensive commitment, thethe councilcouncil feltfelt thatthat the Chemehuevi responseresponse toto thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo VerdeVerde proposal was truly representative, and it unanimously approvedapproved thethe finalfinal draft of thethe report.report.

Since thethe completioncompletion ofof thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo VerdeVerde report,report,

6-326 -32 council membersmembers hadhad heardheard littlelittle fromfrom SouthernSouthern California Edison andand nothingnothing from thethe·California California PublicPublic UtilitiesUtilities Commission, beforebefore whomwhom thethe reportreport waswas considered.considered. CSRI personnelpersonnel informallyinformally reportedreported toto councilcouncil membersmembers that some of the mitigationmitigation procedures recommendedrecommended inin thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo VerdeVerde report maymay bebe implemented,implemented, butbut this information was not inin thethe form ofof anan official notification.

Last year, council members also assisted in preparing the "scope"scope ofof work"work" statementstatement for an ethnographic studystudy con-con cerning SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia Edison'sEdison's proposal to developdevelop aa plant producingproducing gas from coal and an experimental solarsolar en-en ergy plantplant nearnear DaggeDaggett,tt, California.California. After participating inin this planningplanning phase,phase, thethe council waswas notifiednotified only indirect-indirect ly thatthat thethe ethnographicethnographic study wouldwould notnot bebe funded, and thatthat. the constructionconstruction ofof powerpower plantsplants wouldwould proceedproceed withoutwithout input from the Chemehuevi Tribe.Tribe.

When CSRI ethnographers arrived at the reservation inin "AugustAugust toto presentpresent council membersmembers withwith the opportunity toto respond to another major proposal-proposal--the -the WesternWestern Transmission System of the Allen-WarnerAllen -Warner ValleyValley EnergyEnergy System--theydisSystem--theydis- covered thatthat nono officialofficial wordword regarding this proposal had reached the council.council. As a consequence, council members were unaware theythey wouldwould bebe asked to participate in a study, and had notnot providedprovided time for this purpose inin theirtheir scheduleschedule ofof business.

In view of the importance of thethe project toto thethe Cheme-Cheme huevi people,people, the short time allocated forfor completingcompleting theirtheir response, the tribal council's busy schedule, and the appar-appar ent waste of theirtheir timetime onon thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde response,response, the councilcouncil membersmembers decideddecided to makemake the strongest and briefest statement possible.possible.

Some council members expressed concern thatthat a studystudy rushed to completion without thethe supportsupport andand involvementinvolvement ofof the entire council couldcould containcontain manymany inaccuracies.inaccuracies. It was. considered betterbetter to concentrate on taking a strong stand against the southern power transmissiontransmission routeroute (Highway(Highway 6666 alternate).alternate) .

There are indications thatthat members ofof thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi Tri-Tri bal Council willwill hold firmlyfirmly toto thisthis stand,stand, until theythey re-re ceive assurance ofof thethe following:following: that their voices havehave been heard by SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia EdisonEdison andand thethe CaliforniaCalifornia Public Utilities Commission; thatthat somesome significantsignificant mitigation procedures willwill bebe mademade byby SCEseE regardingregarding thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde project;"project; thatthat ChemehueviChemehuevi opinionopinion will bebe soughtsought moremore frequently on projects directly concerning theirtheir culturalcultural and economic resources; andand thatthat thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi TribalTribal CouncilCouncil will be formallyformally notifiednotified ofof suchsuch projectsprojects inin advance,advance, soso that complete responses cancan bebe obtained,obtained, withwith thethe fullfull partici-partici pation of itsits members.members.

66-33 -33 Concern forfor TourismTourism

A request was made by somesome councilcouncil members thatthat thisthis CSRICSRI reportreport includeinclude anan assess�entassessment of the potential impactimpact ofof thethe proposed powerpower transmissiontransmission lines onon the tourist industry that the ChemehueviChemehuevi are developing.developing. The Chemehuevi tribetribe derivesderives much ofof itsits incomeincome from the operationoperation ofof tourist facilities on the reservation. During thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo VerdeVerde study, some Chemehuevi people expressedexpressed concernconcern thatthat powerpower plants,plants, highhigh - voltage transmission lines, new highways, andand otherother projectsprojects might alteralter the numbernumber of tourists attracted toto theirtheir facili-facili-

might ' ties.

In responseresponse to this expressed need forfor information,information, prior toto thethe AWVESAWVES study, Stoffle and Evans had developeddeveloped aa study designeddesigned to measuremeasure (1)(1) whatwhat attracts tourists toto anan area; (2) whatwhat recreationalrecreational facilities tourists prefer; andand (3) howhow touriststourists feelfeel aboutabout variousvarious projectsprojects that mightmight bebe developed inin the future, and whatwhat impact, if any, thethe develop-develop ment of such projects would have on the willingness ofof tour-tour ists to returnreturn to an area (Stoffle,(Stoffle, LastLast andand EvansEvans 1979).1979). ExEx- trapolation fromfrom that study shows that although high voltage transmission lines builtbuilt in the immediate neighborhood of a tourist facilityfacility mightmight decrease the numbernumber of tourists the facility attracted,attracted, the proposedproposed AWVESAWVES transmission lines would not be apt toto have aa negative impactimpact onon thethe touristtourist facilities of the ChemehueviChemehuevi Reservation.Reservation. The majority of tourists whowho patronizepatronize the Colorado River resorts appear toto be drawn there by the appeal ofof thethe riverriver andand lakelake features,features, not primarily byby thethe desert andand thethe mountains.mountains.

The Tourist Study.Study_ The tourism study was conducted inin the summer of 1979 at the Kaibab Paiute Reservation and at Aw-VillaAw -Villa ParkPark onon the Colorado River.River. Therefore, itsits datadata apply to the tourist facility at the Chemehuevi reservation only by extrapolation.extrapolation.

While Evans was conductingconducting interviewsinterviews with touriststourists atat Aw-VillaAw -Villa ParkPark (8(8 milesmiles northnorth ofof Parker,Parker, Arizona),Arizona), he resided at the home of aa member ofof thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi tribaltribal council.council. BeBe- cause Chemehuevi concerns had led to the development of the research project,projec�, manymany ChemehuevisChemehuevis--including -- including mostmost of the council-council--were -were keptkept informedinformed ofof the progress ofof thethe research.research.

Evans interviewedinterviewed 185185 touriststourists whowho visitedvisited AwAw-Villa -Villa Park, which isis operated andand maintained byby thethe YumaYuma CountyCounty Park system.system. The people interviewedinterviewed werewere thethe decisiondecision-making -making members of thethe groupsgroups inin whichwhich theythey travelled.travelled. Most ofof thethe interviews were made onon weekends, when more peoplepeople useuse thethe park. On weekdays, Evans interviewedinterviewed people onon thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi Reservation.

Eighty-oneEighty -one percentpercent ofof thethe touriststourists interviewed livelive inin California (most(most of themthem inin thethe LosLos Angeles area),area), 1515 percentpercent

6-346 -34 in Arizona,Arizona, andand aa smallsmall percentagepercentage inin Missouri,Missouri, Nevada,Nevada, NewNew Mexico, and Utah.Utah.

The single family was the most common type (60.5(60.5 per-per cent) ofof touringtouring group; 23.8 percent of thethe groupsgroups werewere mademade up ofof moremore thanthan oneone family;family; andand 15.7 percentpercent consisted of friends. The average number ofof people inin eacheach touringtouring groupgroup was 5.7, thethe modemode 4.4. The average stay was 3.93.9 days,days, and groups visitedvisited the area an average of 2.6 timestimes aa yearyear (us-(us ually in summer). Groups, then, spend an average of 10.14 tourist-daystourist -days aa yearyear inin the area.area. Groups had been visiting the area,area, on the average, forfor 55 years.years.

The only concerns reported here are the feelingsfeelings thesethese tourists havehave towardtoward HVTLsHVTLs and associatedassociated'access access roads; thethe perceived impact of such construction onon thethe tourist'stourist's will-will ingness toto returnreturn to the study locale; and the change inin tourist expendituresexpenditures that mightmight occur should tourist visits decrease. A more complete description of these tourists and their attitudesattitudes is contained inin Appendix B.R.

Under the question, "As a tourist, how do you feel about the followingfollowing projectsprojects that maymay occur in this locale in the near futurefuture (5(5 yrs.)yrs.)?", ? ", thethe followingfollowing projectsprojects werewere listed:�isted:

-1. Building new dirtdirt roadsroads ontoonto undisturbedundisturbed lands.lands.

2. Paving existingexisting dirtdirt roads.roads.

3. Widening existingexisting pavedpaved roadsroads toto 44 lanes.lanes.

4. Crossing open country with an electricalelectrical transmissiontransmission line and itsits dirtdirt accessaccess road.road.

5. Building aa nuclearnuclear powerpower plant.plant.

6. Building aa coal-coal-burning burning power plant.plant.

7. Building aa solarsolar powerpower plant.plant.

8. Building aa dam.dam.

Responses ranging fromfrom "Very"Very Negative" toto "Very"Very Posi-Posi tive," numberednumbered fromfrom 11 toto 5,5, werewere circledcircled byby thethe researcher.researcher.

In response to the question aboutabout crossingcrossing openopen countrycountry with an electrical transmissiontransmission lineline andand itsits dirtdirt accessaccess road,road, 114 peoplepeople (61.6(61.6 percent) diddid notnot carecare oneone wayway oror thethe other;other; 69 peoplepeople (37.3 percent) responded negatively; and 2 people (1.1 percent)percent) responded positively.positively.

Responses toto aa questionquestion aboutabout howhow buildingbuilding aa transmissiontransmission line andand access roads wouldwould affect willingness toto comecome back to the locale were plottedplotted onon aa 55-point -point scale ranging fromfrom "Much"Much

6-356 -35 Les.sless willing"willing" to "Much more willing."willing.", One hundredhundred fortyforty- seven peoplepeople (79.5 percent)percent) said they would not objectobject toto hav-hav ing aa transmissiontransmission line and its access road crosscross openopen coun-coun try; 3535 (18.9 percent)percent) s�idsaid they would be lessless willing toto re-re turn, andand 3 (1.6 percent)percent) that they would be more willing.

A majormajor goal of the tourist study waswas to find out what effect thethe construction of various projects might have onon thethe gross incomeincome ofof a tourist facility, by analyzing touristtourist ex-ex penditures. The possible effect of projects on net income could notnot bebe computed, inasmuch as the net income by anyany bus-bus iness resultsresults from a combination of many variables (for(for which data areare notnot available), and cannot be reliably predicted onon the basisbasis of gross incomeincome alone.alone.

Table 6-VIIIa6 -VIïIashows showsthe thetotal totalannual annualexpenditures expenditures ofof thethe 185185 AwAw-Villa -Villa ParkPark touringtouring groupsgroups andand thethe amountamount byby which thesethese might be expect�dexpected to decrease if various projects shouldshould bebe constructed. TableTable 6-VIIIb6 -VIIIbextrapolates extrapolates thesethese figuresfigures to the Chemehuevi tourist facility.facility.

Aw-VillaAw -Villa touriststourists spendspend $53,495 aa year.year. If a power transmission line were toto bebe builtbuilt nearnear AwAw-Villa -Villa Park, 87.3 percent ($46,675($46,675 of the total expenditures) would not be affected; 11.8 percent ($6,323)($6,323) would bebe negativelynegatively affected;affected; and .9 percentpercent ($497)($497) would be positively affected.affected. A com-com prehensive costcost-benefit -benefit assessment forfor AwAw-Villa -Villa ParkPark would have to take into consideration the nearness of thethe power transmission lines to attractive features of the touring en-en vironment, the numbernumber of tourists who use the facilityfacility eacheach year, and the weightings assigned to the various "willingness"

year, weightings assigned' "willingness" categories.

Extrapolation ofof thethe analysisanalysis ofof AwAw-Villa -Villa data to the Chemehuevi Indian reservationreservation tourist facility (located(located across the Colorado River) is, in similar fashion, indicative rather than definitive.

According to official tribaltribal estimates, thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi Indian Tribe's reservationreservation-based -based tourismtourism facilityfacility served 3422 touring groups between May 11 andand August 31,31, 1979.1979. There isis strong evidenceevidence that Colorado River tourism decreased by an average of 30 percent in the summer of 1979 because of gas shortages inin California.California. This may indicate that inin a "normal" summer, some 4450 touring groups may visit the ChemehueviChemehuevi facility, but the following analysis is based onen thethe estimateestimate of 3422 forfor 1979.1979.

In extrapolating the information obtained from the 185 tourists interviewedinterviewed atat AwAw-Villa -Villa ParkPark toto the tourists who visit the Chemehuevi facility, itit is assumed thatthat people who visit these two places are comparable inin termsterms of what attracts thetnthem to a touring facility, their visitation patterns, theirtheir expenditures, and theirtheir attitudesattitudes towardtoward developmentdevelopment projects.projects.

6-366 -36 TABLE 6-6-VIlIa. Villa.

Annual totaltotal expensesexpenses ofof 185185 AwAw-Villa -Villa Park touringtouring groups byby theirtheir willingnesswillingness toto returnreturn ifif aa powerpower transmission line isis builtbuilt in locale.-locale.

ImpactImEact of EroEosedproposed HVTL on wil1in�esswillingness to return

Much lessless Somewhat lessless Somewhat more Much more willing willing Neutral willing willing

N = 185185 5 (2.(2.7%)7%) 30 (16.2%)(16.2%) 147 1 (.5%)(.5%) 2 (1.170)(1.1%) (79.5%)

Mean nights at site 1.2 3.5 4.0 1.0 4.5

Mean visits per year 1.6 2.1 2.7 1.0 2.5

Mean total daily expense $27.00 $27.50 $29.40 $24.00 $2l.$21.0000

Annual total expenses $259.20 $6,063.75 $46,675.44 $24.00 $472.50

Total of expenditures: $53,494.89

6-376 -37 A "Reasonable Case"Case" estimatees�imate ofof thethe costcost-gains -gains ofof building aa powerpower transmission line on the Chemehuevi reservation.

Impact�Eact of EroEosedproposed HVTL on willin�esswillingness to return

Much lessless SomewhatSomewhat lessless Somewhat more Much moremore willing willing Neutral willing willing

:= N = 34223422 92 544 2721 17 38 .

Mean nights at site 1.2 1.75* 4.0 1.5* 9.0*

Mean visits per year 1.6 1.05* 2.7 1.5* 5.0*5. o-

Annual total expense impacts -$4,769.28 -$27,994 ($863,971.92) + $918$918 +$3,591

Total negative impactsimpacts == $32,763.28

Total positive impactsimpacts == 4,509.00

Total expected impactsimpacts == $28,254.28

oJ. 'These figuresfigures reflectreflect adjustmentadjustment for changes in touring behavior as detailed inin thethe text.text.

6-386 -38 This assumptionassumption isis basedbased onon data obtainedobtained byby EvansEvans during in-in formal interviewinginterviewing at the ChemehueviChemehuevi reservation.reservation.

I.fIf these assumptions.assumptions are justified, 2721 tourists (79.5(79.5 percent)percent) wouldwould notnot care'care one.wayone way oror thethe otherother if aa transmission line andand associatedassociated accessaccess road were built in thethe localelocale ofof the ChemehueviChemehuevi facility; 554 people (16.2(16.2 percent) would bebe somewhat lessless willingwilling and 92 (2.7(2.7 percent) would be much lessless willing to return; and 17 (.5(.5 percent) wouldwould be somewhat more willing and 38 (1.1(1.1 percent) wouldwould be muchmuch more willing to return.

The weighting of responses is perhaps the most difficult step in the analysis.analysis. A "best possible" case would assumeassume that thethe touriststourists whosewhose responsesresponses werewere neutral,neutral, slightly lessless willing, and slightly more positiveposit�ve would notnot changechange theirtheir touring behaviorbehavior because ofof thethe project.project. A "worst possible" case wouldwould assumeassume thatthat all.all tourists whowho responded negatively would notnot return and that allall who responded positivelypositively wouldwould double the time theythey spendspend atat thethe site.site.

After conducting interviewsinterviews with touriststourists atat thethe Cheme-Cheme huevi reservation,reservation, EvansEvans concluded that neither extreme would occur andand thatthat the expected results wouldwould be similar to thosethose ppresentedresenced inin TableTable B.B.

In Table B, the means of thethe "nights"nights atat site"site" andand "visits"visits per year" categories remain the same for thosethese touriststourists who are neutral,neutral, are reduced by 50 percent forfor thosethose somewhatsomewhat lessless willing to return, andand areare reducedreduced toto 00 forfor thosethose whowho saidsaid theythey would bebQ much lessless willing.willing. These two means are increased by 50 percentpercent for tourists who indicated they would be somewhat more willing toto return, andand areare doubleddoubled forfor thosethose who were much more willing.

The total lossloss ofof grossgross incomeincome forfor thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi IndianIndian Reservation touristtourist facilityfacility projectedproj ected fromfrom thesethese figuresfigures wouldY.Ould bebe $32,763; the gain would bebe $4,509.$4,509. Thus, the projected total loss in gross income forfor thethe facilityfacility isis estimatedestimated atat $28,254.$28,254

A basic assumption underlying thisthis analysisanalysis isis thatthat atat least oneone of the proposedproposed corridors for the power transmission line wouldwould fall withinwithin the "locale" of the Chemehuevi Indian Tribe'sTribe's tourist facility.facility. A "touring locale,"locale,u asas defineddefined here, includes not onlyonly thethe featuresfeatures ofof thethe environmentenvironment thatthat attract tourists but also thethe territoryterritory thatthat encompassesencompasses· thosethose features. Such a definition thereforetherefore extends farfar beyond thethe bounds ofof anyany specificspecific touristtourist restingresting oror overover-night -night facility.facility. Because the touringtouring localelocale isis culturallyculturally defined,defined, itsits spatialspatial boundaries cancan be expandedexpanded oror contracted,contracted, eithereither asas touringtouring values change or asas featuresfeatures ofof thethe environmentenvironment areare modifiedmodified so that theythey becomebecome moremore oror lessless attractiveattractive toto thethe tourist.tourist.

6-396 -39 The weightedweighted responses (these(these include allall mentioned at-at tractive features)features) ofof thethe Aw-VillaAw -VillaPark Park touriststourists indicateindicate that 92.4 percentpercent ofof the locale's attractiveness isis relatedrelated toto water, whereaswhereas only 4.6 percent isis related to the desert and mountainsmountains (see Appendix B). From these data, itit cancan bebe con-con cluded thatthat thethe primaryprimary attractionsattractions ofof ColoradoColorado River touring locales areare thethe riverriver andand lake features of the environment. It can alsoalso bebe concluded that the southernmost powerpower trans-trans mission line corridor of the AWVES projectproject (Route(Route 66), being at least 30 milesmiles to the northwestnorthwest in desert terrain,terrain, fallsfalls outside thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi Tribe's touring localelocale asas thisthis isis de-de finedfine4 byby the great majority ofof itsits tourists.tourists.

The tourist study therefore does not demonstrate that the proposedproposed AWVESAWVES transmission lines will have anyany directdirect effect onon thethe gross income of the Chemehuevi touristtourist facility.facility. The impacts that can bebe predicted are those indirectindirect onesones that can bebe extrapolatedextrapolated from concerns expressed inin thethe Devers-Devers Palo VerdeVerde study (Bean and Vane 1978) and in other ethnographicethnographic and archaeological literature.literature. Such impacts include those toto . be expected fromfrom anan increaseincrease inin ORVORV traffic.traffic.

ORV Impacts

The major impact ·onon culturalcultural resourcesresources ofof concernconcern toto Native AmericansAmericans would seem toto be the resultresult ofof thethe increaseincrease in off-roadoff -roadvehicle vehicle traffictraffic thatthat mightmight resultresult from buildingbuilding access roads forfor transmissiontransmission lines.lines. This increaseincrease inin traf-traf fic couldcould cause impacts that might be either positive or negative with respect toto ChemehueviChemehuevi concerns.concerns. Some of thethe ORV tourists attracted by the accessaccess roads cancan be expectedexpected toto come to the Chemehuevi tourist facility, thus increasing Chemehuevi grossgross income.income. On the other hand, an increase inin ORV traffic may decrease the attraction ofof thethe areaarea forfor otherother tourists (Badaracco(Badaracco 1976;1976; 1978).1978). It can alsoalso be expectedexpected toto result in the destruction of desertdesert resources forfor which thethe Chemehuevi have aa concern.concern. Evidence is accumulating that ORV traffic does harm toto plantsplants (Davidson(Davidson andand FoxFox 1973;1973; DuckDuck 1978;1978; and Gibson 1973) and that suchsuch traffictraffic also harms wildlife (Berry 1973;1973; BuryBury et a1.al. 1977; Busack and Burry 1974; Fox 1973; Knott 1978;1978; andand NakataNakata etet al.ale 1976).1976). Chemehuevis claim that ORV enthusiasts have lootedlooted Native American gravesgraves andand destroyed petropetroglyphsglyphs (Stoffle(Stoffle andand EvansEvans fieldfield notesnotes 1978,1978,

1979) .

The proposed AWVESAWVES transmissiontransmission lineslines willwill be,be, atat thethe closest point,point, 30 miles northwest of the ChemehueviChemehuevi touristtourist faCility.facility. Without interviewinginterviewing Chemehuevis,Chemehuevis. itit isis'impossibla impossible to saysay whetherwhether theythey thinkthink thethe positivepositive impact ofof ORVORV traffictraffic would be importantimportant enoughenough toto outweightoutweight thethe negative impact.impact.

66-40 -40 KAWAIISU

One KawaiisuKawaiisu from the Tehachapi area whose familyfamily hadhad used the resourcesresources of the MojaveMojave Desert for severalseveral genera-genera tions waswas interviewed. Traditional Kawaiisu territoryterritory was in the southernsouthern SierraSierra NevadaNevada mountainmountain region,region, but people were displaced followingfollowing thethe arrivalarrival ofof Euro-Euro-Americans Americans inin the 1800s.

The grandparents and parents of the Kawaiisu who was interviewed huntedhunted andand gatheredgathered inin thethe westernwestern partpart ofof the Study Area. Because of his own interest in thethe cultural history ofof hishis people,people, this NativeNative AmericanAmerican hashas spent a good dealdeal ofof timetime exploring thethe desertdesert withinwithin the Study Area and on its periphery, and his concern for its resources was deemed relevant to thethe ethnographicethnographic investigations.investigations.

The Kawaiisu respondent has discovered archaeological sites hehe feelsfeels areare significant; he identified somesome sitessites thatthat areare alreadyalready lqlownknown butbut wouldwould discuss others only inin terms of general locations.locations.

The Kawaiisu respondent recalled that in the Study Area "east of Mojave and as far as the NewberryNewberry Mountains," his grandparents had gathered "red"red berries inin thethe desert,desert, andand also certain kindskinds of bunchgrass with lots of seedsseeds likelike small kernels." He knows a fewfew Kawaiisu who stillstill gathergather plant foodsfoods there.there. He himself stillstill gathers sagebrush for makingmaking tea, chia (seeds(seeds of Salvia Columbariae, anan annual),annual), the podspods and beansbeans of the mesquite (ProsopisProsopis juliflora),juliflora), andand the fruits of yuccas andand cacti.cacti.

He said that creosote bush or "greasewood" (Larrea(Larrea divaricata) is beneficial inin treatingtreating bothboth humanhuman andand animalanimal ailments. It provides a remedy for impetigoimpetigo andand bodybody odor.odor. When leaves are boiled, thethe resultingresulting teatea cancan bebe usedused toto bathe the wounds of an injuredinjured animal,animal, while thethe powderpowder derived from grinding thethe drydry leavesleaves onon aa metate cancan healheal an oozing sore.sore. The roots of the Joshua tree, "especially ,. the red part,part," have similarsimilar healinghealin� properties.properties. He saidsaid thatthat the bark of the mesquite mixed with blackblack clayclay waswas usedused inin traditional times for dyeing and cleaning thethe hair; thethe "juicettjuice of the wormwood" servedserved thethe samesame purpose.purpose.

TwoTWo Native American women whom thethe Kawaiisu respondent knows gather materials inin thethe desertdesert forfor makingmaking baskets.baskets. They collect willows, meadow bunchgrass, and devil's claw (Proboscidea sp.).sp.). He said that in basket making, the spines of the greasewood (Sarcobatus(Sarcobatus sp.)sp.) areare usedused inin

6-416 -41 separating the coils.coils.

The Kawaiisu respondent thoughtthought thethe proposed HVTLsHVTLs would not have an adverse effecteffect on mines, minerals, oror clay deposits. He foresaw an adverse effect on all other categories of sites:sites: religious or sacred;sacred; burials andand cremations; petroglyphs andand pictographs;pictographs; cairns,cairns, shrines,shrines, places wherewhere traditional events took place; zones where significant plantplant andand animalanimal species grow;grow; village,village, habihabi- tation, oror campcamp sites; trails; springs; and archaeological sites.

This respondent thinks that California needs more energy,energy, but that the construction of the proposed HCTLs is not a good way toto getget it.it. He is familar with the Study Area from oral traditions ofof hishis family and from his own experience.experience. He does not know of any seasonalseasonal migrations inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

He thinks the proposed HVTLs willwill have a damaging effecteffect on the scenery of the Study Area,Area, that they maymay improve Native AmericanAmerican employment opportunities,opportunities, thatthat theythey willwill decrease recreational possibilities,possibilities, and that they maymay have a serious effecteffect onon health.health.

6-426 -42 SERRANO

San ManuelManuel Reservation

San ManuelManuel Reservation is located in San Bernardino County, betweenbetween thethe foothillsfoothills ofof the SanSan BernardinoBernardino MountainsMountains and the City of Highland. Established in August 18931893 under the authorityauthority ofof an ActAct of Congress dated JanuaryJanuary 12,12, 1891,1891, it hashas aa residentresident populationpopulation ofof 2525 membersmembers and a gross area of some 653 acres (264(264 ha).ha). The reservation's tribaltribal affili-affili ation isis Serrano,Serrano, butbut intermarriageintermarriage withwith otherother Native AmericanAmerican groups hashas createdcreated aa populationpopulation ofof mixedmixed ancestry,ancestry, whichwhich has affiliations withwith residentsresidents onon severalseveral otherother reservationsreservations in southern California. Interethnic marriagesmarriages withwith people of Mexican and AngloAnglo descent havehave also contributed to the mixed composition of thethe population.population.

The numbernumber of reservation residents is likely to increase in the future,future, onceonce negotiationsnegotiations for new housing areare completedcompleted and suitable dwellingsdwellings are available for thosethose now livingliving offoff the reservation. InIn recent yearsyears aa rightright-of-way -of -way hashas beenbeen granted toto the county, and a new road has been constructedconstructed onon the reservation. Some membersmembers of the reservation view thisthis access withwith mixedmixed feelings, suspecting that itit might consti-consti tute thethe initialinitial step toward alienation of reservation lands.lands. "The reservationreservation mightmight bebe losing more than itit isis gaining,"gaining," one informant remarked.

Reservation residents are deeply concerned about the future generation of Native Americans, includingincluding theirtheir ownown young people, and about the effectseffects thatthat continuingcontinuing accul-accul turative pressures may havehave onon behaviorbehavior andand attitudes.attitudes. A concerned senior membermember said, "The future isis soso uncertain.uncertain. The kids nownow--how - -howdo dowe weknow knowwhat what theythey andand theirtheir kids areare going to do?do? They.may not care anythinganything forfor thethe landland upup there, and the firstfirst oneone toto sellsell--well, --well, then the rot will sink in . .. ."

These fears are aggravatedaggravated byby thethe rapidrapid growthgrowth andand devel-devel opment of areas adjacent toto thethe reservationreservation andand inin SanSan Bernar-Bernar dino inin general:general; Expensive condominiums andand townhousestownhouses terrace the lower slopes of the San Bernardino Mountains. Tracts of highhigh-cost -cost houseshouses areare literallyliterally coterminouscoterminous withwith the backyardsbackyards of severalseveral reservationreservation homes.homes. Some members expressed their anxiety aboutabout beingbeing subjectedsubjected toto closeclose scrutiny; others are more disturbeddisturbed byby whatwhat thisthis proximityproximity might symbolize.symbolize. They feel thatthat thethe integrityintegrity ofof theirtheir terri-terri torial domain could be under threat,threat, thatthat itit willwill notnot bebe longlong before private interestsinterests focusfocus on thethe undeveloped parts of the reservation.

In the 86 years sincesince itsits establishment,establishment, SanSan ManuelManuel

66-43 -43 Reservation hashas beenbeen important to the maintenance of ethnicethnic identity and has afforded territorialterritorial autonomy.autonomy. The Serrano feel that thisthis is sQal1small compensation, however, for thethe lossloss of controlcontrol overover ancestral,ancestral lands (which they continue toto regard in symbolic terms).terms). They viewview their environment as part of a larger cosmologicalcosmological order,order, which preceded andand transcendstranscends recent occupation byby nonnon-native -native Americans. The fundamentalfundamental features of this orderorder--the --the naturalnatural landscape,landscape, its life forms and sacred placesplaces--have - -havebeen beengrossly grossly disturbeddisturbed ifif notnot faced with total destruction.destruction. The Serrano people thereforetherefore feelfeel that everyevery efforteffort mustmust bebe mademade toto preservepreserve the remainingremaining symbols ofof their heritage.

This position, together with their feelingsfeelings aboutabout thethe general materialmaterial growth and thethe projects theythey perceiveperceive asas . contributing to it, must be examined againstagainst aa broadbroad histori-histori cal background.background. They and their ancestors have sufferedsuffered much at the hands ofof intrusiveintrusive Euro-Euro-Americans. Americans. Their numbers have been drastically reduced, their landland andand autonomyautonomy takentaken away.away. They havehave beenbeen "cheated" by both governmentgovernment agenciesagencies andand private citizens. It is small wonder thatthat theythey viewview proposalsproposals for newnew projectsprojects in their traditional territory withwith suspicion and hostility,hostility, yetyet are somewhat resignedresigned to the inevitability of changes they dodo not want. The older generation isis espe-espe cially suspicious ofof new projects.projects. Some of the younger peoplepeople are less resistant toto proposalsproposals forfor development.development.

These Native Americans are concerned thatthat traditiontradition and antiquities be preserved.preserved. Native American lacklack ofof apprecia-apprecia tion of the intricaciesintricacies ofof thethe privateprivate businessbusiness/government /government labyrinth is not dissimilar toto thatthat of otherother Americans, butbut it is less likely that Native Americans will make aa compromise,compromise, because of theirtheir deeplydeeply heldheld valuesvalues concerningconcerning theirtheir ethnicethnic integrity. Many Native Americans assumeassume that,that, inin thethe longlong run,run, what is termed "public need" or "public interest" tends to exclude them.them. They are suspicious,suspicious, therefore,therefore, ofof effortsefforts toto include them inin anyany planning.planning. They are not convinced thatthat efthereither the newnew legislation or anythinganything theythey will saysay willwill alter the historical pattern. One membermember of the reservation summarized the collective feeling:feeling: "He [the[the white man] will have hishis way.way. It wouldn'twouldn't matter what we said.said. He never gives up."

Field Research

Field research at San Manuel was facilitated by the fact that the field ethnographer had conductedconducted researchresearch therethere before, in one instanceinstance forfor CSRICSRI (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1979a).1979a). A list of people toto interviewinterview was mademade andand contactcontact withwith thethe reservation was reestablished.reestablished.

Some thirteen people of Serrano affiliation, not all of

6-446 -44 whom live on the reservation, were contacted.contacted. They included the chairmanchairman ofof the tribal council andand itsits electedelected members,members, as wellwell asas informal leaders and elderselders whom theythey recommended.recommended. EveryEvery efforteffort waswas mademade to interviewinterview allall these individuals within the time allocated.allocated.

Three respondents had served as consultants toto anan archaeo-archaeo logical projectproject recentlyrecently conductedconducted inin the OroOro Grande area (Rector 1978). Skeletal remains encountered at thisthis sitesite during archaeologicalarchaeological investigations were identifiedidentified asas Serrano, andand werewere reinterred on San Manuel�Anuel Reservation.Reservation. This is thethe onlyonly archaeologicalarchaeological projectproject in whichwhich the Serrano have ever been involved.involved.

Beginning withwith the chairman of the tribal council, eacheach person onon thethe listlist waswas contactedcontacted byby telephonetelephone and the purposepurpose of the investigation was explained.explained. Then the ethnographerethnographer requested anan interview, to be scheduled at thethe informant'sinformant's convenience. Because of workwork schedules, vacations and other commit:ments,commitments, onlyonly 9 Serranos could participate; ofof these,these, 88 live onon the reservation,reservation, the ninth in thethe CityCity ofof Highland.Highland.

Using the research scheduleschedule (Appendix(Appendix A)A) asas aa framework,framework, the ethnographerethnographer conducted thethe interviewsinterviews inin anan openopen-ended -ended and informal fashion.fashion. The informal approach used by CSRICSRI isis important for a number ofof reasons.reasons. Past experiences with representatives ofof different agencies havehave notnot always proved rewarding forf9r Native Americans.Americans. They are wary of being investigated on aa hit-,and-runhit-and-run basisbasis byby peoplepeople they view asas insensitive to oror ignorant of the need of thethe Native American fr community. As one informantinformant said,said, ".•••. . all thisthis surveysurvey stuff. They will probably do whatever theythey want,want, anyway.anyway. They are just getting our views onon it,it, butbut itit isis goinggoing toto bebe done anyway."

Seven of the Serrano respondents (78(78 percent)percent) hadhad onlyonly general knowledge, derived fromfrom oraloral history, hearsay,hearsay, oror occasional trips across thethe StudyStudy Area; aa fewfew hadhad servedserved asas consultants or observers inin archaeologicalarchaeological projectsprojects andand hadhad specific knowledge. Two (22(22 percent) were unfamiliar with the territory.

General Attitudes. Seven (78(78 percent) of the people interviewed expressed feelingsfeelings ofof resignationresignation towardtoward SCE'sSeE's proposal. This interpretation is made on the basis of such statements as:as:

If they need it,it, theythey needneed it.it. What cancan we saysay against it?it?

They build everywhere,everywhere, don'tdon't they?they? If they want toto go across therethere theythey willwill dodo it.it.

66-45 -45 Apparently theythey thinkthink theythey needneed it.it. You would need anan expert's opinion.

TheThe whitewhite manman always needs something.something. They may not need energy, but they always need somethingsomething more.more.

They are always running toto thisthis pile ofof money. After they get that, theythey are stillstill running toto another pile.pile. It's sickening.sickening.

They are greedy,greedy, theythey areare nevernever satisfiedsatisfied--so --so ifif theythey want to put thosethose lineslines through,through, theythey will.will. It's no use us sayingsaying anything.anything.

Only one person expressed definite opposition toto thethe proposal, whichwhich hehe believedbelieved wouldwould cause further destruction of the aboriginal heritage.heritage. "They could care lessless aboutabout that," he said.said.

The remainingremaining 3 peoplepeople (33(33 percent) questioned the interests thatthat the HVTLsHVTLs wouldwould ultimately serve,serve, implyingimplying that thethe interestsinterests werewere notnot likely to be thosethose ofof thethe NativeNative American.

BecauseBecause NativeNative AmericansAmericans had lived throughout the Study Area, all informants believe that cultural resources would be impacted in one way oror another.another. Four people (44(44 percent)percent) feel that Oro Grande is a place to be avoided. Three (33 percent) indicated that thethe area around Victorville, Hesperia,Hesperia, and LucerneLucerne Valley is sensitive because "Indians"Indians usedused toto,live live there." They couldcould notnot bebe moremore specific.specific. Two Serrano were unfamiliar with thethe areaarea andand couldcould offeroffer nono specificspecific informa-informa tion regarding sensitivesensitive places.places.

Energy Needs.Needs. In response to the question ofof whether moremore energy isis neea�nee3T threethree peoplepeople (33(33 percent)percent) saidsaid theythey believebelieve California does have suchsuch aa need.need. They quickly added thatthat theythey think the state is growing tootoo rapidly andand thatthat somethingsomething should bebe done to stem this growth,growth, because "it"it isis goinggoing toto use more energy, makemake moremore pollution, and limit breathing space." None of thesethese respondents thinkthink thatthat HVTLs are a good way toto transmittransmit energy.energy. A typicaltypical commentcomment was, "It"It should be solar energy."energy." Regarding solarsolar energyenergy asas anan alter-alter native source, one respondent remarked that the Navajos are getting energy thethe "natural"natural way," adding,adding, "What"What goodgood isis thethe sun if you don'tdon't useuse itit?" ?"

The History ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Of those interviewed,interviewed, five peopleHisto� (56(5 percent)-percent)--some -some ofof themthem seniorsenior members-members--said -said that the StudyStUdy Area had beenbeen usedused byby thethe Mojave,Mojave, Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, and Serrano.Serrano. According toto aa seniorsenior Serrano,Serrano, thethe StudyStudy Area "was theirtheir land.land. All theythey diddid waswas hunthunt andand looklook forfor food.food. Later theythey learnedlearned howhow toto plant.plant. If they didn'tdidn't havehave tools,tools,

6-466 -46 TABLE 6 -IX...... Q'\ � SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES OF NATIVE AMERICANS SERRANO I Serrano (N =9) 1. 4.

(N = 9) 3. 2. No.Responses I % Kawaiísu (N=1) Attitude a. c. b. d. d. c. h. b. s. d. a. a. c. Knowledge Knowledge 1. Attitude about California's energy needs: Knowledge c. b. e. Do Unfamiliar Think Think Think Do an Have Know Do Know Have Very Unfamiliar Know Familiar or a. Think California needs more energy and this is a good way to get it. Familiar O 0 not opinion. not do not about about about

specific about 1 learned b. Think California needs more energy but this is not a good way to get it. familiar 3 33 of California California California of of not know c. Think California does not need more energy. know know 2 = 22 with prehistory with Native seasonal wish migrations migrations California's with with

d. it

Do not know whether California needs more energy, or do not wish to express SUMMARY of whether whether 4 44 an opinion. about knowledge with a from it

e. any Do not know whether this is a good way to get needed energy for California, to American few it. it. O 0 needs does needs or do not wish to express an opinion. in migrations: express own seasonal prehistoric, it California and general, 2. Knowledge of Native American use of Study Area: specific this OF not from from from more more a. Unfamiliar with it. experience, 2 22 of history energy KNOWLEDGE use is an b. Familiar with it in general, but not specifically. need 7 78 books seasonal tribal books migrations. a energy energy use but opinion. c. Familiar with a few specific use areas. of O 0 1 good more needs: needs = historic, of d. Very familiar with prehistoric, historic, and present use areas. Study 0 0 or or areas. not tradition. but oral way and 3. Study TABLE migrations.

Knowledge of prehistory and history of Study Area: other schooling. energy. AND more specifically.

a. Unfamiliar with it. Area: 4 44 this' this to SERRANO (N history,

b. Area:

Have learned about it from books or schooling. O 0 ATTITUDES schooling and get energy. = c. 6-IX. Know about it from own experience, oral history, or other internal source. is 5 is 56 1 9) neede prese not 4. Knowledge of seasonal migrations: a or go

a. Do not know of any seasonal migrations. 0 6 67 nt d a od r other do

b. energy good

Know about migrations from books or other schooling. O 0 OF way use

c. Know about migrations from tribal tradition. not 3 33 1 NATIVE way areas. internal d. Have specific knowledge of seasonal migrations. 2 to 22 wish for get to California. get to

it.

AMERICANS source.

express it. No. Responses 0 4 Serrano 3 0 4 0 6 0 0 l 0 2 S 1 2 2 (N=9) J i , 44 44 ·22 33 56 18 67 22 33 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 % Kawaiisu (N=l) 1 1 1 I 1 I i I I i I I I 00 .po � TABLE 6 -IX: (Continued) I Serrano No.Resonses i r % Kawaiísu TABLE 6. 5. 8. 5. Attitude toward appearance of transmission lines: 7. Opinion b. Attitude a. d. a. d. group: c. c. h. Opinion d. b. a. Opinion c. c. b. d. a. a. Think they will have a negligible effect on landscape. e. 0 0 6-IX� Think Think Think No Think Think employment Think No Think No Think Think Think No employment Think Think b. Think they will damage the landscape. Think individual's 5 56 1 opinion. opinion. opinion. c. opinion. 2 22 about about Think they will ruin the landscape. about

2 toward they they they they they they they they d. No opinion. they they they the the 22

6. of Native American (Continued) effect effect proposed proposed

Opinion about effect of proposed transmission lines on economy effect will will will will will will opportunities. opportunities. may may will will may

group: appearance a. Think they will improve the economy of group and increase individual's employment

have 1 have have 6 67 have have damage have decrease ruin improve employment opportunities. improve of b. of of

Think they will have no effect on economy of group and the individual's lines lines proposed a a no proposed proposed 3 33 an no a employment opportunities. the minor serious negligible of the c. effect adverse opportunities. effect the

Think they will have an adverse effect on economy of the group and the recreational may will landscape. recreational 0 0

individual's employment opportunities. transmission landscape. economy d. negative 0 0 have lines transmission No opinion. transmission negative on have

7. on

Opinion about effect of proposed transmission lines on recreational possibilities: effect health. effect positive a. economy 0 0

Think they will improve recreational possibilities. on no of effect b. poss�bilities. 8 89

Think the proposed lines will have no effect. health possibilities. effect. group on effect c. 1 11 lines: 1

Think they will decrease recreational possibilities. on of lines lines economy

d. effect 0 0 on No opinion. landscape. and of group

8. on

Opinion about effect of proposed lines on health of Native Americans: health. on on Native health. a. increase 0 0 of Think the proposed lines may have positive effect on health. on and economy b. Think they may have no effect on health. recreational 0 0 health. the Americans: c. Think they may have a minor negative effect on health. the 0 0 group

d. individual's 9 1

Think they may have a serious negative effect on health. of 100 e. individual's 0 0

No opinion. Native and

possibilities: the

American Responses No. '0 Serrano 5 0 o 1 8 0 6 2 2 0 0 o 3 o 9 0 -1 � I I 1100 I I t I i I I I i I I 56 22 11 67 22 89 33 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % I Kawaiisu 1 I 1 1 improvised--theyimprovised- -they alwaysalways mademade their own tools.tools. I saw mymy father do it often. I saw a lot of that when I was aa child."child."

Five people (56(56 percent) had heard from thethe "old"old people"people" or senior relativesrelatives onon thethe reservationreservation howhow people used toto hunt and gather wildwild plants for food and for medicinal pur-pur poses. Three of these respondentsrespondents hadhad beenbeen involved in an archaeological projectproject inin the Study AreaArea (Rector 1978), and had gleaned information about traditional land use fromfrom thethe archaeologists. They do not frequent the Study Area themselvesthemselves on a regular basis,basis, nornor do they know anyone locally who uses the area today.today.

Seasonal Migrations. Three respondentsrespondents (33(33 percent), who said that NativeNative AIIiericansAmericans "walked everywhereever�.,here toto looklook forfor food," spontaneously provided information aboutabout seasonalseasonal migrations. Two of them remembered that when theythey were chil-chil dren, MojaveMojave and Chemehuevi people came acrossacross thethe desertdesert toto hunt for deer and to gather pinyon nuts inin thethe mountains.mountains. They said that in earlier times, these samesame groupsgroups usedused toto raid the mountains, which "made"made thethe SerranoSerrano madmad"; "; althoughalthough these encountersencounters did notnot lead to violence, one respondentrespondent recalled how menmen and women used toto abuse'eachabuse'each otherother inin songsong and dance. This person had actually witnessedwitnessed her grandmother being physicallyphysically restrainedrestrained from participatingparticipating in one such contest withwith a Chemehuevi woman.woman. Much later,later, thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi were given hospitalityhospitality on San ManuelManuel Reservation,Reservation, wherewhere they stayed whilewhile workingworking as seasonal laborers inin SanSan Bernardino.Bernardino. Six respondentsrespondents (67 percent) were vague about seasonalseasonal journeys.journeys.

Visual Impact. Concerning the visual impactimpact ofof SCE'sSCE's energy proposal, two people (22 percent) saidsaid they thinkthink thatthat energy proposaImtact., people (22 percent) they the HVTLsHVTLs wouldwould "ruin" or destroydestroy thethe naturalnatural landscape.landscape. One said that "already the towers mar the look of thethe place nearnear Barstow and Victorville." Although these respondents suggested that puttingputting cables undergroundunderground mightmight be a better alternative,alternative, they also think this method might create more problems.problems. I" Because it wouldwould require "digging"digging deeper,"deeper, itit couldcould leadlead toto greater destruction ofof archaeologicalarchaeological sites.sites. Hence, theythey concluded that the towers might be unsightly, butbut "it"it wouldwould be better to put up with thatthat thanthan have more sitessites destroyed."destroyed."

Five people (56(56 percent)percent) areare convincedconvinced thatthat thethe HVTLsHVTLs would have a damaging impact on the landscape, by "spoiling the view"view" withwith structures and "those"those greatgreat loops."loops." OneOne respondent said that when he goesgoes outout intointo thethe desert,desert, hehe does not want toto bebe remindedreminded ofof "so-"so-called called progress." He prefers to leave thatthat behindbehind inin thethe city.city.

Two people saidsaid theythey would notnot bebe botheredbothered byby thethe trans-trans mission lines because the HVTLs "are not coming near the reservation."

Eight people (89(89 percent)percent) saidsaid that,that, toto lessenlessen thethe impact,impact,

6-496 -49 the towerstowers shouldshould notnot bebe builtbuilt at all, and that an alternative method--ormethod - -orbetter betterstill, still, anan alternativealternative sourcesource ofof power-power- - should be sought.sought. The remaining person favors "putting thethe lines underground,"underground," butbut feelsfeels that this recormnendationrecommendation will "probably havehave nono effect."

Economic Impact.Impact. Three of the respondents think the proposed constructionconstruction wouldwould have no effect on theirtheir standardstandard of living.living. The remaining 6 (67(67 percent) believe thatthat itit would have positivepositive impact if it provided jobs for Native Americans. "It wouldwould be good," oneone said.said. "It wouldwould give somesome peoplepeople jobs.jobs. There's lotslots ofof unemploymentunemployment around here." No one was confi-confi dent that Native Americans would bebe employed,employed, however.however.

Impact on Recreational Activities.Activities. Eight respondents (89 percent)percent) dodo notnot gogo into the desert for recreational purposes.purposes. One said, "Indians never gogo outout intointo thethe desertdesert· justjust forfor fun,fun, like somesome peoplepeople II know,"know," andand wentwent onon to express concern about the irresponsible behaviorbehavior ofof somesome leisure-leisure-seekers. seekers. She had heard that they "go around shooting up the rocks."Most res-res pondents are also concernedconcerned aboutabout damagedamage causedcaused byby offoff-road -road vehicles.

One informant feels that thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines might barbar certain partsparts ofof the Study Area to those whowho enjoy itsits "quiet-"quiet ness" andand "unpolluted"unpolluted spacespace:" :"

Impact on Health.Health. All thethe.respondents respondents considerconsider thethe trans-trans mission lines toto bebe aa threatthreat toto thethe physicalphysical wellwell-being -being of residents ofof the area, because storms and lightning could cause the lines toto breakbreak andand startstart fires.fires. Three people (33(33 percent) hadhad experienced anxiety whenwhen HVTLs that cross thethe reservation hadhad beenbeen lashed about in storms, and believe thatthat residents of the Study Area might bebe similarlysimilarly. affected.affected.

Only one respondent mentioned a possible threatthreat toto physiological health:health: "People with heart conditions are not supposed to gogo nearnear those lines."

Impact on Reli�iousReligious Sites.Sites. It waswas often difficult forfor respondents to dist1nguishdistinguish religious sites from other cultural resources. As one personperson said,said, "A"A burialburial placeplace isis aa religiousreligious sitesite--in --in factfact thethe wholewhole StudyStudy AreaArea couldcould bebe consideredconsidered relireli- gious, becausebecause it is part of our people's own history." Although this statement isis inin accordaccord with thethe traditionaltraditional Native AmericanAmerican worldworld view,view, an attempt waswas mademade to introduce distinctions.

The San Bernardino Mountains, which rimrtm thethe edgeedge ofof thethe Study Area,Area, havehave religious significance�ignificance for all the Serrano respondents.,respondents. Three people referredreferred toto thethe legendlegend ofof Takwish,Takwish, a powerful spiritual being, who, inin thethe formform ofof aa fireball,fireball, travelled northnorth from San Jacinto to circle the San Bernardino Mountains and thethe reservation.reservation.

6-506 -50 TABLE 6 -X. \J1 0'\ � SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES SERRANO (N = 9) and KAWAIISU (N = 1) I No Cairns, Petroglyphs Places Burial Religious Archaeological Village, Mines, Trails,

Zones No Opinion Negative Impact Zones % Negative Impact % PositiveImpact % No Response or where No.1 where No.1 No. No. where or mineral shrines, springs

Religious or sacred sites habitation, S: 9 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 K: 1 100 cremation or and significant significant sacred traditional sites Burial or cremation sites or S: 9 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 pictographs K: 100 etc. t clay 1 sites sites SUMMARY Petroglyphs and pictographs or S: 9 100 0 1 i t 0 0 0 0 0 deposits K: 1 100 i camp animal plant Cairns, shrines, etc. S: 5 56 events "0 i 1 0 0 0 4 44

sites 1 K: 1 100 SERRANO species

1 OF species 1 Places where traditional events took place S: 7 78 took 0 0 0 0 2 22 K: 1 1 100 1 ANTICIPATED 1 1

I place grow

are 7 Zones where significant plant species grow K:S: 1 [ 100 78 0 ¡ 0 0 0 2 22 (N = TABLE found i ¡ Zones where significant animal species are found K:S: 1_11009 1100 0 ¡ 0 0 0 0 0 9) and IMPACTS Mines, mineral or clay deposits S: 3 33 10 0 0 0 6 ¡ 67 6-X. K: 100 KAWAIISU K: s: K: K: K: s: K: s: K: K: K: s: K: s: K: s: s: s: K: s: s: Village, habitation, or camp sites S: 9 100 0 0 .0 0 s: 0 ¡ 0 K: 1 ON i 100 1 ,Negative 1 No.! SITE 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 3 1 1 7 1 1 9 7 9 1 9 5 1 9 S: 9 0 ¡ Impact i i ! i i i i Trails, springs I i i i i 100 0 0 0 0 0¡ (N 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 K: } 100 100 33 1 1100 78 78 56 o % Archaeological sites S: 9 100 0 0 0 0 0 = CATEGORIES K: 1 100 0¡ ¡ 1) No Negative ·0 01 o 0 0 1 0 O'

0 0 0

0 Im_p_act .•

: i

I I � ! • • • t i i i

I i i

100 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 a 0 0 a % . No.! Positive 01 01 O' 01 O· O' o O· 0 0 0 Impact : r f I I I i j I : I I • I I ; • I l • • I ! I i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a % No No 0 a 0 4 6 0 No.! 2 0 0 2 a Opinion Response I : I I i i I , I : I • : I i i i i I : I • i or : 44 67 22 22 .. '% 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 I ! I None recalled any particular legends pertaining toto thethe Study Area,Area, nornor waswas anyoneanyone specificspecific aboutabout placesplaces ofof powerpower or locations wherewhere religiousreligious ceremonies hadhad been conducted.conducted. They suggestedsuggested thatthat therethere werewere probablyprobably religiousreligious sites and other culturalcultural resourcesresources in thethe areas surrounding Victorville,Victorville, Hesperia, and Lucerne. Three people whowho had worked with archaeologists onon thethe OroOro Gr�ndeGrande sitesite (Rector 1978)1978) believebelieve that thisthis andand nearbynearby sites havehave religiousreligious significance andand would be sensitive toto impact.impact. Because the Study Area had been occupiedoccupied byby several groups in the past, 88 peoplepeople (89(89 percent) shared the idea that "there must be lotslots ofof placesplaces out there" yet toto be discovered.discovered.

One person comparedcocpared Native American sacred places with those ofof otherother faithsfaiths in the OldOld WorldWorld andand withwith historic places in the United States:States: "Anglo-Americans"Anglo- Americans respectrespect the birthplaces andand homeshomes of past presidents and other famousfamous people�-it'speople --it's almostalmost asas thoughthough thesethese are sacred. I don't know why our sites are not viewed inin a similarsimilar light."light."

Without exception, the respondents consider all religious sites to bebe threatened byby negativenegative impact as a result ofof thethe HVTLs. To ensure the integrityintegrity of suchsuch places,places, theythey recom-recom mend that the transmissiontransmission lineslines bebe rerouted.rerouted. Two respon-respon dents saidsaid that it wouldwould be·be very difficult toto effect aa compromise if alternative routes couldcould notnot bebe found.found. "It isis hard to change one's values," oneone said.said. Whether mitigation involved religiousreligious or any other sites, "the Indians would have toto bebe involvedinvolved--only - -only theythey cancan makemake thethe decisionsdecisions inin these matters."matters."

Impact on Burial Sites.Sites. The subject of burial grounds stimulated the mostmost intense response, withwith all respondents maintaining thatthat burialsburials shouldshould bebe preserved.preserved. Two people are adamantly opposed toto anyany kindkind ofof disturbancedisturbance ofof burials.burials. A typical statement was, "It is against traditiontradition toto disturbdisturb thethe dead. You would not findfind IndiansIndians diggingdigging upup thethe whitewhite man'sman's bones."

Four people (44(44 percent) preferprefer thatthat burialburial sitessites notnot bebe rearranged if encountered.encountered. The remaining five (56(56 percent)percent) share this feeling.feeling, but believe thatthat thethe reinterment ofof skele-skele tal remainsremains encountered at Oro Grande may have setset aa precedent.

Three respondents had heard about the Calico site, whichwhich has been proposed asas anan EarlyEarly ManMan site.site. The Oro Grande sitesite was thethe only burial ground inin thethe Study Area mentioned by respondents. Nevertheless, theythey believebelieve thatthat otherother burialsburials will be found,found, eveneven where peoplepeople maymay havehave campedcamped temporarily.temporarily. "If someone died while theythey were outout lookinglooking forfor food,food, theythey buried him right there,"there," saidsaid oneone respondent.respondent. Another saidsaid that if an old person became illill while travelling,travelling, thethe rulerule was to prepare a resting place forfor thisthis individualindividual before the

66-52 -52 group movedmoved on.on. As a result of this practice, burials could be widelywidely distributed inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

Should burials bebe inadvertently uncovered, informantsinformants stated unanimouslyunanimously that all work shouldshould cease,cease, �'They"They should stop, askask questions,questions, atat leastleast show ·thatthat they care aa little..,"little .. ," said oneone senior respondent. And, regardless of thethe sizesize ofof the burialburial site,site, locallocal NativeNative AmericansAmericans shouldshoul.d be informed,informed.

The Oro Grande project was, in the eyes of threethree SerranoSerrano respondents, anan example of the kind of cooperation andand consul-consul� tation thatthat shouldshould bebe putput into effect, on a more extensive scale�scale. These people believe that consultation might lead toto reinterment ofof remainsremains on a reservation or relocation inin aa "safer place"place" nearby,nearby, werewere it to bebe clearlyclearly demonstrated thatthat no otherother alternative isis available.

Impact on RockRock Art.Art. Only one person mentioned a specific petroglyph site.site. Three others (33(33 percent) know ofof generalgeneral locations. The remaining 5 people (56(56 percent) diddid notnot indi-indi cate thethe presencepresence of any rock art site in the Study Area.

What one respondent saidsaid aboutabout rock art sheshe had seenseen inin a cavecave southsouth ofof the Study AreaArea maymay be taken as applying toto rock art inin general:general: "There werewere pictures of thethe bear, thethe deer, and the coyote.coyote. .... If you saw any of them live, theythey had a message toto give.give. They were likelike spiritsspirits who comecome toto tell youyou something bad was going toto happen."happen." To avert mismis- fortune, "the"the peoplepeople wouldwould go to the bigbig house for threethree days and during this time the medicine man would go out andand talktalk to the spirit." This description was repeated byby otherother res-res pondents. Ethnographic accounts have detailed thethe significancesignificance of these animals in the belief and behavioral patterns ofof Native AmericanAmerican communities, and it is consistent thatthat theythey areare represented pictorially (Strong(Strong 1929;1929; BeanBean andand SmithSmith 1978;1978; Harrington n.d.,b).n. d. ,b).

All respondents recommended reroutingrerouting thethe HVTLsHVTLs asas thethe only method whereby petroglyphspetroglyphs couldcould bebe preserved.pres�rved. They believe transmission lines andand associatedassociated roads increaseincrease access to rock art and leadlead toto itsits destruction.destruction. Summing up the consensus, one personperson said:said: "They would havehave toto justify-justify- - give a veryvery good reason forfor going throughthrough sitessites likelike that.that. Even if there waswas no other way toto go,go, theythey would havehave toto jus-jus tify inin moremore waysways than one that our energy needs are soso great as to demanddemand destruction of thesethese sites."sites."

Locations ConcernedConcerned withwith TraditionalTraditional Events.Events. Three of the respondentsrespondents consider Oro Grande, andand possiblypossibly surroundingsurrounding areas, asas important inin· the context of traditionaltraditional events.events. Four other people (44(44 percent) includeinclude thethe areasareas aroundaround Victorville,Victorville, Hesperia, Lucerne, andand·Twentynine Twentynine PalmsPalms asas possiblepossible locationslocations of past traditional events.events.

6-536 -53 Two people think 'itit isis impossibleimpossible toto separateseparate traditionaltraditional events fromfrom otherother typestypes of activities. Even seasonal camps,camps, in oneone individual'sindividual's opinion,opinion, could have been important.important. This respondentrespondent saidsaid thatthat thethe culturalcultural significancesignificance ofof aa locationlocation depends onon whatwhat "went"went onon there,"there," andand thatthat whetherwhether transmission lines shouldshould passpass throughthrough oror nearnear aa placeplace "would"would dependdepend uponupon what tooktook placeplace atat thethe location." He,He feels thatthat onlyonly Indians,Indians, with perhapsperhaps thethe aidaid ofof anthropologists,anthropologists, couldcould decidedecide relativerelative importance.

Impact on Plants. None of the Serrano respondents pointed out areasareas wherewhere plantsplants are still gathered inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Two respondentsrespondents saidsaid they knew nothing about specificspecific placesplaces oror plants in the Study Area.Area. Seven (78(78 percent) recognized the past valuevalue ofof thethe Study AreaArea for plants used asas foodfood andand medi-medi cine, andand forfor basketrybasketry and clothing.clothing. Two respondents used toto collect yuccasyuccas andand cacticacti from the desert when theythey couldcould getget aa permit, butbut seldomseldom ventureventure therethere, today.today. Specific food plants mentioned includedincluded yuccayucca flowers,flowers, cactus fruit, chia, mesquitemesquite beans, andand chokeberries (Prunus'(Prunus' Fremontii).Fr'emontii) .

Three peoplepeople (33(33 percent) could identify specific medicinal plants, theirtheir uses,uses, andand the occasions when theythey were used. The ubiquitous sagebrushes, for example,example, had severalseveral uses.uses. White sagebrush (Artemisia Douglasiana),Douglasiana), called'called 'eneka,eneka, was boiledboiled andand the liquidliquid was·usedwas-used toto bathebathe sores.sores. CaliforniaCaliforn1a sagebrushsagebrush (A. californica),californica), calledcalled saankah,saankah, waswas boiledboiled to makemake a teatea thatthat was admInisteredadministered to initiates duringduring pubertypuberty rites,rites, oror toto indi-indi viduals whowho were ill.ill. One woman described herher ownown initiation,initiation, the accompanyingaccompanying rituals,rituals, and thethe teatea sheshe waswas mademade toto drink.drink.

Traditionally, acorns and pinyon nuts were gathered inin the mountains. They are stillstill soughtsought today,today, when aa permitpermit toto do so can be obtained.obtained.

No one on San Manuel Reservation makes baskets today, but 4 people mentionedmentioned thatthat thethe materials forfor themthem cancan bebe foundfound inin the desert. In days past, basketry materials usedused toto bebe gatheredgathered in thethe washwash onon the reservation, but thisthis place isis no longerlonger aa source ofof such raw materials.

Respondents believe thatthat plant life could be affected in varying waysways by thethe transmissiontransmission lines.lines. Three saidsaid thatthat lineslines would tear up thethe natural terrain,terrain, destroyingdestroying anyany plants.plants. Three othersothers said thatthat thethe "recuperative"recuperative powerspowers ofof plantsplants would be destroyed byby radiation."radiation." One person thinksthinks thatthat adverse impact might be lessenedlessened "if"if youyou taketake thethe plantsplants upup and transplant them toto anotheranother place."place."

Two others thinkthink itit might bebe desirabledesirable toto establishestablish a "garden ofof wildwild plants," eveneven thoughthough somesome individualindividual experi-experi ments in this direction havehave notnot provedproved successful.successful. One woman had tried toto transplanttransplant aa yuccayucca toto herher homehome garden,garden, butbut "It"It

6-546 -54 didn't take." She added, "Indians always say that anything grown likelike ·thatthat nearnear the househouse won'twon't taste good. If youyou take things fromfrom theirtheir naturalnatural environmentenvironment they won'twon't tastetaste good."good." On thethe otherother hand,hand, edibleedible cacti have been cultivatedcultivated onon thisthis reservationreservation in past years.

RespondentsRespondents recognize that manymany desert plants are soso delicately attunedattuned toto theirtheir environmentenvironment thatthat aa changechange ofof localelocale can limitlimit growth,growth, ifif not kill.kill. In general, the respondents are somewhatsomewhat pessimisticpessimistic about mitigativemitigative measures; shortshort ofof transplanting underunder certaincertain conditions, they feel thatthat reroutingrerouting the lineslines isis thethe ·on1yonly wayway toto preservepreserve plantplant life.·life.

ImpactImpact on Animal Life. One Serrano indicated that her son huntshunts inin thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Mountains,Mountains, and thatthat he hashas been taughttaught toto dodo itit "properly"properly": ": ''We"We havehave taught him thatthat hunting is not just forfor fun."fun." He has been taught toto "clean"clean the catchcatch himselfhimself and to waste nothing." When he brings home quail andand rabbits,rabbits, the meatmeat is eaten and the feathers andand furfur are usedused forfor homehome craftcraft projects,projects, such as the making of hat-hat bands, belts, andand dolls.dolls. As yet thethe family has not done anyany hunting in the desert, nor is the respondent awareaware ofof anyoneanyone else whowho hunts there.there.

None of the other SerranoSerrano respondents (89(89 percent)percent) huntshunts in thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, nornor dodo they know of other Native Americans whowho do.do. Nevertheless, they collectively recognizedrecognized the importance ofof the Study AreaArea for hunting purposes in thethe past. The desert is the natural habitathabitat ofof rabbits,rabbits, quails,quails, doves,doves, snakes, rodentsrodents andand tortoises, and 3 people remember thethe "old"old people's stories" about hunting and trappingtrapping somesome ofof thesethese animals.

Without exception,exception, thethe respondentsrespondents believebelieve thatthat animalanimal life in the desert would bebe affectedaffected inin somesome wayway byby thethe HVTLs.HVTLs. Typical of their comments areare thethe following:following:

The animals would bebe scaredscared off.off.

Their breeding habitshabits wouldwould bebe disturbed.disturbed.

It would upset theirtheir distribution.distribution.

Any time thatthat big structuresstructures like that are put in, they are going toto upset thethe natural balancebalance of things.

Maintenance of thethe naturalnatural environmentenvironment andand itsits lifelife formsforms is a majormajor concern forfor thethe respondents.respondents. They thinkthink thatthat measures to mitigate disturbance ofof animalsanimals mightmight bebe workedworked out withwith experts who areare versed inin thethe subject;subject; otherwiseotherwise rerouting the lines isis thethe onlyonly alternativealternative theythey believebelieve feasible.

66-55 -55 Knowledge of Mines andand Minerals.Minerals. Four (44(44 percent) of the respondentsrespondents hadhad nono opinionsopinions about minesmines and mineral deposits in the Study Area. TwoTwo othersothers (22(22 percent) made no response. The remainingremaining threethree peoplepeople indicatedindicated that such locations pro-pro bably existedexisted inin prehistoricprehistoric times, butbut they are unaware of specific localities. Two had heard about salt depositsdeposits "some-"some where outout therethere [in the Study Area]"Area]" and werewere aware of clayclay deposits onon the reservation.reservation. Those whowho responded toto thethe ques-ques tion feltfelt thatthat suchsuch sites, if discovered, shouldshould bebe avoided.avoided. Mitigation wouldwould dependdepend onon whowho workedworked the sites and what thethe minerals werewere used for.for.

Village Sites, Old Trails, andand Hot Springs.Springs. Four res-res pondentsVilla�e iidentifiedentified aa specific villagevillage location, the Oro Grande site, whichwhich has already been mentioned.

One of the SerranoSerrano had heard fromfrom elderselders thatthat IndiansIndians had lived at Oro Grande.Grande. The other three had learnedlearned fromfrom their experienceexperience asas archaeologicalarchaeological consultants thatthat thethe OroOro Grande sitesite hadhad beenbeen aa semipermanent villagevillage location; during this timetime theythey hadhad beenbeen shown a mapmap of significant trailstrails across thethe desert,desert, but they could not recall with anyany exact-exact ness wherewhere thesethese were located.located. The remaining 44 SerranoSerrano (44 percent)percent) alsoalso said that villagesvillages werewere located near springs.springs.

All agreed HVTLs and associated structures would have aa negative impact on villagesvillages andand trails.trails. Most arguedargued forfor avoiding suchsuch sites.sites. One thought thatthat mitigative measures might be worked out,out, dependingdepending onon thethe sizesize ofof thethe site.site.

Archaeological Sites.Sites. Even thoughthough most ofof thethe respondentsrespondents have only a general knowledge ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, theythey allall be-be lieve that manymany archaeological sitessites would bebe destroyeddestroyed byby thethe HVTLs. One informantinformant said,said, "There"There isis no way thatthat we cancan keep an eye on every sitesite inin thethe area.area. We have toto dependdepend upon thethe law and its observance, and hope thatthat itit will bebe carriedcarried outout to the letter." Respondents feel that in the past, the law has sometimes been circumscribed,circumscribed, andand archaeologicalarchaeological remainsremains have been removed or destroyed without any consultation withwith the "owners of them."them."

In the opinion ofof oneone informant,informant, everyevery efforteffort shouldshould bebe made toto findfind thethe "rightful"rightful owners"owners" ofof anyany artifactsartifacts thatthat might be uncovered. The tasktask might taketake somesome time,time, butbut "it"it wouldwould bebe worth thethe effort,effort, becausebecause tootoo much has alreadyalready been lostlost toto collectors and museums." The involvement of Native AmericansArn-ericans from the very start,start, "before"before anyany diggingdigging takestakes place,"place," waswas strongly recommended byby allall thethe respondents.respondents. Most feelfeel thatthat museums have already acquiredacquired "more"more thanthan theirtheir share,"share," and that manymany articles remainremain storedstored inin cabinetscabinets wherewhere theythey areare "gathering dust."dust." Some believe thatthat suchsuch itemsitems shouldshould bebe returned toto thethe NativeNative AmericanAmerican community.community. According toto oneone respondent, "Indians"Indians shouldshould not havehave toto gogo therethere toto beg or

6-566 -56 ask forfor aidaid inin restoringrestoring the historyhistory of the people."

MostMost reservationsreservations havehave a tribal hallhall oror some facilityfacility where displaysdisplays of artifacts couldcould bebe setset up.up. One Serrano, a senior membermember onon the 'reservation,reservation, statedstated herher ambition:ambition: "My dream wouldwould bebe toto havehave 'aa complexcomplex right here on thethe reserva-reserva tion--liketion- -likea amodel modelvillage, village, withwith museum,museum, giftgift shop, and aa restaurant servingserving Indian food." (She hadhad beenbeen inspired by such anan arrangementarrangement on a visit toto Arizona.)Arizona;)

According to many,many, the return of artifacts and thethe settingsetting up of displaysdisplays onon the reservation or in locallocal IndianIndian communitiescommunities is important for other reasons.reasons. Several indicated thatthat theythey think thisthis isis necessarynecessary to maintainmaintain the Native American iden-iden tity ofof the younger generation. "They wouldwould not be left guessing aboutabout theirtheir history,"history," a good deal of which, theythey believe, hashas beenbeen erroneously interpreted.interpreted.

Toward the realizationrealization of some of these ideas, two responrespondents indicated,indicated, locallocal developersdevelopers (the(the City of Fontana andand aa private company)company) havehave offeredoffered display cabinets in which surfacesurface collections acquiredacquired duringduring surveys mademade for environmental impact reportsreports can be housed.housed. The San Bernardino Museum hadhad offered its services in setting up thethe project.project. To date,date, however, nonenone of thesethese promises hashas beenbeen initiated.initiated. "People make promises, offer thisthis andand thatthat--say --say theythey wantwant to help andand so on,"on," connnentedcommented oneone informant, "but wewe haven't seen tootoo much for all this." In general, the respondents feelfeel'that that thethe future ofof theirtheir culturalcultural resourcesresources is unclearunclear and the protec-protec tion of them uncertain.

6-576 -57 BARSTOWBARSTOW URBAN AREA

An attitudinal studystudy of NativeNative American opinionop1n10n regardingregarding SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia Edison'sEdison's proposedproposed WesternWestern TransmissionTransmission System forfor thethe Allen-WarnerAllen -Warner ValleyValley projectproject waswas conductedconducted inin the Barstow-Daggett,Barstow- Daggett, California,California, areaarea byby DianeDiane Rothenberg, with the assistance of ViriginiaViriginia Bagg.Bagg. The study was completed between AugustAugust 15, 1979, and August 23,23, 1979.1979. The first dayday was spent inin makingmaking initial contacts.contacts. Interviewing began on the secondsecond day,day, andand 4747 respondentsrespondents constituted thethe totaltotal sam-sam ple. Supplementary information was obtained throughthrough extendedextended discussions withwith membersmembers of the UativeNative American community,community, local non-nativenon -nativeAmericans, Americans, andand representativesrepresentatives of Barstow governmental agencies.

While being interviewed,interviewed, twotwo Native Americans who were particularly enthusiastic about thethe solicitationsolicitation ofof opinionsopinions in thethe communitycommunity volunteeredvolunteered to interview as many peoplepeople asas they could reach. The help of thesethese twotwo locallocal assistants,assistants, Carole LowmanLowman (Navajo) andand James Mace (Northern(Northern California Mission-Blackfoot),Mission -Blackfoot), mademade itit possiblepossible toto survey segmentssegments ofof the communitycommunity thatthat hadhad previouslypreviously indicated unwillingness toto participate in the study,study, andand thusthus waswas invaluable.invaluable.

Through the Chamber of CommerceCommerce inin Barstow,Barstow, thethe ethno-ethno graphic team waswas referred toto thethe Barstow IndianIndian Center,Center, Inc.,Inc., and this agencyagency acted as an intermediary between thethe CSRICSRI team and the community.community. Personnel at the IndianIndian CenterCenter con-con sented to bebe interviewed and allowed interviewsinterviews with visitors to the Center. The chairman of thethe board (an(an Acoma) was wil-wil ling to provideprovide a list of potential interviewees, onon' conditioncondition that they first bebe contacted by thethe IndianIndian CenterCenter toto findfind outout whether they would be willing toto participate;participate; aa listlist ofof willing respondents waswas thenthen provided.provided.

Through private referrals, thethe CSRICSRI ethnographersethnographers occa-occa sionally foundfound themselves interviewing people who had indicatedindicated "unwillingness" inin thethe IndianIndian CenterCenter survey-survey--some -some of whom saidsaid they hadhad notnot understood thethe Center'sCenter's phonephone solicitation.solicitation. (One "willing" respondent thoughtthought sheshe was toto bebe interviewedLntervdewed forfor aa job.job.))

The possibility of thethe samplesample being skewed because of the selfself-selection -selection processprocess isis probablyprobably reducedreduced because ofof thethe contributions of Lowman andand Mace, thethe locallocal assistants.assistants. If the sample is skewed, itit isis perhapsperhaps inin thethe directiondirection ofof inclu-inclu ding a larger proportionproportion ofof communitycommunity leaders,leaders, asas thesethese werewere identified through thethe IndianIndian CenterCenter andand throughthrough discussionsdiscussions with respondents.

Interviewing was conductedconducted accordingaccording toto ethnographicethnographic procedures. CSRI's ethnographers usedused aa seriesseries ofof questionsquestions

6-586 -58 based onon aa scheduleschedule designeddesigned specifically toto elicitelicit informa-informa tion pertinentpertinent to this report. The questions werewere open-open-ended, ended, and fieldfield ethnographersethnographers encouragedencouraged respondentsrespondents toto contributecontribute additional informationinformation (general as wellwell as biographical). When fearsfears aboutabout misrepresentationmisrepresentation of opinions were voiced,voiced, ethnographers allowedallowed thethe respondentsrespondents to see exactly what was being written. In nono instance did a respondent preferprefer toto write his or her own answers.answers. (The opportunityopportunity was offered, as a possiplepossible meansmeans of reducing anxiety.)anxiety.)

Interviews lasted at least one hour butbut usuallyusually notnot moremore than two hours. At leastleast fourfour respondents were seenseen more thanthan once.

The sample consisted of 47 respondents overover 1818 yearsyears ofof age, including 29 (62(62 percent) women andand 1818 (38(38 percent)percent) men.men. Approximately half had been born and raised inin reservation communities, and half in Barstow oror otherother "white""white" communities.communities. Four respondentsrespondents hadhad arrivedarrived in Barstow withinwithin the last four years. Of these, 2 were born and raised onon reservations, andand 2 werewere bornborn andand raisedraised inin otherother coloniescolonies formedformed byby railroadrailroad workers from Laguna Pueblo inin NewNew Mexico.Mexico.

The present governor of the Laguna colony inin BarstowBarstow alsoalso serves as vice-chairmanvice - chairmanof ofthe the IndianIndian Center'sCenter's boardboard ofof direcdirec- tors. Although he appearedappeared forfor aa meeting with CSRICSRI ethnogra-ethnogra phers at the Indian Center andand consentedconsented toto bebe interviewed,interviewed, he refused to arrange anyany contactcontact with his community.community. He contended that its membersmembers wouldwould find the survey unacceptable and wouldwould refuserefuse to have anythinganything toto dodo withwith it,it, forfor reasonsreasons stated manymany times byby others:others: the Laguna people who livelive inin Barstow havehave nono connection or concern withwith this area, this was not their land, and theythey have no right toto give opinions onon issues concerning thethe landland ofof CaliforniaCalifornia NativeNative Americans.Americans. In his private interview, thethe colonial governor expressedexpressed aa fearfear of reprisalsreprisals byby California Native AmericansAmericans against "outsiders" who spoke for themthem oror revealedrevealed anythinganything aboutabout theirtheir land.land. However, ten Lagunas who were finallyfinal+y contacted throughthrough net-net work referral participated in thethe interviews,interviews, and itit was clearclear that moremore wouldwould have been willing ifif timetime hadhad beenbeen availableavailable toto follow upup additional referrals.referrals.

The informal leader of the Navajo community was president of the Navajo Club until it disbanded, and servesserves on thethe board of the IndianIndian Center.Center. He responded to CSRI's initial request to actact asas anan intermediary withwith his community by assembling a group of six Navajos at his home in Daggett, where the project was explained.explained. All sixsix participated inin interviews.interviews. SubseSubse- quently, the leader informedinfo�ed thethe CSRI ethnographers that he was not ableable toto gathergather anyany moremore volunteers.volunteers.

It was later learned thatthat thethe Navajo communitycommunity inin Daggett is highly factionalized alongalong severalseveral lineslines ofof cleavage (inclu-(inclu ding religion,religion, temperance, and family conflict) and thatthat his

6-596 -59 access toto thethe conununitycommunity waswas sharply curtailed asas aa result.result! (There isis reference,reference, incidentally,incidentally, toto anan earlier Navajo Club establishedestablished inin thethe latelate 1950s1950s withwith a social service orienta-orienta ... tion [Keeling[Keeling 1977:1977:211-212],2ll-21�], butbut CSR!CSRI did not obtain infor-infor-· mation aboutabout the circumstances of itsits demise.)demise.)

Barstow NativeNative AmericanAmerican At·titudesAttitudes

The Sample. The tabulated ratings are based on a samplesample of 4747 responrespondents,Sam�le.ents, divided by tribal affiliations intointo fourfour groups:

24 (51(51 percent) NavajoNavajo 10 (21(21 percent) Laguna 5 (11(11 percent) Acoma 8 (17 percent) miscellaneous tribes, including (17 percent) tribes, including. (northern) California Mission, Blackfoot,Blackfoot, Wintun, EskimoEskimo andand OmahaOmaha

General Attitudes. A majority of thosethose interviewed,interviewed, 3636 (77 percent),percent) , said they are unconcerned with whether or not the proposedproposed powerpower lines areare built.built. Of these 36,36, 1717 (47(47 per-per cent) specificallyspecifically added the proviso that the HVTLs shouldshould not be put nearnear their homes, citing interferenceinterference with radioradio andand televisiontelevisio� reception,reception, as wellwell as a fear of accidents, as their major concerns.concerns. Those who expressedexpressed an initialinitial negativenegative response included 4 (9(9 percent) who believe thatthat technologicaltechnological innovation oror conservationconservation should offer an alternative to the need for moremore lines; 1 (2(2 percent) who indicatedindicated thatthat he would have to have more informationinformation beforebefore hehe couldcould makemake aa judgment;judgment; and 11 (2 percent)percent) whowho refusedrefused to expressexpress anan opinionopinion becausebecause "they won'twon't listen toto us anyway."anyway."

There seemedseemed toto bebe aa tendencytendency toto favorfavor thethe HVTLHVTL project,project, if expert opinion indicatedindicated thatthat moremore lineslines werewere needed.needed. No one, however,however, could specify what kind of expert opinion he or she wouldwould be willing toto believe.believe. Testimony fromfrom thethe utility company itself was regarded asas suspect.suspect. With regard to thethe reliability of information, aa generalgeneral feelingfeeling ofof helplessnesshelplessne.ss was expressed; one respondent suggestedsuggested thatthat "the"the people"people" areare the appropriate determiners ofof necessity.necessity.

Spontaneous concerns were expressedexpressed by 17 people?eople (36(36 percent) who have fearsfears aboutabout populatedpopulated areasareas beingbeing impacted;impacted; 3 (6 percent)percent) whowho are concerned aboutabout ecologicalecological damage;damage; andand 2 (4(4 percent) who foresee possible damage toto sacredsacred groundsgrounds and archaeological sites.sites.

Six people (13(13 percent) spontaneouslyspontaneously assertedasserted thatthat theythey think the project would bringbring economiceconomic benefitbenefit toto thethe area,area, but 2 of thesethese consideredconsidered thisthis aa negativenegative impactimpact becausebecause itit

6-606 -60 t-' 0\ 0\ SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES OF NATIVE AMERICANS TABLE 6 -XI. t 2. 1. BARSTOW URBAN GROUP 3. c. a. d. d. c. h. Knowledge c. b. Knowledge a. h. a. Attitude No. Respondents Croup No.Navajo 24 % e. Laguna 10 % Acoma 5 % Other 8 % Total 47 %

other Unfamiliar Very opinion. Do do No. Have use Familiar Unfamiliar Think Know Familiar Do Think a way energy No4 Think Nol Nol

1. good not Attitude toward California's energy needs: not not areas. to about learned

familiar 2 2 a. 16 67 4 40 40 toward 25 24 51 of of California California internal Think California needs more energy and this is a good California wish way know know for way to get it. get with with Native b. prehistory 2 8 2 20 2 1 13 7 15 with with

40 SUMMARY California. to it Think California needs more enerby but this is not it. whether whether to California's

a good way to get it. about with a get from it

c. sources. 2 8 express 2 20 1 20 1 13 6 13 American few it. Think California does not need more energy. it. does needs in needs

d. 1 4 1 10 it. 0 4 50 6 13 own prehistoric, Do not know whether California needs more energy, or it 0, i California and general, specific this do not wish to express an opinion. OF not from more or an more e. experience, 3 13 1 10 0 0 0 4 9 KNOWLEDGE Do not know whether this is a good way to get needed history 01 use is energy do opinion. energy for California, or do not wish to express an need books a enerhy opinion. energy of not use but BARSTOW 2. good more Knowledge of Native American use of Study Area: need� of historic, Study needs: wish or areas. not a. Unfamiliar with it. 22 92 9 90 4 80 3 38 38 81 TABLE way oral hut and Study AND energy. b. schooling. 1 4 1 1 5 8 17 more 10 20 63 Familiar with it in general, but not specifically. specifically. Area: to to this 1 this c. 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 URBAN history,

Familiar with a few specific use areas. No. 6-XI. ATTITUDES Area: 1 express get and d . Very familiar with prehistoric, historic, and present 0 t 0 0 energy. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 use areas. i is is Respondents I needed present GROUP not 3. Knowledge of prehistory and history of Study Area: a or an good or a. Unfamiliar with it. 23 96 9 90 4 80 2 25 38 Croup 81 b . Have learned about it from books or schooling. 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 1 2 OF

c. 1 4 1 1 20 5 8 NATIVE 16 No·1' Nava_io 23 10 63 Know about it from own experience, oral history, or 22 17 I 0 0 1 1 I 3 2 other internal sources. 2 1 24 i I I I ! • I I I I I 13 96 92 67 4 4 0 0 4 4 8 8 %

AMERICANS

Laguna NoJ

1 0 9 0 0 4

9 1 1 1

21 2120 10 J

I I I

t I I I

i 10 90 90 10 10 40 10 20 0 0 0 % No.; Acoma 1 0 4 4 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 i 5' 40 80 40 80 20 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 % NO.i 4 Other 1 0 1 0 0 1 5 2 2 3 5 i 8 13 13 13 63 25 63 38 50 25 0 0 0 % No.! 38 38 24- ,4 1 Total 8 1 0 8 6 6 7 47 81 17 81 15 17 13 13 51 0 2 9 21 %, . I I I i[iaLG � Acoma Other Total 0\ 0\ (continued) Navajo N Laguna 4. 0-Al. No 4 % , NoJ % No .; % No .1 % No .= y ba.Knowledge . of seasonal migrations: Do not know of any seasonal migrations. 22 0 92 0 10 0 100 0 051100 0 17 1388 44 1 94 2 4. 8. 6. Know about migrations from books or other schooling. 7. 5. c. Know about migrations from tribal tradition. 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 TABLE Americans; d. d. a. Opinion d. d. c. c. b. c. b. a. Opinion d. h. c. a. Attitude b. b. a. c. a. Opinion e. economy d. Have specific knowledge of seasonal migrations. recreational 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 Knowledge 6 and Think No Think Think Think Do No Think Think No group Think Think No Think Have Know Think Think Think Think Know 5. increase a.Attitude toward appearance of transmission lines: 17 71 4 40 2 40 2 25 25 53 -XL opinion. opinion. opinion. opinion. Think they will have a negligible effect on landscape. not about about about of the 2 5 about about specific b. 3 13 20 t 0 63 toward 10 21 and they of they they

they they 01 they they the they they the Think they will damage the landscape. they they t Native 2 2 1 9 know individual's c. 4 17 20 40 13 19 (continued) individual's possibilities: Think they will ruin the landscape. seasonal effect effect the effect proposed proposed 3 migrations migrations will will will will will will may

will will 1 6 may may 0 20 0 0

d. 2! 20 appearance No opinion. of 0; I knowledge American 6. individual's any have Opinion about effect of proposed transmission lines on have have have have ruin damage have decrease improve improve of of economy of Native American group: of a. 9 38 4 40 3 60 2 25 18 38 migrations: seasonal Think they will improve the economy of group and lines lines proposed proposed minor no proposed serious a no increase individual's employment opportunities. an employment the from 13 54 4 employment 40 2 20 3 38 22 47 from

b. of negligible group: the

Think they will have no effect on economy of group effect of effect adverse the recreational landscape. will may

and the individual's employment opportunities. recreational

1 4 transmission 2 4 c. negative 0 0 0 0 13 seasonal books landscape. tribal

Think they will have an adverse effect on economy of employment 11 migrations. economy negative transmission have group and the individual's employment opportunities. lines transmission 2 2 5 d. on have 4 20 0 0 11 No opinion. 1; on opportunities. effect 125 opportunities. or 7. health. tradition. effect Opinion about effect of proposed transmission lines on economy positive 1t on no effect migrations. other recreational possibilities: of 2

possibilities. 1 a. effect 11 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 opportunities. health

Think they will improve recreational possibilities. possibilities. effect. lines: group b. 121 50on 2 20 1 20 1 13 16 34

Think the proposed lines will have no effect. on of schooling. lines economy lines on 3 7 c. effect. 6 25 8 80 60 88 24 51

Think they will decrease recreational possibilities. landscape. on and group of d. health. 5 21 0 0 1 20 0 0 6 13

No opinion. health. on on 8. Opinion about effect of proposed lines on health of Native Native b.aAmericans; . Think theythe proposedmay have linesno effect may haveon health. positive effect. 19 0 79of 0 50 50 0 20 40 0 05 63 0 31 0 66 0 No.; Nava10 17 22 13 12 19 4 1 1 0 0 1 9 3 1 1 0 6 1 5 2 c. Think they may have minor negative effect on health. 2 2 8 3 30 2 40 1 13 8 17 92 38 17 13 71 54 79 50 21 25 4 4 0 4 4 0 x 4 1 4 4 0 1 d. Think they may have serious negative effect on health. 8 8 10 0 0 1 13 3 6 Laguna No.!

2 1 10

e. 8 10 '4 1 20 1 13 5 11 4 0 0 4

No opinion. 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 8 2 1 2 2 1 3 5 I I

1100 40 40 40 80 20 20 10 20 20 20 10 30 P 50 0 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 No·1 Acoma 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 3 0 1 0 2 2 0 I 3 2 1 2 2 1100 I I I 40 40 40 60 20 20 40 60 20 20 20 0 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 No·f :1 :2 '3 Other 0 0 I 0 1 7 1 5 2 01 0 0 2 1 1 7 1 5 13 88 13 63 13 25 88 38 25 13 25 13 63 13 13 0 0 % 0 0 0 0 No·1 44 10 18 25 16 Z2 31 24 Tota1 1 1 1 1 3 9 5 2 8 0 6 3 5 • ! , I , , I 94 47 19 21 53 11 38 13 66 51 11 17 34 x 4 6 2 2 2 0 2 6 would destroydestroy thethe smallsmall-town -town qualityquality of thethe area.area.

The NeedNeed for More Energy. Twenty-fourTwenty -four people,people, approxiapproxi- matelymately-halfbalf (51 percent)percent) ofof those interviewed, saidsaid theythey believe thatthat CaliforniaCalifornia needsneeds moremore energy and thatthat thisthis isis aa goodgood wayway to get it.it. However, thethe percentages of people who believed thisthis variedvaried from group toto group.group. Four Lagunas (40(40 percent), 22 AcomasAcomas (40 percent),percent), 16 Navajos (67(67 percent), andand 2 (25 percent)percent) ofof thethe miscellaneousmiscellaneous tribal groups were inclu-inclu ded in the 24.24. Individual responses frequently includedincluded provisos basedbased onon anticipatedanticipated technological advances, particu-particu larly in solar power. That power lines areare "clean""clean" isis con-con sidered aa positivepositive factor.factor. One respondent suggestedsuggested thatthat building generatinggenerating plantsplants closer to the areas where thethe power will bebe usedused wouldwould cutcut downdown onon thethe needneed forfor extensiveextensive lineline - building. Three people urged conservationconservation asas aa wayway ofof reducing apparent need.need. The History of thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. In general, respondents denied anyanyRistor! famifamiliarityiarity withwith the history, prehistory, Native American use,use, or seasonalseasonal migrations ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. There were generalgeneral impressions about this having been Mojave terri-terri tory andand frequentfrequent reiterationsreiterations about the necessitynecessity of consulting Mojaves. Satisfaction was expressedexpressed when respondents were informed thatthat reservationreservation IndianIndian groups inin thethe areaarea werewere alsoalso being interviewed by CSRI ethnographers.ethnographers.

Only one person speculatedspeculated thatthat Mojaves might havehave farmedfarmed in the StudyStudy Area,Area, butbut she waswas extrapolating on the basis of her own pueblo experience.experience. One young man, who had takentaken several coursescourses in southwestern Native AmericanAmerican studies in Arizona, said he was totallytotally ignorantignorant ofof thisthis areaarea becausebecause itit was never mentioned inin thesethese courses.courses. The only personperson whowho talked knowingly about seasonalseasonal migrationsmigrations indicatedindicated thatthat hishis information had come exclusivelyexclusively fromfrom books.books.

Contemporary Native Americans inin Barstow reported that their own use of thethe areaarea isis identicalidentical withwith thatthat ofof otherother Americans inin thethe community:community: they live there and useuse the area recreationally. Indeed, at least fourfour people indicatedindicated thatthat local whiteswhites wouldwould know much more about the area than wouldwould local Native Americans.

Effects on thethe Landscape. In accordance with a generally professed indifferenceLandscaKe. toto thet e area,area, 2525 (53(53 percent) of the people interviewed believe thethe HVTLs would have no appreciable effect on thethe landscape.landscape. Even people who believe thatthat thethe landscape wouldwould be damaged did not evidenceevidence anyany particular per-per sonal concern.concern. There was much more concernconcern aboutabout thethe impactimpact ofof the lines on populated areas,areas, andand aa statedstated preferencepreference forfor rout-rout ing them across stretchesstretches ofof unpopulatedunpopulated desert.desert. As many people pointed out, thethe areaarea isis alreadyalready crossedcrossed byby manymany lines,lines, andand either the lines go unnoticed or one more wouldn't make much difference. There was a preference forfor putting new lines near old ones and avoidingavoiding areasareas thatthat areare currentlycurrently untouched.untouched.

66-63 -63 Economic Effects.Effects. Whereas 18 people (38(38 percent) believe thatthat thethe locallocal economyeconomy wouldwould bebe improved,improved, providingproviding additional employment forfor NativeNative Americans,Americans, 22 (47 percent)percent) think thatthat thisthis impact wouldwould notnot bebe feltfelt locallylocally andand wouldwould have no effect onon their ownown economiceconomic opportunity. In general, theythey reason thatthat the placementplacement ofof thethe lineslines indicatesindicates thatthat the power toto be car-car riedried throughthrough themthem willwill probablyprobably bebe delivereddelivered to the Los Angeles and SanSan DiegoDiego areas,areas, wherewhere it might have aa positivepositive impact.impact.

Some peoplepeople said the local impact mightmight bebe positive if the power companycompany werewere toto hirehire NativeNative AmericansAmericans to construct thethe lines, butbut theythey werewere skeptical of this happening. The 22 res-res pondents (4 percent)percent) whowho believebelieve the lines would have an adverseadverse effect reasonedreasoned thatthat althoughalthough the power would gogo elsewhere,elsewhere, people inin thethe locallocal areaarea wouldwould bebe payingpaying for the HVTLs eithereither directly oror indirectlyindirectly (through taxes or higher prices).prices).

Effects on Recreation. Recreational use of thethe Study Area is ofof majormajor concern,concern, althoughalthough thisthis concernconcern variesvaries significantly with tribal affiliation. Thus 3 Acomas (60(60 percent), 88 Lagunas (80 percent),percent), andand 66 ofof thethe miscellaneousmiscellaneous group (88(88 percent) feelfeel that theirtheir recreationalrecreational useuse of the area would be negativelynegatively im-im pacted, whereaswhereas only 6 Navajos (25(25 percent) expressedexpressed suchsuch fears.fears.

The total of 24 people (51(51 percent) who expressedexpressed fearfear ofof negative impactimpact maymay notnot adequatelyadequately reflectreflect the intensity of feeling in this area.area. In manymany of thethe interviews,interviews, discussionsdiscussions about recreationrecreation werewere thethe onlyonly onesones that generatedgenerated the namesnames of specific placesplaces to be avoided.avoided. Recreation areas,areas, whichwhich areare. clustered in the mountainsmountains bordering thethe desertdesert regions,regions, pro-pro vide opportunities for hiking, camping, sightseeing, and shoot-shoot ing (for sport rather thanthan forfor food).food). Respondents whowho useuse offoff - road vehiclesvehicles such as dune buggies and motor bikes do so on thethe desert, andand viewview HVTLsHVTLs as only a minor obstacleobstacle toto thisthis activity.activity.

One respondent, whowho believes that power lines may inin fact enhance recreationalrecreational possibilities, isis aa woman who jogsjogs onon roadsroads built by the power company.company. Several people spontaneously ex-ex pressed concern that withwith the constructionconstruction ofof more HVTLs,HVTLs, addi-addi tional areas wouldwould be barred toto thethe public.public. They contend thatthat free accessaccess to desert areas has alreadyalready beenbeen curtailedcurtailed asas aa result of the construction of HVTLs, and they resent any further infringement on their use ofof openopen space.space. Several people addedadded that if the roadsroads built for thethe lineslines were toto bebe openopen toto publicpublic use, then they would regard thethe constructionconstruction asas aa positivepositive impact.impact.

The problem of interferenceinterference withwith radioradio andand televisiontelevision recep-recep tion waswas mentionedmentioned frequently.frequently. Although Barstow isis onon aa cablecable system, TVTV receptionreception is apparentlyapparently less than satisfactory, andand radio reception isis veryvery poor.poor.

Effects onon Health.Health. No one could foreseeforesee anyany positivepositive effecteffect that power lines might have onon health,health, butbut specificspecific negativenegative effects were not foreseen,foreseent either.either. The 11 people (23(23 percent)percent) who responded negatively did soso on thethe basis of vague fearsfears thatthat

6-646 -64 accidentsaccidents mightmight resultresult fromfrom thethe HVTLsHVTLs beingbeing closeclose to populatedpopulated areas, andand suggestedsuggested thatthat they bebe located away fromfrom homes.homes. This question,question, moremore thanthan anyany other,other, provokedprovoked peoplepeople toto askask CSRICSRI ethnographersethnographers forfor their own opinions. EffectsEffects on Native AmericanAIneric'an Life.Life. The question regarding potentialpotential effectseffects onon Native American lifelife waswas open-open-ended, ended, butbut there waswas littlelittle response. In general, the few people who did respondrespond anticipatedanticipated laterlater questionsquestions regardingregarding burials and archaeologicalarchaeological sites. Some specific responses are noteworthy, however.however. One Navajo respondentrespondent saidsaid hehe feelsfeels a concern for thethe distantdistant pastpast and believesbelieves himselfhimself toto bebe anan appropriate spokesman forfor thosethose prehistoric groupsgroups whowho cannotcannot speak for themselves; asas aa spokes-spokes man, hehe isis concernedconcerned aboutabout the desecration of their remains andand their country.country. Another respondent was concerned aboutabout thethe intrusion ofof HVTLsHVTLs intointo hishis spiritualspiritual life,life, whichwhich depends upon solitarysolitary excursionsexcursions toto thethe desertdesert--although -- although hehe diddid notnot feel thatthat this concernconcern waswas exclusive with Native Americans.

Four people said that the quality of life in the area might be negativelynegatively impacted byby an improvement or expansionexpansion ofof thethe economy, andand thatthat BarstowBarstow mightmight thenthen become likelike SanSan Bernardino.Bernardino. This negativenegative comparisoncomparison waswas drawn by at least 33 other respon-respon dents, in other contexts.contexts. One respondent felt that contemporary social interactioninteraction mightmight bebe impaired byby the construction of HVTLs near AppleApple Valley,Valley, wherewhere the Indian powwows sponsoredsponsored by thethe Apple ValleyValley Chamber of CommerceCommerce areare held.held. (These powwows are attended byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans and others from throughout SouthernSouthern California asas wellwell asas byby peoplepeople from the greater Southwest.)

Anticipated ImpactImpact onon SiteSite CategoriesCategories

The responses toto all of thethe questions are directly related to thethe convictionconviction ofof the peoplepeople interviewed that the land within the Study AreaArea "belongs" to other Native Americans, for whom they couldcould notnot and would notnot speak.speak. The initialinitial responses were either to rejectreject the questions or to suggest thatthat "California"California Indians" be consulted.consulted. With thethe exceptionexception ofof oneone respondentrespondent whowho said hehe waswas notnot going to reveal thethe location of a hot springspring because doing so might bring more peoplepeople toto use it,it, therethere werewere no indications that anyone was holdingholding back informationinformation becausebecause secrecy waswas considered appropriate.appropriate. Again, peoplepeople indicatedindicated thatthat theythey would havehave much more information about possible impact, and would hold much strongerstronger opinions, if the questions concernedconcerned sitessites within theirtheir ownown reservations. They were willing toto engageengage inin discussionsdiscussions aboutabout preferred procedures inin relation toto hypotheticalhypothetical burialsburials un-un covered byby accident during construction, andand aboutabout thethe dispo-dispo sition of artifacts encountered,encountered, but thesethese discussionsdiscussions weretvere general in nature and without reference toto anyany specificspecific know-know ledge. Attention waswas frequentlyfrequently calledcalled toto thethe factfact thatthat whiteswhites in the area know more about suchsuch thingsthings thanthan doesdoes thethe contem-contem porary Native American population.popUlation.

66-65 -65 0\ Q'\ 0\ SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES TABLE 6 -XII. • BARSTOW URBAN GROUP (N = 47) No No Opinion or Archaeological Mines, Village, Zones Religious Places Positive No.¡Negative Impact Zones % No.Negative ¡ Impact Petroglyphs, % No.¡ Burial Impact % No ResponseNo.I % where where ¡ mineral where Religious or sacred sites 31 66 3 6 or 0 0 13 28 habitation cremation or significant significant pictographs, sacred Burial or cremation sites 35 74 traditional 0 0 0 0 12 26 SUMMARY or sites

clay 32 68 1 2 0 0 14 Petroglyphs, pictographs, cairns or shrines or 30 sites sites camp deposits OF animal plant

Places where traditional events took place 24 51 events 5 11 0 0 18 38 cairns ANTICIPATED sites; species species 27 58 3 6 0 0 17 36 BARSTOW Zones where significant plant species grow took or trails, shrines TABLE Zones where significant animal species are found 26 59 place 3 6 1 2 17 grow 36 (N are = URBAN IMPACTS

springs found 2 4 2 4 20 43 6-XII. Mines, mineral or clay deposits 23 49 47)

Village, habitation or camp sites; trails, springs 32 68 2 4 0 0 13 28 GROUP ON

34 72 5 11 0 0 8 SITE

Archaeological sites 34 32 20 27 32 No. 26 Negative

24 35 17 31 Impact i i CATEGORIES 43 72 68 58 51 59 68 74 66 % No. Negative

5 2 1 2 3 3 5 0 3 Impact No j I I I I , I I I I I I : I 11 11 4 4 6 6 0 2 6 % No.1 Positive 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 Im1!_8ct i 0 4 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 % No No 17 13 17 12 13 23 18 14 No·1 8 Res�onse Opinion 1 J 1 1 1 J 1 J t , I J 1 1 1 t ,I 1 J ' or • I t I I J I I 1 I I I I t I 17 49 28 36 36 38 30 26 28 % 0\ "" 0\ SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES TABLE 6 -XIII. NAVAJO I (N = 24) - No No Opinion Mines, Religious Archaeo Places Village, Petroglyphs, Burial Zones Negative Impact Zones Negative Impact Positive Impact No Response or No. I % No.I % No.: % No.1 i 1 % where where where mineral or Religious or sacred sites Iog 14 58 2 8 0 0 8 33 habitation or cremation Ica 9

significant 0 Burial or cremation sites 15 63 significant 0 0 0 38 I pictographs, sacred traditional or sites Petroglyphs, pictographs, cairns or shrines 15 63 1 4 0 0 8 33 SUMHARY clay 2 or sites Places where traditional events took place 10 42 8 sites 0 0 12 50 deposits camp 2 animal 12 50 plant 8 0 0 10 42 OF

Zones where significant plant species grow events 1 cairns 4 1 4 sites; Zones where significant animal species are found 10 42 12 50 ANTICIPATED species 7 species 1 4 1 4 Mines, mineral or clay deposits 29 took 15 63 or

trails, 1 15 63 shrines 4 0 0 8 33

Village, habitation or camp sites; trails, springs place TABLE grow 13 are 54 5 21 0 0 6 25 Archaeological sites (N NAVAJO IMPACTS springs found = 6-XIII. 24) ON SITE 10 No. Negative 13 10 12 15 15 14 15 7 Impact· i i 42 42 63 54 63 29 50 63 58

CATEGORIES %

No. Negative 1 0

1 1 1

5 2

2 Impact

2 No i i 21 4 4 8 4 4 8 0 8 % Positive' No. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Impact i i 4 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 % No No 10 No.1 15 12 12 8 8 8 9 6 Response Opinion' I i I or 42 63 50 38 50 33 33 25 33 % 00 � � SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES TABLE 6 -XIV. (N = 10)LAGUNA , Archaeological Village, Mines, Places Religious Petroglyphs, Burial Zones NegativeImpact Zones Negative Impact No Positive Impact No ResponseOpinion or where where %

mineral %

where y No.¡ % No.I or No.1 No. habitation or Religious or sacred sites 7 70 1 10 cremation 0 0 2 20 significant significant pictographs, sacred 9 traditional 1 or 0 0 sites 0 0 Burial or cremation sites 90 10 SUMMARY

Petroglyphs, pictographs, cairns or shrines clay 8 80 0 0 0 0 2 20 or sites 4 3 sites 3 Places where traditional events took place camp deposits 40 30 0 0 30 animal plant OF events Zones where significant plant species grow 6 60 1 cairns 10 0 0 3 30 sites; ANTICIPATED

7 species 3 Zones where significant animal species are found species 70 30 0 0 0 0 took 5 1 or 1 3 Mines, mineral or clay deposits tra 50 10 10 30 shrines place TABLE grow ils, 6 1 Village, habitation or camp sites; trails, springs are 60 10 0 0 3 30 (N LAGUNA

9 IMPACTS springs Archaeological sites found 90 0 0 0 0 1 10 = 6-XIV.

J I I 10) ON SITE Negative No. . 4 9 6 6 Impact 5 7 8 9 7 i i 40 90 60 80 90 60 50 70 70

CATEGORIES %

No. Negative 0 1 1 0

1 0

3 I Impact

3 No • i i 10 10 10 10 30 30 0 0 0 % Positive No. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 Impact i i 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % No No No. 1 1 0 3 2 3 3 3 2 Opinion Response or j i J I I I I I I I I ! 30 10 10 30 30 30 20 20 0 % I I \0 0\ 0\ SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES TABLE 6 -XV. (N = 5)ACOMA I Burial Religious Places Mines, Petroglyphs, Village, Zones Zones Archaeological Negative Impact % NegativeImpact No % PositiveImpact % NoNo Opinion ResponseNo. or % where No. where No. No. or where mineral

habitation 0 2 0 or Religious or sacred sites 3 60 0 0 cremation 40 significant significant sacred pictographs, 3 60 traditional 0 0 0 0 2 40 SUMMARY Burial or cremation sites or sites 3 0 0 0 2 Petroglyphs, pictographs, cairns or shrines clay 60 0 40 sites sites or 3 60 0 0 0 0 2 40 deposits Places where traditional events took place camp animal plant OF 2 events 3 Zones where significant plant species grow 40 0 cairns 0 0 0 60 ANTICIPATED sites; 1 0 0 0 0 4

20 species 80

Zones where significant animal species are found species took Mines, mineral or clay deposits 2 40 0 or 0 0 0 3 60 trails, shrines

3 place 2 60 grow 0 0 0 0 40 TABLE

Village, habitation or camp sites; trails, springs are (N 4 80 0 0 0 0 1 20 ACOMA IMPACTS found Archaeological sites springs = " 1 6-XV. 5) ON SITE No. Negative 3 Impact 3 3 2 3 1 4 2 3 i 60 40 60 60 60 40 80 60 20 CATEGORIES %

Negative No.

0 0 Impact

0 0 0

0 0 No ! 0 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Positive No. 0 0 0 Impact 0 0 0 0 0 0 ! ! 0 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 No No No. 2 2 2 4 2 3 3 1 2 Opinion Response or 1 ! 1 t 1 j i I I ! 1 I I I 1 J I I I 40 40 40 40 60 80 60 40 20 % o ...... 0\ SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES TABLE 6 -XVI. I MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES (N = 8) �. Mines, Religious Archaeological Village, Places Petroglyphs, Burial Negative Zones Zones Negative No Positive No Opinión or where Impact where Impact Impact No Response mineral where No.1 % y or No.1 Y habitation No. No. 7 0 i 0 cremation 0 or 0 1 13 i Religious or sacred sites significant 88 significant pictographs, sacred traditional or Burial or cremation sites sites 8 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 SUMMARY clay 6 0 sites Petroglyphs, pictographs, cairns or shrines or 75 0 sites 0 0 2 25

camp deposits 7 1

animal 0 88 plant 0 0 0 13

Places where traditional events took place OF events 7 cairns .0 0 : 0 1 sites; 88 0 13 Zones where significant plant species grow ANTICIPATED

species I

7 species 1 0 0 MISCELL�NEOUS Zones where significant animal species are found 88 took 0 0 13 or

trails, 6 2

75 0 shrines 0 0 0 25 Mines, mineral or clay deposits TABLE place grow are Village, habitation or camp sites; trails, springs 8 100 0 0 0 0 0 (N 0 = IMPACTS found springs Archaeological sites 8 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 6-XVI. _. I 8) __ _ . TRIBES ON SITE Negative No. 6 8 8 8 6 7 Impact 7 7 7 i ! 100 100 100 88 88 88 88 75 75 CATEGORIES % No.! Negative 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Impact

i '0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % No. Positive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Impact i i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % No No No. 1 0 .z 1 1 0 0 1 2 Opinion Response or i i 13 13 13 13 25 25 % 0 0 0 � It maymay bebe ofof passingpassing interestinterest that nono oneone knewknew of any Native AmericansAmericans inin thethe areaarea whowho areare pothunters,pothunters, although there areare manymany whiteswhites who are.are. Neither the representatives of thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver ValleyValley Museum in Barstow nornor MarcMarc Sutton,Sutton, Bureau ofof LandLand ManagementManagement archaeologist,archaeologist, hadhad ever encountered a locallocal NativeNative AmericanAmerican whowho expressedexpressed interestinterest in participatingparticipating in anyany ofof theirtheir activities,activities, oror evincedevinced anyany curiositycuriosity about them. On the other hand,hand, the Native AmericansAmericans whowho werewere inter-inter viewedviewed diddid knowknow aboutabout thethe locallocal museum,museum, andand manymany hadhad heard of the CalicoCalico MountainMountain excavations.

One thoughtful LagunaLaguna womanwoman notednoted the insensitivity of the whitewhite manman inin relationrelation to the land, and thethe spiritualspiritual importance thethe landland hashas to the Native American groupgroup thatthat lives onon it and with it.it. But, she continued, although IndiansIndians share aa moremore respectfulrespectful attitude toward thethe land,land, eacheach groupgroup is differentdifferent andand nonenone is an appropriate spokesman forfor another.another. Then, expressingexpressing aa concernconcern that is probably not uniqueunique inin thisthis colonial community,community, sheshe notednoted thatthat whenwhen sheshe returnsreturns to livelive onon her ownown reservationreservation this year, sheshe will havehave toto relearnrelearn thethe culture ofof her people. In spite of frequent visits, sheshe hashas been gonegone forfor 4646 years,years, andand bothboth she and herher reservationreservation have changed soso muchmuch thatthat sheshe willwill have to tread warily atat firstfirst soso as notnot to behavebehave inappropriately. She remarked, in parting from thethe CSRICSRI interviewer,interviewer, that she is "more likelike white peoplepeople than mostmost IndiansIndians becausebecause I like to talk so much."

Religious oror SacredSacred Sites.Sites. No one knew ofof anyany religious,religious, ceremonial, oror other sacred sites, although withoutwithout exception ceremoniaRelifious, other sacred s�tes, although exception people said they believe therethere must bebe somesome inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. General suggestionssuggestions werewere toto "consult"consult thethe CaliforniaCalifornia Indians."Indians." Thirty-one.peopleThirty -one people (66(66 percent)percent) feelfeel thatthat such sitessites would bebe negatively impacted by transmissiontransmission lineslines and_shouldand . s.hould bebe avoided.avoided, One womanwoman suggested thatthat representatives ofof CaliforniaCalifornia NativeNative American groups survey thethe areaarea inin advanceadvance andand identifyidentify allall relevant sites, which could thenthen bebe avoided.avoided.

Burial oror CremationCremation Sites.Sites. Of all thethe questionsquestions inin thethe site category,category, the one concerning burials producedproduced thethe highesthighest expectation of negative impact,impact, with 3535 peoplepeople (74(74 percent)percent) soso responding. Although no oneone knewknew ofof anyany specificspecific sites,sites, most were suresure thatthat therethere mustmust bebe some.some. The recommendation pre-pre ferred byby a large majority was toto avoidavoid allall suchsuch sitessites byby priorprior survey, and to reroute thethe lineslines ifif aa burialburial werewere accidentallyaccidentally uncovered.

Although everyevery respondentrespondent waswas willingwilling toto expressexpress aa per-per sonal preference about dispositiondispOSition inin casecase thethe lineline couldcould notnot be rerouted, thethe indicationindication waswas thatthat nono oneone feelsfeels entitledentitled toto speak about thethe dispositiondisposition ofof burials.burials. Hence itit was suggestedsuggested that if the line could not be rerouted,rerouted, thethe nextnext stepstep wouldwould bebe to contact "related""related" NativeNative Americans.Americans. Various proceduresprocedures were advancedadvanced forfor identifyingidentifying thesethese people,people, suchsuch asas contactingcontacting

66-71 -71 thethe BarstowBarstow IndianIndian CenterCenter office,office, thethe mayormayor ofof Barstow,Barstow, the Mojave RiverRiver ValleyValley Museum,Museum, the Fort MojaveMojave Indian Reservation, or somesome qualifiedqualified expert.expert. In this context, 3 'peoplepeople suggestedsuggested thatthat problemsproblems couldcould bebe 'avqidedavoided ifif thethe appropriateappropriate tribetribe werewere contactedcontacted beforebefore workwork werewere begun,begun, and if its representatives were allowedallowed toto walkwalk the 'routeroute ofof the proposedproposed line and toto be present andand consultedconsulted as work progressed.progressed.

Only 5 people (11(11 percent) in the samplesample preferredpreferred dis-dis interment ofof burialburial remains,remains, andand 33 ofof thesethese advocatedadvocated immediate reburial. The remainingremaining 2 preferred scientific investigation and preservation. One suggestion was thatthat burials be leftleft inin situ andand aa markermarker bebe erectederected nearby;nearby; another was thatthat thethe affected tribetribe bebe compensatedcompensated in the form of scholarshipsscholarships forfor children.

Petroglyphs andand Pictographs.Pictographs. Respondents provided more informationpetroglYEhs aaboutout petroglypfispetroglyphs and pictographs thanthan aboutabout religious oror burialburial sites,sites, although only 9 people (19(19 percent)percent) were able to namename even the general location ofof any.any. ThirtyThirty - two peoplepeople (68 percent)percent) believebelieve that petroglyphs, pictographs, cairns, andand shrinesshrines wouldwould bebe negativelynegatively impacted, with 55 noting that workmenworkmen and tourists coming intointo thethe areaarea couldcould bebe expected to damage rock art.art. Apparently all of the known rock art sitessites havehave already been vandalized. In general, people suggested that such sitessites bebe avoided.'avoided.

Traditional Events.Events. As before, no one knew of traditionaltraditional events of the Studystudy AreaArea inin thethe past.past. The single response toto modern traditional events referred toto thethe AppleApple ValleyValley powwow.powwow. Twenty-fourTwenty -fourrespondents respondents (51(51 percent)percent) expressedexpressed concern aboutabout the disturbancedisturbance of potential sitessites ofof traditionaltraditional events.events.

Plant Species.Species. Only 4 people (9(9 percent)percent) reportedreported anyany personal experience with plantplant gathering.gathering. One woman saidsaid thatthat her family gathersgathers cedar to prepare medicinal tea,tea, but no particular areaarea is preferred nor did she thinkthink itit would make any difference if HVTLs passedpass�d nearnear thethe trees.trees. Another reported that pinyonpinyon pollenpollen (for ceremonial use)use) and pinyon nuts are available in the San Bernardino Mountains, although he appar-appar ently does not gather them.them. A thirdthird saidsaid thatthat herher uncleuncle usedused to gathergather plantsplants for curing, and she doesn't thinkthink thethe HVTLs would have much impact on placesplaces where theythey grow.grow. One res-res pondent said sheshe had nevernever metmet anyoneanyone whowho gatheredgathered plants,plants, but has looked for someone who isis knowledgeable andand, couldcould instruct her.

In spite of a lack of involvementinvolvement with locallocal plants,plants, moremore than half thethe peoplepeople interviewedinterviewed--27 --27 (58(58 percent)percent)--believe -- believe that plantplant species wouldwould suffer a negative impactimpact fromfrom nearby power lines.lines. Some pointed toto thethe fragilefragile ecologyecology ofof thethe desert in general, and others referredreferred toto theirtheir experienceexperience withwith such construction on thethe reservations with whichwhich theythey areare

66-72 -72 familiar. One respondent specificallyspecifically mentionedmentioned thatthat riverriver - bottom landland shouldshould bebe carefullycarefully avoided, because rare speciesspecies growgrow inin suchsuch areas;areas; anotheranother saidsaid thatthat plantsplants on mountainmountain topstops areare particularlyparticularly vulnerable. ItIt isis noteworthynoteworthy that most peo-peo ple considerconsider plantplant speciesspecies to bebe moremore vulnerable to damagedamage than areare animalanimal species,species, althoughalthough aa numbernumber ofof peoplepeople hunt andand none collect plants.

AnimalAnimal Species. In contrast to the 'lacklack of involvement evidenced witwithS*ecies. regardregard toto otherother recreationalrecreational categories, 23 people (49(49 percent)percent) saidsaid thatthat they hunthunt or knowknow people who do. Rabbits, and sometimes lizards and snakes, are the only animals huntedhunted on the desert.desert. This hunting was alwaysalways des-des cribed asas recreationalrecreational shooting rather than hunting forfor food.food. More extensive huntinghunting isis donedone inin thethe mountainsmountains--particularly -- particularly the NewNew YorkYork Mountains--andMountains - -andthe thegame game isis deer,deer, whichwhich isis usedused for food. Desert bighorn sheep and mountain lions were noted as beingbeing present.

Besides a general concern aboutabout disturbancedisturbance ofof thethe eco-eco system, aa fewfew specificspecific effectseffects ofof HVTLsHVTLs nearnear game animals werewere cited. Two people mentioned negative effectseffects causedcaused byby thethe vibration of thethe lines.lines. Another remarked thatthat human traffictraffic coming inin onon newlynewly builtbuilt roads will disturbdisturb thethe animals.animals. Several moremore werewere afraid that the hunting areasareas wouldwould bebe posted asas offoff-limits - limits byby thethe powerpower company.

Not all people who hunt believebelieve thatthat huntinghunting wouldwould bebe negatively affected.affected. At leastleast 33 (6 percent)percent) foresee no effect,effect, and 11 believesbelieves that opening new roadsroads would contributecontribute posi-posi tively.

Mines, Minerals, and Clay Deposits.De osits. Although 2020 people ----�------��--�_.�_.��-- Although people (43 percent) said they believe thatt.at m�neralsminerals andand clayclay depositsdeposits would be adversely affected by the HVTLs, theythey diddid not appearappear to havehave intense feelingsfeelings aboutabout thesethese deposits.deposits. Respondents had nono information about any locations except thethe mines of thethe early AmericanAmerican period at Calico,Calico, which areare aa touristtourist attrac-attrac tion that they feelfeel shouldshould bebe preserved.preserved. Two people suggested that turquoise might bebe foundfound atat Baker.Baker.

There waswas some feeling thatthat owners ofof property be consul-consul ted andand that full reimbursement be mademade forfor damages.damages. Two people suggested the possibility that mineral resources such as gold mightmight be discovered, in which case theythey recommended that the proceeds gogo toto "local"local Indians."Indians."

Village, Habitation, CampCamp Sites,Sites, OldOld Trails,Trails, andand HotHot Springs.SS rin ss. Respondents couldcould provideprovide no informationinformation aboutabout vivillage, l e, habitation,habitation, campcamp sites,sites, trailstrails oror springs,springs, butbut 3232 people (68(68 percent) believe thatthat ifif anyany ofof thesethese thingsthings should be encountered theythey wouldwould bebe negativelynegatively impacted.impacted.

6-736 -73 A few people knowknow about the Mojave Trail and feel thatthat itit definitely shouldshould be avoided.avoided. The names of fourfour hothot springssprings (Jack(Jack Springs,Springs, HesperiaHesperia HotHot Springs,Springs, ZzyzxZzyzx Mineral Springs,Springs, and BakerBaker HotHot Springs)Springs) werewere provided. These are used recrea-recrea tionally andand areare alsoalso consideredconsidered beneficialbeneficial toto health. Two informants saidsaid theythey areare suresure "thatthat inin aboriginalaboriginal times the local NativeNative AmericansAmericans hadhad usedused thesethese springssprings medicinallymedicinally and for purificatio�.purification. People believebelieve that springs wouldwould be severely impactedimpacted byby HVTLs,HVTLs, whichwhich wouldwould destroy theirthei� ambience.ambience. The possibilitypossibility thatthat powerpower lines near water might causecause acci-acci dents waswas alsoalso mentioned.

Archaeological Sites.Sites. Thirty-fourThirty -four peoplepeople (72(7·2 percent)percent) anticipated negativenegative impactimpact onon archaeologicalarchaeological sites, aa higherhigher number thanthan forfor anyany otherother categorycategory exceptexcept burials (probably(probably because burialsburials areare byby implication associated withwith archaeo-archaeo logical sites). Consultation with "California Indians"Indians" was again suggested,suggested, shouldshould aa site bebe accidentally uncovered. Respondents expressedexpressed greatgreat concernconcern that sites be preserved and that theythey bebe avoided by identifying themthem beforebefore construc-construc tion begins.

Dis�ositionDisposition ofof Artifacts.Artifacts. Opinion was divided about thethe disposit�ondisposition of artifacts. Sixteen people (34(34 percent) insisted that onlyonly aa "related""related" tribetribe should makemake any decisions. Again, there waswas thethe implication that one group ofof NativeNative AmericansAmericans cannot predictpredict the attitudes and wishes of another,another, andand thatthat it isis thereforetherefore inappropriate for anyone elseelse toto speakspeak onon thisthis issue. On the other hand, 1818 respondents (38(38 percent)percent) feelfeel that therethere shouldshould bebe expert excavation, with subsequentsubsequent storagestorage and displaydisplay in a locallocal museum.museum. This emphasis on the retention of artifacts in the area from which theythey camecame waswas aa strongstrong theme. One person suggested thatthat a museum couldcould be built onon the sitesite wherewhere the artifacts were found, andand 22 othersothers suggestedsuggested that thethe powerpower companycompany should make a financial contributioncontribution enabling the locallocal museummuseum to expand its capability toto dealdeal with the new material. Two respondents saidsaid theythey would preferprefer that artifactsartifacts bebe sent to an "Indian" museum, citingciting aa museum in LosLos AngelesAngeles andand MalkiMalki Museum, on the Morongo IndianIndian Reser-Reser vation in Banning.Banning.

Thematically, thethe responsesresponses inin thisthis categorycategory werewere con-con sistent withwith all thethe others.others. They are indicative of aa basic philosophy that people, things,things, andand places areare interrelated.interrelated. The contemporary Native American populationpopulation ofof BarstowBarstow feelsfeels that it "belongs" to another place; thesethese peoplepeople cancan appro-appro priately speak for thatthat place, but othersothers must speakspeak forfor thethe Barstow area.area. Artifacts areare thingsthings ofof thisthis place,place, soso itit isis appropriate to leave themthem where theythey areare foundfound oror atat leastleast nearby.

Additional Comments.Comments. Few people tooktook advantageadvantage ofof thethe opportunity toto saysay anythinganything more.more. In anan offoff-the-record - the -record way,

6-6-74 74 however, aa numbernumber ofof respondentsrespondents expressed both surprisesurprise andand pleasure that the survey was beingbeing made.made. They considered itit very importantimportant thatthat their opinions werewere being requested.

Many indicated that they had been totally unprepared forfor the survey,survey, nevernever havinghaving beenbeen askedasked suchsuch questionsquestions before, but they feltfelt thatthat thethe surveysurvey itselfitself willwill encourageencourage people to think aboutabout andand discuss thethe issuesissues involved.involved. Many people predicted thatthat theythey wouldwould havehave moremore to say the next timetime theirtheir opinion is solicited.solicited.

At least 22 people expressedexpressed hostility toto thethe survey,survey, indicating thatthat they werewere suspicious of "whites""whites" inin anyany deal-deal ings withwith Native Americans. One man felt thatthat thethe surveysurvey would bebe usedused againstagainst NativeNative Americans,Americans, and that the power company wouldwould assertassert inin thethe futurefuture thatthat "the"the Indian hadhad beenbeen given hishis chancechance toto speakspeak toto thethe issuesissues andand the responseresponse hadhad " been an indiffindifferenterentone. one."

Specific Places

In response toto openopen-ended -ended questions,questions, BarstowBarstow urban respondents identifiedidentified aa numbernumber ofof specific placesplaces about �- which they were concerned.concerned. They areare listedlisted onon TableTable 6 6-XVII.-XVII. The spontaneous identifications are rated higher than identifications providedprovided in response toto interviewers'interviewers' questions.

6-6-75 75 TABLE 6-XVII.6 -XVII.

PLACES SENSITIVE TO IMPACTIMPACT (Specific sites rather thanthan categoriescategories ofof sites-sites- - habitation sites, trails,trails, mountains, springs,springs, etc.)etc.)

Barstow Urban Native Americans

HowHow Many Specific Respondents Impact !!!£!Place Concerned? Why Significant? Sensitivity*

HUNTING AREAS Mojave River 3 4 Kelso PeakPeak 22 Big Horn Sheep 4 North PaiutePaiute Range 1 4 Cady MountainMountain 1 4 NewberryNewberey Spring 1 3 Ord MountainMountain 1 0o New York Mts. 5 4

RECREATIONAL AREAS Elephant MountainMountain 3 scenic 4 Rainbow Basin 3 4 Jack Springs 1 hot spring 3 Hesperia HotHot Spring 3 hot spring 3.3 ZiyzyZzyzy MineralMineral Spring 1 hot spring - health 3 Lake Delores I1 3 Baker HotHot Springs 1 hot springssprings -- purification?purification? 4 Hodge 1 3 East of Lenwood 1 3

PETROGLYPHS AND PICTOGRAPHS Marine Base at Yermo (near rear gate)gate) 1 3 Newberry Spring 4 3 Mitchell's Caverns 2 3.5 Rodman Mountain 1 3

HISTORIC (AND POSSIBLE ARCHAEOLOGICAL) Mojave River 3 4 Mojave Trail 5 4 Calico 5 3 Lucerne Valley 1 4

MINERALS Kelso Peak 1 3 Baker 2 3.5

*Symbols for Impact SensitivitySensitivity Rating:Rating: 0o Respondent thinksthinks sitesite notnot sensitive.sensitive. 1 Respondent expressesexpresses somesome concernconcern whenwhen sitesite isis mentioned.mentioned. 2 Respondent expressesexpresses muchmuch concernconcern whenwhen sitesite isis mentioned.mentioned. 3 Respondent spontaneouslyspontaneously mentionsmentions thethe sitesite asas somewhatsomewhat sensitive.sensitive. 4 Respondent spontaneouslyspontaneously mentionsmentions thethe sitesite asas ofof extremeextreme sensitivity.sensitivity.

66-76 -76 CHAPTERCHAPTER VII.VII. SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

The MojaveMojave Desert, seemingly inhospitableinhospitable atat present,present, hashas been aa significantsignificant areaarea ofof humanhuman habitation forfor millenia. At various times,times, portionsportions ofof the area have been successivelysuccessively hospitable andand inhospitableinhospitable toto humans,humans, depending on fluctua-fluctua tions ofof climate,climate, earthquakesearthquakes and associatedassociated earthearth movements,movements, volcanic intrusionsintrusions andand eruptions, and the presence oror absenceabsence of variousvarious plantplant and animal species.species. At timestimes when thethe regionregion has beenbeen inhospitable,inhospitable, technological advances have sometimessometimes made itit possiblepossible for humanshumans to adapt to environmental condi-condi tions thatthat otherwiseotherwise wouldwould not supportsupport human life.life.

The archaeological record suggestssugges.ts thatthat thethe StudyStudy Area has supportedsupported moremore peoplepeople during periods of ample moisture than itit hashas duringduring periods ofof aridity.aridity. Populations seem to have declineddeclined whenwhen precipitationprecipitation declined, although soso fewfew archaeological studiesstudies havehave beenbeen carried out in depth that estimates ofof populationpopulation trends cancan be onlyonly tentative.tentative.

In the proto-proto-historic historic periodperiod andand during the period ofof early EuropeanEuropean contact,contact, NativeNative AmericansAmericans utilized thethe StudyStudy Area withwith considerable efficiency.efficiency. They tooktook advantageadvantage ofof its widewide varietyvariety ofof plantplant and animal species asas well asas itsits mineral resources. The archaeological recordrecord affirmsaffirms thethe amazing degreedegree to which theythey hadhad adaptedadapted toto desertdesert conditions.conditions. Religion, socialsocial structure, and technology were integratedintegrated into anan ecologicalecological system whichwhich functioned soso well thatthat itit needed to be changed onlyonly slowlyslowly overover manymany centuries.centuries.

Beginning inin thethe 16th16th century,century, EuropeansEuropeans andand Euro-Euro Americans broughtbrought their technologiestechnologies andand theirtheir domesticateddomesticated plants and animals toto thethe area.area. The desertdesert now supportssupports inin some placesplaces aa muchmuch larger population than it diddid prehistori-prehistori cally. There are remote partsparts ofof thethe MojaveMojave thatthat remainremain largely unpopulated,unpopulated, but very few areas have escaped somesome impact from modern development.development.

The faunafauna andand floraflora ofof thethe desertdesert have changed,changed, many of the mineralmineral resourcesresources have been removed, and thethe very airair isis sometimes affectedaffected byby chemical substancessubstances released inin thethe notnot-too-distant - too -distantcities cities toto thethe west. Most ofof thethe NativeNative Ameri-Ameri cans whowho lived within thethe StudyStudy Area oror whowho were accustomedaccustomed to travelling acrossacross itit werewere killedkilled offoff byby disease,disease, warfare,warfare, or oppression and despair.despair. Today, thethe descendantsdescenda�ts ofof thosethose who survived livelive onon thethe boundariesboundaries ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, whilewhile the NativeNative American population ofof thethe areaarea itselfitself isis mademade upup primarily of peoples whosewhose ancestralancestral homeshomes werewere elsewhere.elsewhere.

7-17 -1 Increasingly, the cultural remains of the Native Ameri-Ameri can peoplespeoples whowho havehave occupiedoccupied the Study AreaArea over thethe yearsyears have beenbeen endangeredendangered by nonnon-native -native peoplepeople seeking livingliving places, minerals,minerals, sourcessources,of,of energyenergy andand power,power, water,water, or recreation. They are also endangered byby peoplepeople building wagonwagon roads, railroads,railroads, highways,highways, pipelines,pipelines, airports,airports, militarymilitary bases, powerpower plants,plants, "andand transmission lines.lines. The remains thatthat have been endangeredendangered--and - -and oftenoften destroyeddestroyed--have - -have historichistoric and cultural valuevalue notnot onlyonly toto thethe descendants of the people who left them,them, butbut toto AmericanAmerican society atat large.large.

Native AmericanAmerican interests inin the Study Area spanspan aa timetime p�riodperiod thatthat beginsbegins inin the distant past and extends intointo thethe future. The distant past isis made realreal" inin myth, symbolicallysymbolically fused withwith thethe presentpresent in ceremony andand inin dreams.dreams.

Dream timetime--the --the timetime of creation,creation, inin illoillo temporetempore--is --is very realreal andand veryvery important toto NativeNative Americans.Americans. A more recent past--thepast --the ethnographicethnographic present--ispresent --is alsoalso realreal and impor-impor tant to them.them. This waswas the period just prior to European contact, whenwhen NativeNative AmericanAmerican culture hadhad developed its nownow well-knownwell -knownsophisticated sophisticated adjustmentsadjustments toto multiplemultiple environmental exigencies. This time, too,too, has a kind of legendarylegendary quality that isis hardhard toto define in terms of calendricalcalendrical time.time. Even anthropologists sometimessometimes havehave difficulty remembering whether the ethnographicethnographic timetime thatthat theythey describe is as recent as 1910 or as long ago asas 1650.1650.

As for the historical period, Native Americans partici-partici pated withwith otherother AmericansAmericans in the changes that have takentaken place, andand whilewhile retainingretaining much of their own culture, theythey have come to share inin thatthat ofof thethe dominantdominant society.society. For example, manymany contemporary Native Americans in southern Cali-Cali fornia areare practicingpracticing Catholics whosewhose ancestors played a part in the missionmission andand ranchorancho systems of the Spanish andand Mexican periods; thesethese peoplepeople often place a value on the cultural resources that have come downdown fromfrom thesethese periods.periods . ..

Moreover, despitedespite thethe numerousnumerous disadvantagesdisadvantages thatthat havehave come to them since California andand.adjacent adjacent states became part of thethe UnitedUnited States of America,America, Native Americans are very much in aa "patriotic" mode towardtoward American culture.culture. They place aa value on the cultural resources thatthat datedate tot.o thethe American period, especially those thatthat relaterelate toto activitiesactivities inin which their peoplepeople participated. For example, theythey placeplace aa valuevalue on the ghostghost towns associated with old mines in which Native Americans have worked, on thethe railroadsrailroads theythey helped buildbuild andand run, and on the artifactual remainsremains ofof thethe world wars ofof thisthis century, in which theythey fought.fought.

But the interests ofof contemporarycontemporary NativeNative AmericansAmericans areare notnot confined soso narrowly. Their interestsinterests includeinclude aa concernconcern with addressingaddreSSing the general historical valuevalue ofof thethe landslands theythey knowknow best, and with preserving thosethose valuesvalues toto meetmeet thethe demandsdemands ofof

7-27 -2 the future. Because Native Americans havehave years of time beyond measure investedinvested inin thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, and havehave seen the changes that twotwo centuriescenturies havehave brought,brought, theythey areare moremore acutely aware than isis thethe generalgeneral populacepopulace of the consequences ofof change.change.

They see the increasing encroachment ofof subdivisions and otherother constructionsconstructions onon thethe MojaveMojave DesertDesert asas aa threatthreat to a delideli- cate ecosystem,ecosystem, whichwhich theythey are concerned with preserving soso .-thatthat itit maymay bebe used,used, studied, andand enjoyedenjoyed inin thethe future-future--not -not only byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans but by allall Americans. These senti-senti ments emanateemanate from NativeNative American philosophical assumptionsassumptions about howhow humanshumans should deal with theirtheir universe.universe. Those assumptions suggestsuggest thatthat humanshumans havehave a reciprocal relation-relation ship withwith their environment: the environment provides humans with sustenance,sustenance, withwith a space in which to be, with allall thatthat is necessarynecessary toto maintainmaintain life; humans,humans, in return, have thethe responsibility ofof caringcaring for and maintainingmaintaining the environment.

Ethnic Boundaries

This study has demonstrateddemonstrated how ethnic boundaries have operated amongamong NativeNative AmericansAmericans in the Study Area inin thethe post-contactpost- contactera, era, andand thethe importanceimportance ofof aa land base in mainmain- taining boundaries. It has alsoalso shownshown thethe circumstancescirc�tances under whichwhich NativeNative AmericansAmericans have adopted new ethnic identitiesidentities or refused toto dodo so.so.

It appears that the Vanyume were eithereither incorporatedincorporated intointo mission groups or into neighboring groupsgroups suchsuch asas thethe Mojave. The descendants of the Serrano who identifyidentify asas SerranoSerrano areare those associatedassociated withwith San Manuel,Manuel, Morongo,Morongo,,oror Soboba Reserva-Reserva tions.

Some of the descendants of thethe Kawaiisu andand otherother groupsgroups in the westernwestern and northern StudyStudy Area, having had no landland base specifically assignedassigned themthem inin thethe post-post-contact contact era, have themselves maintainedmaintained a sense of their ethnic identity, but are for the mostmost part unknown asas aa groupgroup by thethe largerlarger society.

The ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute hadhad traditionallytraditionally had aa relativelyrelatively open ethnic boundary. This served themthem well inin thethe latelata 19th19th century and early 20th20th century.century. When technologicaltechnological changeschanges in the larger society eliminated thethe economic niches intointo which they hadhad fit, however,however, they were atat aa disadvantagedisadvantage inin not having legal titletitle asas aa groupgroup toto aa landland base.base. In recent timestimes new boundaries betweenbetween LasLas VegasVegas andand PahrumpPahrump Paiute,Paiute, andand between Chemehuevi Valley ReservationReservation ChemehueviChemehuevi andand ColoradoColorado River Indian Reservation ChemehueviChemehuevi areare developingdeveloping inin aa pro-pro cess somewhat analogous to what happened inin groupsgroups incorporatedincorporated into the missions. The desiredesire ofof thethe PaiutesPaiutes forfor aa moremore ade-ade quate land base has toto dodo not onlyonly withwith acquiringacquiring aa subsistencesubsistence

77-3 -3 base butbut alsoalso withwith acqu�r�ngacquiring titletitle toto anan areaarea of traditional importance to them.

The MojaveMojave ethnic boundaryboundary hashas beenbeen veryvery distinct bothboth prehistorically and historically. A rule against marrying non-Mojavesnon -Mojaveswas was enforcedenforced untiluntil thethe 1930s.1930s. There isis an intra-intra ethnic boundaryboundary betweenbetween thethe MojavesMojaves at FMIR andand atat CRIR,CRIR, butbut there isis continuouscontinuous interactioninteraction between the groups, andand thethe important ethnicethnic boundaryboundary continues to be thatthat which includesincludes all MojMojave.ave.

The study of urban Native Americans inin BarstowBarstow providesprovides data onon otherother aspectsaspects ofof ethnicethnic boundaryboundary maintenance andand thethe choice ofof personalpersonal identity.identity. These Native Americans have aa considerable acquaintanceacquaintance withwith the Study Area, identifyingidentifying many placesplaces ofof importance,importance, butbut theythey stressedstressed over and over again thatthat thesethese werewere notnot their traditional lands andand thatthat their attitudesattitudes hadhad nono specialspecial importance just because theythey were NativeNative Americans.Americans. TheyThey derive theirtheir identityidentity fromfrom mem-mem bership inin groups located elsewhere.elsewhere. Their sensesense thatthat itit isis the prerogativeprerogative onlyonly ofof peoplespeoples whosewhose ancestors traditionally lived inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea to say what areas areare most importantimportant derives inin partpart fromfrom ideasideas espousedespoused byby nationalnational Native Ameri-Ameri can groupsgroups whowho stressstress that Native American groups diddid ownown territory andand shouldshould havehave rights to that specificspecific territory.territory.

Many of thethe urban Barstow groupsgroups continuecontinue toto speakspeak theirtheir own language,language, anan effectiveeffective strategy for boundary maintenance. The fact that bothboth Laguna and Acoma pueblo groupsgroups areare coloniescolonies of parentparent groups in New Mexico, paying "ditch"ditch dues"dues" toto them,them, is aa phenomenonphenomenon that hashas received little attention fromfrom eth-eth nographers. Whether this will be a mechanism thatthat encourages ethnic persistencepersistence among generations born inin CaliforniaCalifornia remainsremains to bebe seen. The use of traditionaltraditional languages asas aa boundary maintenance strategy maymay be lessening, inasmuch as parents are more interested in their childrenchildren beingbeing taughttaught basicbasic skillsskills than NativeNative AmericanAmerican cultureculture inin schools.schools.

Study Goals

In makingmaking its study of the part of the Mojave Desert upon which the Western Transmission SystemSystem ofof thethe AWVESAWVES cancan bebe expected to have anan effect,effect, CSRICSRI hashas attemptedattempted toto determinedetermine what Native American groups cancan be expectedexpected toto have aa concernconcern for it, to determine thethe degreedegree ofof concernconcern forfor variousvarious areasareas within the larger area,area, toto determinedetermine what categoriescategories of sitessites within those territoriesterritories areare mostmost sensitivesensitive andand significant,significant, and to identify the specificspecific sitessites whichwhich areare mostmost sensitivesensitive and significant. CSRI has gatheredgathered informationinformation aboutabout whatwhat steps NativeNative AmericansAmericans think might best be taken to mitigate necessary and unavoidable negative impacts,impacts, andand will attemptattempt to convey themthem here.here. In addition to thesethese "ethnographic""ethnographic"

77-4 -4 issues, CSRICSRI hashas putput togethertogether aa summarysummary of the StudyStudy Area's history.history. Here,Here, concern has centered on the events sincesince Europeans arrivedarrived andand beganbegan to leave writtenwritten recordsrecords ofof events,eventsl and onon thethe artifactualartifactual remainsremains of thosethose events.events.

Analytical andand Interpretive Methods

The research design for achieving these ends hashas beenbeen discussed in Chapter II.II. In order to makemake it easier toto under-under stand whatwhat thethe fieldfield interviewsinterviews and surveys mean, CSRI'sCSRI's analytical andand interpretiveinterpretive methods must bebe explained.explained.

After compiling data from the ethnographic and other related literature,literature, itit waswas determineddetermined that the Mojave, Che-Che mehuevi, LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes,Paiutes, Serrano, and urban BarstowBarstow NativeNative Americans should be interviewed.interviewed. Of the other groups which have hadhad an interest inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea--the --the Kawaiisu, Kitane-Kitane muk and Vanyume--thereVanyume- -there areare few survivors.survivors. The Vanyume areare extinct asas an ethnic group.group. The remnants of the Kawaiisu and Kitanemuk areare notnot formally organized asas recognizedrecognized tribaltribal groups andand areare disperseddispersed forfor thethe mostmost partpart toto placesplaces farfar from the Study Area. One Kawaiisu who is well acquainted with thethe Study AreaArea andand itsits pastpast and present uses by his people was interviewed.

Field ethnographers were asked toto discussdiscuss asas fullyfully asas possible the useuse ofof the Study AreaArea during the prehistoric and historic periodsperiods withwith those whom theythey interviewed.interviewed. Tribal elders andand the best-informedbest -informed youngeryounger membersmembers of each groupgroup provided aa greatgreat deal of pertinent informationinformation inin thesethese relatively informal,informal, inin-depth -depth interviews.interviews.

It is notnot only the tribal elders and authoritiesauthorities whose concern is ofof importance, however. Even Native Americans who know nothingnothing aboutabout howhow theirtheir greatgreat-grandparents -grandparents managed toto keep alive in the desert maymay havehave an interest in protecting the plantsplants thesethese ancestors used; theythey may alsoalso be concernedconcerned that transmissiontransmission lines built across traditionaltraditional landslands maymay have adverse effects on health, oror thatthat suchsuch lineslines maymay des-des troy the valuevalue of the desertdesert asas aa placeplace wherewhere oneone cancan gogo toto relax and to restore thethe spirit.spirit. To give somesome basis forfor aa weighted assessment of the concernconcern of all Native Americans interviewed for a variety ofof sites,sites, zoneszones andand issuesissues concern-concern ing the proposedproposed construction ofof thethe transmissiontransmission system,system, CSRICSRI used questionnaires and survey formsforms on which thethe answers of all respondents were recorded.recorded. In reporting thethe results,results, thethe number and percentage ofof peoplepeople respondingresponding inin aa givengiven way were tabulated. Las VegasVegas PaiutePaiute interviewsinterviews were supplementedsupplemented byby . a survey conductedconducted byby mail.mail. The responsesresponses toto thesethese andand toto interview questions, indicating whether respondents had no concern, some concern,concern, oror muchmuch concernconcern forfor categoriescategories ofof sitessites and for places namednamed on the survey formform were givengiven numerical

77-5 -5 values. TheThe valuesvalues were addedadded andand thethe averageaverage waswas computed.computed. There werewere 2727 respondents. An answer of "no"no concern"concern" was ratedrated 0;0; ofof "some"some concern,"concern," 1;1; andand ofof "much concern," 2.2.

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Native AmericanAmerican GroupsGroups ConcernedConcerned withwith thethe StudyStudy AreaArea

On MapMap A,A, CSRrCSRI presents aa model of thethe territorialterritorial ethnicity maintenancemaintenance boundariesboundaries of the Native American groupsgroups in thethe Study Area. It shows some overlapping andand tentativetentative boundaries, and,and, like mostmost ethnographic maps ofof thethe area,area, itit is aa simplificationsimplification ofof landland-use -use realities. New information isis emerging concerningconcerning the actual boundary systemssystems withwith respectrespect to NativeNative AmericanAmerican use,use, butbut this mapmap gives a frameworkframework forfor understanding the more elaborate reality.reality.

It appears that each group remembers specificspecific localeslocales about whichwhich it is greatly concerned.concerned. The locations ofof suchsuch areas areare dependentdependent notnot only on where thethe groupgroup oror tribetribe lived beforebefore thethe arrival of Europeans, but onon allall thatthat hashas happened since, and especially on what the present landland base of the group is.is. The group isis most concernedconcerned aboutabout certaincertain areas andand knowsknows moremore about themthem thanthan itit doesdoes aboutabout moremore dis-dis tant places.

Surrounding these areas ofof principal concernconcern areare areasareas ofof gradually decreasing concernconcern andand knowledge.knowledge. This pattern isis true notnot only of thethe present. It waswas also truetrue inin thethe past,past, but the boundariesboundaries of the areas of principal concern have changed; therethere hashas beenbeen a steady attrition of knowledgeknowledge from generation to generation, asas certaincertain kindskinds ofof knowledgeknowledge loselose pertinence and other kinds becomebecome important.important.

Paiute. The datadata fromfrom thethe LasLas VegasVegas PaiutesPaiutes showshow thethe areaarea effect most clearly.clearly. The average impact rating (where(where 2 = much concern; 1 == some concern; and 0 = nono concern) is 1.8 for an area ofof majormajor concern thatthat includesincludes PaiutePaiute SpringSpring andand Creek,Creek, Paiute Valley, IvanpahIvanpah Mountains,Mountains, andand thethe McCulloughMcCullough Mountains.Mountains. Major concernconcern cancan be assumedassumed toto includeinclude not onlyonly thosethose placesplaces that werewere listed on the surveysurvey form,f01�, but contiguouscontiguous areasareas that were not listed.listed. For example, had thethe HighlandsHighlands RangeRange oror thethe Eldorado Mountains been includedincluded amongamong thethe placesplaces listed,listed, theythey would probably havehave evokedevoked asas muchmuch concernconcern asas thethe nearbynearby McCullough MountainsMountains andand EldoradoEldorado Valley.Valley.

When degreesdegrees ofof concernconce� expressedexpressed byby PaiutePaiute respondentsrespondents are plotted onon aa map,map, aa concentricconcentric patternpattern emerges:emerges: concern

7 -6 diminishes inin directdirect relationrelation toto distance from thethe areaarea ofof major concernconcern althoughalthough notnot in precise correlation withwith dis-dis tance (Map(Map· E)fE), Qualitative datadata fromfrom interviewsinterviews supportsupport this effect.effect.

InIn thethe OldOld DadDad Mountains,Mountains, the Bristol MountainsMountains and Clipper Valley,Valley, currentcurrent PaiutePaiute concern overlaps thatthat ofof thethe Chemehuevi mostmost clearly. Literature sourcessources showshow thatthat thethe two overlapoverlap overover muchmuch of the eastern partpart ofof thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

Chemehuevi. The major areaarea ofof ChemehueviChemehuevi concernconcern seemsseems now toto centercenter onon ChemehueviChemehuevi Valley, but itit apparentlyapparently includesincludes the areaarea boundedbounded byby SeE'sSCE's existing LugoLugo/Mojave /Mojave T/LT/L and the proposed HighwayHighway 66 alternate corridor.corridor. Inasmuch asas thethe Cheme-Cheme huevis havehave chosenchosen toto issueissue an official resolution asas aa councilcouncil rather thanthan toto permitpermit interviewinginterviewing (the(the resolution had been drafted, butbut notnot passed,passed, as of October 1,1, 1979)1979),, no datadata have been obtainedobtained fromfrom themthem whichwhich so clearly demonstrate thethe areaarea effect asas dodo the Las Vegas PaiutePaiute data.data.

Laird (1976:7), whowho uses the term Chemehuevi forfor all Chemehuevi/PaiuteChemehuevi /Paiute groups,groups, sayssays thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi "owned" territory extendingextending intointo California,California, withwith boundariesboundaries west of thethe Teha-Teha chapis andand northnorth toto MountMount Whitney,Whitney, as wellwell as parts of Nevada and Arizona.Arizona. Ownership was establishedestablished andand recordedrecorded inin songssongs thatthat belongedbelonged toto specificspecific individuals; the songs named the places the singers owned.owned. The eastern part of the Study Area was included in the three songssongs Laird knew, andand thethe placesplaces named in them are mapped inin her ChemehueviChemehuevi ethnographyethnography (1976:(1976: Front map).

Mo,,ave. Data onon thethe MojaveMojave mustmust bebe interpretedinterpreted inin thethe lightMOiave. 0or a number ofof variables.variables. These variables alsoalso pertain to datadata fromfrom otherother groups, but have a more intenseintense effecteffect with respect to the MojaveMojave because theythey were soso largelarge andand powerfulpowerful a groupgroup andand because,because, in the case of the Mojave atat thethe CRIR,CRIR, they havehave beenbeen so far removed from some of theirtheir most impor-impor tant traditionaltraditional lands forfor approximatelyapproximately aa hundredhundred years.years.

The variables includeinclude thethe locationlocation ofof theirtheir traditionaltraditional use area and of the area over which theythey had control,control, thethe nature ofof thatthat control,control, theirtheir presentpresent-day -day concerns with thethe reservations wherewhere they are members, andand theirtheir evaluationevaluation ofof the bestbest strategy forfor protectingprotecting aa resource.resource. The Mojave understand veryvery wellwell thatthat knowledge isis power, thatthat thethe con-con trol of information isis essentialessential toto thethe controlcontrol ofof resources.resources. They carefully considerconsider whether aa proposedproposed projectproject constitutesconstitutes a direct, immediate threatthreat toto aa valuedvalued resourceresource oror anan indirect,indirect, lessless-immediate -immediate threat. With thethe exceptionexception ofof theirtheir concernconcern for the sacred mountain Avikwame, theythey areare more concernedconcerneq forfor resources inin thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo VerdeVerde Study Area (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1973:6-421973:6 -42 toto 6-61)6 -61)than than forfor resourcesresources inin thethe A��SAWVES Study Area.

The Mojave area ofof greatestgreatest use until thethe 19th19th centurycentury

7-77 -7 extended alongalong thethe ColoradoColorado River floodplain.floodplain. The sacred mountainm01.mtain AvikwameAvikwame markedmarked its northern boundary.boundary , The southern boundary laylay beyondbeyond thethe limitslimits ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, varyingvarying over time (Bean(Bean andand VaneVane 1978:5'1978:5-25 -25 toto 5 5�35).-35) . To the east and west, thethe MojaveMojave hadhad useuse rights;rights; inin the west,west, these extended to thethe coast. These rights were defendeddefended. withwith militarymilitary force.force. The MojavesMojaves werewere largelarge people,people, adeptadept withwith arms,arms, andand their right toto traveltravel fromfrom oneone endend of this domain toto anotheranother seemsseems not toto havehave beenbeen challengedchallenged successfully by otherother peoples.peoples. The peoplepeople likelike thethe PaiutesPaiutes andand Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, whowho farmed and otherwise exploitedexploited areasareas toto thethe westwest ofof thethe river,river, apparentlyapparently did soso atat thethe sufferance ofof thethe Mojave.Moj ave.' They paid forfor thethe right. That this payment was couchedcouched inin thethe frameworkframework ofof reciprocal exchangeexchange hashas toto somesome extent disguised fromfrom ethno-ethno graphers thethe fact that payment waswas made.made. Even thethe areasareas thethe Paiutes andand Chemeh�evisChemehuevis usedused most intensively were usedused atat the sufferancesufferance ofof thethe MojavesMojaves.... The areas in between were usedused by variousvarious arrangementsarrangements betweenbetween people, involving kinship networks, customs of reciprocal exchange between kin,kin, andand poli-poli tical alliancesalliances cemented by marriages ofof elites.elites. Religious andand ceremonial customscustoms cementedcemented this system together, reinforcingreinforcing a socialsocial system soso complex that it has taken ethnographers overover . system complex ethnographers a century to comprehend it.it. The system involvedinvolved traditionaltraditional enmities asas wellwell asas alliancesalliances (White 1974; Bean and Vane 1978:1978: (White 1974; . 5-35 -3 toto 5-7;5 -7;Laidlaw Laidlaw 1979a).1979a) .

Serrano. Serrano concern forfor thethe Hesperia, Victorville,Victorville, and LucerneLucerne ValleyValley areasareas indicates that these places lielie within their presentpresent areaarea ofof majormajor concern, whichwhich also extends consid-consid erably toto the south ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, andand includesincludes thethe TwentyTwenty - nine Palms area.area.

Urban Barstow.Barstow. Most ofof thethe urbanurban BarstowBarstow NativeNative AmericansAmericans maintain that, on the basis ofof tradition,tradition, theythey havehave nono rightright to speakspeak as NativeNative Americans forfor thethe area inin which theythey cur-cur rently live.live. As individuals theythey dodo have concernsconcerns forfor aa con-con siderable numbernumber of specific places, however, andand thesethese areare reported herehere as concernsconcerns ofof NativeNative Americans.Americans.

Kawaiisu. The Kawaiisu who waswas interviewedinterviewed saidsaid thatthat his grandparents had hunted andand gatheredgathered asas farfar easteast asas thethe Newberry Mountains of CaliforniaCalifornia (not(not toto bebe confusedconfused withwith those of Nevada). The literature suggestssuggests thatthat KawaiisuKawaiisu andand Kitanemuk used the resources ofof thethe northern partpart ofof thethe StudyStudy Area, but no statementstatement cancan bebe confidentlyconfidently mademade asas toto howhow muchmuch their area of major use extendedextended intointo thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. It may well have been locatedlocated toto thethe northnorth andand west.west. At anyany rate,rate, their useuse ofof the Study Area and thatthat of thethe Serrano andand the extinct Vanyumes was, likelike thatthat ofof thethe PaiutesPaiutes andand Chemehuevis,Chemehuevis, at the sufferance ofof thethe Mojaves.Mojaves.

It is incidentally of note inin thisthis respectrespect thatthat inin thethe eastern Study Area, where trailtrail systemssystems areare stillstill toto somesome extent intact or have been recorded in the journals of

77-8 -8 explorers andand others,others, MojavesMojaves and Chemehuevis oror PaiutesPaiutes often hadhad parallelparallel trailstrails--as, --as, for example,example, along opposite sides ofof aa valley.valley. These ,trailstrails were likely to be within sight, eacheach ofof thethe other,other, butbut werewere farfar enoughenough apart to prevent theirtheir usersusers meetingmeeting faceface toto face.face .

There is some archival evidence thatthat OwensOwens Valley . archival Valley Paiute andand Panamint-ShoshonePanamint- Shoshone huntedhunted andand gatheredgathered inin the north centralcentral partpart ofof thethe StudyStudy AreaArea on occasion (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b)1979b)... The Study AreaArea is notnot withinwithin the areas generally considered theirtheir territories.territories.

Sensitivity ofof SpecificSpecific SitesSites andand GeneralGeneral AreasAreas in the Study Area

CSRI conductedconducted interviews with 40 Mojaves, 3636 LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes, 11 Kawaiisu,Kawaiisu, 99 SerranosSerranos andand 4747 urbanurban Barstow Native Americans. These interviews elicited informationinformation aboutabout thethe degree ofof concernconcern Native·AmericansNative Americans havehave for general areas in the StudyStudy Area. They also elicited informationinformation aboutabout specificspecific sites aboutabout whichwhich NativeNative AmericansAmericans have aa concern.concern. Their answers havehave beenbeen describeddescribed in detaildetail. inin ChapterChapter VI.VI. The specific placesplaces forfor whichwhich concern waswas spontaneously expressed are tabulatedtabulated inin TableTable 7 7-I.-I. These places were namednamed·in in res-res ponse to openopen-ended -ended questions.questions.

CSRI also namednamed specific places, andand askedasked whetherwhether peoplepeople had a concern forfor them.them. For thethe most part, thisthis kindkind ofof question waswas usedused onlyonly in the survey mailed toto LasLas VegasVegas Paiutes. The concernsconcerns expressedexpressed by Las Vegas PaiutesPaiutes inin res-res pect to open-endedopen -ended questionsquestions havehave beenbeen interpretedinterpreted as being more intenseintense thanthan concerns expressed in response toto the mailed survey.

In addition to interviewing Native Americans, CSRICSRI searchedsearched the literatureliterature for archaeological.archaeological, ethnographic and historical information about thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Over 13001800 archaeologicalarchaeological sites werewere mappedmapped and analyzed from information noted on site records.

Information about the culturalcultural sensitivitysensitivity ofof places within the StudyStudy AreaArea waswas put togethertogether fromfrom allall thesethese sources.sources. When there isis incompleteincomplete information aboutabout aa partpart ofof thethe StudyStudy Area,Area, hypotheses based on extrapolation ofof datadata fromfrom otherother sitessites have been formulated.formulated. For example, therethere areare anan enormousenormous num-num ber of sites in thethe Providence Mountains, butbut not soso manymany inin the NewNew York Mountains. Yet Native Americans saysay thatthat thethe New York MountainsMountains have better pinyonpinyon gatheringgathering placesplaces thanthan anyany other place theythey know.know. A hypothesis thatthat therethere areare many unrecorded sites in thethe New YorkYork MountainsMountains isis expressedexpressed inin ourour description ofof them.them. Archaeologists have confirmedconfirmed thatthat thethe range has not been thoroughlythoroughly surveyed.surveyed.

77-9 -9 ...... 0 t-' SPECIFIC PLACES FOR WHICH NATIVE AMERICANS SPONTANEOUSLY EXPRESSED CONCERN TABLE 7 -I. Las • Avikwame Baker Baker Barnwell Eldorado Cima Calico Cady Barstow Colorado Marine Hesperia Hesperia Elephant Kelso Jack Lenwood Lanfair Lake Hodge Goffs Mojave Lucerne Chemehuevi Paiute Vegas Kawaiisu Serrano Barstow SPECIFIC Mountains Delores Avikwame x Springs Hot area Peak "Early Base area

Baker Valley Valley Mountain Valley area Hot River area

Baker Hot Springs Springs

petroglyph x Spring Barnwell area PLACES CadyBarstow Mountains area x Man" site CimaCalico "Early Man" site x FOR Colorado River x WHICH Eldorado Valley Mojave x x x X GoffsElephant area Mountain x NATIVE TABLE Hesperia area x Chemehuevi Hesperia Hot Spring M1ERICANS KelsoJackHodge Springs Peak 7-1. Las Paiute Lake Delores SPONT&�EOUSLY x x x

LucerneLenwoodLanfair Valley x x Vegas Kawaiisu Marine Base petroglyph EXPRESSED Serrano x x x CONCERN Barstow x x x x x x x x x x x x x t--' "'-J � I Mesquite Mesquite Mitchell's Mojave Mojave Mountain Newberry New Newberry Oro Ord TABLE Victorvilte Rodman Paiute Silurian Searchlight TABLE 7 -I. (continued) Zzyzx Shadow Las Vegas Mountain York Mojave Chemehuevi Paiute Grande Kawaiísu Serrano Barstow Mineral 7-1. Trail River Mountains Mountain Creek

x Mountains Lake Mountains Valley Pass Lake Mesquite Lake Springs

Mesquite Valley x Caverns (continued) and MojaveMitchell's River Caverns Springs x x MountainMojaveNew York Trail Pass Mountains x Spring x xx

Newberry Mountains x Mojave x x OroOrdNewberry GrandeMountain Springs x x ShadowSearchlightRodmanPaiute MountainMountainsCreek and Spring x Chemehuevi x

Silurian Lake Las Paiute x x x x x x

Victorville x x Zzyzx Mineral Springs x x Vegas Kawaiisu x Serrano x x x. Barstow x x x x x x x x Should construction be contemplated near anyany of thethe sitessites or areasareas thatthat NativeNative AmericansAmericans consider important, thethe sensi-sensi tivity ofof thesethese sitessites oror areasareas willwill needneed to be consideredconsidered againagain on a casecase-by-case -by -case basis.basis. Native Americans should be brought toto the sitessites oror areasareas inin person,person, preferablypreferably notnot in summersummer because the areaarea isis soso hot,hot, inin orderorder that they maymay evaluate thethe sensi-sensi tivity moremore preciselyprecisely andand participateparticipate in deciding whether thethe eligibility ofof the sites or areas for the ·NationalNational RegisterRegister should bebe assessed. (They shouldshould alsoalso bebe asked to consider the impactimpact thethe proposedproposed constructionconstruction maymay havehave ·onon resources ofof concern toto them,them, andand toto recommendrecommend specific mitigationmitigation measures. Impact andand mitigationmitigation areare discussed moremore fully in the sections of this report thatthat follow.)follow.)

In order that routes for transmission lineslines andand otherother facilities cancan bebe locatedlocated from the beginningbeginning in areas that areare the leastleast sensitive,sensitive, CSRICSRI hashas assigned tentative sensitivity ratings toto variousvarious partsparts of the Study Area, taking intointo accountaccount Native AmericanAmerican values,values, and ethnographic and historical con-con siderations. The criteria forfor inclusioninclusion inin thethe NationalNational Regis-Regis ter havehave beenbeen used as guidelines.guidelines.

The National Register criteriacriteria most pertinentpertinent toto thethe con-con siderations importantimportant inin this study include whetherwhether sites or districts "are"are associatedassociated withwith eventsevents that havehave mademade a signi-signi ficant contributioncontribution toto the broadbroad patternspatterns ofof our history; or . .. . are associated with thethe liveslives ofof personspersons significantsignificant inin our past; or . . .. have yielded, oror may bebe likelylikely toto yield,yield, information important inin prehistoryprehistory oror history"history" (36(36 CFRCFR 800.10)BOO.lO)..

Because sitessites thatthat have religiousreligious oror sacredsacred significancesignificance are further protected byby PublicPublic LawLaw 9595-341, -341, thethe AmericanAmerican IndianIndian Religious Freedom ActAct of 1978, the provisions of thisthis act andand its interpretationinterpretation are also pertinentpertinent to a determination of site sensitivitysensitivity (U.S. DepartmentDepartment of the Interior, Federal Agencies' Task ForceForce 1979).1979).

CSRI has taken into consideration only thethe importanceimportance andand significance of a site, in thethe lightlight ofof allall informationinformation atat hand, in estimating sensitivity.sensitivity. The condition ofof aa site,site, itsits vulnerability to impact, and the difficulty of protecting or preserving it have not been takentaken intointo consideration.consideration. Even so,so, it hashas rarelyrarely beenbeen possiblepossible to assign a site or area a definite numerical sensitivitysensitivity rating.rating. With respectrespect toto smallsmall sites,sites, thisthis is becausebecause the current study hashas notnot included any field inspecinspec- tion of sites.sites. The same holds true forfor areas, but with respect to themthem therethere is the additional difficulty that there is a variation in sensitivity betweenbetween differentdifferent partsparts ofof thethe area.area.

For ethnographic rating,rating, sitessites andand areasareas areare assignedassigned ratings fromfrom 11 toto 10.10. A rating ofof 1010 isis reservedreserved forfor placesplaces that are uniquely sensitive.sensitive. Avikwame, consideredconsidered thethe placeplace of creation byby manymany Native Americans of thethe Southwest, isis allotted the only 1010 inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area.

7-127 -12 Ratings fromfrom 7 to 99 are assigned to placesplaces of highhigh sensisensi- tivity. Any place where therethere areare likelylikely toto bebe burials,burials, ceremonialceremonial placesplaces andand objects,objects, oror that havehave other sacredsacred aspects is givengiven a rating of atat leastleast 7.7. Should construction be contemplatedcontemplated nearnear sitessites oror areasareas ofof highhigh sensitivity,sensitivity, their eligibility forfor thethe NationalNational Register should be determined,determined, with NativeNative AmericansAmericans involved in thethe process fromfrom thethe beginning.beginning.

Ratings from 4 to 6 are assigned toto places ofof moderate sensitivity. If such sites are large and unusual, theirtheir eligibility forfor thethe NationalNational RegisterRegister shouldshould bebe determineddetermined if construction isis to bebe undertaken near oror throughthrough them.them.

Ratings from 1I to 3 are assignedassigned toto places ofof lowlow sensi-sensi tivity.

The following is a guideline forfor assigningassigning ratings,ratings, but has beenbeen flexibly interpreted:interpreted:

Unique sacred sites, places considered toto be "the center ofof the world,"world," or the place of creation 10

Large centers ofof occupation,occupation, sacredsacred sitessites that do notnot meetmeet the criteria for a rating of 10, places where therethere areare multiplemUltiple burials or cremations, unique sitessites possibly sacred 9

Ritual and ceremonialceremonial places,places, burialburial sites,sites, petroglyph sites,sites, largelarge villagesvillages 8

Extensive trailtrail systems,systems, singlesingle petroglyphs,petroglyphs, smaller villages, sites with midden, inclu-inclu ding caves and rockshelters, places where endangered species of plants andand animals,animals, sacred to Native Americans, areare foundfound 7

Caves and rockshelters with artifacts,artifacts, butbut no midden, largelarge workshops andand quarries,quarries, unique--butunique- -but not sacredsacred--sites --sites 6

Trails overover oneone-fourth - fourth milemile long,long, intermediate workshopsworkshops andand quarriesquarries mazes, andand otherother large rock features.features. Places where plantsplants and animals important toto NativeNative AmericansAmericans are found 5

Extensive temporary campsites,campsites, groups ofof rock circles,circles, smallersmaller workshopsworkshops andand quarries.quarries. Places where mineral resourcesresources valued by Native Americans areare foundfound 4

77-13 -13 Smaller temporary campsites, extensive sherd and lithic scatters, one to three rock circles 3

Milling features, sherd andand lithiclithic scattersscatters of intermediate size 2

Small sherd and lithic scatters, sites with less than 4 artifacts, unless artifactsartifacts areare unique 1

On Table 77-11 -II thethe placesplaces inin thethe StudyStudy Area thatthat have moderate oror highhigh sensitivity areare listed,listed, thethe kindskinds ofof sourcessources of information about them consulted are indicated, and their sensitivity rating isis given.given. For reasons stated above,above, thisthis is usuallyusually a range. Data from sites or areas about whichwhich information hashas come from several sources can be consideredconsidered more reliable than those which comecome fromfrom onlyonly oneone source.source. Archaeological site records forfor thethe StudyStudy Area areare thethe leastleast reliable sourcesource ofof information used, especially with respect to location of sites.sites.

In the section ofof thethe reportreport followingfollowing TableTable 7 7-11-II is anan alphabetic listinglisting of sites withwith descriptions, followedfollowed by aa numerical listinglisting byby sitesite number.number. Only sites consideredconsidered potentially of moderate or high significancesignificance havehave beenbeen listed.listed. In orderorder toto provideprovide useful information about soso largelarge anan area, CSRICSRI hashas discussed largelarge geographicalgeographical entitiesentities that would need to be broken up into smaller areas if eligibility for NationalNational RegisterRegister status as sites or districtsdistricts were toto be considered.

Historical Sites.Sites. Sensitivity ratings ofof High,High, Moderate,Moderate, or LowLow havehave been assigned toto historichistoric sites.sites. Sites of High sensitivity have national oror statewidestatewide significance.significance. Those of MOderateModerate sensitivity have countycounty oror regionalregional significance.significance. Those of Low sensitivity have locallocal significance.significance.

Citations. Archaeological informationinformation has been drawndrawn fromfrom site records unless otherwiseotherwise noted.noted. Site records have not been listedlisted inin thethe "References"References Cited"Cited" section.section. If the sitesite record is directly quoted, the name of thethe person who recorded the site and the year itit was recordedrecorded areare given.given.

Site Locations. These areas and sitessites are shownshown on Map G.G.

77-14 -14 TABLETABLE 7 7-II.-II.

ETHNOGRAPHICETHNOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITYSENSITIVITY ESTIMATESESTIMATES

SourceSource ofof information:information: A-A- ArchaeologicalArchaeological sitesite -:recordrecord ·L-L- LiteratureLiterature NA-NA- NativeNative AmericanAmerican PC-PC- PersonalPersonal communica-communica RatingRating Location tiontion EstimatesEstimates

AftonAfton CanyonCanyon NA, A,A, LL 66-7 -7

AmboyAmboy Crater AA 77-8 -8

AmútcakiemAmutcakiem L 77-8 -8

AngayabaAngayaba L 77-8 -8

Antelope Valley A 7

Apple Valley LL 7-8

Arrowweed Spring LL 55-8 -8

AtongaibitAtongaibit NA, A, L 77-8 -8

Avikwame* NA, L, PC 10

Baker* NA 2

Baker Hot Springs* NA 7

Barnwell Area* NA, A 7-8

Barstow Area* NA, A, LL 7-8

5-8 Bonanza King Mine A 5-8

3-8 Bristol Lake and Mountains NA, L 3-8

Broadwell Lake A 7

7-8 Bullion MOuntainsMountains A 7-8

4-8 Cady Mountains* NA, A 4-8

Calico* NA, A, L 9

4 -8 Camp Cady Area A, L 4-8

7 -8 Caucameat .AtA, L 7-8

*Data from interviews 7-15 Table 77-II. -II. (continued)

Rating Location Source of Information Estimate

Cave Spring A 7

Chemehuevi Valley A 3-83 -8

Chuckwalla Springs L 6

Cima* NA, L 44-7 -7

Clark Mountain*Mountain* NA, A 33-7 -7

Clipper Valley* NA, L 3-73 -7

Colorado River* NA, L 4-94 -9

Colton Well A 7-87 -8

Crescent A 6-86 -8

Cronese Valley A, L, PC 6-96 -9

Devil's Gate A 7-87 -8

Eldorado Mountains NA, L 44-8 -8

Eldorado Valley* NA, A, LL 44-8 -8

Elephant Mountain* NA, A, PC 4-84 -8

Emerson Lake A 4-74 -7

Fourth of July Canyon NA, A, L 33-8 -8

Fox TrotTrot PetroPetroglyphsglyphs A 77-8 -8

Giant Rock A 4-84 -8

Goffs Area* NA, A, L 5-85 -8

Granite Mountains NA, A 4-84 -8

Granite Mountains NA, A 44-7 -7

GuapiabitGuaEiabit A, L 7-87 -8

Hackberry MOuntain*Mountain* NA, A 3-83 -8

Halloran Spring A 7-87 -8

Hesperia Area* NA, A, LL 4-94 -9

Hesperia Hot Spring* NA 7

HiddenBidden Valley A 7-87 -8

7-167 -16 Table 77-II. -II. (continued) Rating Location Source of InformationInformation Estimate

Highland RangeRange L,L 33-8 -8

Hodge* NA 22-7 -7

Homer Mountain*Mountain* NA 2-82 -8

Ivanpah Lake A, LL 2-72 -7

Ivanpah Mountains*Mountains* NA 22-7 -7

Jack Spring* NA 7

Johnson Valley AA 77-8 -8

Juniper Flats NA, A 33-8 -8

Kelso Peak* NA 44-7 -7

Kessler Spring A 66-8 -8

Lake Delores* NA 3

Lanfair Valley* NA, L, A 44-8 -8

Lenwood* NA, A 44-8 -8

Little Piute Mountains NA, AA 44-8 -8

Lovejoy Spring A DestroyedDestroyed

Lucerne Lake AA 77-8 -8

Lucerne Valley* NA,NA, AA 77-8 -8

Marine Base Petroglyph* A,A, PCPC 66-7 -7

Marl Spring A,A, LL 77-8 -8

Maviatem L 77-8 -8

McCulloughMcCullough Mountains* A,A, PCPC 4-7

Mesquite Lake NA, A 33-7 -7

MesquiteMesquite Valley*Valley* NANA 33-6 -6

MidMid HillsHills A 44-9 -9

Mitchell'sMitchell's Caverns*Caverns * NA,NA, AA 55-8 -8

MojaveMojave LandLand AreaArea NA,NA, A,A, LL 99

MojaveMoj ave River*River* NA,NA, A,A, LL 44-9 -9

77-17 -17 TableTable 77-II. -II.(continued)(continued)

RatingRating LocationLocation SourceSource ofof InformationInformation EstimateEstimate

MojaveMojave Trail*Trail* NA,NA, A,A, LL 44-9 -9

Mountain Pass* NA,NA, AA 44-8 -8

New York MountMountains*ains* NA,NA, A,A, LL 44-9 -9

Newberry Mountains, NevadaNevada (see(see Avikwame)

Newberry MountainMountain/Rodman /Rodman NA,NA, A,A, LL 44-9 -9 Mountain Area

Newberry Springs* NA,NA, AA 77-8 -8

OldOld Dad Mountains* NA,NA, A,A, LL 33-7 -7

OldOld Woman Mountains NA, A,A, LL 33-8 -8

Ord Mountains* A 33-7 -7

Oro Grande*Grande. NA,NA, A, LL 44-9 -9

Paiute Creek and Spring*Spring* NA, A, LL 88-9 -9

Paiute Mountains,Mountains, northern NA, A, LL 44-9 -9 * range*range

Paiute Mountains, southern NA,NA, A,A, LL 44-8 -8 range

Providence Mountains NA, A, LL 44-8 -8

Rabbit Lake A 44

Rabbit Springs A, LL 5

Red Pass LakeLake A 55-7 -7

Rock Spring A, LL 55-8 -8

Rodman Mountains*Mountains* - see Newberry/RodmanNewberry /Rodman Mt.

San Bernardino Mountains NA, A, LL 55-8 -8

Searchlight* NA, L 44-7 -7

Shadow Mountain.Mountain* NA 33-6 -6

Shadow Valley NA, A 33-7 -7

Silurian Lake* NA 22-7 -7

77-18 -18 Table 77-II. -II. (continued)

Rating Location Source of InformationInformation Estimate

Silver CreekCreek Sites A 33-8 -8

Silver Lake A, L 2-52 -5

Sleeping Beauty A 5-75 -7

Soda LakeLake andand the Sink of NA, A, L 3-73 -7 the MojaveMojave

Soda MountainsMountains NA, A, L 1-51 -5

Spirit MountainsMountains - see Avikwame

Stoddard ValleyValley A 2-72 -7

Summit Spring A 7-87 -8

Surprise Spring A 8

Susugina NA, A 7-87 -8

Ta khtam (Emerson Lake A 7-8 petroglyphs)

Topiabit A, L 7-8

Troy Lake Area A 3-63 -6

Turquoise Mountains A, L 3-73 -7

Victorville* A, L 77-9 -9

Vontrigger Spring cluster A, L 66-7 -7

Ward Valley A 44-7 -7

Woods Wash A, PC 44-6 -6

Zzyzx MineralMineral Springs* NA, A, L 6

SBr-221SBr -221 A 5

6 SBr-296SBr -296 A 6

6 SBr-584SBr -584 A 6

SBrSBr-980 -980 A 5

6 SBrSBr-1l67 -1167 A 6

3 -6 SBrSBr-1546 -1546 A 3-6

77-19 -19 Table 77-II. -II. (continued) Rating Source of Information Location Source of Information Estimate

SBr-1880 AA' 8

SBr-1888 A 5

SBr-1907 A 6

SBr-1961 A 8

SBr-2107SBr-2107 A 44-6 -6

SBr-2110SBr-2110 and SBr-2129SBr-2129 AA 77-8 -8

SBr-2240SBr-2240 AA 11-5 -5

77-20 -20 TABLE 77-II. -II. (continued) HISTORIC SITESSITES SENSITIVITYSENSITIVITY RATINGSRATINGS

Rating Rating Location Estimate Location Estimate

California Sites Goffs Moderate

Alf's Blacksmith ShopShop High Government Station High

Arrastre Canyon Quarry Moderate Grapevine StationStation High

Bagdad Chase Mine High Guapiabit High

Barnwell Moderate Hardyville High

Barstow's OldOld Stone HousesHouses Moderate Harvey House, Barstow High

Bitter Springs High Ivanpah (Leastalk)(Leastalk) High

Bonanza King Mine High Kane Springs Low

Borate Moderate Kelso Low

Burton's Station High Keystone Mine Moderate

Camp Cady High Lane's Station High

Camp Ibis Moderate Lanfair Ghost Town Low

Calico Ghost Town/Townl Llano Del RioRio Low Mining District High Marion High Chimney Rock High Marl Springs High Cima Dome Area Low Mojave Road High Colton WellWell Historic SiteSite Low Nipton Low Coolgardie Camp Moderate Old Woman SpringsSprings High Cottonwoods Station High Ord Mountain Mining Daggett Ditch, Minneola District Moderate Canal Low Oro Grande Cemetery Moderate Fenner Low Paiute Creek, FortFort Fish Ponds Station High Paiute High

Font's Garage Low Point of Rocks High

Forks-in-the-RoadForks -in- the -Road High Providence Ghost Town Moderate

Giant Rock.Rock Low Rabbit Springs Moderate

7-217 -21 TableTable 77-II. -II. (continued)

Rating Rating Location Estimate Location Estimate

RockRock CorralCorral High Nevada SitesSites

Rock Springs/GovernmentSprings /Government Crescent Mining Holes Area High District High

Sawpit CanyonCanyon Route High Eldorado Mining District High Sidewinder Mine Low Nelson Moderate Silver MountainMountain Mining District Moderate Quartette Mining Company Complex Moderate Soda Springs High Sunset Mining Stone HotelHotel Moderate District Moderate

Upper CrossingCrossing High Techatticup MineMine Moderate

Upper Narrows High Yellow Pine Mining Company RailroadRailroad Moderate Vanderbilt GhostGhost Town Moderate

Verde Ranch High

Waterman Mine Moderate

77-22 -22 DISCUSSION OF SITESSITES

Ethnographic Sites

Afton Canyon, also known as Cave Canyon, isis where thethe Mojave RiverRiver cuts through the ·CadyCady Mountain. A number of archaeological sitessites withwith considerable depthdepth ·areare recordedrecorded inin the canyon. This waswas the first place where those travellingtravelling west onon the MojaveMojave Trail encountered thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver onon thethe surface. It hashas been an importantimportant routeroute inin thethe historichistoric asas well as the prehistoric period.period. It is subject to flooding,flooding, however, and it is uncertain how many ofof itsits culturalcultural resour-resour ces havehave survivedsurvived the combined onslaught of periodic floodsfloods and "civilization""civilization" in the form of thethe UnionUnion PacificPacific Railroad.Railroad.

On the north slopes of thethe CadyCady·Mountains Mountains above and to the southsouth ofof AftonAfton CanyonCanyon are a number of archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites and sections of aboriginal trails.trails.

v1henWhen Lt. Williamson surveyedsurveyed thethe Mojave�1ojave RiverRiver inin 18531853 hehe n found canecane growing there,there, ".•••. . similar toto thatthat mentioned asas found inin Walker'sWalker's Pass,Pass, andand large quantities of it hadhad been cut byby the Indians.Indians. We saw,saw, however, no freshfresh IndianIndian signs."signs." Williamson described the clay bluffs asas risingrising moremore thanthan aa hundred feet on eithereither sideside ofof thethe river.river. "The clay presents every variety ofof beautifulbeautiful andand delicatedelicate tintstints--purple, -- purple, pink, blue, yellow, etc."etc." (1856).(1856). These bluffs may have been aa sourcesource of clay for pottery.

The area would seemseem toto bebe includedincluded inin thethe Mojave'sMojave's con-con cern for the MojaveMojave Trail asas aa sacredsacred place.place. Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 66-7. -7.

Amboy Crater.Crater. The lavalava flowflow fromfrom Amboy CraterCrater createdcreated "many rocksheltersrockshelters that havehave been prehistoric and historic habitations" accordingaccording toto E.E. L.L. Davis,Davis, whowho recordedrecorded SBrSBr-3266 -3266 in 1978. She notes that the sitesite isis of NationalNational RegisterRegister potential, and says, "This lavalava bed isis IMPORTANT."IMPORTANT." About half a milemile away SBrSBr-3265 -3265 consistsconsists ofof 44 cairns,cairns, a rock feature andand a cleared area.area. Sensitivity:.Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

AmutcakiemAmútcakiem was aa SerranoSerrano villagevillage locatedlocated atat thethe "base"base ofof San Bernardinos, S. of Victorville," by Strong,Strong, who showedshowed itit on a mapmap slightly to the southwest ofof Victorville (1929:7,11).(1929:7,11). Its preciseprecise location isis unknown. Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

AnAngayaba, a aba, aa villagevillage visitedvisited byby thethe MoragaMoraga expeditionexpedition inin 1819 (BeattieBeattie 1955)1955) isis perhapsperhaps representedrepresented byby SBrSBr-200, -200, onon thethe south bank of CampCamp CadyCady Ranch,Ranch, andand oneone andand oneone-half -half miles (2,,4(2..4km) km) southwestsouthwest ofof thethe sitesite of Old Camp Cady.Cady. The sitesite contains choppers, scrapers, points andand firestones.firestones. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

77-23 -23 Antelope Valley, SiteSite UCRUCR-V, -V, isis probablyprobably that ofof aa tem-tem porary camp site.site. It contains middenmidden up to 12 inchesinches (30(30 cm)cm) in depthdepth extendingextending over a,a, 32x3232x32 footfoot (lOxlO(10x10 m) area. Other sites inin AntelopeAntelope ValleyValley are largely lithic scatters.scatters. Sensitivity: 7.

Apple Valley is said toto derivederive itsits name fromfrom aa mispronun-mispronun ciation ofof itsits NativeNative AmericanAmerican name,name, whose English translationtranslation was "Happy Valley" (Sylvester(Sylvester 1965,1965, citedcited byby Weinman-Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979:166). The village sitesite knownknown by thethe name hashas notnot beenbeen identified. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Arrowweed Spring, at thethe southernsouthern endend ofof thethe ProvidenceProvidence Mountains, is shown asas aa stoppingstopping placeplace onon aa ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute trail betweenbetween ChuckawallaChuckawalla Spring and Kessler SpringSpring byby LairdLaird (1976:End(1976:En d map).map). Sensitivity: 5�8.5=8.

Atongaibit isis thoughtthought toto havehave beenbeen locatedlocated atat SBrSBr-178. -178. Merriam saidsaid thatthat thisthis villagevillage waswas nearnear HesperiaHesperia (Y (Y/24a/Nl)./24a /N1). This villagevillage maymay bebe one of the villages visited byby GarcésGarces in 1776 (Coues(Coues 1900:245,1900:245, citedcited byby Weinman-Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979)1979).. It was visitedvisited byby a Spanish military expeditionexpedition ledled byby Lt.Lt. GabrielGabriel Moraga �ovemberNovember 2626-28, -28, 18191819 (Beattie(Beattie 1955).1955). The village may have beenbeen eithereither VanyumeVanyume or Serrano, butbut is withinwithin the area of concern of presentpresent-day -day Serrano. In fact, most Native Ameri-Ameri cans inin southernsouthern CaliforniaCalifornia know of the village andand itsits placeplace in the historyhistory of California.California. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Avikwame, Spirit Mountain* is the place of creationcreation forfor the Mojave, Quechan, Kamia, Diegueño, andand Maricopa. Five Mojave, Que chan , Kamia, Diegueno, Maricopa. Five people at CRIR and 2 at FMIR spontaneouslyspontaneously expressedexpressed greatgreat concern that this mountain notnot bebe impacted.impacted. One CRIRCRIR elder,elder, who was interviewed inin depthdepth becausebecause hehe isis soso wellwell groundedgrounded in traditionaltraditional culture, pointed out that the ideaidea thatthat thethe Mojave own the lowerlower ColoradoColorado RiverRiver andand aa stripstrip ofof thethe Colo-Colo rado Basin 11-200 -200 milesmiles wide,wide, andand havehave ownedowned this territoryterritory "from time immemorial," stemsstems fromfrom theirtheir having heldheld Avikwame so sacred that theythey kept otherother IndiansIndians away.away.

The ethnographic literatureliterature givesgives moremore informationinformation aboutabout the reason Avikwame isis sacred.sacred. Kroeber noted, "Incidentally,"Incidentally, the religious dominance of thethe Mohave overover aa vastvast regionregion isis clear. The DiegueñoDiegueno mythsmyths telltell ofof thethe sacredsacred MohaveMohave MountainMountain ft Avikwam�Avikwame...... " (1925:599).(1925:599).

The creation storystory ofof thethe MojaveMojave themselvesthemselves tellstells howhow thethe creatorcreator-culture -culture herohero MastamhoMastamho broughtbrought his people inin hishis armsarms up the Colorado RiverRiver toto thethe "northern"northern endend ofof whatwhat waswas toto bebe Mohave country.country. Here he heaped upup thethe greatgreat pointedpointed peakpeak

77-24 -24 Avikwame--moreAvikwame- -more exactlyexactly Avi-Avi-kwa'me--Newberry kwa'me -- Newberry oror DeadDead MountainMountain as thethe AmericansAmericans call it-it--where -where he,he, too,too, builtbuilt himself aa house. It isis ofof this hou�ehouse that shamans dream,dream, forfor here theirtheir shadows werewere asas littlelittle boysboys in the face of Mastamho, andand re-re ceived fromfrom himhim theirtheir ordainedordained powers, confirmed by teststests onon the spot. Here, too, Mastamho made thethe peoplepeople shout,shout, andand thethe fourth dayday sunsun andand moon appeared.appeared. •. . .. Now Mastamho's work was nearlynearly done.done. To Walapai, Yavapai, Chemehuevi, Yuma,Yuma, andand Kamia hehe gavegave eacheach theirtheir land and mountains, theirtheir foods,foods, and theirtheir speech,speech, and sent themthem off.off. The youngest, thethe Mohave,Mohave, he taughttaught toto farm,farm, to cook in pottery, andand toto staystay inin thethe country" (Kroeber(Kroeber 1925:7701925:770-771). -771).

It is wellwell documented thatthat the Quechan (Yuma)(Yuma) people hold the mountainmountain AvikwameAvikwame to have beenbeen tt�uechanehe placeplace ofof theirtheir creation (Harrington 1908;1908; FordeForde 1931; ForbesForbes 1965).1965). The mountain isis also consideredconsidered to be thethe presentpresent-day -day dwellingdwelling place ofof thethe Creator, whowho isis "the source ofof spiritualspiritual power"power" (Forbes(Forbes 1965:1965: 63-64).63 -64).

The mountainmountain Avikwame (Spirit(Spirit Mountain or Newberry MounMoun- tain) isis recordedrecorded asas beingbeing the place where thethe Maricopa peoplepeople of ArizonaArizona believe theythey werewere createdcreated (Spier(Spier 1933:352,4141933:352,Marico�a14-415). -415).

Avikwame isis recorded asas thethe place where thethe KamiaKamia andand DieguenoDiegueño peoplepeople (also known as Ipai,Ipai, Kumeyaay, andTTipai)and Tipai) believe theythey werewere created (DuBois(DuBois 1901;1901; GiffordGifford 1931;1931; LuomalaLuomala 1978)1978)..

Kroeber provides usefuluseful informationinformation withwith respectrespect toto whatwhat motmtainmountain is meant, andand thethe extentextent ofof thethe sacredsacred area:area: "Avik-"Avik wame, the summit of Dead Mountain, 58005800 feetfeet high,high, isis somethingsomething over 40 milesmiles S of Eldorado Canyon.Canyon. Its peak isis anan airlineairline tenten-and-a-fraction -and -a- fractionmiles milesfrom fromDavis Davis Dam,Dam, betweenbetween NWNW and NNW from this (8.5(8.5 miles duedue WW fromfrom thethe DamDam andand thenthen 66 milesmiles N).N). A sharp side peak is Newberry Mountain, somethingsomething overover 30003000 feet highhigh and less thanthan 33 milesmiles fromfrom thethe river.river. On some maps the namename NewberryNewberry is appliedapplied toto thethe mainmain peak.peak. The Mohave apply AvikwameAvikwame bothboth to the totaltotal mountain mass andand toto thethe f highest peak...peale... It is roughly 40 miles SS ofof Ha'avulypo"Ha avulypo" (Kroeber 1972:22). Sensitivity: 10.

Baker*.Baker *. Two respondentsrespondents inin urbanurban BarstowBarstow spontaneouslyspontaneously expressed moderatemoderate toto greatgreat concernconcern forfor mineralmineral resourcesresources used byby NativeNative Americans inin thethe vicinityvicinity ofof Baker.Baker. SensitiSensiti- vity: 2.

One urban BarstowBarstow respondentrespondent expressedexpressed concernconcern forfor BakerBaker Hot SpringsSprings*, *, suggesting thatthat theythey werewere usedused forfor purification.purification. Sensitivity: 7.

77-25 -25 Barnwell AreaArea*. *. This area isis of concernconcern toto aa PaiutePaiute respondent whosewhose familyfamily lived in the locality forfor generations.generations. He wantswants toto bebe suresure thatthat �hethe graves of threethree ofof hishis relativesrelatives in thethe areaarea southsouth ofof NiptonNipton (near BarnwellBarnwell and about fivefive miles fromfrom Ivanpah)Ivanpah) are not disturbed.disturbed. He also has concern for somesome ofof thethe BarnwellBarnwell area homesteads. He said about six Indian familiesfamilies livedlived inin thisthis areaarea untiluntil the late 1950s, but he could notnot remember theirtheir names.

Barnwell is rich in archaeologicalarchaeological resources.resources. It isis apparently thethe sitesite of a permanent village.village. There isis atat leastleast one petroglyphpetroglyph site nearby. Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

Barstow AreaArea*. *. One Mojave resident has somesome concernconcern thatthat burial sitessites ofof MojavesMojaves knownknown to be in thethe BarstowBarstow areaarea notnot bebe disturbed. Mojaves frequentedfrequented thisthis areaarea not onlyonly inin prehis-prehis toric times,times, butbut havehave livedlived herehere at least in small numbers through much,much, ifif notnot all, of thethe historic period.period. Some Mojaves ·presentlypresently live near Barstow.Barstow. The area is rich inin archaeologi-archaeologi cal resources.resources. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Bonanza King Mine, SiteSite SBrSBr-548, -548, isis ofof ethnographicethnographic and ethnohistorical interestinterest becausebecause it is apparently thethe placeplace where NativeNative AmericansAmericans working inin thethe mine duringduring thethe histori-histori cal period lived.lived. According toto aa sitesite recordrecord filedfiled byby G.G. A.A. Smith inin 1948,1948, "Howard"Howard Blair of 71L Ranch has artifacts." Sensitivity: 5-8.5 -8.

Bristol Lake andand Mountains.Mountains. Parker areaarea ChemehueviChemehuevi havehave traditionally gathered saltsalt atat BristolBristol Lake.Lake. A prehistoric trail "rtms"runs southsouth ofof the existing evaporation ponds northwest to southeast"southeast" (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).19 79b) .

There are numerous permanentpermanent campsitescampsites inin thethe BristolBristol Mountains northwest ofof thethe lake.lake. Chemehuevi continuecontinue toto gather food and craftcraft materials herehere (Laidlaw( Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). The range is ofof great concern toto thethe Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, andand ofof somesome concern to the LasLas Vegas PaiutePaiute andand Mojave.Mojave. Sensitivity: 33-8. -8.

Broadwell Lake.Lake. SBr-170SBr -170 atat thethe northnorth endend of Broadwell Lake (a(a dry lake)lake) isis identifiedidentified onon thethe sitesite recordrecord asas aa villagevillage site, containing "several"several cultures."cultures." The sitesite isis 50SO feetfeet (15(15 m) wide andand aa mile longlong (1.6(1.6 km).km). The prehistoric sitesite isis near the historic sitesite ofof Broadwell,Broadwell, ofof whichwhich therethere remainsremains an abandoned well andand aa scatterscatter ofof tintin canscans washedwashed downdown fromfrom an old mining area.area. Sensitivity: 7.

7-267 -26 Bullion Mountains. In a draw between thethe main BullionBullion range andand thethe northernnorthern BullionBullion range of which LeadLead MountainMountain is thethe majormajor peak,peak, SBr-161SBr -161 extendsextends easteast andand westwest somesome four miles inin aa stripstrip alongalong an'elevationan elevation of aboutabout 13001300 feetfeet (400(400 m). The area contains large shelters withwith old and newnew material, includingincluding petroglyphs. The sitesite isis within thethe Marine CorpsCorps TrainingTraining Center.Center. It hashas been nominated for National RegisterRegister status.status. Further south a number of lithiclithic scatters, workshopworkshop areasareas andand rockshelters have been recorded.recorded. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Cad�Cady MountainsMountains*. *. One respondent fromfrom thethe Barstow urban group sa�dsaid hehe huntshunts inin thethe CadyCady MOuntainMountain area, and he stronglystrongly urged thatthat itit notnot be impacted. There are severalseveral largelarge archae-archae ological sitessites onon thethe southwessouthwestt slopes of this range, especially SBr-l902SBr -1902and and 19031903 (CSRI(CSRI 479479 and 480). SBr-l903SBr -1903 isis almostalmost a mile andand aa halfhalf in length andand halfhalf aa milemile wide.wide. It maymay be thatthat SBr-1902SBr -1902represents represents asas largelarge a settlement-settlement--there -there areare several smaller sites near it.it. Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Calico*.Calico *. ThisThis "Early"Early Man"Man" sitesite nearnear the old mining towntown of CalicoCa ibisis withinwithin thethe CalicoCalico MountainMountain ArchaeologicalArchaeological District,District, which is onon the National Register.Register. Five urban Barstow respond-respond ents expressedexpressed concernconcern about preserving the site,site, asas diddid 33 Serrano respondents. The latterlatter'used used thethe sitesite asas anan illustra-illustra tion ofof aa sitesite wherewhere there were burials.burials. Sensitivity: 9.

Camp Cady Area.Area. The Mojave RiverRiver goesgoes undergroundunderground aboutabout half aa milemile <.8(8 km)km) easteast ofof thethe sitesite ofof thethe firstfirst CampCamp Cady,Cady, now called Camp Cady Ranch onon thethe topographictopographic map.map. The sitesite of the secondsecond Camp Cady is about two miles (3(3 km) easteast alongalong the sinksink ofof the Mojave. All alongalong thisthis areaarea archaeologicalarchaeological sites havehave beenbeen recorded, manymany ofof themthem flakeflake scatters.scatters. The area hashas bothboth prehistoric andand historichistoric significance.significance. SensiSensi- tivity: 44-8. -8.

Caucameat, a village visitedvisited inin 18191819 byby thethe MoragaMoraga expe-expe dition (Beattie 1955) has been tentativelytentatively identifiedidentified asas SBr-187.SBr -187. This sitesite onon thethe easteast bank ofof thethe Mojave River northeast of Helendale coverscovers 1515 acresacres (6(6 ha)ha).. When thethe site recordrecord waswas most recentlyrecently filedfiled byby G.G. A.A. SmithSmith inin 1973,1973, he noted,noted, "This is a significantsignificant archaeologicalarchaeological resource."resource." Artifacts included milling stones,stones, chippedchipped stonestone tools,tools, oli-oli vella beads,beads, abalone, aa black paintpaint stone,stone, andand pottery.pottery. It was estimated thatthat therethere werewere betweenbetween 25,00025,000 andand 30,00030,000 arti-arti facts on thethe site.site.

Caucameat was estimatedestimated toto bebe 1111 leaguesleagues fromfrom thethe MissionMission of San Gabriel,Gabriel, and was named SanSan HilarioHilario byby thethe SpaniardsSpaniards (Beattie 1955:63). Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

7-277 -27 Cave Spring.Spring. WithinWithin a mile to the southsouth asas well asas toto thethe west ofof CaveCave SpringSpring are numerous sites.sites. There areare manymany rockrock - sheltersshelters inin aa lavalava flow.flow .. They contain a variety ofof artifacts,artifacts, including grindinggrinding stones,stones, chippedchipped stone tools, and woven fiber artifacts.artifacts. This is within anan areaarea ofof concernconcern toto Cheme-Cheme huevi, Paiute,Paiute, andand Mojave.Mojave. Sensitivity: 7.

Chemehuevi Valley is forfor the most partpart outsideoutside thethe StudyStudy Area boundaries,boundaries, butbut a northernnorthern part of itit doesdoes extendextend intointo the StudyStudy Area. It is of concern to both the Chemehuevi and the Mojave.Mojave. S�nsitivity:Sensitivity: 3-8.3 -8.

Chuckwalla Springs.Sorings. Laird (1976:End(1976:End map) showsshows twotwo Che-Che mehuevi trailstrails crossingcrossing at Chuckwalla SpringsSprings· inin thethe ClipperClipper Mountains. This is within anan areaarea ofof concernconcern toto Chemehuevis,Chemehuevis, Paiutes.Paiutes, and Mojaves. No archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites have been recorded inin thisthis vicinity.vicinity, probably because itit has not beenbeen surveyed. Sensitivity: 6.

Cima*.Cima *. The Paiutes who were interviewedinterviewed expressedexpressed aa concernconcer:tiIor for thethe IvanpahIvanpah ValleyValley area just north ofof Cima,Cima, where Indian cowboyscowboys workedworked on various ranches fromfrom thethe turnturn ofof thethe century untiluntil the latelate 1940s.1940s. It is an area of both historic and traditionaltraditional interest. Few archaeological sitessites have beenbeen reported thus far in this part of IvanpahIvanpah Valley,Valley, probablyprobably because it hashas notnot been surveyed.surveyed. Sensitivity: 4-7.4 -7.

Clark MountainMountain*. *. On thethe slopesslopes ofof ClarkClark MountainsMountains areare numerous sites containing roastingroasting pits,pits, suggestingsuggesting extensiveextensive prehistoric use.use. Site SBrSBr-2704 -2704 atat PaehalkaPaehalka SpringSpring and nearby site SBrSBr-82l -821 areare rockrock sheltersshelters with midden.midden. The Clark Moun-Moun tains are of muchmuch concernconcern toto thethe LasLas VegasVegas Paiute.Paiute. SensitiSensiti- vity: 3-7.3 -7.

Clipper Valley* isis anan areaarea ofof muchmuch concernconcern toto thethe Cheme-Cheme huevi anana d ofof somesome concernconcern toto thethe LasLas Vegas Paiute andand Mojave.Mojave. Two Chemehuevi trails fromfrom ChuckwallaChuckwalla SpringsSprings toto KesslerKessler Springs led across thethe valleyvalley (Laird(Laird 1976:1976: EndEnd map).map). Sensitivity: 33-7. -7.

Colorado RiverRiver*. *. Mojave respondentsrespondents have aa concernconcern forfor the ColoradoColorado River, considering aa stripstrip fromfrom oneone toto twotwo hundred miles wide onon eithereither sideside ofof itit toto bebe theirtheir traditionaltraditional territory. The part ofof itit within thethe Study·Study AreaArea waswas occupiedoccupied by the Mojave when AmericanAmerican explorersexplorers reachedreached itit inin thethe 1830sl830s and succeeding years; Mojaves farmedfarmed itsits banksbanks andand defendeddefended itit against encroachment. They alsoalso gatheredgathered plantplant materialsmaterials inin

7-287 -28 this traditionaltraditional territory,territory, althoughalthough one respondent fromfrom CRIRCRIR said thatthat "all"all thethe plantsplants wewe usedused to gather along thethe river are gone--evengone - -eventhe the willows."willows." They htmtedhunted smallsmall gamegame suchsuch asas rabbits andand desertdesert tortoipes,tortoises, and ate a lot of fish,fish, accordingaccording to oneone respondent.respondent. ThisThis respondent claimed thatthat unlikeunlike thethe Chemehuevi, thethe MojMojaveave did not hunt;hunt deer.deer. Two respondents at FMIR,FMIR, whowho saidsaid thatthat the'the river "is our pride and joy," feelfeel strongly thatthat it should not beb� impacted.impacted.

The historical, archaeological,archaeological, andand ethnographicalethnographical recordsrecords support MojaveMojave assertionsassertions withwith respect to their ownership of at leastleast thethe immediateimmediate environsenvirons ofof the stretch of river within the StudyStudy Area,Area, andand theirtheir useuse ofof territory one or two hundred miles to thethe west.

The Paiutes and ChemehueviChemehuevi have occupiedoccupied thethe territoryterritory west ofof the river, subsequent toto anan earlierearlier MojaveMojave occupation.occupation. The PaiutePaiute alsoalso farmed lands along the river toto the north andand southsouth ofof thethe portionportion of the river thatthat isis inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. Sensitivity: 4-9.4 -9.

Colton Well.Well. A village sitesite atat ColtonColton WellWell (SBr(SBr-370) -370) was recorded by G.G .. A. SmithSmith inin 1962.1962. The sitesite isis 3/43/4 mile (1.2 km)km) longlong byby 100100 feetfeet (30 m)m) wide.wide, and within the sheltersshelters in thethe lavalava flow midden isis up toto 33 feetfeet (.9(.9 m)m) deep.deep. A pic-pic tograph hashas been recorded atat thethe site.site. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Crescent. Site 26CK17026CKl70 near Crescent PeakPe�k in Clark County, Nevada,Nevada, isis tentatively identified on the site record as the site of a battle between PaiutesPaiutes andand Chemehuevis.Chemehuevis. The site record, filed in 1953,1953, remarks,remarks, "For"For detailsdetails consultconsult Mrs. M. A. Peters ofof BoulderBoulder City."City." Sensitivity: 66-8. -8.

Cronese Valley, Cronese Mountains. Cronese ValleyValley containscontains a rich archaeological complexcomplex ofof considerableconsiderable timetime depth.depth. The Cronese MountainsMountains contain saltsalt andand huntinghunting camps.camps. The areaarea isis of concern to Mojave,Mojave, Las Vegas Paiute, Chemehuevi and Panamint Shoshone (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). Sensitivity�Sensitivity: 66-9. -9.

Dead Mountains are thethe home ofof spiritspirit beings,beings, andand sourcesource of ceremonial feathers, as well as subsistence resources, for Mojave andand ChemehueviChemehuevi (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). Sensitivity: 55-9. -9.

Devil's Gate,Gate, SBrSBr-1958, -1958, isis justjust withinwithin the Study AreaArea boundaries aboutabout 1212 miles (19(19 km) north ofof thethe communitycommunity ofof Morongo Valley andand aa milemile (1.6(1.6 km)km) northnorth ofof BurnsBurns Canyon.Canyon. There is a trailtrail up aa wash, andand rocksheltersrockshelters containingcontaining "pottery, a largelarge olla,olla, metates,metates, manos,manos, scrapers,scrapers, chippings,chippings, rodent sticks, basket fragments,fragments, burnedburned bones,bones, etc."etc." It was

7-297 -29 mostmost recentlyrecently recordedrecorded in 1969 byby R. E. Reynolds. SensitiSensiti- vity: 7-8.7 -8.

Eldorado MountainsMountains are withinwithin an area of muchmuch concern to the MojaveMojave andand the Las Vegas Paiute.Paiute. They are likely to contain many unrecordedunrecorded archaeological sites.sites. Sensitivity: many. archaeological Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Eldorado ValleyValley*. *. Las Vegas Paiutes expressed strong concern about Eldorado Valley.Valley. In personal interviews, theythey said thatthat thethe gravesgraves ofof knownknown peoplepeople werewere disrupted when the Eldorado SubstationSubstation andand associated access road and transmission lines werewere constructedconstructed in thethe valley.valley. People are still very angry and upset aboutabout this.this.

This valley is in traditional Las Vegas PaiutePaiute territoryterritory (Kelly 1934)1934).. It is of concern to the Mojave andand of much concern toto thethe LasLas Vegas Paiute. Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Elephant Mountain*.Mountain *. ThisThis mountain,mountain, westwest ofof Daggett,Daggett, was of greatgreat concernconcern to 3 urbanurban Barstow respondents as a place forfor enjoyment ofof scenery that should not be impacted.impacted. There areare abundant archaeological sites on thethe slopesslopes ofof thethe mountain,mountain, including manymany boulders with petroglyphs.petroglyphs. When aa pipeline was constructed along the base of the mountain recently, many boulders withwith petroglyphs onon themthem werewere bulldozedbulldozed outout ofof place.place. It is probableprobable that many other artifactsartifacts were displaceddisplaced oror destroyed (McCarthy(McCarthy 1979).1979). Sensitivity: 44-8. -8.

Emerson Lake.Lake. The whole ofof Emerson Dry Lake, coveringcovering an area of six or seven square miles (15(15 toto 1818 sq.sq. km)km) isis reported toto bebe aa prehistoricprehistoric quarry containing many types of chipped stonestone toolstools (SBr(SBr-426). -426). Sensitivity: 4-7.4 -7.

Fourth of July CanyonCanyon ArchaeologicalArchaeological Complex.Complex. Nine miles (14 km)km) duedue easteastJult 0of Cima, California, inin thethe immediateimmediate vicinityvicinity of FourthFourth of July Canyon, isis situatedsituated aa highlyhighly significantsignificant complex of archaeological resources.resources. Within anan areaarea ofof lessless than ewotwo square miles at leastleast 2929 separateseparate sitessites havehave beenbeen recorded here. Most significantsignificant amongamong thesethese areare SBrSBr-20l1 -2011 and SBr-20l4,SBr -2014, situatedsituated �2 mile apart.apart. These twoewo sites considered singly, together, or inin conjunctionconjunction with thethe otherother sitessites inin this complex could provide significantsignificant new datadata aboutabout prehis-prehis toric processes. Sensitivity: 3-8.3 -8.

Fox TrotTrot Petroglyphs, SBrSBr-161. -161. This extensiveextensive petroglyphpetroglyph site nashas been discussedPetroglyahS,discusse underunder thethe heading ofof "Bullion"Bullion Moun-Moun tains." The sitesite has been nominated forfor NationalNational RegisterRegister status (McCarthy(.McCarthy 1979).1979). Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

77-30 -30 . Giant Rock. In a 200 by 200 foot site at and around Giant Rock atat thethe easterneastern edge ofof thethe MarineMarine CorpsCorps Training.Training· Center, and twotwo milesmiles northwestnorthwest of Goat Mountain, therethere areare petroglyphs,petroglyphs, pottery,'pottery, -andand milling featuresfeatures (SBr(SBr-427). -427). Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Goffs AreaArea*. *. Two MojaveMojave respondents saidsaid theythey had rela-rela tives workingworking inin aa minemine 1818 milesmiles northnorth of Goffs, and thus have a concernconcern for the area. Paiute informants said thatthat aa Las Vegas PaiutePaiute family had aa goldgold andand/or /or silversilver minemine northwest ofof Goffs. The site was o-o-cupied cupied untiluntil at least thethe 1930s.1930s. It isis difficult toto saysay whichwhich minemine might be meant byby thethe Mojaves.Mojaves. There areare nono minesmines 18 milesmiles northnorth of Goffs on thethe 15' topo-topo graphic map. To the northwest of Goffs, however, areare aa number of minesmines inin thethe VontriggerVontrigger Hills,Hills, onon HackberryHackberry Mountain,Mountain, and south ofof the Bobcat Hills.Hills. On the east slopeslope ofof thethe Vontrig-Vontrig ger Hills,Hills, atat VontriggerVontrigger Springs, are aa clustercluster ofof archaeolo-archaeolo gical sites. There are cavescaves andand rockshelters,rockshelters, middenmidden deposits,depOSits, a quarryquarry site,site, rockrock circles,circles, millingmilling features,features, flakes and other stone tools, and pottery. There is an archaeological site at Goffs (SBr-(SBr-3055). 3055). Sensitivity: 5-8.5 -S.

Granite Mountains. From the fact thatthat thethe GraniteGranite Moun-Moun tains betweenbetween the Providence and Old Dad Mountains have numerous springs, it can be inferred thatthat therethere areare manymany moremore archaeolo-archaeolo gical sitessites inin the area than have been foundfound andand recorded.recorded. TheThe site atat HiddenHidden Spring.Spring, oror Walter's CampCamp (SBr(SBr-2807). -2807), isis importantimportant enough toto considerconsider separately for the National Register.Register, or perhaps instead there should be a Granite Mountain District on the National Register.Regi3ter. There areare petroglyphspetroglyphs atat SBrSBr-552 -552 atat Donners Camp SpringSpring andand rockrock ringsrings atat SBrSBr-543 -543 nearby. This range was calledcalled ToyonOkaririToyongkariri by thethe Chemehuevi

(Laird 1976:12).1976: 12) . It was included in a distinct version of the MountainMountain Sheep SongSong (1976:11).(1976:11). This area isis of greatgreat con-con cern to the Chemehuevi and Paiutes,Paiutes, andand ofof somesome concernconcern toto thethe Mojave. Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Granite Mountains.Hotmtains. The mountainsmountafns ofof thisthis name north ofof Lucerne Valley contain numerous cavescaves and rockshelters, and probably have aa longlong historyhistory ofof humanhuman habitation.habitation. On their southern slopes, SBrSBr-945 -945 is a rockshelter site.site. About aa mile to the southwest isis ChimneyChimney Rock,Rock. SBrSBr-321. -321, reported toto bebe thethe site of a battlebattle in 1867 between settlerssettlers andand NativeNative Ameri-Ameri cans--Chemehuevi/Paiutescans-- Chemehuevi /Paiutes andand possiblypossibly Serrano taking part.part. The Native AmericansAmericans are saidsaid toto have attacked and burned sawmills in LittleLittle BearBear Valley.Valley. The settlers tracked them to ChimneyChimney Rock on the easterneastern sideside ofof RabbitRabbit Lake,Lake, attackedattacked them, and killed many ofof them.them. Sensitivity: 44-7. -7. (SBr-945(SBr -945 andand SBr-321SBr -321 havehave aa sensitivitysensitivity ofof 7.)7.)

77-31 -31 Guapiabit. SBr-93SBr -93 isis thethe sitesite ofof aa largelarge villagevillage on 'thethe westwest banGuakiabit.bank ofof thethe MojMojaveave River onon LasLas Flores Ranch. It has been identifiedidentified asas thethe sitesite of the village of Guapiabit (Merriam notes: Y/24A/Nl),Y /24A /N1),and andwas wasvisited visited byby Moraga'sMoraga's expeditionexpedition NovemberNovember 2525 and 26, 1819 (Beattie(Beattie 1955).1955). Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Hackberry Mountain�.Mountain *. LasLas VegasVegas PaiutePaiute expressedexpressed muchmuch concernconcernHackberE* forfor �isthis mountain. It is an area containing numerous archaeologicalarchaeological sites,sites, few of whichwhich have been recorded.recorded. The sitessites areare mostmost aptapt toto bebe locatedlocated nearnear thethe springs on the mountain.mountain. Sensitivity: 3-8.3 -8.

Halloran Spring. According toto James S.S. Benton,Benton, who recorded SBr-25SBr -2554s3ring.4 inin 1978,1978, littlelittle remainsremains ofof sitessites said by Malcolm RogersRogers to havehave beenbeen "extensive village campcamp sites." Within a two-miletwo -mile radiusradius areare aa numbernumber ofof otherother sites, including petroglyphs, roCkrock rings,rings, millingmilling features, potterypottery rockshelters and lithic scatters. A number of widely scatteredscattered petroglyph sites havehave beenbeen recordedrecorded aboutabout five milesmiles to the southeast of Halloran Springs. Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

Hesperia AreaArea*. *. Three Serrano respondents saidsaid thatthat thethe area aroundaround HesperiaHesperia is sacred because IndiansIndians usedused toto livelive there. They couldcould not bebe moremore specific.specific. Four Serranos saidsaid that traditionaltraditional events took place inin thethe HesperiaHesperia area.area. A 5-acre5 -acre sitesite (SBr(SBr-983), -983) , which isis probablyprobably thatthat ofof aa SerranoSerrano village, hashas beenbeen recorded toto thethe southeastsoutheast ofof Hesperia.Hesperia. It contains (or did contain) circularcircular pitspits thatthat maymay havehave beenbeen house pits, broken pottery, shell beads andand pendants, an arrow straightener, stone drills, and manymany small serrated points. It hashas been identified as the site of the village of Atongaibit (q.v.)(q . v.) oror Otongallavil.Ot'ongallavil.

This isis thethe onlyonly sitesite thatthat hashas beenbeen recordedrecorded inin thethe closeclose vicinity of Hesperia, butbut aa numbernumber ofof sitessites containingcontaining flakesflakes and stone tools have been recorded somewhatsomewhat furtherfurther awayaway toto the southwest, along thethe Mojave RiverRiver southeastsoutheast ofof SCE'sSeE's Lugo substation.substation.

It is likely thatthat therethere areare aa numbernumber ofof unrecordedunrecorded sitessites in the Hesperia area.area. Strong shows the villageyillage ofof AmùtcakaiemAmutcakaiem south ofof HesperiaHesperia andand thethe villagevillage ofof MaviatemMaviatem betweenbetween Hesperia and Victorville (1929:7,11).(1929:7,11). Sensitivity: 44-9. -9.

Hesperia HotHot SpringSpring*. *. Three urban BarstowBarstow NativeNative AmericansAmericans spontaneously expressed considerableconsiderable concernconcern forfor HesperiaHesperia Hot Spring. Sensitivity: 7.

77-32 -32 Hidden Valley, SBrSBr-2l98, -2198, isis aa villagevillage site half a mile west ofof AppleAppleVallet' ValValleyey (q.v.),(q.v.). on the firstfirst terraceterrace onon thethe easteast bank ofof the MojaveMojave River. It contained milling features,features, thousands ofof shellshell beads,beads, 'projprojectileectile points, and a smallsmall amount ofof pottery,pottery, and cremationcremation sites.sites. The site is a quarter of aa milemile (600(600 m)m) longlong andand 200 feet (67 m)m) wide,wide, and is up toto 3 feetfeet (1 m)m) deep.deep. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Highland Range. This range is withinwithin an area of much concern toto MojaveMojave and Las VegasVegas Paiute.Paiute. It is likelylikely toto con-con tain manymany unrecordedunrecorded archaeological sites.sites. Sensitivity: 3-8.3 -8.

�*.Hodge *. One Barstow urban respondent expressedexpressed somesome con-con cern �thethat the scenicscenic qualitiesqualities of the Hodge areaarea not bebe impac-impac ted, inin orderorder thatthat itit maymay continue to have recreationalrecreational value.value. No archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites havehave beenbeen recordedrecorded in the immediate Vicinityvicinity ofof Hodge,Hodge, perhapsperhaps because itit has notnot beenbeen surveyed.surveyed. There isis aa sitesite across thethe river.river. At elevations ofof 2000-2000- 3000 feetfeet acrossacross thethe riverriver are numerous sitessites with rockrock rings.rings. Sensitivity: 2-7.2 -7.

Homer Mountain*Mountain* is of somesame concernconcern toto Las VegasVegas PaiutePaiute and MojMojaveave and of much concernconcern toto Chemehuevi.Chemehuevi. There areare likely toto bebe unrecordedunrecorded archaeological sitessites inin thethe area.area. Sensitivity: 22-8. -8.

Ivanpah Lake.Lake. A clustercluster ofof archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites isis located nearnear the southsouth shoreshore ofof .Ivanpah.Ivanpah Lake,Lake, about fivefive milesmiles west of Nipton, California.California. These sitessites covercover anan areaarea approx-approx imately 3 milesmiles byby 3 miles (4.8(4.8 x 4.84.8 km) andand provideprovide evidenceevidence that settlements existed herehere overover considerableconsiderable time.time. This isis an area of concern toto Las VegasVegas PaiutesPaiutes andand Mojave.Mojave. One site,site, ,SBr -786, atat thethe southwestsouthwest endend ofof Ivanpah Playa containscontains anan . SBr-786, Ivanpah Playa extensive scatterscatter ofof lithics and pottery,pottery, withwith clusters of fire-affectedfire -affected rock. One recorder forfor thisthis sitesite (Hanks,(Hanks, inin 1975) recommendedrecommended this site asas aa candidatecandidate forfor thethe NationalNational Register. To thethe north ofof SBrSBr-786, -786, scatteredscattered around thethe ancient shoreline of Ivanpah Lake, isis aa smallersmaller groupgroup ofof sitessites containing flakes,flakes, rockrock alignments,alignments, potterypottery sherdssherds andand firefire - affected rock.rock.

Ivanpah Valley is said toto containcontain many unrecordedunrecorded archae-archae ological sites (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979a).1979a). Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 22-7. -7.

Ivanpah MountainsMountains*. *. ThisTh�s rangerange isis within thethe areaarea forfor which Paiutes have muchmuch concernconcern andand MojavesHojaves havehave somesome concern.concern. It is likely It is likely to contain many unrecorded archaeologicalarchaeological sites (Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). Sensitivity: 22-7. -7.

7-337 -33 Jack SpringSpring*. *. One urban Barstow respondent expressed some spontaneousspontaneous concernconcern forfor thisthis hothot spring,spring, whichwhich is valuedvalued as aa recreationalrecreational resource. There is only very scant archaeo-archaeo logical datadata from thisthis area.area� Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 7.

Johnson Valley. Immediately to the east of La Fon RanchRanch in JohnsonJohnson ValleyValley isis aa largelarge archaeological site saidsaid toto bebe 3 milesmiles (4.8(4.8 km)km) longlong fromfrom northnorth to south and about aa half mile (.8 km) easteast toto west,west, SBrSBr-IS80. -1880. This is probably thethe site ofof aa largelarge villagevillage associatedassociated withwith MelvilleMelville Lake, possiblypossibly Vanyume or Serrano. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Juniper Flats is an area on thethe northern slopesslopes ofof thethe SanSan Bernardino MountainsMountains wherewhere a transitional plant zone provided abundant foodfood resourcesresources andand materialsmaterials for manufacturemanufacture forfor Native Americans. Serrano families and lineageslineages andand clansclans owned specificspecific areasareas andand usedused the resources in the "ethnographic"ethnographic present." SBr-3404,SBr -3404, SBr-2203,SBr -2203, SBr-269BSBr -269Band and otherother sitessites compose this JuniperJuniper Flats complex.complex. Its archaeology is fully described in aa reportreport recentlyrecently completed (Weil(Weil 1979).1979). The extent of thethe archaeological findingsfindings suggestssuggests that this may have been aa cen-cen tral focusfocus ofof SerranoSerrano occupation,occupation, wherewhere traditional life con-con tinued afterafter moremore accessibleaccessible areas werewere overrun by non-Indians.

There is littlelittle inin thethe literatureliterature aboutabout thisthis area.area. The villages alongalong the MojaveMojave River toto the west were better known.knoWn. There areare otherother villagevillage sites to the south inin thethe higherhigher reachesreaches of the mountainsmountains that are discussed under "San"San BernardinoBernardino Mountains." Sensitivity: 33-8. -8.

Kelso PeakPeak*. *. One urban Barstow respondentrespondent expressedexpressed somesome spontaneous concernconcern that mineral resources near KelsoKelso PeakPeak not be impacted. Two urban Barstow respondentsrespondents spontaneouslyspontaneously expressed greatgreat concern that bighorn sheepsheep onon KelsoKelso PeakPeak not be impacted. No springs areare mapped onon KelsoKelso Peak,Peak, nornor havehave any archaeologicalarchaeological sites beenbeen recorded for it, perhaps because it hashas notnot been surveyed.surveyed. Sensitivity: 44-7. -7.

Kessler Spring, north of thethe ProvidenceProvidence Mountains, was anan important sourcesourceSprin!, 0of water on prehistoric andand historic trailstrails through the eastern Mojave.Mojave. Laird showsshows itit asas aa "crossroads""crossroads" where ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute trailstrails from the south andand easteast camecame together. Sensitivity: 66-8. -8.

7-347 -34 LakeLake DeloresDelores*. *. One urban Barstow respondent expressed some spontaneousspontaneous concernconcern for LakeLake Delores,Delores, a man-mademan-made lakelake east ofof Calico. It is valued asas aa recreationalrecreational area.area. Sensitivity: 3.

Lanfair ValleyValley*. *. Las Vegas Paiutes expressed concern for thisthis lushlush valley,valley, whichwhich isis covered withwith archaeological sites, includingincluding petroglyphs. Many of thethe sitessites areare unrecor-unrecor ded. They included permanent livingliving sitessites andand placesplaces wherewhere temporary campscamps werewere located to harvest foodfood inin season.season. These are especiallyespecially numerousnumerous aroundaround springs.springs. Burials can be expec-expec ted inin such areas.areas.

The valley is the home of numerous eagleseagles andand hawks toto this day,day, andand stillstill contains plants important toto NativeNative Ameri-Ameri cans. Desert tortoises areare foundfound allallover over thethe valley.valley. Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Lenwood*. The area toto thethe east of Lenwood was mentioned as aa valuedvalued recreationrecreation area by one urban BarstowBarstow respondent,respondent, who expressedexpressed some spontaneous concernconcern thatthat thethe sitesite notnot bebe impacted. There are importantimportant archaeologicalarchaeological resourcesresources inin this area,area, andand itit hashas probably had a long history ofof human occupation. SBr-189SBr -189 northwestnorthwest ofof LenwoodLenwood hashas beenbeen identified as thethe sitesite ofof the village ofof SusuginaSusugina (q.v.).(q.v.).

About threethree milesmiles southsouth ofof Lenwood,Lenwood, SBrSBr-2283 -2283 contained 21 "sleeping circles" when itit waswas recordedrecorded inin 1972.1972. There were also three house rings.rings. It is located on desert pavement on aa ridgeridge 8 milesmiles from the Mojave River andand was apparentlyapparently a campsite. In the same valley therethere areare aboutabout twoewo dozendozen sites, mostmost of which areare lithiclithic scattersscatters oror rockrock rings.rings. There is an outcrop of rhyolite here.here. Sensitivity: 44-8. -8.

Little Piute Mountains. At the southernsouthern edgeedge ofof thisthis range is SBrSBr-1977 -1977 wherewhere cavescaves contain signs ofof prehistoricprehistoric and hishistorictoric occupation.occupation. There areare petroglyphspe troglyphs atat thezhe site.site. SBr-323lSBr -3231 isis anotheranother cavecave sitesite halfhalf aa mile toto thethe east.east. The location ofof this range suggests thatthat therethere areare unrecordedunrecorded sites as well. This is within an area of Chemehuevi and Mojave concern.concern. Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

Lovejoy Spring, 44-LAn-192, -LAn -192, "south"south ofof thethe newnew parkingparking lot at artificialakeartificial String,Lake LosLos AngelesAngeles inin thethe spillspill-way -way forfor thethe lakelake south of the parking lotlot andand southeastsoutheast fromfrom thethe LovejoyLovejoy SpringsSprings Dam" were the remnants ofof anan extensiveextensive midden depositdeposit with burials in thethe subsoil.subsoil. Nine burialsburials werewere salvagedsalvaged inin March,March. 1968. There were alsoalso midden, rockrock featuresfeatures with firefire frac-frac tured stone, and numerous artifacts,artifacts, includingincluding chippedchipped stonestone

77-35 -35 tools, millingmilling stones,stones, olivellaolivella cropped spire and saddle beads, and clamshellclamshell disk beads. Toney recorded thethe sitesite inin 1968;1968; the quotationquotation is from thethe.site site record.record. The site has been destroyed.

Lucerne Lake. At the north end of Lucerne Dry Lake isis SBrSBr-2145, -2145,a avillage village sitesite containingcontaining flakes,flakes, pointspoints and metates. The sitesite recordrecord gives nono furtherfurther information.information. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Lucerne ValleyValley*. *. One urban Barstow respondentrespondent sponta-sponta neously expressedexpressed great concern for the historic andand possibly prehistoricprehistoric resourcesresources of the Lucerne Valley.Valley. Three SerranoSerrano respondents thinkthink the LucerneLucerne Valley areaarea shouldshould bebe avoided;aVOided; they areare unwillingunwilling toto be more specific.specific. Four Serranos think traditional events tooktook placeplace inin thisthis area.area. Several archaeo-archaeo logical site'site recordsrecords describe places where therethere maymay bebe sitessites of SerranoSerrano villages,villages, and other village sitessites maymay bebe unrecor-unrecor ded. The valley is within traditionaltraditional SerranoSerrano territory.territory. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Marine BaseBase*. *. One urban Barstow respondent expressed some spontaneousspontaneous concern for a petroglyph at thethe rear gategate of the MarineMarine Base atat Yermo.Yermo. This petroglyph was recorded in 1893. It is accessible toto members ofof thethe MarineMarine Corps,Corps, but notnot to members ofof thethe generalgeneral public.public. Sensitivity: 66-7. -7.

Marl Spring, SBrSBr-32. -32. This site isis both archaeologically _ Spring, archaeologically and historicallyhistorically significant.significant. The spring was usedused byby Mojaves and otherother NativeNative AmericansAmericans as anan importantimportant sourcesource ofof water along the Mojave Trail.Trail. Adjacent toto thethe springspring isis aa villageVillage site containing a deep,deep, undisturbedundisturbed midden.midden. Surface material includes lithics andand pottery.pottery. This site was onon thethe routeroute used byby early explorer-explorer-surveyors surveyors suchsuch as WhippleWhipple and Beale.Beale. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Maviatem was recordedrecorded byby StrongStrong (1929:7,11)(1929:7,11) asas aa clanclan that lived in the vicinity of Victorville, north ofof thethe SanSan Bernardino Mountains. His map showsshows itit closeclose toto Victorville,Victorville, to the southeast. The sitesite hashas not beenbeen locatedlocated precisely.precisely.

McCullough Mountains* areare ofof much concernconcern toto Las Vegas Paiutes. If the range were to be surveyed,surveyed, itit isis likelylikely thatthat a great manymany archaeological sitessites would bebe foundfound inasmuchinasmuch asas. the naturalnatural resources areare. similarsimilar toto thosethose ofof thethe MidMid Hills/Hills/ Providence MountainMountain area,area, andand itit isis knownknown toto havehave beenbeen anan occupation areaarea ofof thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979a).1979a). Sensitivity: 44-7. -7.

77-36 -36 Mesquite Lake.Lake, northnorth of Twentynine Palms, is an important occupation area.area. Artifacts have been reported over most of the lakelake bedbed andand its edges.edges. This is an area of concernconcern toto Serrano andand Chemehuevi.Chemehuevi. Sensitivity:Se�sitivity: 33-7. -7.

Mesquite ValleyValley*. *, Nevada,Nevada, isis valuedvalued byby Las Vegas PaiutePaiute respondents becausebecause theythey knowknow ofof bedrockbedrock andand boulderboulder grinding rocks inin thethe valley,valley, especiallyespecially surrounding Mesquite Lake.Lake. Mesquite growsgrows on both sidessides ofof thethe lake.lake. There areare severalseveral archaeological sitessites in the vicinity ofof thethe lake.lake. SensitiviSensitivi- ty: 3-63-6..

Mid Hills.Hills. There are an enormous number ofof archaeologicalarchaeological sites inin thisthis area,area, apparentlyapparently part of a concentration ofof sitessites that beginsbegins inin thethe ProvidenceProvidence Mountains toto thethe southwest.southwest. These sites areare associatedassociated �thwith quarriesquarries and workshopsworkshops where welded tuff chippedchipped stone tools were made.made. The welded tufftuff isis aa fea-fea ture ofof thethe lavalava flow of thethe area.area. Sensitivity: 4-9.4 -9.

Mitchell's CavernsCaverns*. *. Two urban Barstow respondentsrespondents sponta-sponta neously expressedexpressed considerable concern forfor petroglyphs andand picto-picto graphs atat Mitchell'sMitchell's Caverns. The caverns areare within anan areaarea where therethere areare enormousenormous numbersnumbers of recorded archaeologicalarchaeological sites--thesites --the ProvidenceProvidence MountainsMountains area.area. The areaarea has aa consider-consider able woodland cover of juniper, pinyonpinyon andand yuccayucca species,species, asas well asas aa varietyvariety ofof mineralmineral resources that have been exploited both byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans and their ancestors, andand byby peoplepeople inin the historichistoric period. Mitchell's CavernsCaverns areare inin aa statestate park.park. Sensitivity: 5-8.

Mojave Land Area.Area. This areaarea where thethe StudyStudy AreaArea extendsextends across thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver into ArizonaArizona was where thethe Mojave Villages werewere located from the earliest historical period.period. The Mojave farmed here on thethe floodlands of the river, moving their settlements whenwhen the river changedchanged itsits course.course. Because thisthis was a good place to crosscross thethe river,river, earlyearly explorersexplorers camecame thisthis way. Their success inin crossingcrossing thethe riverriver dependeddepended onon thethe good will of thethe Mojave.Mojave. The determinationdetermination of thethe eligibility of this areaarea forfor the NationalNational Register isis pending.pending. Sensitivity: 9.9.

Mojave RiverRiver*. *. Three urban BarstowBarstow respondentsrespondents sponta-sponta neously expressed great concernconcern forfor thethe MojaveMojave RiverRiver asas aa his-his toric naturalnatural feature and possibly anan areaarea ofof archaeologicalarchaeological resources. Likewise, 3 urban Barstow respondentsrespondents spontaneouslyspontaneously expressed great concernconcern forfor thethe protectionprotection ofof huntinghunting areasareas along the river.river. Las Vegas PaiutePaiute respondentsrespondents expressedexpressed somesome concern for thethe river.river.

The ethnographic andand historicalhistorical recordrecord showsshows thatthat thethe

7-377 -37 river hashas beenbeen importantimportant to humans forfor itsits water resources,resources, andand alsoalso forfor thethe plantplant andand animalanimal resources that areare dependentdependent on its water.water. The archaeological data suggest that it may have been importantimportant toto humanshumans asas far.far backback inin time as any stream in America,America, althoughalthough furtherfurther archaeologicalarchaeological researchresearch is likely to make itit lessless distinctivedistinctive inin thisthis respect.respect. Archaeological sitessites alongalong thethe generalgeneral coursecourse ofof the river are abundant. They have not beenbeen systematicallysystematically studied,studied, butbut even the data that can be gleaned fromfrom sitesite recordsrecords show that there have beenbeen humanshumans alongalong the riverriver duringduring mostmost periodsperiods for which therethere areare artifactualartifactual markers, upup toto andand including.theincluding the protohistorical andand historicalhistorical periods.

Prehistoric and historic sites are locatedlocated allall alongalong thethe Mojave River. Among thesethese areare SBrSBr-2ll0, -2110, wherewhere the bonesbones of aa headless horsemanhorseman werewere found in a site thatthat has prehistoric,prehistoric, protohistoric and historic remains;remains; andand SBrSBr-2129 -2129 on aa hill slopeslope west ofof CoyoteCoyote LakeLake overpass,overpass, a quarry site with thousandsthousands ofof flakes inin thethe upperupper two feetfeet (60(60 cm).em). SBr-176,SBr -176, SBr-938SBr -938 andand 458 areare villagevillage sitessites in the San Bernardino Mountains alongalong the riverriver andand its tributary, DeepDeep Creek.Creek. Their locationslocations suggest aa fairlyfairly highhigh densitydensity of prehistoricprehistoric population inin thisthis area.

Sites along the river in the Victorville, Hodge, Barstow and AftonAfton areasareas areare discussed under thosethose headings.headings. SensitiSensiti- vity: 4-9.4 -9.

Mojave TrailTrail*. *. Five urban Barstow respondentsrespondents spontaneouslyspontaneously expressed greatgreat concern for the historic, andand possibly archaeo-archaeo logical, resourcesresources of thethe Mojave Trail.Trail. Four Mojave respondents expressed concern forfor it.it. One said,said, "It's"It's inin ourour hearts;hearts; wewe sing about it." He said that constructionconstruction shouldshould avoid it ifif possible; and that if not, itit shouldshould bebe spanned.spanned. The other 33 said thatthat it waswas sacred because it was used by andand named forfor the Mojave.Mojave. They said it should be protected even if the HVTL must cross it.it.

The MojaveMojave Trail cancan be separatedseparated onlyonly partiallypartially fromfrom thethe Mojave River.River. The river made thethe trailtrail possible by providing a source of water. The eastern part ofof thethe trail,trail, betweenbetween thethe Colorado River andand thethe sinksink ofof thethe MojaveMojave--now - -now represented byby Soda LakeLake and Silver Lake (dry(dry lakes occupying thethe basinbasin occu-occu pied inin post-post-Pleistocene Pleistocene timestimes byby LakeLake Mojave)Mojave)--was - -was probablyprobably not just one trail,trail, butbut several.several. Each trailtrail was aa way of gettinggetting through aa vastvast arid expanse by making thethe most ofof everyevery springspring along the way,way, andand carryingcarrying somesome waterwater--or --or byby training oneselfoneself to gogo long distances without water.water. Four Indians whomwho� GarcésGarces met in the Providence Mountains toldtold himhim MojavesMojaves couldcould "with-"with stand htmgerhunger and thirstthj,rst forfor asas longlong asas fourfour days"days" (Coues(Coues 1900).1900).

Once thethe sinksink ofof thethe Mojave was reached,reached, therethere was water close to the surface eveneven where thethe riverriver itselfitself wentwent underground.underground.

77-38 -38 The trailtrail followedfollowed thethe river,river, althoughalthough the archaeological recordrecord suggestssuggests thatthat eveneven inin thethe westwest therethere maymay havehave beenbeen moremore thanthan oneone branchbranch of thethe trail.trail. Sensitivity: 4-9.4 -9.

Mountain PassPass*. *. Paiute respondents saidsaid thatthat therethere areare grinding rocksrocks andand agaveagave roasting pits near thethe microwavemicrowave tower atat MountainMountain Pass.Pass. They pointed out thatthat wherever therethere are bedrockbedrock oror largelarge boulderboulder grinding rocks, therethere areare perma-perma nent standsstands ofof food plants nearby.nearby.

There are a number ofof sitessites inin thethe MountainMountain PassPass areaarea where archaeologicalarchaeological sitesite records show roasting pits for agave, mescal,mescal, oror unspecifiedunspecified foods.foods. One site record shows a possiblepossible burialburial sitesite veryvery nearnear SCE'sSeE's existing 138138 kV transmission line;line; another showsshows aa rockrock cairn.cairn. There areare numerous springssprings in the area as wellwell as mines of thethe hishis- torical era. It can be assumed thatthat onlyonly aa fractionfraction ofof thethe archaeological sitessites inin the area have been foundfound andand recor-recor ded, andand thatthat the area ::providedprovided not onlyonly foodfood resourcesresources butbut possibly alsoalso mineralmineral resources forfor Native Americans.Americans. The site recordsrecords indicateindicate that the areaarea has been heavilyheavily pothunted.pothunted. ,Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 4-8.4 -8.

New YorkYork MountainsMountains*. *. According toto many SouthernSouthern Paiutes?aiutes who were interviewed, thethe bestbest pinyonpinyon-nut -nut gathering area known is in the New YorkYork Mountains.Mountains. The specialspecial ecologicalecological conditions thatthat favor the growth of pine treestrees producingproducing high-qualityhigh- quality nutsnuts alsoalso supportssupports aa great variety ofof otherother plants and animals usedused byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans.. Informants pointed outout that the areaarea cancan alsoalso bebe expectedexpected toto containcontain burials. Five urban BarstowBarstow respondentsrespondents spontaneouslyspontaneously expressed great concern forfor thethe NewNew YorkYork MountainsMountains asas aa hunt-hunt ing area.

Archaeological sitessites havehave beenbeen recordedrecorded atat manymany ofof thethe springs in the range:range: Willow Spring,Spring, DoveDove Spring,Spring, IndianIndian Spring, TaylorTaylor Spring, CoatsCoats Spring,Spring, MalpaisMalpais Spring,Spring, andand Marl Springs.Springs. There areare alsoalso sitessites atat thethe mouthsmouths ofof FourthFourth of July Canyon and Caruthers Canyon on thethe south slopes of the range. It is likely thatthat therethere were campsitescampsites oror villagevillage sites whereverwherever therethere were sourcessources ofof water,water, whichwhich havehave notnot been recorded because thethe rangerange has not beenbeen completelycompletely sur-sur veyed. It is also likelylikely thatthat thethe mountains areare crisscrossedcrisscrossed with trails, onlyonly aa fragmentfragment ofof whichwhich appearappear inin sitesite, records.records.

The most importantimportant NewNew YorkYork Mountain sitessites revealedrevealed by the site recordsrecords includeinclude SBrSBr-2643 -2643 at Willow Springs,Springs, whichwhich is reported toto be thethe sitesite ofof anan extensiveextensive village,village, with stratified midden 33 feetfeet (1(1 m)m) thick.thick. There areare PintoPinto pointspoints on the bottom level,level, potterypottery andand turquoiseturquoise inin thethe toptop level.level.

7-39 SBr-2646SBr -2646is isthe thesite site'of of anan extensiveextensive village,village, apparentlyapparently a campcamp usedused byby turquoiseturquoise miners. An ArizonaArizona-style -style manomano was foundfound there.

TheThe rangerange is important to Las Vegas Paiutes, ChemehueviChemehuevi andand Mojave.Mojave. Sensitivity: 4-9.4 -9.

Newberry Mountains, Nevada.Nevada. See Avikwame.

Newberry MountainMOuntain/Rodman /Rodman Mountain Area.Area. This is an area in whichwhich therethere areare numerousnumerous archaeologicalarchaeological sites, only aa frac-frac tion ofof whichwhich havehave been recorded.recorded. There are not only village sites andand ceremonialceremonial sites,sites, butbut camp sites and workshop areas.areas. Some ofof thethe sitessites areare apparently very old.old. Others date toto thethe protohistoric andand historichistoric periods. Kane Wash, BoxBox Canyon,Canyon, Silver BellBell Canyon,Canyon, andand areasareas nearnear seasonal springs are thethe principal settlementsettlement areas (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). Mojave, Kawaiisu,Kawaiisu, Paiute, SerranoSerrano andand ChemehueviChemehuevi are likely to have used thisthis area.

Newberry Cave,Cave, SBrSBr-199, -199, isis the bestbest known sitesite inin thisthis area. It waswas apparently used forfor hunting ceremoniesceremonies andand isis notable for the variety of ceremonialceremonial artifactsartifacts foundfound inin it,it, including splitsplit t�gtwig figurines (Smith(Smith 1957).1957).

Sensitivity: 44-9. -9.

Newberry SpringsSprings*. *. Four urbanurban BarstowBarstow respondentsrespondents expressed somesome spontaneous concern forfor thethe petroglyphs andand pictographs ofof the Newberry Springs area (these(these have not been recorded).recorded) . One urban BarstowBarstow respondentrespondent expressedexpressed somesome spontaneous concernconcern for the areaarea asas aa placeplace toto hunt.hunt.

A rich archaeologicalarchaeological site,site, SBrSBr-3l7, -317, isis recordedrecorded atat Newberry Spring,Spring, whichwhich has perhaps been aa sourcesource ofof water for thousandsthousands of years.years. This isis anan oasisoasis withwith abundantabundant plant resources. It is notnot surprising thatthat thethe areaarea isis still prizedprized for its hunting.hunting.

Newberry SpringSpring isis includedincluded withinwithin thethe NewberryNewberry/Rodman /Rodman Mountain area, and is of concern toto Mojave, Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, Paiute, Kawaiisu andand Serrano.Serrano. Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

77-40 -40 Old Dad Mountains*.Mountains`. The Old Dad MountainsMountains are crossedcrossed by oneone trailtrail thatthat passespasses from the northnorth to the southsouth aroundaround the westwest sideside ofof Crescent.Dunes;Crescent. Dunes; anotheranother goesgoes fromfrom the Old DadDad MountainsMountains toto the MesquiteMesquite Hills.Hills.

This range figures inin Mojave andand ChemehueviChemehuevi myth.myth. It was withinwithin thethe traditionaltraditional territory of the desert Chemehuevi/ Paiute whosewhose descendantsdescendants are for the most partpart now LasLas VegasVegas Paiute, butbut thethe rangerange waswas alsoalso huntinghunting territory for the Chemehuevi (southern ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute) /Paiute) and the Panamint Shoshone (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). It·It is thus of concernconcern toto Paiute,Paiute. Chemehuevi, and Mojave. Sensitivity: 33-7. -7.

Old WomanWoman Mountains. The Old Woman Mountains lie within an areaarea ofof concernconcern toto bothboth the Mojave and Chemehuevi. There are somesome recordedrecorded archaeologicalarchaeological sites in thisthis range,range, butbut there areare numerousnumerous largelarge campsites, villages andand associatedassociated burials that havehave not been recorded.recorded. The range figuresfigures inin many traditionaltraditional narratives. On the eastern slopeslope ofof thethe range SBr-l978SBr -1978 hashas beenbeen interpretedinterpreted asas a aprepre-Chemehuevi - Chemehuevi burial,burial. according toto NancyNancy GearyGeary whowho filed the site recordrecord inin 1962,1962, and therethere are petroglyphs atat nearbynearby SBrSBr-198l -1981..

. and Shoshone hunt in this .Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi , MojaveMojave and PanamintPanamint Shoshone hunt in this range toto thisthis day (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b).1979b). Sensitivity: 3-8.3 -8.

Ord MountainsMountains*. *. This rangerange southsouth ofof DaggettDaggett containscontains two importantimportant clusters of recorded archaeologicalarchaeological sites,sites, and probablyprobably contains othersothers thatthat areare notnot recorded.recorded. SBrSBr-lS33, -1533, encompassing about 80 acres (32(32 ha),ha). appearsappears toto bebe thethe sitesite of aa large subsistencesubsistence complex where mesquite, yuccayucca andand other plants werewere harvested. Nearby areare SBr -555, SBr -1185, plants Nearby SBr-555. SBr-1185 , SBrSBr-1531, -1531, SBr-1532,SBr -1532, SBr-1569,SBr -1569, andand SBrSBr-2846--all -2846 --all consistingconsisting ofof caves or rockshelters.

Another clustercluster ofof sitessites includesincludes thosethose recordedrecorded atat Aztec Spring (SBr(SBr-1306); -1306); SweetwaterSweetwater Spring (SBr(SBr-134); -134); and.and, furtherfurther up, SBr-1649,SBr -1649, consistingconsisting ofof a rockshelter andand midden.midden. PetroPetro - glyphs havehave been recorded atat Willis Well, SBr -195, andand itit isis glyphs been recorded �Villis Well, SBr-195 J likely thatthat there are other petroglyphs inin thethe range,range, forfo·r which nono site records have beenbeen filed.filed.

This area isis of concernconcern toto KawaiisuKawaiisu andand Serrano.Serrano. One urban BarstowBarstow respondent saidsaid thatthat therethere was huntinghunting onon OrdOrd �iotmtain,Mountain, but did not thinkthink itit sensitivesensitive toto impact.Lmpact; , Sensitivity: 3-7.3 -7.

7-417 -41 Oro GrandeGrande*. *. Four Serrano respondents, aware of thethe recently excavatedexcavated "Oro GrandeGrande Site"Site" (SBr(SBr-72), -72), think the site shouldshould be avoided. Three Serrano respondents said traditional eventsevents probablyprobably took placeplace in the area, and three thinkthink therethere waswas aa villagevillage there but did not give further details. Two, because ofof experienceexperience asas consultantsconsultants at thethe OroOro GrandeGrande excavation, had learnedlearned thatthat thethe sitesite waswas a semipermanent village location.location. The Kawaiisu respondentrespondent also learnedlearned thatthat OroOro GrandeGrande waswas aa semipermanentsemipermanent village site throughthrough workwork asas a consultant to archaeologists.archaeologists.

SBr-72SBr -72was was determineddetermined toto bebe eligibleeligible for the National Register in January, 1979.1979. The whole areaarea fromfrom southsouth ofof . Victorville toto thethe northnorth ofof Bryman should perhaps be made a NationalNational RegisterRegister ArchaeologicalArchaeological District.District.

Sensitivity: 4-9.4 -9.

Paiute CreekCreek andand SpringSpring*. *. Las Vegas PaiutesPaiutes expressedexpressed great concernconcern for Paiute Creek andand Spring.Spring. Paiutes who were interviewed pointedpointed outout that the existing MWDMtID accessaccess roadroad has increased the traffic to Paiute Spring, a major Paiute occupational zone.zone. Two MojMojaveave expressedexpressed concernconcern forfor "Fort"Fort Paiute," whichwhich waswas an outpost ofof FortFort Mojave.

Paiute Spring has aa flowflow ofof aboutabout 250,000250,000 gallonsgallons (946,000 liters)liters) aa day.day. Paiute Creek cuts throughthrough the PaiutePaiute Mountains and connects Lanfair ValleyValley withwith PaiutePaiute Valley.Valley. Willows, rushes, watercresswatercress andand otherother plantsplants growgrow profuselyprofusely on its banks,banks, attracting aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof animalanimal lifelif: inin thethe milemile-long -long oasisoasis thus created.created.

The lower creekcreek apparently was anan intersectionintersection forfor many Native AmericanAmerican trails, andand aa centercenter ofof activity.activity. When Whipple's expedition camecame throughthrough inin 1854,1854, PaiutesPaiutes werewere raising wheat, corn,corn, melonsmelons andand squashes.squashes. There areare hundreds of petroglyphs inin thethe areaarea (Casebier(Casebier 1974:111974:11-20). -20).

A U.S. Army outpost, "Fort"Fort Paiute," was establishedestablished at Paiute Spring in 1867,1867, andand was mannedmanned untiluntil 1868,1868, itsits purposepurpose being to protect travelers andand thethe mail serviceservice of the day from hostile Paiute attack.attack. t�enWhen the dangerdanger fromfrom attackattack had passed, the outpost waswas abandoned.abandoned. Native Americans livedlived there around 1910.1910. Sources vary as to whether theythey were Mojave oror ChemehueviChemehuevi (Casebier(Casebier 1974:571974:57-59). -59). It is likely that the area has been usedused regularlyregularly byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans except between 18671867 andand 1868.1868.

A flood in thethe 1930s1930s appearsappears toto have carriedcarried awayaway soil on lower Paiute Creek where PaiutesPaiutes hadhad theirtheir gardensgardens (Casebier 1974:63).

7-427 -42 The site of Fort Paiute isis privatelyprivately ownedowned (Casebier(Casebier 1973:1973: 66-68).66 -68).

Paiute Pass ArchaeologicalArchaeological District, establishedestablished inin 1973,1973, encompasses PaiutePaiute PassPass andand SpringsSprings andand adjacent valleysvalleys and land asas wellwell asas Piute Mountains. Sensitivity: 8-9.8 -9.

Paiute Mountains,Mountains, northern range*,range*, are inin anan areaarea ofof greatgreat concern toto thethe ChemehueviChemehuevi and of some concernconcern toto thethe PaiutesPaiutes and Mojave. An urban Barstow respondent expressedexpressed concern forfor hunting inin thethe northernnorthern part of thethe range.range.

There are several recordedrecorded petroglyphpetroglyph sitessites atat StrayStray CowCow Well (CL(CL-12l). -12I).

It is probableprobable that therethere areare manymany moremore sitessites inin thisthis range than havehave been recorded.recorded. Laird showsshows thethe trailtrail westwest from ChuckwallaChuckwalla SpringSpring going through the northern PaiutePaiute Mountains, and the path of thethe SaltSalt SongSong goinggoing alongalong thethe western edgeedge of the range (1976:Maps)(1976:Maps)..

"The central Paiute Range isis knownknown toto thethe MohaveMohave asas

Kwikwattsotka and is consideredconsidered sacred.sacred .. The areaarea isis stillstill employed byby somesome MohaveMohave for ritually associatedas·sociated collectioncollection purposes specificallyspecifically in association with hawk andand eagleeagle feather gatheringgathering forfor ceremony.ceremony. Springs and somesome otherother areasareas of ritualritual associationassociation are still employed byby ColoradoColorado RiverRiver area traditionalists" (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979b)1979b). .

Sensitivity: 4-9.4 -9.

Paiute Mountains, southernsouthern range.range. The southernsouthern rangerange ofof the PaiutePaiute MountainsMountains runs fromfrom anan areaarea easteast ofof GoffsGoffs southsouth andand slightly westwest to formform thethe easterneastern boundaryboundary ofof FennerFenner Valley.Valley. The only prehistoric archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites recordedrecorded withinwithin thethe range are a fewfew atat itsits southernsouthern end:end: a campsite with midden near BarrelBar�el SpringSpring (SBr-(SBr-3204); 3204); and rock slignment sitessites atat SBr-1165.SBr -1165. There areare petroglyphspetroglyphs atat SBrSBr-1975 -1975 along a trailtrail onon a ridgeridge betweenbetween twoewo washes. The locationlocation ofof thisthis rangerange makesmakes it likely that there areare unrecordedunrecorded sitessites asas well.well. It isis within an area ofof concernconcern toto ChemehueviChemehuevi andand Mojave.Mojave.

Sensitivity: 44-8. -8.

Providence Mountains.Moun�ains. The Providence Mountains areare richly endowed with springs,springs, aa woodlandwoodland cover,cover, andand mineralmineral resources. Accordingly, theythey havehave numerousnumerous andand extensiveextensive archaeological sites.sites. More sitessites have beenbeen recordedrecorded inin thethe

77-43 -43 northern partpart ofof thethe rangerange than in the south, perhaps because the northernnorthern ProvidenceProvidence MountainsMountains havehave beenbeen so fully surveyed in connectionconnection withwith propos�lsproposals forfor development.development. However, inin thethe range's northnorth therethere areare lavalava flows that providedprovided a variety of rocks thatthat werewere useful forfor tools.tools. Camp sites, quarries, andand workshops are particularly densedense inin anan areaarea ofof "welded"welded tuff"-tuff"- - aa glasslikeglasslike volcanicvolcanic material. Over 150150 sitesite recordsrecords have been filed for an area slightly overover aa squaresquare milemile (2.5(2.5 sq.sq. km)km) in area.

One branchbranch of the Old Mojave Trail passed throughthrough thethe range.range. At Cornfield Spring, on one western approachapproach toto thethe range,range, Lt.Lt. M. T.T. CarrCarr ofof thethe U.S.U.S. ArmyArmy came uponupon a Paiute garden of pump-pump kins andand watermelonswatermelons whenwhen he passed throughthrough inin 1860.1860. There were signssigns thatthat aa greatgreat manymany NativeNative AmericansAmericans had been there not long beforebefore (Casebier(Casebier 1972:34).1972:34).

This range isis of greatgreat concernconcern toto thethe Paiutes,Paiutes, andand ofof concern toto thethe Chemehuevi andand Mojave. Sensitivity: 44-8. -8.

Rabbit Lake has been anan importantimportant prehistoricprehistoric and��d historichistoric site. SBr-181SBr -181 onon thethe northwestnorthwest shorelineshoreline of thethe lakelake appearsappears to havehave beenbeen a temporary campsitecampsite forfor manymany centuries.centuries. It has been partially destroyed inin recentrecent years.years.

UCRUCR-T -T onon thethe westwest shoreshore ofof thethe lakelake hashas contained lithic tools suggestingsuggesting use asas aa temporarytemporary campsite.campsite. It has been badly damaged by ORVORV traffic.traffic. Sensitivity: 4.

Rabbit SpringsSprings was thethe Native American campsitecampsite where Scotsman Peter Davidsom homesteaded inin 1870.1870. He servedserved mealsmeals and refreshmentrefreshment to travelers and provided mail serviceservice forfor miners. This is listed asas aa PointPoint ofof HistoricHistoric InterestInterest inin the CaliforniaCalifornia Parks andand RecreationRecreation Survey,Survey, 1976.1976. Sensiti-Sensiti vity: 5.

Red Pass LakeLake Area.Area. In the Red Pass Lake areaarea atat thethe southeastern edge of FortFort IrwinIrwin MilitaryMilitary ReservationReservation areare several sites.sites. SBr-847SBr -847 consistsconsists ofof rockrock alignmentsalignments imbedded in heavilyheavily patinated desertdesert pavement.pavement. Other sites containcontain caves and rockshelters withwith artifacts.artifacts. Sensitivity: 5-7.5 -7.

Rock Spring,Spring, between thethe ProvidenceProvidence andand NewNew YorkYork Moun-Moun tains,tains I waswas aa sourcesource ofof waterwater onon aa ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute trailtrail between Vontrigger SpringSpring andand KesslerKessler SpringSpring (Laird(Laird 1976:1976: End map). This springspring was ofof concernconcern toto Chemehuevi,Chemehuevi, PaiutePaiute and Mojave. There may bebe sacredsacred sitessites andand burialsburials nearnear it.it. Sensitivity: 5-8.5 -8.

77-44 -44 Rodman MountainsMountains*. *. One urban Barstow respondent expressed some concernconcern forfor petroglyphspetroglyphs and pictographs in thethe Rodman Mountains. This area has numerousnumerous recorded and unrecorded rock artart sites,sites, asas wellwell as other archaeologicalarchaeological sites.sites. A cavecave site isis reportedreported as containing woven fiberfiber artifacts.artifacts. See discussion of Newberry/RodmanNewberry /Rodman MountainMountain area.area.

San Bernardino Mountains. The northern slopesslopes ofof thethe San BernardinoBernardino MountainsMountains northnorth ofof LakeLake ArrowheadArrowhead were used primarily byby SerranosSerranos duringduring the prehistoricprehistoric and early hishis- toric period. Besides Juniper FlatsFlats (q.v.),(q.v.), recordedrecorded sitessites include aa temporarytemporary campsite near thethe BowenBowen RanchRanch SpringsSprings (SBr-16l9),(SBr- 1619) , containing fire stones and flakes,flakes, andand a site along WillowWillow CreekCreek forfor a halfhalf mile thatthat has aa depositiondeposition over 44 feetfeet deepdeep in a 100 footfoot by 100100 footfoot mainmain area,area, des-des cribed as a recentrecent sitesite (SBr(SBr-296). -296).

Other sites inin thisthis areaarea includeinclude SBrSBr-34l, -341, where stonesstones used inin firefire rings,rings, pottery sherds,sherds, andand projectileprojectile pointspoints have beenbeen discovered; anan apparentlyapparently oldold campsite,campsite, SBrSBr-464, -464, east ofof LakeLake Arrowhead;Arrowhead; 2 flakeflake andand milling stonestone sitessites near Negus Spring (SBr(SBr-1628; -1628; 1629);1629); aa campcamp sitesite for gathering pinyon nutsnuts and materials forfor basketrybasketry atat (SBr(SBr-2233) -2233) HorseHorse Spring. Other sites on thethe northern slopesslopes of thethe SanSan Ber-Ber nardino MountainsMountains include thosethose alongalong thethe WestWest ForkFork ofof thethe Mojave River, and along Deep Creek,Creek, aa tributarytributary ofof thethe Mojave.Mojave. SBrSBr-l76, -176, SBr-938,SBr -938,and and SBr-458SBr -458appear appear toto bebe threethree villages about aa milemile apart along the creek,creek, beginning atat itsits junctionjunction with the West Fork.Fork. Juniper FlatsFlats andand thethe DeepDeep CreekCreek areaarea might each be eligible forfor NationalNational RegisterRegister ArchaeologicalArchaeological District status.status. The other sites that have been recorded are from two to ten miles apart.apart.

Sensitivity: 5-8.5 -8.

Searchlight*.Searchlight *. Southern Paiutes who were interviewedinterviewed saidsaid that the historichistoric .ttownown of Searchlight isis thethe centercenter ofof aa regionregion of traditional and historic importanceimportance. toto thethe Paiutes.Paiutes. It isis' at the headhead of Paiute Valley, andand was thethe homehome ofof thethe lastlast Paiutes whowho lived inin thethe StudyStudy Area.Area. According toto severalseveral ofof those interviewed, many familiesfamilies livedlived near SearchlightSearchlight beforebefore moving north. The last familyfamily to leaveleave the area hunted and gathered plants,plants, much in thethe traditionaltraditional fashion,fashion, untiluntil thethe 1940s and 1950s.1950s. It is an areaarea of traditionaltraditional andand historic interest to many people.people. It is also within an area of concern to the MOjave.Mojave. Sensitivity: 4-7.4 -7.

77-45 -45 Shadow MountainMountain*. *. Paiute respondents inin personal inter-inter views saidsaid thatthat therethere are Indian mines onon ShadowShadow Mountain.Mountain. These werewere usedused mainlymainly inin ,thethe precontactprecontact period for getting materials forfor stonestone tools, butbut some have been mined inin thethe historic periodperiod byby Native Americans. There isis aa generalgeneral reluctance onon thethe partpart ofof manymany peoplepeople today to talk about such mines, becausebecause theythey feelfeel thatthat the minesmines maymay still have value in the future.

Shadow MountainMountain is rich inin historic periodperiod mines,mines, asas shownshown on topographic maps. Native American involvementinvolvement inin miningmining here hashas notnot hithertohitherto beenbeen documented, toto CSRI'sCSRI's knowledge.knowledge. Sensitivity: 3-6.3 -6.

Shadow Valley contains severalseveral archaeologicalarchaeological sitessites within two milesmiles ofof ValleyValley WellsWells and about 55 miles west andand slightlyslightly south ofof MountainMountain Pass.Pass. Of thesethese SBrSBr-2707 -2707 isis unusualunusual inin thatthat it includesincludes a walk-inwalk -in wellwell alongalong withwith millingmilling stones andand otherother prehistoric artifacts. If this is a prehistoric well, itit isis unique in the area.area. Prehistoric walkwalk-in -in wellswells werewere used byby the CahuillaCahuilla inin thethe area nearnear the northern endend ofof thethe SaltonSalton Sea, butbut havehave notnot been used elsewhere.elsewhere.

There are several recorded petroglyph sitessites alongalong thethe eastern edgeedge ofof ShadowShadow Valley, and there areare likelylikely toto bebe others that have not been recorded.recorded.

Shadow Valley isis within anan areaarea ofof concernconcern toto thethe MojaveMojave and ofof somesome concern to thethe LasLas VegasVegas Paiute.Paiute. Sensitivity: 3-7.3 -7.

Silurian LakeLake*. *. Southern Paiute respondentsrespondents reportreport thatthat there areare grindinggrinding rocks and stands of mesquite just north ofof Silurian Lake.

No prehistoric archaeological sites have been foundfound and described in this area, perhaps forfor lacklack ofof beingbeing surveyed.surveyed. Sensitivity: 22-7. -7.

Silver Creek Sites.Sites. This groupgroup ofof threethree sites,sites, locatedlocated five miles (8(8 km) south-south-southwest southwest ofof LucerneLucerne Valley, Califor-Califor nia, containscontains aa largelarge villagevillage site,site, SBrSBr-1603. -1603. A half milemile southeast of thethe villagevillage sitesite isis SBrSBr-937, -937, which containscontains chip-chip ping waste,waste, bone, shell beads andand potterypottery sherds,sherds, possiblypossibly associated with thethe village.village. A half mile northeast ofof thethe village sitesite isis SBrSBr-1606, -1606, containing some flakesflakes andand oneone projectile point.point. Sensitivity: 33-8. -8.

77-46 -46 SilverSilver Lake. Archaeological sitessites on thethe shorelinesshorelines of Silver Lake,Lake, aa PLePleistoceneLs cocene 'lakelake bed,bed, yieldedyielded artifacts that were among the first to be recognized asas beingbeing asas oldold asas 8,000 toto 10,00010,000 years..years. AlAlthoughthough the sites no longer contain many artifacts, the area has great significancesignificance forfor thosethose whowho are interestedinterested in the 'prehistoryprehistory ofof California.California. Sensitivity: 2-5.2 -5.

Sleeping Beauty.Beauty. About sixsix or seven miles southeast of Pisgah, onon thethe southsouth slope of Sleeping Beauty Mountain and a milemile oror two northnorth of thethe RouteRoute 6666 HVTLHVTL corridorcorridor areare SBrSBr- - 2792 and SBr-1904,SBr -1904, twotwo sitessites associatedassociated withwith aa rockshelterrockshelter and quarryquarry areaarea that seemsseems to havehave hadhad considerable prehistoric occupation. Sensitivity: 55-7. -7.

Soda LakeLake and thethe SinkSink ofof thethe Mojave.Mojave. Numerous sites cluster alongalong thethe southeasternsoutheastern and northernnorthern edges of Soda Lake. Soda Springs (the(the sitesite ofof presentpresent-day -day Zzyzx Springs)Springs) were the first source of waterwater in many miles for prehistoric and earlyearly historichistoric travellers comingcoming west acrossacross thethe desert.desert. The MojaveMojave Trail and thethe Mojave RoadRoad passedpassed throughthrough thethe area.area. Gravel relief figures, malpais house circles,circles, andand rockrock align-align ments are recordedrecorded as located at the south end of the MojaveMojave River WashWash adjoining thethe lakelake bed.bed. Some of thesethese featuresfeatures are very old.old. Soda Lake and SilverSilver Lake mademade upup PleistocenePleistocene Lake Mojave,Mojave, at the shores of whichwhich the populations of the Pleistocene era apparentlyapparently lived.lived. Sensitivity: 3-7.3 -7.

Soda Mountains. The Soda Mountains areare of some concernconcern to the Las Vegas PaiutePaiute andand thethe Mojave.Mojave. There areare fewfew recor-recor ded archaeological sites inin thethe mountains, exceptexcept atat thethe western edge ofof SodaSoda Lake.Lake. Sensitivity: 1-5.1 -5.

Spirit Mountains. See discussion ofof Avikwame.Avikwame.

Stoddard/SidewinderStoddard /Sidewinder MountainsMountains containcontain VanyumeVanyume/Serrano /Serrano settlement sites, and aa trailtrail runningrunning southwestsouthwest toto northeast.northeast. The area figuresfigures inin CahuillaCahuilla andand ChemehueviChemehuevi/Paiute /Paiute myth. (Laidlaw 1979b.)1979b.) Sensitivity: 44-8. -8.

Stoddard Valley. A possible intaglio has been recorded at SBrSBr-3489. -3489. AccorAccordingVallea.ing toto thethe sitesite record, "The"The desert pave-pave ment has been pushed up intointo twotwo ridges with the points almost meeting. There isis anotheranother figurefigure inin thethe nextnext pavementpavement duedue west." Sensitivity: 2-7.2 -7.

7-477 -47 Summit Spring. SBr-l235SBr -1235 isis aa cavecave sitesite nearnear Summit Spring,Spring, about ninenine mimilesString.es east-northeasteast -northeast ofof Kelso,Kelso, California,California, contain-contain inging EarlyEarly Man-typeMan-type toolstools mademade of petrified wood and numerous flakes ofof thethe same material. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

SurpriseSurprise Spring. A dune dweller site at Surprise Spring has beenbeen nominatenominatedSprin�.4 foror the ·NationalNational Register. It covers about a squaresquare kilometer,kilometer, and is as muchmuch as 3 feet (1(1 m) in depthdepth inin places.places. It contains projectileprojectile points, shellshell beads, milling stones, hammerstoneshammerstones and scrapers, chippedchipped stonestone tools,tools, pottery,pottery, andand flakes. The projectile points have beenbeen identifiedidentified asas Cottonwood triangular. According to Fenenga andand Murray, who recorded itit inin 1977,1977, it "experienced intensive aboriginal occu-occu pation overover a long period of time."time." Sensitivity: 8.

Susugina. SBr-l39SBr -139 isis identifiedidentified asas thethe sitesite of the vil-vil lage ofof SusuginaSusugina byby G. A. Smith, who recordedrecorded itit (no(no date).date). The site covers 300 acres (120(120 ha) over which artifactual material is discontinuous.discontinuous. Surface indications areare most common nearnear whatwhat appear to be natural basins forfor holdingholding water. Susu ina waswas a village visited by thethe Moraga expe-expe dition inSusurina18 1 9 (BeattieBeattie 1955).1955). It is within VanyumeVanyume/Serrano /Serrano territory. Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

Ta khtam (Emerson(Emerson LakeLake Petroglyphs).Petroglyphs). A site record forfor SBr-1604SBr -1604on on thethe northnorth slopeslope orof thethe SanSan Bernardino Mountains, and somethingsomething over tenten milesmiles southwestsouthwest ofof EmersonEmerson Lake,Lake, describes aa "village site with shelters,shelters, milling stations,stations, lithics, pottery; petroglyphs andand pictographspictographs associatedassociated withwith trails." There isis alsoalso aa "historic"historic arrastraarrastra inin associationassociation with IndianIndian culturalcultural materialsmaterials--pottery, -- pottery, points,points, slicks."slicks." The site waswas recorded by M. HenryHenry inin 1977.1977. Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 77-8. -8.

Topiabit. SBrSBr-l83 -183 hashas beenbeen identifiedidentified as Topiabit,Tcpiabit, aa village site visited by thethe MoragaMoraga expeditionexpedition inin 18191819 (Beattie(Beattie 1955). Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

Troy LakeLake Area.Area. Troy drydry lakelake isis surroundedsurrounded byby recordedrecorded archaeological sites,sites, includingincluding campsitescampsites andand somesome sitessites withwith artifacts of considerableconsiderable age.age. East of thethe lakelake areare severalseveral large rock alignments.alignments. Sensitivity: 33-6. -6.

77-48 -48 Turquoise Mountains.Mountains. This range contains turquoise mines that werewere workedworked prehistorically,prehistorically, apparently by Pueblo peoples from NewNew MexicoMexico and Arizona. SBr-204,SBr -204, SBr-206SBr -206 and SBrSBr-207 -207 appear toto bebe associatedassociated with thisthis ancientancient miningmining tradition,tradition, and itit is'is probableprobable that therethere are numerousnumerous unrecorded sites of the same kind. Sensitivity: ,3-73 -7..

. Victorville area*.area*. There are numerous recordedrecorded sitessites along thethe MojaveMojave River north andand southsouth ofof Victorville.Victorville. Four of these havehave beenbeen nominatednominated for inclusion in the National Register. They areare SBrSBr-58, -58, SBrSBr-65, -65, SBrSBr-72, -72, andand SBrSBr-l82. -182. SBr-72SBr -72was wasdeclared declared eligibleeligible forfor thethe RegisterRegister in January, 1979.1979.

SBr-58SBr -58 isis apparentlyapparently anan earlyearly village site;site; SBrSBr-65 -65 is a campsite oror villagevillage site apparently used over many centuries.centuries. SBr-72SBr -72 isis aa five-acrefive -acre (2-ha)(2 -ha)site, site,the the "Oro"Oro GrandeGrande site" where Serrano respondents servedserved asas observers.observers. Indentations or impressions mademade by human feetfeet were foundfound atat thethe lowestlowest levels of thethe site.site. There are six additional sites along the river bankbank within twotwo milesmiles toto thethe northnorth ofof SBrSBr-72 -72 plusplus another five withinwithin anan equalequal distancedistance toto thethe southsouth ofof SBrSBr-72, -72, providing evidenceevidence that this hashas beenbeen a general area of occupation for considerableconsiderable time.time.

SBr-182SBr -182was was nominatednominated forfor thethe NationalNational Register inin 1977.1977. It is a 66-acre -acre (2.5-ha)(2.5 -ha)permanent permanent campsitecampsite onon the Turner Springs RanchRanch one mile fromfrom thethe Mojave River.River. TwentyTwenty-five -five burials and some cremationscremations were foundfound here.here. Shell beadsbeads and abalone shell were in association with thethe burials.burials. A small groupgroup of Paiutes lived on thisthis hill inin historichistoric times.times.

Three SerranoSerrano respondentsrespondents saidsaid thethe areaarea aroundaround VictorVictor - ville is sacred because Indians used toto livelive there.there. They were unwilling toto be more specific.specific. Four SerranoSerrano respondentsrespondents said that traditional events tooktook place inin thethe VictorvilleVictorville area. The sitesite ofof thethe villagevillage ofof MaviatemMaviatem isis betweenbetween VictorVictor - ville and Hesperia (Strong(Strong 1929:7,11),1929:7,11), butbut hashas notnot beenbeen identified with aa specificspecific site.site. This areaarea isis ofof concernconcern to Kawaiisu,Kawaiisu, Mojave,Mojave, Chemehuevi andand PaiutePaiute asas well asas Serrano.Serrano.

Sensitivity: 77-9. -9.

Vontrigger SpringSpring cluster,cluster, SBrSBr-2799 -2799 toto SBrSBr-2806, -2806, incluinclu- sive. The most importantimportant sitessites inin thisthis group clusteredclustered around Vontrigger SpringSpring areare SBrSBr-2799, -2799, aa rockrock sheltershelter about 3m x 3m x 2m high;high; another rockrock shelter,shelter, SBrSBr-2803, -2803, containingcontaining middenmidden and firefire-blackened -blackened ceiling;ceiling; and SBrSBr-280S, -2805, aa segmentsegment of anan historichistoric wagon roadroad withwith bridgebridge crossing.crossing. Another sitesite inin thisthis clustercluster is a temporary campsite.campsite. This areaarea isis ofof concernconcern toto Mojave,Mojave, Chemehuevi andand Paiute.Paiute. Sensitivity: 66-7. -7.

7-497 -49 Ward Valley. SBrSBr-1545, -1545, alongalong thethe SeESCE WardWard transmissiontransmission line, isis aa sitesite overover two milesmiles long and about half a mile wide containing rock rings, chert flakes and corescores imbeddedimbedded in desertdesert pavementpavement andand chippage scatter "that begins in sandy wash area and covers a series of desert pavement surfaces."surfaces." Garth Portillo,Portillo, whowho recordedrecorded the site in 1974, remarks that the sitesite "could"could bebe aa mixmix ofof San DieguitoDieguito I and later compo-compo nents, should be investigated."

There are probably many unrecordedunrecorced sitessites inin WardWard Valley,Valiey, which is withinwithin an area of concern to both Chemehuevi and Mojave. Sensitivity: 44�7. -7.

Woods Wash and Woods Mountain, west ofof HackberryHackberry Mountain, contain numerousnumerous unrecorded archaeological materials. They were an important hunting and gathering area (Laidlaw(Laidlaw 1979a). They arewithin anan areaarea ofof concernconcern toto ChemehueviChemehuevi andand Mojave and of muchmuch 'concernconcern toto SouthernSouthern Paiute.Paiute. Sensitivity: 4-6.

Zzyzx MineralMineral SpringsSprings*. *. One urban BarstowBarstow respondentrespondent expressed some concern forfor thisthis hot spring,spring, valuedvalued asas aa health and recreational resource.resource. These areare atat thethe sitesite ofof Soda Springs. (See discussion ofof SodaSoda Lake.)Lake.) Here, inin 1860,1860, a detachment of the U.S. Army built aa redoubtredoubt forfor thethe protec-protec tion ofof travellers against thethe Paiutes (Casebier 1972:18ff.). against (Casebier 1972:18ff.).. Sensitivity: 6.

SBrSBr-221. -221. These rock figuresfigures areare locatedlocated sixsix milesmiles south-south southwestsouths-E-75Yof Soda lakebed, on thethe southsouth rimrim ofof thethe MojaveMojave River wash. Sensitivity: 5.

SBr-296SBr -296 isis aa "large,"large, recent,recent, andand rich"rich" campsite locatedlocated three milesmires directly north ofof LakeLake Arrowhead.Arrowhead. The mainmain site,site, about lOOxlOO100x100 feet (32x32(32x32 meters) inin area,area, containscontains projectileprojectile points, potterypottery sherds, scrapers,scrapers, knives, pestles,pestles, manos,manos, metates, mortars (both(both portableportable andand bedrock),bedrock), lithiclithic chipchip - pings and bone materials.materials. Sensitivity: 6.

SBr-584.SBr -584. Located 1313 milesmiles easteast-northeast -northeast of Kelso,Kelso, California, this unique sitesite consistsconsists ofof twotwo volcanicvolcanic boul-boul ders on the sideside ofof aa hill.hill. The boulders areare onon oppositeopposite sides of a trail,trail, andand manymany "fist-"fist-sized" sized" stones have been placed on toptop ofof them.them. A chopperchopper andand scraperscraper have alsoalso been found. This may bebe thethe sitesite ofof anan opaliteopalite quarry.quarry. Sensitivity: 6.

7-507 -50 SBr-980SBr -980 isis situatedsituated atat thethe northernnorthern edgeedge of the Turtle Mountains, 32 miles southsouth-southwest -southwest ofof Needles,Needles, California. With its trails, cairns,cairns, lithics,lithics, andand rockrock rings,rings, SBrSBr-980 -980 appears toto havehave 'beenbeen aa temporary campsite covering an area of moremore than 5000 square meters. Sensitivity: 5.

SBr-1167.SBr -1167. This site,site. locatedlocated 313� miles north ofof thethe FpurFour CornersCorners atat TwentynineTwentynine Palms,Palms, California,California, maymay bebe a camp-camp site occupiedoccupied through considerableconsiderable time.time. It contains large scatters ofof bones,bones, sherds, andand flakes.flakes. Sensitivity: 6:

SBr-l546.SBr -1546. This site,site, locatedlocated sixsix milesmiles southwestsouthwest ofof Cima,Cima, California, is.is onon the MojaveMojave Trail, later thethe OldOld GovernmentGovernment Road, betweenbetween the Colorado River and Marl Spring,Spring, andand maymay have beenbeen used by Garcés'Garces' expedition acrossacross thethe MojaveMojave DesertDesert in 1776. Sensitivity: 3-6.3 -6.

SBr-l880.SBr -1880. This sitesite isis probablyprobably aa largelarge villagevillage area,area, about 3x.53x.5 milesmiles (4.8x.8 km) in size, containing broken pot-pot tery, metates,metates, quartz, burned rock, stone beads, andand probableprobable house rings. It is located in northeasternnortheastern JohnsonJohnson ValleyValley a mile from the proposedproposed LucerneLucerne Valley Project waterwater line and l�14 milesmiles easteast of the La FonFon Ranch.Ranch. Sensitivity:Sensitivity: 8.

SBr-l888.SBr -1888. This sitesite onon thethe north terraceterrace ofof thethe MojaveMojave River two milesmiles east of thethe Union PacificPacific RailroadRailroad sidingsiding at Field,Field, California,California, is about 200 by 300 feetfeet inin areaarea (60(60 mm by 100 m)m).. It contains fire rings and "triangular"triangular clearedcleared spaces onon desert pavement." It was surveyed andand plottedplotted byby James S. Benton andand GordonGordon StriclerStricler inin 1969.1969. Sensitivity: 5.

SBr-l907.SBr -1907. This site,site, aboutabout fivefive milesmiles westwest ofof thethe PisgahPisgah Substation, covers about 10 acres (4(4 ha) andand containscontains largelarge choppers andand scrapers of a type associatedassociated with thethe very oldold Manix Lithic industry,industry, accordingaccording toto GordonGordon H.H. Stricler,Stricler, whowho recorded the sitesite inin 1971.1971. Sensitivity: 6.

SBr-196l.SBr -1961. This isis probablyprobably aa villagevillage sitesite occupiedoccupied throughthrough considerable time.time. Situated along the south bank of the Mojave River 313� miles easteast-northeast -northeast ofof Daggett,Daggett, this largelarge sitesite (SOOOx2000(5000x2000 m)m) containscontains fossils, artifacts (pottery,(pottery, projectile points) and circularcircular rockrock alignments.alignments. Sensitivity: 8.

77-51 -51 SBr-2107.SBr -2107. This site isis locatedlocated aboutabout one mile north ofof Newberry, California. A burned bone awl,awl, pottery disk,disk, slateslate hammers tones drills, shellshell beads,beads, hammerstones,, knives,knives, scrapers and many projectile pointspoints found herehere suggest that this is the sitesite ofof an earlyearly workshop.workshop. Sensitivity: 4-6.4 -6.

SBrSBr-2ll0 -2110 and SBrSBr-2129. -2129. Located fivefive milesmiles' easteast ofof YermoYe rmo . and a mile-and-a-halfmile -and -a -halfapart apartare aretwo twosites siteswith with NationalNational RegisRegis- ter potential. SBrSBr-2ll0 -2110 hashas beenbeen calledcalled the Toomey Headless Horseman site,site, becausebecause bothboth horsehorse andand humanhuman bonesbones werewere found buried therethere inin the sand dunes beside thethe Mojave riverbed.riverbed. The sitesite isis largelarge (750x750 m) and the amountamount ofof bonebone materialmaterial and lithiclithic scatter'suggestscatter suggest that it was anan earlyearly workshop. SBrSBr-2l29 -2129is isabout about 200x150200x150 feetfeet (64x48(64x48 m)m) in size andand alsoalso shows evidenceevidence ofof anan earlyearly workshopworkshop byby thethe large amount ofof flakes, choppers,choppers, scrapers, etc.etc. The fence surroundingsurrounding SBr-2l29SBr -2129provides provides some,some, butbut insufficient,insufficient, protection. Sensitivity: 7-8.7 -8.

SBr-2240SBr -2240 isis locatedlocated aboutabout oneone andand aa halfhalf milesmiles northnorth of Clark MountainMountain Station in open range forfor cattle,cattle, .ORVs,ORVs, etc.etc. This site consists ofof aa manman-made -made arrangementarrangement of rocks which may possibly be aa burial.burial. The site coverscovers aa 33 metermeter area,area, and thethe rocksrocks in the arrangement averageaverage 1010 cmcm (4(4 in.)in.) inin diameter. Sensitivity: 11-5. -5.

7-527 -52 Historical Sites:Sites: California

Alf's Blacksmith Shop.Shop,. (1st Street,Street, a blockblock north of railroad trackstracks in Daggett.) Well-maintainedWell- maintained oldold woodenwooden buildbuild- ing,ing. onlyonly knownknown completecomplete blacksmithblacksmith shop remainingremaining inin SanSan Ber-Ber nardino County.County_ It hashas been nominated forfor thethe NationalNational RegisterRegister of HistoricHistoric Places. Seymour Alf established shopshop inin 18901890 toto serve minersminers from Calico Mountains, alsoalso builtbuilt 2020-mule -mule team wagons to haul borax.borax. Iron tools, equipment, andand wagons areare neatly displayed. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Arrastre CanyonCanyon Quarry,Quarry, SiteSite DHDH-114. -114. At thisthis historic quarry inin thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Mountains,Mountains, Scandinavian rockrock cut-cut ters splitsplit bouldersboulders withwith hand drillsdrills inin thethe latelate 1800s.l800s. Sensitivity: Moderate.

Bagdad ChaseChase Mine.Mine. (South of Ludlow.) This conglomerateconglomerate mine operatedoperated byby Bagdad, Camp Rochester, Chase,Chase, PacificPacific Mine,Mine, Roosevelt, andand ConsolidatedConsolidated miningmining companies was richrich coppercopper and goldgold producer,producer, withwith gold alone totaling $4.5$4.5 million inin 1904-1910.1904 -1910. Gold was mined untiluntil 1954.1954. (Brooks, Wilson,Wilson, and Brooks 1979:l8ff.)1979:18ff.) Sensitivity: High.

Barnwell (formerly(formerly Manvel) was a frontier railhead with stone construction,construction, dating toto 1893.1893. (Gallegos 1976.)1976.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Barstow's Old StoneStone Houses.Houses. (206 Hutchinson, Barstow.)Barstow.) Chinese railroadrailroad workersworkers once livedlived inin thesethese apartmentsapartments inin thethe old section ofof town.town. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Bitter Springs.Springs. Alternate stopstop onon SantaSanta FeFe Trail,Trail, betweenbetween Mojave River and Red Pass.Pass. Fremont'sFrémont's log indicates he may have stopped herehere inin 1844.1844. Sensitivity: High.

Bonanza King Mine.Mine. This was thethe largestlargest silversilver mine andand mine site in Providence Mountains, datingdating toto 1880s.l880s.

Prospectors George Goreman andand P. Dwyer in 1880 discovered ore withwith silversilver contentcontent assyingassying atat $640$640-5000 -5000 aa ton.ton. Lacking capital, they soldsold thethe minemine toto BoyerBoyer 5:& DrewDrew of San Bernardino,Bernardino, who in turn sold it to King Consolidated Mining Company for $200,000. The main shaftshaft waswas sunksunk inin 1882.1882. By February 1883,1883, production�roduction was 20002000 ouncesounces ofof 930930-fine -fine silver aa dayday (more(more thanthan I �12,12,00000.0 at today'stoday s prices)prices).. It waswas abandoned inin 1890sl890s when the price of silversilver dropped.dropped. (Hartill et al.a1. 1979:221ff.;1979:221ff.; Galle-Galle gos 1976.) Sensitivity: High.

7-53 Borate (north(north ofof Barstow)Barstow) waswas thethe terminusterminus ofof thethe narrownarrow - gauge Borate-DaggettBorate -Daggett RailwayRailway duringduring the borax boom. Previously, 20-mule20 -muleteams teams tooktook thethe oreore downdown ruggedrugged MuleMule CanyonCanyon toto Daggett.Daggett. By 1900, borax was beingbeing minedmined fromfrom 600600-foot -foot (960(960-km) -km) levels and costs soared. Owner F. M. Smith shiftedshifted production toto Death Valley minesmines and BorateBorate declined.declined. (Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Valley . '(Weinman-Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

. Burton's Station (near(near present sitesite ofof Victorville)Victorville) was a 19th-century19th- centurywagon wagon stopstop wherewhere travelerstravelers werewere suppliedsupplied withwith hay and groceries. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Camp Cady (east(east and slightlyslightly north of Barstow)Barstow) ruinsruins holdhold historical data, and the sitesite has uniqueunique history.history.

During the late 1850sl850s andand early 1860s,l860s, Native Americans interfered withwith tradetrade betweenbetween Los Angeles and eastern supply centers, andand merchantsmerchants demanded protection forfor overlandoverland routes.routes. In 18601860 MajorMajor JamesJames H.H. Carleton, with Company KK ofof thethe FirstFirst Dragoons, establishedestablished a afortfort atat ForksForks-in-the-Road, -in- the -Road, namingnaming it after hishis friend Major Cady.Cady. Founded asas aa temporarytemporary fort,fort, it isis strategically located on thethe roadroad toto FortFort Mojave, onlyonly 9 milesmiles (14.5 km)km) from the place where SaltSalt LakeLake TrailTrail leftleft the river.

Regular troops leftleft afterafter aa fewfew months, but thethe campsitecampsite continued toto bebe used as a stopover on thethe Army's supplysupply lineline to Fort Mojave. Native Americans continuedcontinued toto attackattack out-out siders whowho crossed their territories, andand troopstroops were againagain sent herehere in 1864.1864. Rude adobeadobe houseshouses werewere built.built. The camp was closed in March 18661866 but reestablishedreestablished thethe nextnext year.year. Because flat land was inadequateinadequate forfor aa drilldrill groundground atat thethe first site,site, GeneralGeneral Ord moved the campcamp half aa mile west. Here adobe structures werewere built, this time withwith floors and shingle roofs.roofs.

A peace treatytreaty was negotiated with thethe various tribestribes inin 1867, andand inin MarchMarch 1871 the property was soldsold toto twotwo white ranchers. Ivanpah was thenthen booming,booming, andand CampCamp CadyCady waswas soonsoon stripped of lumber.lumber. (Casebier 1972;197Z; Weinman-Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979:1979: 178-80.)178 -80.) Sensitivity: High.

Camp Ibis (Arrowhead(Arrowhead Junction)Junction) was originallyoriginally namednamed "Ibex.""Ibex." It waswascamFi tthee site of aa World War IIII trainingtraining camp;camp; rockrock alignmentsalignments there datedate toto 19421942-44. -44. (Gallegos 1976.)1976.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Calico GhostGhost TownTown/Mining /Mining District,District, a restoredrestored ghostghost town,town, administered by the San BernardinoBernardino CountyCounty DepartmentDepartment ofof ParksParks and RecreationRecreation and a California Historic Landmark, hashas beenbeen recommended for nominationnomination as a District, National Register of

77-54 -54 Historic Places.

Mining activity began in 1875, whenwhen a minerminer found a rich silver ledge.ledge, developed in 18811881 asas SilverSilver KingKing Mine.Mine. Its populationpopulation expandedexpanded from 33 toto aroundaround aa hundred withinwithin aa year;year; by 1886 Calico had 30003000-4000 -4000 residentsresidents andand a schoolhouse, ceme-ceme tery, 2424 saloons,saloons, 24 gambling houses, andand aa "Chinatown.""Chinatown." Mining shiftsshifts operatedoperated day and night,night, 7 days a week, wiwithth production averaging $40,000$40,000 toto $50,000$50,000 aa month.month.

In 1885 Oro Grande Mining Company organized the Daggett & CalicoCalico RailroadRailroad CompanyCompany to connect withwith the AtlanticAtlantic && Pacific RailroadRailroad atat Daggett,Daggett, butbut the priceprice of silver dropped and miningmining declined. A fire inin 18871887 destroyeddestroyed 135135 buildings.buildings. The towntown waswas reconstructed,reconstructed, with every thirdthird oror fourthfourth build-build ing mademade ofof adobe to actact asas aa firebreak.firebreak. The clustercluster ofof minesmines and the town of Calico areare importantimportant historichistoric resources.resources. (Uyrick(Myrick 1963.) Sensitivity: High.

Chimney Rock.Rock. (Northeast edge of Rabbit DryDry Lake.)Lake.) See GraniteGranite MountainsMountains discussiondiscussion inin ethnographicethnographic sitesite list.list. Sensitivity: High.

Cima Dome Area.Area. Early-dayEarly -day travelerstravelers grazed stockstock here,here, using the abundant water. Mines were locatedlocated onon TuetoniaTuetonia Peak, WildcatWildcat Butte, and Silaconia Peaks. Water at White Rock and Cut Springs drewdrew homesteaders; ruinsruins ofof theirtheir housinghousing may still be salvageablesalvageable atat aa pointpoint betweenbetween thethe springs.springs. (Brooks, Wilson,Wilson, and BrooksBrooks 1979:260ff.)1979:260££.) Sensitivity: Low.

Colton Well Historic SiteSite consistsconsists ofof twotwo rockrock founda-founda tions and aa well. This was aa stagestage stopstop inin thethe 1880s.l880s. (Gallegos 1976.).1976.) Sensitivity:Sensitivity: Low.

Coolgardie CampCam£ (19(19 miles [31[31 km] northnorth ofof Barstow)Barstow) waswas listed asas a PointPoint o�of Historical Interest inin thethe Parks andand Recreation SurveySurvey ofof 1976.1976. Gold was discovereddiscovered herehere inin 1896,1896, one of the few placer miningmining districtsdistricts inin thethe desert.desert. In 1909 CoolgardieCoolgardie waswas a small settlement,settlement, with cabinscabins of miners scattered over severalseveral squaresquare milesmiles ofof drydry-placer -placer workings. It waswas deserted by 1915,1915, butbut somesome minersminers returnedreturned inin thethe 1930s.1930s. All that remained inin 19581958 were mounds ofof rockrock andand aa collapsedcollapsed cabin. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman -Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Cottonwoods StationStation was aa majormajor stoppingstopping placeplace onon thethe Mojave Trail,Trail, oftenoften mentionedmentioned inin logslogs andand diariesdiaries ofof 19th19th - century travelers.travelers. Warren andand RoskeRoske (1978)(1978) locatedlocated itit 18.518.5 miles (30(30 km) fromfrom FearsFears inin CajonCajon Pass,Pass, betweenbetween GrapevineGrapevine andand Point of Rocks stations.stations. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.)1979.) Sensitivity: High.

7-557 -55 Daggett Ditch, Minneola Canal.Canal. (In Daggett.) In 1893 the SoutSouthernDag�ettern CaliforniaCalifornia Improvement Company diverted water to this 10-mile10 -mile canalcanal fromfrom thethe MojaveMojave 'River,River, spendingspending some $150,000 on the project.proj ect. 'ItIt is Daggett Historical Society Point ofof Interest No. 15.15. (Weinman-CWeinman-Roberts Roberts 1979.)1979.) SensitiSensiti- vity: Low.

Fenner waswas a railroad towntown and constructionconstruction camp;camp; itit dates to 1883.1883. (Gallegos 1976.) Sensitivity: Low.

Fish Ponds Station.Station. (8 milesmiles [13 km]km] downriver from Grapevine.) The Marine CorpsCorps SupplySupply DepotDepot isis now locatedlocated here.here. During the 19th century, thethe sitesite hadhad bothboth aa wagonwagon-train -train stop .andand a stamp mill. There was aa natural pond here onon thethe Mojaveave . stamp pond Moj River withwith manymany fish whenwhen Lt. Whipple stoppedstopped herehere inin 1854.1854. In 18831883 aa quartzquartz millmill waswas shipped to Fish Ponds fromfrom Nevada.Nevada. '(Engineer(Engineer andand MiningMining Journal 1899.) Sensitivity: High.

Font's Garage (Santa(Santa Fe at 4th Street, Daggett) is anan oldold building listedylistedGara�e by Daggett Historical SocietySociety asas SiteSite No.No.6. 6. It waswas firstfirst used asas aa roundhouseroundhouse forfor thethe narrownarrow-gauge -gauge rail-rail road operatedoperated byby WaterlooWaterloo Mill & Mining CompanyCompany toto haulhaul oreore from CalicoCalico Mines. At that timetime itit was locatedlocated near thethe north end of the Mojave RiverRiver bridgebridge onon thethe' DaggettDaggett-Yermo -Yermo Road.Road. Later it waswas used asas aa stablestable andand garage.garage. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Low.

Forks-in-the-Road.Forks -in- the -Road. (14.9 milesmiles [24[24 km] west of PaiutePaiute Springs.) GarcésGarces isis saidsaid toto havehave stoppedstopped herehere inin 17761776 (Coues(Caues 1900). The Old Government Road went east fromfrom here, while the SantaSanta FeFe TrailTrail wentwent north toto join thethe AmargosaAmargosa RiverRiver route. Lt. Whipple's party passedpassed throughthrough inin 1854.1854. O�arren(Warren and Roske 1978.)1978.) Sensitivity: High.

Giant Rock (15(15 miles [24[24 km] north of Yucca Valley) monomono- lith. In 1929 Frank CritzerCritzer hollowedhollowed outout aa twotwo-room -room home inin this granitegranite monolith,monolith, and built anan airportairport andand cafe.cafe. He lived herehere until 1942.1942. Numerous Unidentified FlyingFlying ObjectsObjects have been reported in area; flyingflying saucer enthusiasts hold annual meeting here. . (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Low.

Goffs. A stationstation was establishedestablished atat Goffs inin 18831883 on thethe Atlantic & Pacific Railroad.Railroad. In 1893, briefly renamedrenamed Blake,Blake, it becamebecame a terminus of thethe Nevada SouthernSouthern railway,railway, whichwhich extended northward toto Manvel (later(later Barnwell)Barnwell).. (Myrick 1963:1963: 766ff.; 841841 ff.)ff.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

77-56 -56 Government Station was aa wagonwagon-train -train stopstop betweenbetween Grape-Grape vine andand FishFish Ponds stations. (Bancroft 1886.)1886.) Sensitivity: High.

Grapevine Station (on(on outskirts of northnorth Barstow) served asas bothboth aa wagon-trainwagon -train stationstation andand aa railroadrailroad junction.junction. It was important inin the l880s1880s whenwhen the GrapevineGrapevine MiningMining District was established nearby. Waterman Mill was west of thisthis sta-sta tion. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Guapiabit. (On LasLas Flores Ranch inin SummitSummit Valley.)Valley.) See ethnographic sitesite list.list. Listed as a Point of Historic Inter-Inter est inin thethe California Inventory (1976).(1976). Sensitivity: High.

'Hardyville Hardyvillewas was foundedfounded inin 18641864 onon thethe easteast bank of thethe Colorado RiverRiver about nine miles aboveabove FortFort Mojave.Mojave. It was the principalprincipal supplysupply pointpoint for mining activity up andand downdown the ColoradoColorado River and as farfar awayaway asas Prescott.Prescott. The site selected forfor HardyvilleHardyville waswas the most practical spotspot between La PazPaz andand CallvilleCallville for a steamboat landing, andand thethe towntown soon becamebecame aa majormajor supply point for goods comingcoming upriver by steamer. With the developmentdevelopment of thethe Mojave Road to the west and the Mohave-PrescottMohave -Prescott RoadRoad toto thethe east,east, HardyvilleHardyville became an important easteast-west -west transportationtransportation link.link. During the 1860sl860s and l870s1870s considerable freightfreight asas well asas thethe U.S.u.S. mailsmails passed through Hardyville, although raids by PaiutesPaiutes andand other NativeNative AmericansAmericans posed aa threatthreat toto teamstersteamsters carryingcarrying the shipments. (Casebier 1976:401976:40-45.) -45.) Sensitivity: High.

Harvey House, BarstowBarstow isis listedlisted inin thethe NationalNational RegisterRegister of Historic places.places. Fires of 1902 and 19101910 destroyeddestroyed earlier buildings; the present HarveyHarvey HouseHouse waswas builtbuilt inin 1911.1911. The Mojave River Valley Museum hashas plansplans andand blueprints.blueprints. (Weinman(Weinman - Roberts 1979.)1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Ivanpah (Leastalk).(Leastalk). The firstfirst twotwo townstowns ofof thisthis name,name, located northnorth ofof the present site, were considered thethe most important prepre-20th -20th centurycentury settlements inin AmargosaAmargosa/Mojave /Mojave Basin planning areaarea byby BLMBLM investigatorsinvestigators (Warren(Warren etet al.ale 1979:1979: 42-44).42 -44). This waswas anan earlyearly (1865)(1865) desertdesert miningmining areaarea--pr.imarily -- primarily for silver but alsoalso forfor gold,gold, copper,copper, andand zinc.zinc. In 1876 therethere were two stamp mills, twotwo stores,stores, andand severalseveral houseshouses inin "old"old Ivanpah," but most miners livedlived atat theirtheir claims.claims. The mines declined as thethe price ofof silversilver did,did, andand byby 18851885 thethe towntown waswas largely deserted.deserted. In 1902, the California andand Eastern Railway extended a lineline fromfrom BarnwellBarnwell toto aa newnew station,station, namingnaming itit Ivanpah after the old mining camp;camp; thisthis stationstation was abandonedabandoned

7-57 in 1918. Name isis now appliedapplied toto aa stationstation onon thethe LosLos AngelesAngeles - Salt LakeLake Railroad,Railroad, established inin 1905.1905. Sensitivity: High.

Kane Springs (North(North ofof OrdOrd Mountains, westwest ofof RodmanRodman Mountains.) A way stationstation/settlement /settlement herehere served travelers in the 1870s. In 1892 Charles Koehn operated a supply stationstation and postpost office here. (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979.)1979.) Sensitivity: Low.

Kelso is aa towntown thatthat datesdates toto 1904.1904. (Gallegos 1976.)1976.) Sensitivity: Low.

Keystone Mine (south(south slopeslope ofof StoddardStoddard Mountain) was anan outstanoutstandingKe�stoneing producerproducer in 19001�00 and forfor many years later.later. (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979.) Sensit.ivity:Sensitivity: Moderate.

Lane's Station (near(near OroGrande)Grande.) was aa wagon stationstation onon the MojaveMojave River,River, 77 miles (11(11 km) below thethe UpperUpper Crossing,Crossing, long operatedoperated by J. H.H. Lane.Lane. Later it became the Turner Springs Ranch,Ranch, and is now thethe property of Adelanto SpringsSprings Ranch. (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 19791979.).) Sensitivity: High.

Lanfair GhostGhost TownTown (18(18 mi.mi. [29 km]km] northnorth of Goffs)Gaffs) isis thethe site ofof aa stationstation on the old Nevada SouthernSouthern Railway,Railway, establishedestablished because ofof extensive homesteadhomestead movementsmovements in Lanfair ValleyValley (1910-1927).(1910- 1927). Sensitivity: Low.

Llano DelDel Rio.Rio. (East of Pearblossom, on Highway 138.)138.) In 1914,1914, unsuccessfulunsuccessful Socialist political candidatecandidate JobJob Harri-Harri man and other colonists settled here in a commune, whichwhich byby 1916 waswas producing nearly allall itsits ownown foodfood andand hadhad aa machinemachine shop, medicalmedical clinic, poultry ranch, soapsoap factory.factory. Llano kindergarten was thethe firstfirst largelarge MontessoriMontessori schoolschool inin Califor-Califor nia. The colonycolony was abandonedabandoned whenwhen thethe waterwater supplysupply failed.failed. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Low.

Marion (4(4 mi.mi. [6 km]km] northnorth ofof Daggett)Daggett) is listed inin thethe Californ�aCalifornia Inventory of 1976, California State Department of Parks and Recreation. After borax was discovereddiscovered inin thethe CalicoCalico District in 1883, Francis Marion(("Borax") "Borax ")Smith Smith combinedcombined his Nevada and California holdings under thethe name Pacific Coast Borax Company, and established Marion. The town was onon thethe Borate-DaggettBorate -Daggett Railway,Railway, alsoalso promoted byby Smith.Smith. (Weinman(We inman - Roberts 1979.)1979.) Sensitivity: High.

7-587 -58 Marl Springs (about(about halfway between Soda Lake and Paiute Springs) waswas aa vitalvital link in the eastern Mojave DesertDesert crossing,crossing, serving bothboth NativeNative Americ�sAmericans and later travelers.travelers. A U.S. ArmyArmy postpost and'mailand mail relay station was established herehere inin 1867.1867. (Casebier 1975.1975, 1976.)1976.) Sensitivity: HighHigh...

Mojave 'RoadRoad designates thethe route connectingconnecting CajonCajon PassPass with FortFort MojaveMojave on the Colorado River.River. Originally it was aa trail usedused byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans in trading with coastalcoastal Cali-Cali fornians. Garces was thethe firstfirst nonnon-Indian -Indian toto travel to thethe coast onon this route. In 1859 a wagonwagon road along thethe oldold trailtrail was established,established, and ferry serviceservice acrossacross thethe ColoradoColorado waswas soon provided. Thousands of wagons, great herds of cattlecattle andand sheep, asas wellwell asas civilians, soldiers, and governmentgovernment officialsofficials used this road.

The railroads and modern highways could bypass water sources, andand thusthus werewere routed over less rugged terrain,terrain, somesome twenty milesmiles south of thethe oldold trail.trail. The old wagon road with its traces of thethe 19th19th-century - century useuse hashas notnot beenbeen greatly impac-impac ted alongalong mostmost of the 130130 mile between thethe Colorado River andand Camp Cady. West of Camp Cady,Cady, impactimpact hashas beenbeen heavier.heavier. Sensitivity: High.

Nipton (southeast(southeast Ivanpah Valley) is a railroad hamlet with post office, datingdating fromfrom 1905.1905. (Gallegos 1976.)1976.) Sensitivity: Low.

Old Woman Springs.Springs. (16 mi.[26 km]km] east of Lucerne Val-Val ley.) Springs and cottonwoods stillstill identifyidentify thisthis site,site, presentlyp resent Ly part ofof aa privateprivate cattlecattle ranch.ranch. When Col. Henry Washington waswas workingworking on a governmentgovernment surveysurvey inin 1856,1856, hehe found anan oldold IndianIndian woman:woman:atat these springs, tootoo weak toto travel. It waswas an important supplysupply point andand overnightovernight stopstop during the mining period.period. In 1909 it had aa ranchranch house,house, orchards, and nine acresacres ofof alfalfa.alfalfa. It is listed by thethe Historical Landmarks Advisory CommitteeCommittee inin 1973.1973. Sensitivity: High.

Ord Mountain MiningMining District.District. (14 mi.[22 km]km] southeast of DaggettDaggett.).. ) Surveyor E. O.o. C.C. Ord,Ord, aa CivilCivil WarWar general,general, servedserved at Camp Cady wherewhere he led unsuccessful foraysforays againstagainst Native Americans. Mines developeddeveloped laterlater toto produce goldgold andand coppercopper included the Columbus, Azucar, Newberry, BlackBlack Raven,Raven, Northrup,Northrup, Turner, andand twentytwenty others.others. The complexcomplex containscontains many historic resources. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

77-59 -59 OroOro Grande Cemetery is listed as a PointPoint ofof HistoricalHistorical Interest inin thethe CaliforniaCalifornia Inventory of Historic Resources,Resources, 1976. Many gold miners were buried hehere,re ,' during the boom of the late 1800s.l800s. ("t-leinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Paiute Creek, Fort Paiute. (About 1111 mi. [18 km]km] from Lanfair.) Garces,Garcés, led to the creekcreek by Native Americans, was probably thethe first whitewhite man toto see thisthis ·area.area. Early survey parties and wagonwagon trains depended upon its waterwater forfor thethe trip acrossacross thethe easterneastern MojMojaveave Desert.De se rc . An army outpost was constructed herehere in 1867.1867. Rock walls of redoubtredoubt andand corralcorral were still standing in 1976,1976, but had beenbeen vandalized.vandalized. The history of the fort has been documenteddocumented byby CasebierCasebier (1974)(1974).. This areaarea isis nownow included within the Piute PassPass ArchaeologicalArchaeological District. Sensitivity: High.

Point of Rocks (south(south ofof HelenHelendale dale at the CottonwoodsCottonwoods siding) waswas both aa wagonwagon-train -train stationstation and Panamint stagestage stop. In 1851 aa 150ISO-wagon -wagon MormonMormon traintrain recorded aa stopstop atat an adobeadobe stationstation house,house, described as anan "Old"Old Grocery."Grocery." It is nownow partpart of Nickerson's Ranch.Ranch. (Weinman-(Weinman-Roberts Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Providence Ghost Town (off(off highway, 2525 mi.mi. [40 km]km] northnorth of Essex) consists of thethe ruinsruins ofof aa towntown builtbuilt aroundaround thethe Bonanza KingKing silver mine.mine. In 1941 the town had homes, garages,garages, stores, offices, andand aa crushingcrushing mill-mill--now -now inin ruins.ruins. Casebier (1976) ratesrates it the bestbest-preserved -preserved earlyearly towntown in the eastern �1ojaveMojave because local stonestone was usedused forfor manymany buildings.buildings. Sensitivity: Moderate.

Rabbit Springs (north(north of Lucerne Valley) is an old NativeNative American campsite, homesteaded byby ScotsmanScotsman PeterPeter DavidsonDavidson inin 1870. He served meals toto travelers,travelers, andand provided mail service for minersminers wherewhere they could pick up mail andand seekseek refreshment.refreshment. It waswas listedlisted as a Point of Historic Interest onon thethe CaliforniaCalifornia Parks and Recreation Survey,Survey, 1976.1976. Sensitivity: Moderate.

Rock Corral (northeast(northeast ofof Lucerne)Lucerne) isis wherewhere PegPeg-Leg -Leg Smith and UteUte chief WalkaraWalkara are said to have ambushedambushed pursuing Cali-Cali fornia ranchers inin 1828.1828. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Rock SpringsSprings/Government /Government HolesHoles Area.Area. (On MojaveMojave Road, 43.543.5 mi. [70 kmJkm] westwest of Beale's CrossingCrossing atat oldold FortFort Mojave.)Mojave.) The lower spring isis thethe sitesite ofof anan oldold ArmyArmy postpost (1866(1866-68) -68) andand

7-607 -60 relay station. RockRock Springs was the first settlementsettlement andand postpost office inin the eastern Mojave. Because most springs and wells in LanfairLanfair ValleyValley werewere co�trolledcontrolled byby the RockRock Springs Land and CattleCattle Company,Company, earlyearly-day -day homesteadershomesteaders �ereWere 'forcedforced to tra-tra vel toto GovernmentGovernment Holes,Holes, thethe onlyonly sourcesource of free waterwater in the area (Casebier 1973).1973). A rock structurestructure andand aa rockrock corralcorral were observed at the site inin 1976.1976. Sensitivity: High.

Sawpit Canyon Route.Route. (Southwest ofof westwest fork of the Mojave River, northnorth of Devil Canyon.)Canyon.) Here an old Native American trail followed the MojaveMojave River into thethe SanSan BernardinoBernardino Moun-Moun tains at Sawpit Canyon andand thenthen toto thethe summit.summit. Chief Walkara reportedly usedused thisthis routeroute in forays acrossacross the mountainsmountains and into San Bernardino Valley.Va,lley. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.)1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Sidewinder Mine (northwest(northwest slopeslope ofof SidewinderSidewinder Mountain),Mountain), a gold minemine of 1880, was workedworked untiluntil 1942.1942. It waswas one of the largestlargest producers inin thethe Victorville-Victorville-Barstow Barstow area.area. A cyanide millmill waswas built near thethe mine inin 1928,1928, but laterlater dis-dis mantled. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Low.

Silver Mountain MiningMining District.District. (Northwest of Oro Grande in the Silver Peak andand QuartziteQuartzite MountainMountain areas.)areas.) The OroOro Grande Mine,Mine, Branch Mine, and Western StatesStates MineUine producedproduced cement, lime, andand marble. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Soda Springs (36(36 mi.mi. [58 km]km] easteast of Camp Cady, onon south-south west edge or0s¥rin�s SodaSo a Lake) was importantimportant toto NativeNative AmericansAmericans andand later travelers who crossedcrossed thethe MojaveMojave Desert.Desert. It was thethe site of a u.s.U.S. Army post and mail relay stationstation inin thethe 1860s.l860s. It waswas a stage relay station with aa "nice"nice bathing place"place" aa decade later (Casebier(Casebier 1975;1975; WarrenWarren etet al.ale 1979:39).1979:39). This isis now the site of Zzyzx HotHot SpringsSprings (see(see ethnographicethnographic sitesite listing). Sensitivity: High.

Stone Hotel.Hotel. (Santa FeFe Street and 4th Street, Daggett.) Fire destroyed most ofof thisthis oldold twotwo-story -story structure inin 1908,1908, and it waswas rebuilt with oneone story.story. Death ValleyValley ScottyScotty perma-perma nently reserved RoomRoom No.No.7.7. It was designated Daggett His-His torical Society Point of Interest'No.Interest' No. 1,1, andand itit will eventuallyeventually become thethe DaggettDaggett Museum.Museum. Sensitivity: Moderate.

7-617 -61 Up�erUpper CrossingCrossing (near(near Oro Grande) was calledcalled thethe "Lower"Lower NarrowsNarrows' byby early-dayearly -day travelers,travelers, andand waswas mentionedmentioned byby Fremont and JedediahJedediah Smith.Smith. From 18651865-72 -72 therethere waswas anan importantimportant wagon stationstation here. (Weinman-Roperts(Weinman -Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Upper Narrows (on(on upperupper Mojave�1oj ave RiverRiver southsouth ofof Victorville)Vi-ctorville) was onon the MojaveMojave TrailTrail wherewhere it crossed the San Bernardino Mountains. In 1849 Hunt, a Mormon, dismantled his wagon train here. Pack animals carried thethe goodsgoods toto SanSan Bernardino.Bernardino. (Weinman-Roberts(Weinman- Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: High.

Vanderbilt Ghost Town (northeast(northeast New York Mountains) was a miningmining and railroad towntown onon thethe NevadaNevada SouthernSouthern Railway.Railway. In March 1893, thethe "town""town" waswas a adozendozen tentstents--including -- including a lodging,lodging, general store, Chinese laundry,laundry, andand twotwo saloonssaloons (Myrick(Myrick 1963).1963). By SeptemberSeptember the boom was over,over, andand VanderbiltVanderbilt waswas abandoned.abandoned. Sensitivity: Moderate.

Verde Ranch was firstfirst settledsettled inin thethe 1860s.1860s. It served asas a rendezvousrendezvous pointpoint for whitewhite settlers before the last big .fightfight withwith NativeNative AmericansAmericans atat ChimneyChimney Rock.Rock. In the 1870s,l870s, itit was the terminus of the John Brown Toll Road, comingcoming fromfrom Cajon Pass. It is nownow part of the MojaveMojave Narrows Regional Park, Spring Valley Lake Estates,Estates, andand thethe KemperKemper-Campbell -Campbell Ranch. It is listed in the California InventoryInventory of Historical Resources, 1976.1976. Sensitivity: High.

Waterman Mine. (3.5 milesmiles [5.6[5.6 km] northwest ofof GrapevineGrapevine Station, on outskirts ofof Barstow.)Barstow.) In 1880 prospectors RobertRobert W. WatermanWaterman and John L. Porter took ore samples here thatthat proved richrich in silver, and they established 1010 claims in thethe area. Before the mines closedclosed inin 18871887 theythey had mined aboutabout $1.7 millionmillion inin silver.silver. Heirs of George Lee, who hadhad pre-pre viously worked aa claimclaim here,here, contestedcontested thethe rightsrights ofof Waterman.Waterman. Waterman eventually becamebecame governorgovernor ofof California.California. (Weinman(We inman - Roberts 1979.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Historical Sites:Sites: Nevada

Cres'centCrescent Mining District.District. Turquoise depositsdeposits inin thisthis district werewere Minin�workeworked by NativeNative AmericansAmericans inin prehistoricprehistoric times.times. Mexicans are saidsaid toto havehave extractedextracted moremore thanthan $500,000$500,000 inin goldgold from thisthis areaarea betweenbetween 1863 and 1878, when renegade Mormons raided the camps, killing mostmost ofof thethe miners.miners. At leastLeast; tenten incorporatedinc.orporated mining companiescompanies were activeactive inin 1905,1905, when aa townsite was stakedstaked out.out. A lonelone fireplacefireplace thatthat marked thethe site until 1960 has sincesince disappeared.disappeared. (Myrick 1963:284;1963:284; Paher 1970:245.) Sensitivity: High.

77-62 -62 Eldorado Mining District.District. Mines of thisthis districtdistrict areare said toto havehave beenbeen workedworked byby Indians prehistorically,prehistorically, byby Spaniards inin thethe 1700s,1700s, byby MormonsMormons duringduring thethe 1850s.l850s. In 1857 soldierssoldiers fromfrom FortFort Mojave,Mojave, 40 miles (64(64 km) downstream,downstream, discovered placerplacer gold inin thethe area,area, andand depositsdeposits ofof silversilver - bearing oresores werewere locatedlocated 4� yearsyears later.later. The town of Eldorado, abandonedabandoned in 1905, isis now submergedsubmerged beneathbeneath LakeLake Mohave. (Paher 1970:280.) Sensitivity: High.

Nelson. This town, situatedsituated atat thethe head ofof EldoradoEldorado Canyon, waswas founded in 1905 when Eldorado was abandoned.abandoned. There areare severalseveral old.old minesmines in thethe areaarea asas well asas oldold build-build ings in thethe town.town. Its populationpopulation waswas 600 in 1941, and is nownow around 50.50. (Paher 1970:280.) Se�sitivity:Sensitivity: Moderate.

Quartetteuartette Mining Company Complex.lex. Between 18981898 andand 1911,1911, Quartette minemine produced some $2.2 millionmi lion inin ore.ore. Along with the BostonBoston andand Chief of Hills mines, itit was incorporatedincorporated asas the Quarte·tteQuartette MiningMining Company inin 1905.1905. The mill, built inin 1903, waswas oneone ofof the first to make extensive useuse ofof thethe cyanidecyanide smelting process. (.Myrick(Myrick 1963:282ff.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Sunset Mining District.District. Ore waswas discovered here inin thethe 1890s, butbut thethe district's important producer, Lucy Grey mine, was not locatedlocated untiluntil 1905.1905. A cyanide mill was installed near the mine inin 1912.1912. Buildings remaining fromfrom thethe Lucy Grey MiningMining Company complex includeinclude thethe assayassay office,office, boardingboarding house, bunkhouse,bunkhouse, hoist house,house, andand stables.stables. (Paher 1970:285.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Techatticup Mine.Mine. One of thethe richest mines ofof thethe Eldo-Eldo rado MiningMining District, Techatticup was discovereddiscovered inin 18611861 andand produced more than $5$5 million inin bullion.bullion. There areare ruinsruins atat this site.site. (Paber(Paher 1970:279.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

Yellow Pine Mining CompanyCo�any RailroadRailroad waswas openedopened inin 19111911 over steep grades between m�nesmines and Jean, using tracks from Quartette Mine's abandonedabandoned narrownarrow-gauge -gauge rail line fromfrom Search-Search ... light to the Colorado River.River. The grade isis stillstill visible inin the Study Area. (Myrick 1963:759ff.) Sensitivity: Moderate.

7-637 -63 IMPACT

The Native Americans who werewere.interviewed interviewed inin thisthis studystudy not only providedprovided information about the relative sensitivitysensitivity of sites,sites, butbut alsoalso gavegave their opinionsopinions about whatwhat kind of impact HVTLsHVTLs andand associatedassociated structures might be expectedexpected toto have onon variousvarious categories ofof sites.sites. Complete datadata onon thethe responses givengiven byby the 47 urban Barstow Native Americans,Americans, 4040 Mojaves, 36 Las Vegas Paiutes, andand 11 KawaiisuKawaiisu whowho werewere inter-inter viewed, andand thethe responseresponse of thethe Chemehuevi TribalTribal CouncilCouncil havehave been·been described in Chapter VI.VI. Here, only the number of people who think the proposed HVTLs will havehave aa negativenegative impactimpact onon various categoriescategories of sites in the StudyStudy Area isis given,given, alongalong with the percentagepercentage of thosethose interviewed.interviewed.

Mojave. Percentages of concern among the Mojave for resources inin the presentpresent Study Area areare considerablyconsiderably lowerlower than thosethose that had been expressedexpressed forfor thethe DeversDevers-Palo -Palo Verde Study AreaArea (Bean and Vane 1978:61978:6-40 -40 ff.),ff.), whichwhich skirts the reservation. For example, 42 percent ofof thethe respondentsrespondents inin the Devers-PaloDevers -PaloVerde Verde surveyssurveys thoughtthought therethere wouldwould be a neganega- tive impactimpact onon plantplant resources,resources, whereaswhereas no one was concernedconcerned f�rfor plantplant resourcesresources in the present study.study. FiftyFifty-eight -eight percentpercent of the respondentsrespondents feared an impact toto cultureculture history resour-resour ces inin thethe Devers-PaloDevers -Palo VerdeVerde study,study, whilewhile onlyonly 20 percentpercent were concerned forfor thethe equivalentequivalent categorycategory-�archaeological -- archaeological sites-sites- - in the present study.study.

Only one respondent atat CRIRCRIR believes thethe proposedproposed HVTLsHVTLs in the AWESAWVES Study Area would have aa negative impactimpact onon sacredsacred or religiousreligious sites in general, even thoughthough 55 people dodo considerconsider the sacred mountainmountain Avikwame toto bebe sensitivesensitive toto impact.impact. The interviews indicate thatthat more thanthan oneone personperson is,is, inin fact,fact, concerned about sacred oror religiousreligious places.places. One elder said the entire MojaveMojave Desert isis sacredsacred toto him:him: "We used toto singsing a MojaveMojave DesertDesert song, HiaHia QuirlQuirl mama tahr."tahr." A secondsecond saidsaid thethe entire MojaveMojave DesertDesert is sacred, but thatthat itit isis allall rightright forfor HVTLs to go through itit ifif theirtheir routeroute goesgoes aroundaround sacredsacred places.places.

Seven CRIRCRrR respondents (35(35 percent)percent) areare concernedconcerned lestlest rock art be negatively impacted.impacted.

At FMIR, 55 respondentsrespondents (25(25 percent)percent) areare concernedconcerned thatthat sacred or religious sitessites mightmight bebe negativelynegatively impacted.impacted. NineNine- teen respondentsrespondents (95(95 percent) believe thethe HVTLs would have negative impactimpact onon villagevillage oror habitationhabitation sites,sites, campsites,campsites, trails, and springs.springs. Twenty respondentsrespondents (100(100 percent)percent) thinkthink the lines would have negative impactimpact onon allall otherother categoriescategories of sites.sites.

7-647 -64 l.n m ...... SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED IMPACTS ON SITE CATEGORIES TABLE 1 -III. I Mines, Places Petroglyphs Burial Archaeological Village, Religious Zones Zones *Averaged events animal cairns springs deposits plant Barstow camp CRIT FMIR Las Vegas Paiute where Serrano where

Urban where Kawaiisu mineral or sites, Mojave Mojave Weighted Average

No. % No. % No. % No.species % No. % Total and habitation species took Intensity_ or cremation score and significant significant shrines sacred traditional -- place 9 100 31 trails, 66 1 5 5 25 33 92 59 1.6 SUMMARY 1 or

Religious or sacred sites sites pictographs, of grow grow Burial or cremation sites 9 100 35 74 clay 3 15 20 100 34 94 65 1.8 1 two sites sites sites, .

Petroglyphs and pictographs, categories 9 100 32 68 7 35 20 100 29 81 41 1.1 OF 1 cairns and shrines - -- Places where traditional ANTICIPATED No 7 78 24 51 4 20 20 100 Serrano 1

not rated 9 9 9 9 9 9 7 events took place 3 7 •. I ! : 1100 I I I . I 100 100 100 100 Zones where significant 7 100 33 78 27 58 0 0 20 78 100 78 32 89 53* 1.5* 1 plant species grow % TABLE Urban No. Barstow 27 24 31 32 35

Zones where significant 32 20 25 34 animal species grow 9 100 25 53 1 5 20 100 31 86 51* 1.4* IMPACTS 1 • , I 7- 66 58 68 43 51 68 53 74 Mines, mineral or clay 72 3 33 20 43 7 35 20 100 27 75 35 % 1.0 0 deposits III. ON Mojave No.1 CRIT 0 4 1 4 7 3 8 1 Village, habitation sites, 9 100 32 68 7 8 40 19 95 33 94 60* 1.7* 1 springscamp sites, trails, SITE 15 20 40 20 35 35 0 5 % Archaeological sites 9 100 34 72 4 5 20 20 100 not rated 1 CATEGORIES Mojave No. 20 20 20 20 19 20 20 20 5 FMIR

*Averaged score of two categories .

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 95 25 % No.

33 27 31 29 33

32 not not . Las 92 rated 94 94 86 rated 81 89 75 % Vegas weighted Total 60* 51* 41 65 59 35 53* Paiute Intensity Average 1.8 1.6 1. 1.0 1.5* 1.1 1.4* 7* Kawaiisu 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Serrano. SevenSeven (78(78 percent) Serrano respondents thinkthink the RVTLsHVTLs wouldwould havehave a negativenegative impact on places where tradi-tradi tional eventsevents tooktook place;place; thethe samesame numbernumber think HVTLsHVTLs wouldwould have negativenegative impactimpact onon placesplaces wherewhere significant plant species grow. Three (33(33 percent) believe therethere would be negative impact onon mines,mines, mineralmineral or clayclay deposits.deposits. All other res-res pondents believebelieve thethe lines wouldwould havehave negativenegative impact on all other site categories.categories.

Kawaiisu. The Kawaiisu respondent expectsexpects thethe HVTLs toto have negativenegative impact on all categoriescategories ofof sitessites exceptexcept mines,mines, mineral oror clayclay deposits.·deposits.

Las Vegas Paiutes.Paiutes. Las Vegas Paiutes generally expect HVTLs toto havehave aa negativenegative impact on religious or sacredsacred sites,sites, burial oror cremation sites, village andand habitation sites,sites, trails,trails, and springs. They also expect aa negative impactimpact onon zoneszones wherewhere significant plantplant and animal species grow, andand somesome negative impact onon rockrock art, cairns and shrines, mines, mineral oror clayclay deposits. They werewere not asked in this component of the study about placesplaces wherewhere traditional events took place or archaeo-archaeo logical sites.

7-667 -66 · MITIGATION

In the precedingpreceding section the sensitivity of various parts of the StudyStudy AreaArea hashas beenbeen discussed, and Native "AmericanAmerican evaluation ofof the impact the AWVESAWVES projectproject maymay have on these areas hashas been described. In this section measures for thethe mitigation of impacts will bebe discussed.discussed.

Ethnographers, historians and Native Americans agreeagree thatthat it wouldwould bebe desirabledesirable to avoid impacting culturalcultural resources.resources. Many Native AmericansAmericans interviewed felt that the only appro-appro priate mitigationmitigation would be not toto proceed withwith thethe project.project. In thethe eventevent that this is notnot feasible, the followingfollowing recom-recom mendations are made:

(1) Native Americans shouldshould bebe involvedinvolved inin allall stagesstages of planning which directlydirectly affectaffect theirtheir culturalcultural well-being,well- being, includingincluding determinationdetermination of thethe finalfinal transmission lineline route,route, locationlocation ofof thethe towertower pads and construction yards, andand subsequentsubsequent developments or "upgradings" of thethe project thatthat directly affectaffect them.them.

(2) Whenever possible,possible, NativeNative AmericansAmericans shouldshould bebe employed on thethe project, not onlyonly duringduring thethe construction phase, but also forfor ongoing operational tasks.tasks.

(3) When impactimpact toto plantplant oror animalanimal communitiescommunities s ofof concern to Native Americans cannotcannot be avoidedavoided by moving thethe lines,lines, considerationconsideration shouldshould be given to transplantation, especiallyespecially ifif thethe speciesspecies isis an endangered oror rarerare one.one.

(4) Places that areare eligibleeligible forfor thethe NationalNational Regis-Regis ter on thethe basisbasis ofof ethnographicethnographic andand/or /or historic sensitivity (see(see pagepage 7-7-12)should 12)should be avoided oror protected. If avoidance is impossible, aa planplan for the protection of thethe resource shouldshould be developed with Native AmericanAmerican participation.participation.

(5) Sites that have aa high sensitivitysensitivity ratingrating becausebecause they havehave religious or spiritual value toto Native Americans shouldshould bebe avoidedavoided oror protectedprotected underunder the provisions of thethe NativeNative AmericanAmerican ReligiousReligious Freedom ActAct ofof 1978,1978, P.L.P.L. 9595-341 -341 (Federal(Federal Agencies'Agencies' Task ForceForce 1979).1979).

(6) Burials, whether thosethose ofof NativeNative AmericansAmericans oror otherother humans, areare protectedprotected under thethe followingfollowing laws if they areare onon federallyfederally-owned -owned land:land:

77-67 -67 1616 USCUSC 431-433431 -433 (requires(requires permitspermits for archaeological excavations onon federalfederal lands)lands)

1616 USCUSC 461.,461, et seq. (provides(provides' forfor thethe preservationpreservation of historichistoric sitessites)se5.

16 USCUSC 469, et seq.seg. (provides(provides forfor preservation of archaeological data subject to floodingflooding by damdam construction)

16 USC 470,470, etet seq_.seg. (expands federal role in hishis- toric preservation)

18 USC 641 (theft(theft ofof governmentgovernment property)property)

18 USC 1163 (federal(federal penaltiespenalties forfor thefttheft ofof tribaltribal property)

18 USC 1361 (destruction(destruction ofof governmentgovernment property)property)

23 USC 138 (Secretary(Secretary ofof TransportationTransportation authorizedauthorized to planplan in order toto minimize harm toto landland ofof historic significance)

42 USC 4321, etet seq.seg. (NEPA(NEPA -- federalfederal responsibilityresponsibility to preserve historic andand culturalcultural aspectsaspects ofof nationalnational heritage)

National Register Status of StudyStudy Area SitesSites

The followingfollowing StudyStudy AreaArea sitessites areare onon thethe NationalNational Register of Historic Places:Places:

Piute Pass Archaeological DistrictDistrict Calico Mountain Archaeological DistrictDistrict Harvey House RailroadRailroad DepotDepot atat BarstowBarstow

The following sitesite was determineddetermined toto bebe eligibleeligible forfor National Register statusstatus inin January,January, 1979:1979:

Oro GrandeGrande (SBr(SBr-72) -72)

The determinationdeterDdnation ofof thethe eligibilityeligibility ofof thethe followingfollowing site for National RegisterRegister statusstatus isis currentlycurrently pending:pending:

Mojave LandLand Area.Area.

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1979 Ethnographic Overview.Overview. In AnAn Overview of thethe Cul-Cul tural Resources of thethe Western Mojave Desert,Desert, byby E. Gary StickelStickel andand LoisLois J.J. WeinmanWeinman-Roberts. -Roberts. Prepared for thethe U.S. Department ofof thethe Interior,Interior, Bureau of Land Management, California DesertDesert Planning Program, Riverside,Riverside, California.California.

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Keeling, Patricia Jernigan, ed.ed.

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R-15 APPENDIXAPPENDL'C A

INTERVIEW' SCHEDULESCHEDULE FORFOR MOJAVEMOJAVE

Southern California Edison Company plans toto build (one(one andand,in in somesome stretches, two) 500 kilovolt transmissiontransmission lineslines across thethe MojaveMojave Desert,Desert, from its ElEl DoradoDorado substation in southern NevadaNevada to a substation inin thethe Victorville,Victorville, Califor-Califor nia, area.area. The lineslines will forfor thethe most part be built parallelparallel to existing transmission lines,lines, railroads,railroads, oror roads.roads. Some stretches maymay bebe builtbuilt across the desert along new routes.routes.

It is the object of thisthis studystudy toto findfind whatwhat areasareas oror sitessites in thethe StudyStudy AreaArea (outlined(outlined in black cnen thethe map) shouldshould be avoided becausebecause they are sensitive or important toto Native

Americans. The law requires that Native Americans have a chance toto expressexpress their feelings about major constructionsconstructions such asas this beforebefore permission toto build isis grantedgranted by thethe federal and state agencies which mustmust bebe consulted.consulted. We shouldshould like youyou to answer the following questions soso thatthat your feelingsfeelings about the line can be reported.reported. We are especially interestedinterested in finding outout whichwhich specific places are most importantimportant toto avoid and why.

1. How dodo you feelfeel aboutabout SouthernSouthern California Edison's propo-propo

sal to build more transmissiontransmission lineslines acrossacross thethe desert?desert?

What areasareas areare youyou particularlyparticularly concernedconcerned thatthat thethe lineslines

not comecome near?

A-IA-1 2. Do you think California needs to have more energy? If

so, is this a good way toto getget it?it?

3. How was the Study Area usedused byby NativeNative AmericansAmericans inin thethe

past? How was it used by thethe Mojave? When? How isis itit

used now by thethe Mojave? How dodo you useuse it?it?

4. Do you knowknow of any seasonal migrations ofof thethe past, fromfrom

the Colorado River toto thethe desert,desert, forfor example?example?

5. What places on the Old Mojave Trail should be avoidedavoided or

protected?

6. Will thethe appearanceappearance ofof thethe transmissiontransmission lineline towerstowers andand

the lines they carrycarry acrossacross thethe desertdesert botherbother you?you? In

what way? How cancan suchsuch anan effecteffect bebe lessened?lessened?

7. Will the transmission lineslines have anyany effect on the MojaveMojave

economy? On how goodgood aa livingliving youyou make?make? In whatwhat way?

8. Will the transmissiontransmission lineslines have anyany effect on what you

do for recreation? What effect?effect?

9. Do you expectexpect thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines toto havehave anyany effecteffect

on your health? What effect?effect?

A-2 10. Are therethere anyany other aspectsaspects of IndianIndian lifelife todaytoday or yester-yester

day whiChwhich willwill be affected?affected? In whatwhat way?

11. Are therethere religiousreligious sitessites inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea thatthat the.the

transmission lines shouldshould avoid?avoid? For example, areare therethere

ceremonialcere�onial sites, places of power, or places mentioned inin

sacred stories?stories? Where areare they?they? What isis theirtheir signifi-signifi

cance? If the transmission lines cannot be rerouted to

avoid them, what cancan be donedone toto mitigatemitigate thethe impact?impact?

12. Are there burial oror cremationcremation sitessites inin thethe StudyStudy Area

which the transmissiontransmission lineslines might disturb?disturb? Where? If

a burial or cremationcremation sitesite isis inadvertentlyinadvertently disturbed,disturbed,

what shouldshould be done?done?

13. Do you know of petroglyph sites in the Study AreaArea whichwhich

the transmission lineslines shouldshould not bebe closeclose to?to? Where areare

they? What is theirtheir significance?significance? If the lineslines cannotcannot bebe

rerouted to avoid them,them, what cancan be donedone toto mitigatemitigate thethe

impact?

14. Are therethere placesplaces inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea whichwhich areare importantimportant

because traditionaltraditional eventsevents occurredoccurred there?there? What places?places?

What isis theirtheir significance?significance? Is it all right forfor thethe trans-trans

mission lineslines toto bebe builtbuilt nearnear suchsuch aa place?place? If they would

have aa negative impact,i�act, howhow couldcould suchsuch anan impactimpact bebe

mitigated?

A-3 15. Are there places in the Study Area wherewhere Mojaves still

gather plants? How dodo theythey useuse them?them? Do you yourself

gather plants inin thethe StudyStudy Area?Area? What plants?plants? For what

purpose? Where? Do you know of anyone who gathers them?them?

Is it all rightright forfor thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines to.to.be be built

through or near where thethe plantsplants grow?grow? If not,not, and ifif itit

is necessarynecessary to build thethe lineslines there, how cancan thethe effects

best be mitigated?

16. Are therethere placesplaces inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea wherewhere MojavesMojaves hunthunt deer,deer,

sheep, rabbits, birds, oror otherother animals?animals? What animals?animals?

For what purpose? Where? Do you hunt? Do you know anyoneanyone

who does?does? Will thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines havehave aa negativenegative

effect on hunting? If so, how cancan'such such anan effecteffect bebe

mitigated?

17. Are therethere mines oror mineral oror clayclay depositsdeposits in the Study

Area which Mojaves use?use? Where? For what purposes areare

they used? Is it all right for the transmission lineslines toto

pass through oror near suchsuch minesmines oror deposits?deposits? If there

would be aa negative impact,impact, how couldcould such an impact be

mitigated?

18. Are therethere villagevillage oror habitation sites, oldold trails,trails, or

hot springssprings inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea whichwhich'should should bebe avoided?avoided?

Where areare they?they? �atWhat is theirtheir significance?significance? If they

cannot be avoided,avoided, how cancan thethe impactimpact ofof thethe transmissiontransmission

A-4 lines be mitigated?

19. Are you concernedconcerned thatthat thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines maymay disturbdisturb'

archaeological sites?sites? If it is necessarynecessary forfor aa lineline toto

go through or nearnear an archaeological site,site, how shouldshould thethe

impact be mitigated?

20. If archaeological artifacts are uncovered, what should be

done with them?them?

. 21. Do you have anyany furtherfurther thingsthings toto say?say?

A-SA-5 LASLAS VEGASVEGAS - PAHRUMP PAIUTE SURVEY

1. TheThe following Indian cultural items were mentioned byby LasLas Vegas andand PahrumpPahrump people during the early August interviews.interviews. Next to the list of items that may be influenced by thethe powerpower lines is a space.space. Here I would likelike you toto circlecircle thethe numbernumber that indicatesindicates howhow concerned you areare aboutabout eacheach item.item.

MY DEGREE OF CONCERN ABOUT THE POWER I CULTURAL ITEMS LINELINE'SS IMPACT ON THESE ITEMSITEHS ISIS

No Concern Some Concern Much ConcernCoricern

Basket plants 11 2 3

Medicine plants 1 2 3

Food plants 1 2 3

Rock carvings-carvings-paintings paintings 1 2 3

Clay or rock mines 1 2 3

Religious areasareas 1 2 3

Burial sitessites 1 2 3

Small groundgrotmd animals 1 2 3

Large ground animals 1 2 3

Birds 1 2 3

Trails-Trails-shrines shrines 1 2 3

Springs 1 2 3

Maybe youyou cancan thinkthink ofof otherother culturalcultural itemsitems thatthat may be changed by thethe buildingbuilding ofof thesethese powerpower lines.lines. If so,so, thenthen please recordrecord themthem inin thethe spacespace below.below.

A-6 Paiute Survey, page 22

2. The following is a listlist of English names forfor places where Indian people lived.lived. Each of these places will be crossed by one or moremore of the proposed powerpower lineline routes.routes. Read a place name and then circle to the right justjust howhow concerned youyou wouldwould be if the powerpower line passed throughthrough thatthat place.

MY DEGREE OF CONCERN ABOUT POWER INDIAN PLACES LINES PASSING ·THROUGHTHROUGH THISTHIS PLACEPLACE ISIS

No ConcernConcern Some ConcernConcern Much ConcernConcern

McCullough Mts..Mts., 1 2 3

El Dorado Valley 1 2 3

Piute Valley 1 2'2 3

Piute Spring & CreekCreek 1 2 3

Homer Mt.Mt. 1 2 3

Lanfair Valley 1 2 3

Hackberry Mt.Nt. 1 2 3

Providence Mts.Mts. 1 2 3

Clipper ValleyValley 1 2 3

Old Dad Mts.Mts. 1 2 3

Bristol Mts.Mts. 1 2 3

Mojave River 1 2 3

Soda Mts.Mts. 1 2 3

Soda Lake 1 2 3

Shadow Valley 1 2 3

Clark Mt.Mt. 1 2 3

Ivanpah Mts.Mts. 1I 2 3

New York Mts.Mts. 1 2 :33

I am sure that there may be other places that concern you that are not listedlisted here.here. Just write thethe name ofof thatthat placeplace inin the space below:

A-7 Paiute Survey, page 33

Now, if I may, I wourdwould like to ask you just a few more short questions about thesethese proposedproposed powerpower lines.lines. Please write your answers in the spacespace between questionsquestions oror onon thethe back of thethe page.page.

3. How do you feel aboutabout SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia Edison'sEdison's proposalproposal to buildbuild moremore transmission lines across thethe Mohave Desert?Desert?

4. Do you think thatthat CaliforniaCalifornia needs more energy?energy?

5. If they needneed more,more, is this a good way toto getget it?it?

6. What are your feelingsfeelings when you seesee largelarge powerpower lineslines andand their towers crossing thethe desert?desert?

7. Will thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines havehave anyany effecteffect onon what youyou dodo for recreation? Yes or No If yes, what effect?effect?

8. Do you expect the transmissiontransmission lineslines toto have any effect onon your health? Yes No If yes, what effect?effect?

9. Will thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines have anyany effecteffect onon IndianInd;an economic development? Yes No If yes, what effect?effect?

10. If Paiute toolstools oror livingliving sitessites areare uncovereduncovered byby powerpower lineline construction what shouldshould bebe donedone withwith them?them?

11.1l. If the burial sites of IndianIndian people are uncovered by power line construction what shouldshould bebe donedone withwith them?them?

l2�12. Do you believe thatthat IndianIndian peoplepeople opinionsop�n�ons recordedrecorded inin thisthis study willwill be heard and listenedlistened toto by Southern California Edison?

A-8A-a 10 liCturvillc Barstow • Boulder City � \0 I Map Southcm Power Edison of Southern California Proposed Line Map of Proposed Power Line Routes - California

Power Line Routes Routes PO\.Jer Edison Mountain Pass% . =

42* Line

Rout rn i Baker cs

501" Mohave MAP Lanfair Valley Piu P Spring Soda Lake - ._ .... Lake -e.;'.� F. Hackberry Mt. �c"� ')

'QI Homer Mt. � Proposed .I,. "<"", • Barstow 0./ C> «'?QI c 4'� <, ""�. �

Coolwater (.".r �� Power -, -.o�. �. � " � � � , -I� ·-k ". (ll;,? , (� Line �t-;, " � ,,� • 'iCturvillc .of) (J " '""'"f � ..... � ��untaln * � ...., ...._ �. � .. Routes

Line Routes Hackberry

MAP F. Proposed Power Lanfair

�v� � 4,,0 • �'\- � � a '" ,,-'''''' '" ,.It Valley ,," 5 �/ • '<. � . . -, ",. , Boulder '<, , rrt ._. o o t1 � P O �Iohav( INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR BARSTOWBARSTOW URBAN AND SERRANOSERRANO

AND KAWAIISU

Southern California EdisonEdison CompanyCompany plansplans toto buildbuild (one,(one, and in some stretches, two) 500 kilovolt transmissiontransmission lineslines across thethe MojaveMojave Desert,Desert, from its El Dorado substationsubstation inin southern NevadaNevada to a substation in the Victorville, California,California, area. The lineslines will forfor thethe most part be builtbui�t parallel toto existing transmission lines,lines, railroads,railroads, oror roads.roads. Some stretches maymay bebe builtbuilt across thethe desertdesert alongalong newnew routes.routes.

It is the object ofof thisthis studystudy toto findfind what areasareas oror sitessites in the StudyStudy AreaArea (outlined(outlined in black on thethe map) shouldshould be avoided becausebecause theythey are sensitive or important to Native

Americans. The lawlaw requiresrequires thatthat NativeNative Americans havehave aa chancechance to expressexpress theirtheir feelings about majormajor constructions such as this before permissionpermission to build is granted by thethe federalfederal andand statestate agencies whichwhich must be consulted.consulted. We should likelike you toto answeranswer the following questions so that your feelingsfeelings aboutabout thethe lineline can bebe reported. We are especially interestedi�terested inin findingfinding outout which specific placesplaces areare mostmost importantimportant toto avoidavoid andand why.why.

1. How do you feelfeel aboutabout SouthernSouthern CaliforniaCalifornia Edison'sEdison's propo-propo

sal to build more transmissiontransmission lineslines acrossacross thethe desert?desert?

What areasareas areare youyou particularlyparticularly concernedconcerned thatthat thethe lines

not comecome near?

A-IOA-10 2. Do you think California needs to have more energy? If so,

is this a good wayway to get it?

3. How was the Study Area used by Native AmericansAmericans in the

past? When? How is itit used now? How dodo youyou useuse it?it?

4. Do you knowknow of any seasonal ,migrationsmigrations ofof the past,past, from

the Colorado River toto thethe desert,desert forfor example? t11e River J example?

5. Will thethe appearanceappearance ofof thethe transmissiontransmission lineline towerstowers andand

the lines they carry acrossacross the desertdesert bother you? In

what way? How can suchsuch anan effecteffect bebe lessened?lessened?

6. Will the transmission lineslines have any effect on thethe Native

American economy?economy? On how good aa livingliving youyou make? In

what way?

7. Will the transmission lineslines have any effect on what you

do for recreation? What effect?effect?

8. Do you expect thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines to have any effect on

your health? What effect?effect?

9. Are there anyany otherother aspectsaspects ofof IndianIndian lifelife todaytoday oror yester-yester

day whichwhich will be affected?affected? In what way?

A-11A-II 10. Are therethere religious sitessites inin thethe StudyStudy Area thatthat thethe

transmission lines should avoid?avoid? For example, areare therethere

ceremonial sites, placesplaces of power,power, or placesplaces mentionedmentioned

in sacred stories?stories? What areare they?they? What is their signi-signi

ficance? If the transmission lineslines cannotcannot be reroutedrerouted

to avoid them, what cancan be donedone toto mitigate thethe impact?impact?

11. Are therethere burial oror cremationcremation sitessites inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea

which thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines mightmight disturb?disturb? Where? If

a burial or cremationcremation sitesite isis inadvertentlyinadvertently disturbed,disturbed,

what shouldshould be done?done?

12. Do you know of petroglyph sitessites inin the Study Area which

the transmission lineslines shouldshould notnot bebe closeclose to?to? Where

are they?they? What isis theirtheir significance?significance? If the lineslines

cannot bebe rerouted to avoidavoid them,them, what cancan bebe donedone toto

mitigate thethe impact?impact?

13. Are therethere places inin thethe StudyStudy Area which areare importantimportant

because traditionaltraditional eventsevents occurredoccurred there?there? What places?

What isis theirtheir significance?significance? Is it all right forfor thethe

transmission lineslines toto bebe builtbuilt nearnear suchsuch aa place?place? If

they would have aa negative impact,impact, howhow couldcould suchsuch anan

impact be mitigated?

14. Are therethere stillstill placesplaces inin thethe StudyStudy Area where Native

Americans:Americans stillstill gathergather plants?plants? How dodo theythey useuse them?them?

A-12 Do you yourself gathergather plantsplants inin thethe StudyStudy Area?Area? What

plants? For what purpose? Where? Do you know ofof anyoneanyone

who gathersgathers them?them? Is it all right for thethe transmission

lines to bebe built through or near where thethe plantsplants grow?grow?

If not,not, and if it is necessary toto build thethe lineslines there,there,

how cancan thethe effects best bebe mitigated?

15. Are therethere places inin thethe StudyStudy Area where NativeNative AmericansAmericans

hunt deer,deer, sheep,sheep, rabbits,rabbits, birds, oror otherother animals?animals? What

animals? For whatwhat purpose? Where? Do you hunt? Do you

know ofof anyoneanyone who does?does? Will the transmission lineslines have

a negativenegative effect onon hunting?hunting? If so, how cancan suchsuch anan

effect be mitigated?

16. Are therethere mines oror minerals oror clayclay depositsdeposits inin thethe StudyStudy

Area which Native Americans use?use? Where? For whatwhat pur-pur

poses are theythey used?used? Is it all right forfor thethe transmissiontransmission

lines to pass through oror near suchsuch minesmines oror deposits?deposits? If

there wouldwould be a negative impact,impact, how couldcould suchsuch anan impactimpact

be mitigated?

17. Are therethere villagevillage or habitation sites, old trails, or

hot springssprings inin thethe StudyStudy AreaArea which shouldshould be avoided?avoided?

Where areare they?they? What is their significance?significance? If they

cannot bebe avoided, how can the impact of the transmission

lines be mitigated?

A-13 18.lB. Are you concernedconcerned thatthat thethe transmissiontransmission lineslines maymay disturbdisturb

archaeological sites? If it is necessary forfor aa lineline toto

go through or near anan archaeologicalarchaeological site,site, howhow shouldshould thethe

impact be mitigated?

19. If archaeological artifactsartifacts areare uncovered,uncovered, whatwhat shouldshould bebe

done with them?them?

20. Do you have anyany furtherfurther thingsthings toto say?say?

A-14 APPENDIX B.B. CHEMEHUEVI DRAFT RESOLUTION

t;ilhtt.I:III-:n. R. 7,)"·79

"A rrs:nlntionr��:nllltion; regarding1·"r.t1rrlln�. the"h� SouthernSnutlwrn CaliforniaCaI ifor!,i:t iaiiStn'scEdj�("I'S rerinr!:,P"lllr'�:' to haveh:lve the�.I,(· Chemelu.utviCh(.'mch,.I��vi. l·�(:'plt,t.!-l1ec+pLe's; rl'�l'fm!�ertsaens:e toto thethe HarryHarry A lA11.cn-\ol:arn·,...· l en-Warnrr trn\';,11,··.· II. : "nwr:r"molf.'" l'raur:u.T":1I'�;lIIi!:':illll i!:: i rn, Lines Proros�lProposaL (received(recei'lcd AugustI\Ulitust 1979).1919).

WEUREAS,WEHREAS, the Chemehuevi.ChcmelHIE'vl IndIanIndian 'rrib�Tribe ists auan AmericanArnarican 'Indian!ncHilll 'f"iIH'Tribe nq::.1ni;�I.'rIorgani-ed pursuant tote thethe' FederalFedt!rallndinn Indian Renr,^,ani.zationReot'�:."'i.::ltiot'1 ActAut. mf�f .tune.tunc tR,IR, IrelctOl',. "tic, :tndanni f�in feder3l.1yfederally rC!(·o}�tli.�cdrecognized byby' thethe UnitedUnited tr.t�t�., +r.c J�f":lr'rl"!ln('r�tgovernment tlrrrt·I,"p:,.!·I, + :rs.h rlu'r h. r .. ' ...I.,.·.1' , :..;.: �(�C"r:Ct,;Iry,Secretary, withwith thethe ChetnehucviC1H!lnl ·hucvi r,.n�"lTribal CouncilC:'.'Hr.,·il as;:1!� it.ltr: ;i:"'I"'I"I1iH�·. :nvrrn i cue • ::.I

tt,r rvutu. 14tll�I!;I::�\S.tWIIE;REAS, rheJ·h�·· r;I�:Jly. ;ttuly:1rf";t arraj"::)II�r..'5 inrludes I:'\t,d�Iands; tr;,ditjf)t1;1l1�t.ralititnaally "t:'('api!'cloccupied 1','1" ('�'lIl"I' j,':: '""': the ( :1temehnr:v i I'eep l I et' , the' Cllf·mr'hf.l4'!'v i 1'('f'P I :,·,flf.J:and

�;.'11·, arr?c,rhemrhtr2vi l+iart.s:, aném:+Is ,.prine , tr:riI :, i is uurnrr:cin:rH.C'..t'fj":\ i ',1Ui;RI�A�hili:!(J°AS,t I"I:1uy manyof of lthehe r�'-' f;!1(!'nt."I.,tJ�vi p t :",r.�:. an !ftl:'1' I,·�. :�p·f" hw .• I. I!:. 1,1:',. anfland o,th�rother resourcesr('�ll"'·I�I.'r. locatedlo·catctd in.il'l tl,tiri;,: i: �ttuh'stud,: ,1";"";'area ha':.h.71'.�1 :r:III rr:-'Iv• .';-:dy bp.·u1,7r. n 1;1'1:'"rrr .:'

fu,.,.,l:k·ptthl i.ctl:H'OU)�h through t.la'the puh.liratti.onpu:I.llir.i1ti.cm (.Jfof !!.aird..,inl (l�l(J)(19lf,) .1,n<1and Kin!:l�inr: and;lIltl (::t:I,i.rC;f�·.·""i",r"

(J(1976),91'f.J) , andtmd

irrH ('tH"nur C"\'('everyday In-!!Li, rl�; WIiEREASYtfERJr:AS oj the�he· Chemchuevl.C:ht'm,�ht"u.!v 1.PeopleP(,Of" teuseI�� that;et,l,,�se sacred!1."1C rrdresce.crr_cs:re�;""·It:r,r:(·�. i r::d,l�· tocJc'l�ttoday and:1ud planl,tnll toto cnnti.nneCl)Ut£!l1::U:� td,to u!'tt"ure them inin th.,�'r.ht' future.rutut�. andand

WHEREAS,�!u:r�R'E."S, notrelH;'U('- n,rof theth1:' powerr'{)'.... ,·t· transmissiont";lt,r:·t[lIi.��.s,io,n lin.;li" .. ·�;directlyflirt"c,tJy benefit!:bc"'llt!fit'·: thett,.· ChernlntrrviC:Sit!I!H"'l'I-I,,'IIf!ltt f'·t"f'·.t'.lPeople,{�', and;.Ii,,',d

\.l:f.'t�rU:·A!;.td1rI;RFAS,1,1'tl'·H' noneIl f'of'tfti mitigationst i r;:H i 1 HUt r·�"'{:("'Ir111rf(·'''\ir.h.·clrecommended I::I: -: r,f.lr_"oj ellt,�,,"�t'"':C"�� CLenu+rtne:ii 1'",I'.elIr",1" I,' ""en rlt.I' h,- ':,.nthrtn:;�,'tHf ,h,;',:

r:C�.iH(" i ftnf'� iNl�(4NOW,.. 1�m�Ril�:,t·1)t�:P.,THEREFORE,.. REfU� FTrr RESOLVED,Rr�()J.vr�Jl chatt 'tn�u;t thetht' ('hrme..hnnviCltr':hd\llr!'tt Tr:ha!·t'tfh.,,\! Cnnnril1 does. hereby!i!1,·J{"!'·hy n.'�utvresolved....tI thattlt;;.t nonet!(lflt! of?F thesethe5�' powrP'('"';(''' r t ";ili!�""l$�·rans:m igr :i'I)n�;;i ons; JlinentjF)('� heho Ir.thI,. ii i,H t :It'�tU'1::;:ar: tn^r: f)tllt.,etrl'1"tttliitirnn!. tratlitirnat :t(,t"'.id,t<",r)f"territory for(,\,'t·r theyt'lw�· willwt11 furtic.ru,rt�·I)."'� r permit�rlmit theth., dt.^rrr+r'i(h·rtl�"·I"'H;"J' ilt'nirn ()for ourC"H'" sacred""';:"<.·".(,,1 ctrJturalrid1:u��l resource,:;r�"�Otlr'C'o�; atrlM't'( t;ht;J�thus; i·ilf'C-tff'T"pinlrrfrrr wii�hwith (",rnnr rc:·J'i��r�h�religions

ffreedom.'1"""o.,t"'i[tUJ,! .;

infnrre:cl ien !'tom(l.'" our l.,.a.lp llt�BE ITl'r l'(iir'r.if:R.r.;-t$Wr,t"':l� t'\,F!;nt.vt-:t:1'.Rt

' f""fWl,�t'Uconcerning*rt1t th^:nt:J!y'.. t�landsl1Ht:ftrt he denit`tin.· (lerr! f'tlhtr.ntu;eht,r.n,,:;t,· r;itffi-ient};:uf r ll'''i t'I'nt itHintnrm:tl.ie*r,(""'t:1'. j ••,., t,nUn J·t.inc:nnt.ntf�(�nn'''''l'' t the the.. ttn'i.(tl;':� presence tt(of ()ot'our sacred$:tl� ft'tI cultural(.ott flut:\ resource.:f r •.·�(H::U·(·'... ·�in h:already:it 1",-:,.1 a!r:tll� =li\f'n U thltc.·\h l:ct.,

.i tlc i tJ one ,""':III: rr1.1 nntm.t:f!FURTHER R1:S(:H.tri:ItfUr.!{(Jf:.vt!.". , t'thath:H: ifH SouthernS�*dl'�t· 11 California(� ..d H () rn j�·a Edison�'d i $U." ist q;permittedtu:�·rn• t 1. �,"·tt, in t luihu i� ht ()n'(' t'f't ...·Hi.f� �at*""t u·r Iltat 0'"nr mtrir,MU'.l .�'I··tl·hl:tr:erritlnr.^+.. t� iHt;d,ft�t:ma instGirrP4;U" Wi!:I1,wh:h. eht'"f"thert a�. !vCt-11ttt.l:l)�"l:-d on-f:ltt. !:tr+iv nl fJH(t, ebt-,,,,·he:t.·v t People :t:::m (."-f,.corridor...... ldl.... heht!' matie�tJ:",f

ittl ...... repra.'t.,..u�k hack t.

th�tt la,'rt Hi I wttn"'U�tt.d ld!+i'1,.." f.t:.I:t: iTIT tftMt.fSi' 1F1Al.l.ti1tF.:rttl:vF.nkt-:rtf;tt�V�. ,thatUtll' Iftr 111t4..4ttfr.",·k 4a �;'Hflvs;t VOW i:!ti ft .If.t·hh'''t.t_der itlrrI .'ftttit1&iitttit .q.u flt;n"t Wit'therh.� 7r'ft"Hti:1t I ha I (:1·,«.'-1'Comte II �;att,+taatt....ttt.:(� rktfar r 3� !neteO:h....tl�h. ht inttdvunCl'" Advanc nt{It �\.t-;? t. J+t1*l'."f�tunh.r; t ina i,tr;. cu and�nct art':Art"�('> al;e ti.'"for theirth... l t' parrirtitatir,::.rnn' if' ilmthm. .":".ran aR:ik.m:tjc,-. tuttrutrrNtr'''' prisplse�"p. aware()( of it�Its l.1.t"t��!'4('"purpose

CERI' t Fí(:e1T r t)rl

scheduled..t! mecti.ns;.rf t\1�the The'flit' f,rtpsing(orl,,.ninA rest.lutiimt'(,ttt,t,.chm aas�$ presentedptC$tmtt.-d atAt n :Jreçttl:srl7r�ul:tr)7 �('ht'!dul( lftNlri.Af:l.f'f mrti.on of rJl('tll."huo�tChem-bocce( Tf'Jb:tlTrib:ttC� Coeurit #LU.jfl thisa5th 25thGAY day ofof ,\(�tl$t.August. t91

8-1B-1 cum.ClJVi1. R.R. 79-79-

secondeds('com.icd by , 3ndand approved by a votevot� nf01 abstentions.

CUEMEMUEVICUE�tEHUEVI TRIBAL COUNCILcouncr L

---- .. ------_ .. --. '_ -- -_ - . RonnldRon;, I " Enquf.rrn,E!'Hlu':'rr.'1. Clt:l i i m.j r)

...... Dolor Esqlwrra Set. rr,t nry/Trr..:milr,r

B-2 DETAILEDDETAILED ANALYSIS OFOF AWAW-VILLA -VILLA PARKPARK TOURISTSTOURISTS

This set of data concerns thethe responses ofof 185185 touriststourists who were interviewed inin thethe 'ColoradoColorado RiverRiver areaarea nearnear Parker,Parker, Arizona, during thethe months ofof JuneJune andand JulyJuly 1979.1979.

One-hundredOne- hundred fiftyfifty (81.1(81.1 percent)percént) ofof th�the visitors repre-repre sented in the sample came from California, and 29 (15.7(15.7 per-per cent) from Arizona. Two people were fromfrom.Nevada, Nevada, andand therethere was one person fromfrom eacheach ofof thethe statesstates ofof Illinois,Illinois, Missouri,Missouri, New Mexico, andand Utah.Utah.

The people interviewed classifiedclassified thethe populationspopulations of thethe cities in whichwhich theythey livelive asas follows:follows:

1 millionmillion or more.,more 65 (35.1(35,1%) %u) 500,000-1500,000 -1 millionmillion 21 (11.4%)(11.4 %) (18.4 7e) 100,000-500,000100,000 -500,000 , .3434 (18.4%) 25,OOO�100,00025,000- 100,000 49 (26.5(26�5%) %) ,2,500-25,0002,500 -25,000 16 (8.6(8.6%) 7e)

- , One-hundredOne- hundred twelvetwelve (60.5(60.5 percent)percent) ofof thethe peoplepeople belongedbelonged to singlesingle families that were travelingtraveling together,together, thethe most com-com mon form ofof tourtour group;group; 4444 peoplepeople (23.8(23.8 percent)percent) werewere travelingtraveling' - in tour groups made up ofof severalseveral families;families; andand 2929 peoplepeople (15.7(15.7 percent) were travelingtraveling inin tourtour groupsgroups consistingconsisting ofof friends.friends.

The average sizesize of thethe tourtour groupsgroups representedrepresented inin thethe data was 5.75.7 people, thethe modemode beingbeing 44 people.people. The size of tour groups ranged fromfrom 22 peoplepeople toto 27.27. The average number of adults inin aa tourtour groupgroup waswas 3.9,3.9, thethe averageaverage numbernumber ofof children 1.8.1.8. The modemode was 2 adults and 11 or 22 childrenchildren under 18 years of age.age.

All butbut, oneone ofof thethe visitorsvisitors interviewedinterviewed (99,5(99.5 percent)percent) indicated that campingcamping was theirtheir firstfirst choicechoice ofof accommoda-accommoda tions; 142 (76.8(76.8 percent),percent), thatthat campingcamping waswas theirtheir secondsecond choice; 4 (2.16(2.16 percent), thatthat aa motelmotel waswas theirtheir secondsecond choice; ·and.and 33 (1.6(1.6 percent)percent) thatthat staying with friendsfriends oror relatives inin ParkerParker waswas theirtheir secondsecond choice.choice.

The average number ofof nightsnights thatthat tourtour groupsgroups spentspent inin the locale was 3.8,3.8, withwith thethe modemode beingbeing 33 nights.nights. The range was fromfrom 11 nightnight toto 27.27.

The averageaverage numbernumber ofof visitsvisits perper yearyear waswas 2.6,2.6, thethe modemode 2. The range waswas fromfrom 11 visitvisit toto 7.7. In general, thethe greatergreater the number of nightsnights spentspent duringduring eacheach visit,visit, thethe fewerfewer areare the number ofof visitsvisits mademade eacheach year:year: groups thatthat staystay forfor 3 nights during eacheach visitvisit usuallyusually camecome moremore oftenoften thanthan dodo those thatthat staystay 77 nights.nights.

B-3 The average number ofof years thatthat thethe touristtourist has visited the area is 5,5 thethe mode beingbe 4.4. The range was from 11 year the I Lng range year to 15.15.

One-One-hundred hundred severity�.eightseventy -eight (96.2(96.2 percent)percent) ofof the visitors said that the Colorado River area near Parker -waswas the 'primaryprimary destination of their trip;trip; thethe remaining 77 (3,8(3,8 percent) saidsaid they hadhad stopped to rest while enen routeroute tot·o otherother destinations.destinations.

The average educationeducation levellevel ofof thethe touriststourists waswas 1515 years,years, the mode 16.16. The range was fromfrom 66 yearsyears toto 23.23. One-One-hundred hundred seven (57.8 percent)percent) indicated they had 16 or moremore years of education.

Theaverage family incomeincome was betweenbetween $20,000$20,000 andand $24,000$24,000 per yearyear;; the mode waswas thethe over-over-$24,OOO $24,000 category.category.

The mean age levellevel ofof thethe respondents was 39.539.5 years, thethe mode 42.42. The range was fromfrom 2121 toto 65.65. One-One-hundred hundred seventyseventy-... four (94(94.1.1 percent)percent) ofof the respondentsrespondents werewere male,male, 11 (5.4(5.4 percent) were female.female.

The typicaltypical respondentrespondent inin thisthis sample,sample, then,then, isis a acollegecollege - educated malemale about 40 years old who has aa totaltotal familyfamily incomeincome of more thanthan $24,000$24,000 perper year.year. He is travelingtraveling inin aa singlesingle family tour group consistingconsisting ofof 44 oror 55 adultsadults andand 11 oror 22 chil-chil dren under 18.18. The average tour group is from a California city with aa populationpopulation inin excessexcess ofof 11 million.million. The group usually camps at thethe recreation area, which isis the primary destination of theirtheir trip,trip, andand visitsvisits thethe areaarea twicetwice aa year,year, staying for 3 or 44 nights. The typical tour group hashas main-main tained thisthis patternpattern forfor aboutabout fivefive years.years.

The primary attractionattraction ofof thethe areaarea forfor 6969 (39.3(39.3 percent)percent) of the visitors was waterskiing; 5454 (29.2(29.2 percent)percent) areare attracted 'byby rivers, andand 4949 (26.5(26.5 percent)percent) byby boating.boating. In all, 177 (95.6(95.6 percent) ofof thethe respondentsrespondents indicatedindicated thatthat waterwater-related -related activitiesactivities werewere the mainmain attraction ofof thethe touring locale.locale. Other attractiveattractive featuresfeatures mentioned were aspects of environmentenvironment suchsuch asas thethe desertdesert andand mountain,mountain, andand the rural atmosphere. The aspects of the area thatthat are not related toto water made up thethe bulk of thethe area's secondary attractions. (Table B-IB -I showsshows thethe percentagepercentage breakdownbreakdown for these attractions inin termsterms ofof thethe totaltotal weightedweighted responsesresponses given by thethe questionnairequestionnaire respondents.)respondents.)

Respondents were askedasked toto rankrank specificspecific featuresfeatures ofof thethe area in terms of how thesethese featuresfeatures affectedaffected theirtheir decisiondecision to visit it.it. (See TableTable BB-II.) -II.)

The responses toto thethe questionnairequestionnaire indicateindicate thatthat inin general, people decidedecide toto visitvisit thethe areaarea becausebecause ofof itsits environment, and thatthat lakeslakes andand riversrivers areare particularlyparticularly attractive toto them.them. Thisntis isis consistentconsistent with thethe responseresponse

B-4 TABLE BB�,I. -I. Weighted Rankings on

What IsIs Attractive inin thethe LocaleLocale

'ItemsItems Weighted %

Waterskiing 33.4

Boating 31.3

Rivers 17.9

Fishing 4,1

Swimming 2.0

Scenery 2.0

Desert 1.7

Lakes 1.7

Relaxation LO1.0

Mountains .6

Racing .6

Leisure life .6

Lack of concrete .4

Non-urbanNon -urban atmosphereatmosphere .3

Cool .3

Lake Havasu .3

Dune buggiesbuggies .3

History .2

Grand Canyon .2

Collection ofof IndianIndian artifactsartifacts .1

Photography .1

Parker .1

Other .6

99.87099.8% B-5 TABLETABLE BB-1!. -II.

Attitudes Toward SpecificSpe�ific Attractions of the Locale

° ° ° Unim:eorOtantUnimportant Neutrr'aNeutrall 1niEoortantImportant N 0%% N 0%% N % -

ArchaeologyArchaeology 152 82.2 28 15.1 5 2.7

History 144 77.8 28 15.1 13 7.0

Contemporary Euroamerican 153 82.7 32 17.3 0 0 lifestyles

Contemporary Indian 144 77.8 26 14.1 15 8.1 lifestyles

Cultural Average 80.1% 15.4% 4.5%

Climate 73 39.5 38 20.5 74 40.0

Lakes andand rivers 1 0.5 4 2.2 180 97.3

Landscape and terrain 56 30.3 61 33.0 68 36.8

Fauna andand floraflora 86 46.5 73 39.5 26 14.1

Environmental 29.2% 23.8% 47.1% average

B-6 regarding the 'featuresfeatures of thethe localelocale thatthat areare' consideredconsidered attractive.

_ It is significant thatthat thethe totaltotal culturalcultural scoresscores rangerange from 4 to 16 (possible(possible range of 4 toto 20),20), whereas thethe envir-envir onmental scores range fromfrom 77 to-to 19.19, SeventySeventy-five -five percentpercent of the sample (nen == 139) hadhad a total score of 4 on the cultural items whilewhile the total environment scores were more evenly distributed throughout thethe range.range.

The-modalThe modal score for the environmentalenvironmerital items,items, likelike thethe scor es was at the mode of thethe culturalcul, tural scores,, was at the lowlow endend ofof thethe rangerange (score of 8).8). The 20 percent of thethe samplesample (n(n = 37) who had this score werewere separated from the restrest of the sample to see what factors were involvedinvolved inin thisthis lowlow score.score. It waswas found that 35 of the 37 responses followedfollowed aa similarsimilar pattern,pattern,

The 35 respondents answered "very unimportant" (scored(scored as 1) for climate, faunafauna andand flora,flora, andand landscapelandscape andand terrain,terrain, but "very important"important" (scored(scored asas 5)5) forfor lakeslakes andand rivers,rivers, resulting inin aa totaltotal scorescore ofof 8,8� This accounts for the high frequency of a score of 88 onon thethe environmentalenvironmental items.items,

This response patternpattern isis alsoalso consistentconsistent withwith thethe res-res ponses regarding thethe area'sareats attractions.attractions. It should be noted that the data presented inin TableTable BB�II -II referrefer toto thethe questionquestion of how important or unimportant those features were in the decision toto visit thethe touringtouring locale.locale� These data dodo notnot indicate thatthat nonnon-water -water itemsitems areare notnot important toto thethe visi-visi tor, but that thesethese waterwater-related -related itemsitems are more importantimportant in the individual decision toto visit thethe area.area. The wide range of attractions of thethe localelocale indicateindicate thatthat thethe environmentenvironment as a whole isis oneone ofof thethe primaryprimary factorsfactors inin thethe decisiondecision - making process.process.

Two questions askedasked ofof thethe respondentsrespondents areare particularlyparticularly relevant toto thisthis study.study. They were asked how theythey feltfelt aboutabout a list of eight projects thatthat (hypothetically)(hypothetically) mightmight bebe dev-dev eloped in the area inin thethe nextnext fivefive years,years, andand howhow willingwilling oror unwilling theythey would bebe toto returnreturn ifif thethe projectsprojects werewere com-com pleted. (The same set of eight projects waswas presented for both questions.)questions.)

Table BB-III -III isis aa matrixmatrix ofof PearsonianPearsonian correlation coeffi-coeffi cients computedcomputed betweenbetween thethe itemsitems onon thethe attitude-attitude-towards towards- development question.question. A coefficient of 1.01. 0 indicatesindicates perfect correlation; aa decimaldecimal betweenbetween 00 andand 1,1, thethe degreedegree ofof positivepositive correlation; andand aa decimaldecimal lessless thanthan 0,0, thethe degreedegree ofof negativenegative correlation. The highest correlations are thosethose between electrical transmission lineslines andand new dirtdirt roads,roads, nuclearnuclear power plants, andand coalcoal burningburning powerpower plants.plants. The correlation between attitudesattitudes towardstowards nuclearnuclear powerpower plantsplants andand coalcoal burningburning power plants isis alsoalso quitequite significant.significant. The data apparentlyapparently

B-7 reflect twotwo differentdifferent setssets ofof attitudes.attitudes. (heOne set isis statistically negative toward solar power, and positivepositive towardtoward nuclearnuclear andand coalcoal power;power; the other is statistically positive toward solarsolar power, andand * negative toward nucLea'rnuclear andand coalcoal power.*power -e A positive attitudeattitude concerning electrical transmission lines is correlated with positive attitudes towardtoward nuclearnuclear andand coalcoal powerpower development.development. The high correlation betweenbeeweeri new dirt roads andand thethe building of electrical transmission lineslines may occur because thethe twotwo serve the same purpose of opening up more background toto the use of visitors inin thethe locale.locale.

Table BB-IV -IV isis aa matrixmatrix ofof correlationcorrelation coefficientscoefficients com-com puted betweenbetween the items in the question concerning willingnesswillingness to return toto thethe locale.locale. The statistical pattern isis thethe 'samesame as that in Table BB-III, -III, thethe only'only differencedifference beingbeing the relative strengths of thethe correlation.correlation. Lower correlation coefficientscoefficients for nuclearnuclear power plants may be duedue toto adverseadverse publicitypublicity con-con cerning the Three MileMile Island incident, whichwhich waswas still being mentioned in the media during thethe months of June and July when the research was beingbeing carriedcarried out.out. Higher correlationcorrelation coef-coef ficients inin. the "dam" categorycategory indicateindicate thatthat thethe peoplepeople whowho areare more willing toto come back inin thethe advent of nuclear and coal power development wouldwould also be moremore willingwilling to come back if a new dam were built inin thethe area.area.

Table BB-V -V isis aa matrixmatrix ofof PearsonianPearsonian correlation coeffi-coeffi cients computed between thethe questionquestion concerningconcerning attitudesattitudes toward development projects andand thethe questionquestion concerningconcerning wil-wil lingness to return ifif thesethese areare built inin thethe area.area.

There is a positive correlationcorrelation betweenbetween visitors'visitors' atti-atti tudes toward development projectsprojects andand theirtheir willingnesswillingness toto return ifif suchsuch projectsprojects werewere toto bebe builtbuilt inin thethe locale.locale� PlotPlot- ted on the major diagonal areare thethe correlationcorrelation coefficientscoefficients between attitudesattitudes towardtoward specificspecific typestypes ofof projectsprojects (such(such asas electrical transmission lines)lines) andand thethe willingnesswillin�ess toto returnreturn if such projects were built.built. The largest coerficient is thethe correlationcorralation between the total attitude toward development.development score and thethe totaltotal willingnesswillingness toto returnreturn score,score, As can be seen from the r2 value (the(the squaresquare ofof thethe coefficient),coefficient), almostalmost two-two-thirds thirds ofof thethe variancevariance isis explainedexplained in this instance.instance� The linking of attitudes towardtoward power sourcessources that prevailed in Tables BB-1I1 -III and B-B-IV--negative IV-- negativetoward toward solarsolar withwith positivepositive toward nuclear and coal,coal, andand positivepositive towardtoward solarsolar withwith nega-nega� tive towardtoward nuclearnuclear andand coalcoal--is --is also presentpresent here,here,

It should be pointed outout thatthat thesethese highhigh correlationscorrelations dodo not mean thatthat respondentsrespondents inin thethe samplesample hadhad positivepositive attitudesattitudes

*TheThe negative statisticalstatistical pattern does not derive from holding negative attitudes.attitudes. Instead it means thatthat ifif aa personperson isis posi-posi tive to solar, theythey are lessless positivepositive ("negative")( "negative ") toto nuclearnuclear and coal, andand vicevice versa.versa�

'B-8B-8 towardtoward nuclearnuclear power plants,plants, coal-coal-burning burning powerpower plants, and electricalelectrical transmission lines.lines. OfOf the 185 people represented inin thesethese data,data, 149149 (80.5 percent) werewere opposed to nuclear power plants; 9090 (48.6(48.6 percent)percent) werewere opposedopposed toto coalcoal-burning -burning power plants; and 69 (37.3(37.3 percent) were opposed toto electri-electri calcal transmission lines.lines. One-hundredOne -hundred twenty-ninetwenty -nine (69.7(69.7 percent) were in favor of solarsolar energy,energy, andand no oneone expressedexpressed negativenegative feelingsfeelings concerning this formform. of energy.energy. The correlation matrices simplysimply showshow high correlationcorrelation betweenbetween responsesresponses givengiven for the attitudeattitude question and those given for the question concerningconcerning willingness toto return.return.

The descriptiondescription of the Colorado River tourists outlined in these pages adds depth toto thethe informationinformation givengiven inin earlierearlier reports concerning the amount of money spentspent inin thethe area by visitors. The.The sample isis made up ofof highlyhighly educatededucated malesmales approaching middlemiddle age, who have high familyfamily income.income. They are single-single-minded minded inin theirtheir reasonsreasons forfor visitingvisiting the area, but this does notnot makemake them unaware of issuesissues facingfacing AmericanAmerican society, particularly thethe Westernlvestern states,states, today.today.

B-9 t---A 0 � • 1. 4. 2. 3. 6. 5. 7. 8. Items New Pave 4 roads Transmission Nuclear Expand Coal-burning TABLE B -III. Pearson Correlation Coefficients on Attitudes Toward Development Projects. A Solar lanes dam TABLE dirt existing 7 8 1 2 energy 3 4 5 6 Items to Pave êxist- Transmission Nuclear Coal burningplants Solar A New dirt Expand roads roads ing roads to 4 lanes lines plants plants energy plants dam B�III. lines plants 1. New dirt roads 1.0 p=0.161-0.731 p=.031.1644 plants p=.00.5144 p=.042.1276 p=.001.2279 ps.025-.1437 p=.000.3680 p=0.0 Pearson New p=O.O 2. 1.00 .1860 .0575 .1409 .0971 1.0 .0559 .1670 Pave existing p=.094 roads p=.225 p=.012 roads p=0.0 p=.006 p=.218 p=.028 dirt 3. 1.0 .2010 .0108 .2325 .1751 1 .2585 4Expand lanes to p=0.0 p=.003 p=.442 p=.001 p=.009 Correlation p=.000 Pave p=O.O p=0.16l -0.731 1.00 4. Transmission lines 1.00 .4448 .5041 ing -.2890 .3907 roads -exist- p=0.0 p=.000 p=.000 p=.000 2 p=.000 1 5. Nuclear plants 1.00 p=.000.5412 p=.003-.1999 p=.000.2545

p=0.0 p=.006 p=.03l p=O.O 1.0 .1644 .1860 0 Coefficients to 6. 1.00 -.2137 Expand .3641 Coal- burning plants p=0.0 4 p=.002 3 p=.090 7. Solar energy plants lanes 1.00 -.0992 p=0.0 Transmission p=.090 p=O.O 1.00 p=.003 p=.218 p=.OO .0575 .2010 .5144

8. lines 1.00 A dam 4 on p=0.0 Attitudes p=O.O 1.00 p=.OOO p=.442 p=.028 p=.042 .4448 .0108 .1409 .1276 Nuclear plants 5 Toward Coal p=.OOO 1.00 p=.OOl p=O.O p=.OOO p=.094 p=.OOl plants .5041 .5412 .2325 .0971 .2279 burning 6 Development p:::O.O -.2890 1.00 p=.OO2 -.2137 p=.003 -.1999 p=.OOO p=.009 p=.225 p=.025 -.1437 energy .1751 .0559 Sofar 7 plants Projects. p=O.O p=.090 -.0992 p=.090 p=.OOO p=.OOO 1.00 p=.OOO p=.012 p=.OOO .3641 .2545 .3907 .2585 .1670 .3680 dam A 8 t-' t-A t» • 4. 1. 3. 2. 8. 7. 6. 5. Items TABLE New Pave Transmission Expand A Nucle,n Coal TABLE B -IV. Pearson Correlation Coefficients on Willingness to Return if Projects Are Built Solar dam dirt B-IV. existing burning

1 2 energy 3 4 5 6 7 8 to

Items plants

New dirt Pave exist- Expand to Transmission Nuclear Coal burning Solar roads A roads ing roads 4 lanes lines plants 4 plants energy plants dam lanes plants plants lines Pearson 1. New dirt roads 1.00 -.0955 .0266 .2893 .0337 roads .2038 -.0839 .0922 New p=0.0 p=.098 p=.360 p=.000 p=.324 p=.003 p=O.O 1.00 p=.128 p=.106 Correlation Pave existing roads 1.00 roads

2. .1958 .0881 .1234 dirt 3. Expand to 4 lanes p=0.0 1.00p=.004 p=.458.1337.0079 p=.116.1408 p=.087.2459.1002 p=.047.1659 1 p=.001.3898.2368 p=O.O p:::.098 -.0955 Pave 1.00 Transmission lines p=0.0 1.00p=.035 p=.028 p=.000 p=.012ing p=.000 roads .5497 2 4. .3345 exist- .4055 5. Nuclear. plants p=0.0 1.00p=.000 p=.000.4677 p=.001-.2391 Coefficients p=.000 4 p;::.004 p=.360 p==O.O 1.00 .4663 .1958 .0266 -.0565 Expand

p=0.0 p=.000 p=.222lanes p=.000 6. Coal burning plants 1.00 -.2393 3 .4177

p=0.0 p=.001 to p=.000

Solar energy plants 1.00 on p=O.O p=.458

7. p=.035 p=.OOO 1.00 Transmission .1337 .0079 .2893 -.0961 p=0.0 Willingness p=.097 lines 8. A dam 4 p=0.01.00 1.00 p=.OOO p=.028 p=.1l6 p=O.O p=.324 .3345 .1408 .0881 .0331 Nuclea-c

plants

5 to Return Coal p=O.O 1.00 p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.003 p=.081 .4671 .5497 .2459 .1002 .2038 plants burning 6 if Projects p=O.O -.2393 1.00 p=.OOl p=.222 -.0565 p=.OI2 pili. -.2391 -.0839 p=.047 p=.128 energy .1659 .1234 Solar 001 7 plants Are p=O.O p=.091 p=.OOO 1.00 p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOI -.0961 p=.OOO p=.106 .4177 .4663 .4055 .3898 .2368 .0922 Built dam A 8 0:1 � N I 1- 4. 6. 3. 5. 2. 8. 7. 9. Items TABLE Nuclear Pave plants Coal-burning Transmission Expand roads New A Attitude plants TABLE B -V. Pearson Correlation Coefficients on Attitudes vs. Willingness t Solar g to Return. dam dirt existing energy B-V. to

1 2 3 4 plants 5 6 8 9 roads

Items total New dirt Pave exist Expand to Transmission Nuclear Coal- burning Solar4 Willin

roads ing roads 4 lanes lines P lants lanes plants lants energy plants dam total lines 1. New dirt roads .7903 .0264 .1078 .3419 ,1552 .3054 -.0858 .2100 Pearson .4769 New -.0718 p·.346 -.0293 p=.002 p=.092 -.0980 p=.OOO pa.OOO p p=.052 p=.OOO p-.166 .2070 .1197 .2103 .7903 .3903 .4113

p =.000 p =.360 p =.072 •• p =.000 p =.017 p =.000 p =.123 p °002 p =.000 roads 002 1 dirt 2. roadsPave existing -.0980p =.092 p =.000.3850 p -.027.1417 p =.033.1357 p =.010.1700 p =.030.1389 p =.181.0673 p =.001.2234 Correlation p =.001.2294 Pave p=.018 p=.360 pa.OO3 pa.420 p=.OOO p·.069 p.�030 p p

3. ing .1536 .3850 .0264 .2025 .1382 .0149 Expand to 4 lanes .2103 .1536 .6396 .1251 .1206 .1723 .1095 .0695 .1677 .1153 .2610 .4462 •• p =.002 p =.018 .6396 •• p= 010 p=,174 p =.011 p =.059 p=.000 p =.000 045 05l exist roads MI 4. Transmission lines .4113 .0149 .6248 .3952 .4870 ..1945 .38572 .5895

P =.000 p=,420 p=. 018 pa.000 000 p 000 p =.004 p =.000 Coefficients p =.000 .... ·pa.018 p=.OOO p-.027 p=.072 p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.150 p=.OOO p=.111 .1417 .1541 .6396 .1078 .4268 .2698 .0766 Ñ .2802 .0902 4 5. Nuclear plants - 0293 .1382 .0902 .2746 .7414 .4018 -.1032 Exp;nd 4090 .4969

1)=.346 p= 030 p =.111 p =.000 p =.000 p =.000 p =.081 lanes p =.000 P =. 000 6. Coal- burning .1197 .1095 .2802 .4075 .4523 .6579 -.1612 .44323 .5982 plants p =.052 p =.069 p =.000 p=.000 = .000 p =.000 p =.000 p =.014 to p =.000 p =.000 Transmission p=.OOO -.2552 p=.010 pa.OOO pa.OOO p�.OOO pa.OOO p=.033 p=.OOO p=.OOO .4562 .4075 ,6248 .1723 .1357 .3419 . -.0718 .5286 .2746 7. Solar energy =. .1206 .0766 -.2552 a .2083 '2001 .3617 P-.0468 = .263 on pp10 =.087 87 plants p 166 p =.051 p =.150 p =.000 p .002 p =.003 p =.000 lines 4 8. A dam p =.002.2070 p =.045. 1251 pm 000.2698 p .4562-.000 p =.000.2830 p =.000.4370 -.1758.p =008 p .6381=.000 Attitudes p =.000.5591 p.,OOO pa.OOO -,2083 P-.OOO p=.174 pa.017 pa.002 pa.OOO pa.OOO p=.OlO .1700 .5150 .2830 .4523 .7414 .3952 .0695 .1552 9. + -.0757 Nuclear Attitude total .3903 .2025 .4268 .5286 .5150 .6029 plants .6070 .8049

p =.000 p =.003 p =.000 p =.000 p =.000 p=.000 -=.153 p =.0005 p =.000 va-. .

Willingness Coal-burning

... p=.OOO

p=.OOO p=.OO3 p=.OOO p-.OOO pa.Oll p=.030 p",OOO

p=.OOO .4870

.6029 ,6579 .4370 .4018

.1677 .1389 .3054

2001 plants 6 energy p-.153 -·.1612 �.1945 ..... p-.OOO p=.Ollt pa.081 -.1032 p -.1758 p-.059 p=.18l pa.123 p=.008 -.0858 .3617 .1153 .0673 •• Solar 0757 to 004 7 plants Return. . p=.OOO pa,OOO p·.OOO p-.OOO P=tOOO p=.OOl p=.002 p=.263 -.0468 pa.OOO ,4432 .3857 .6070 ,4090 .2610 .·2234 .2100 .6381 dam A 8 , Willingness , total p p=.OOO -.1003 p-.OOO pa.OOO p-.OOO p=.OOl pa.OOO pa.087 pe.OOO ,5895 .8049 .5982 .4969 .2294 .4769 .4462 .5591 •• OOO 9