ECO-CHRONICLE 59 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 59 - 66.

GEOCHEMISTRY OF METASTABLE CARBONATE MINERAL IN CORAL SKELETON AND REEF SEDIMENTS, GULF OF MANNAR, TAMILNADU

M. V. Mukesh,* N. Ramanujam,** S. R. Singarasubramainan,* H. M. Sabeen,*** B. Gurugnanam* and K. Manoharan*.

* Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu ** Department of Geology and Research Center, V.O.Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi, Tamilnadu *** Department of Mining and Geology, District Office, Kollam, Kerala

ABSTRACT Carbonate sediments are born, not made. The catalytic activities of the coral transform the dissolved calcium and carbonate ions from seawater into body skeletons of corals, made up of CaCO3. Skeletons contain minerals like Aragonite, Calcite and Dolomite in considerable amount and rare minerals like Vaterite. Absence of the rare minerals like vaterite in the ancient carbonate sediments, the analog of the modern carbonate sediments, needs further study. To identify the carbonate mineral group in the coral skeletons and reef sediments in the vicinity of Van, Koswari and Kariyashuli islands in the Gulf of Mannar, the samples were subjected to XRD analysis. XRD analyses of the powdered coral skeletons reveal 70% as Aragonite and 17% as Vaterite. The remaining 13% is represented by Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesium and Strontium. Similar analyses of reef sediments indicate the reduction of Aragonite percentage to 45% and increase of vaterite percentage to 36%. No appreciable variation in the percentage for calcite, magnesium and dolomite for both coral and reef sediments has been reported. But earlier studies of ancient carbonate rocks reported the presence of calcite and dolomite only, not aragonite and rare mineral like Vaterite. The dissolution and inversion processes had inverted the Aragonite and Vaterite from coral skeletons and reef sediments into stable mineral form, such as calcite and dolomite. The causes of the inversion of mineral phase evolved from the incipient stage to the final stage in the evolutionary trends of the carbonate minerals can be easily understood by studying the sequential changes of mineral phases from Gel  Vaterite  Aragonite  Calcite. The calcite and aragonite are more stable, when compared to the earlier mineral phases of gel and vaterite. The elimination of mineral phases of gel, vaterite and aragonite and ultimate enrichment of calcite and dolomite are aided with the removal of ion of Sr2+ from coral skeletons and transformation of gel (Semi-Solid) into lattice of solid crystalline material with same chemical composition.

Key words: Metastable carbonate, scleractinian coral, reef sediments, Gulf of Mannar contributing enough sediments to form a good INTRODUCTION proportion as carbonate sediments. The high Corals are exciting biochemical factories magnesium rich spicules (12% to 15% mol) which catalyze the large scale transfer of constitute more than one percent of unconsolidated dissolved calcium and carbonate from sea sediments counted in the carbonate sediments were water in tropical and subtropical and derived from the decaying tissues of soft corals temperate climate zones. The mineral (Mukesh, 1997). It has been reported that a rare composition of the reef sediments depends mineral has been found in the skeletons of living mainly on biological constituents of the corals, corals, molluses and gastropods (Friedman and and other marine organisms. Sander, 1978). But the analysis of the recent biogenic and as well as the ancient counter part of the Unconsolidated, uncemented carbonate carbonate sediments reveals only the presence of sediments found in Florida bay, Bahama bank, Calcite, Aragonites and Dolomite; not any other rare Persian Gulf, Great Barrier Reef and Gulf of minerals. Mannar are believed to be the recent analogs LOCATION AND CORAL DISTRIBUTION of the most common type of ancient rocks (Bricker, 1971). Soon after the death of the To identify the uncommon mineral found in the organism or even during the lifetime, they are biogenic constituents before its inversion and 60 ECO-CHRONICLE recrystallization into stable form, living Institute, Karaikudi. The XRD pattern and XRD Scleractinian corals were collected in the vicinity analysis were carried out using computer of Van, Koswari and Kariyashuli islands, in the controlled X-ray powder system, JEOL, JDX- Gulf of Mannar, India (Fig.1). 8030 model. The copper K alpha radiation =1.54180 with nickel filter is used at a rating of 40 KV, 20mV. The 0Ø at a step of 0.12Ø with measuring time of 1 second per step. The observed XRD data were compared with standard XRD data files of the geological samples. Peak search and search match software available with the systems were used to tabulate the XRD data and it’s matching with the standard value. The phase identification and phase composition were carried out with usual XRD analytical procedure. By measuring the 2Ø Fig. 1. Location map of the study area values and the corresponding peak values, the minerals were identified from the X-ray diffraction In the Gulf of Mannar 96 genera of corals (in graph. From the analysis of the diffraction graphs that 86 genera are hermatypic and 10 genera are dominant minerals in each sample were identified ahermatypic) were reported between and tabulated (Tables 3 & 4). Rameshwaram and Thuthookudi, of which stony corals like Acropora, Pocillopora, Porite, MINERALOGY OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS Agariciidae and Favidae, predominate in shallow AND REEF SEDIMENTS water (Pillai, 1977). Based on the diagnosis of the important features such as form and size, Approximately sixty minerals occur in nature calice arrangement, coenostem, corallite wall, that have CO group in common. Large scale septa, skeleton colour, and ecological conditions 3 transformations of ions of calcium, magnesium, different families were identified (Wood, 1983 and strontium, and carbonates takes place as a result Pillai, 1983) (Table 1). Scleractinian corals like of the the catalytic activities of coral species to Montipora digitata, Montipora foliasa, Montastrea form a solid. The important carbonate minerals annularis, Acropora nobilis, Pocillopora found in the Scleractinian corals are: damicornis and Agaricia fragilis and very recent Calcite - CaCO sediment samples in the reef areas of Van, 3 Aragonite - CaCO Koswari and Kariyashuli islands were subjected 3 Vaterite - CaCO to X-ray diffraction analysis to determine the 3 Dolomite - CaMg (CO ) pattern of minerals (Table 2). 3 2 Calcium carbonate is a polymorphic form commonly found in nature as Calcite and The petrographic study of sieved fractions of Aragonite. Analysis of the X-ray diffraction graphs the reef sediment, from the reef area exhibit of the powder samples of Monipora digita, peculiar spicules with straight or curved shape. Montipora foliosa, Montastrea annularis, The size of the spicules found in the sieve Acropora hyacinthus, Acropora nobilis, Agrilia fractions varied from 1Øto 2.5Ø. These spicules fragilis and Pocillopora damicornis exhibit that were found as derivations of the decaying tissues the Aragonite is a dominating mineral with 59% of soft coral Octa corallia. These spicules were to 81% (average 71%) of the total carbonate segregated for XRD analysis. The collected percentage in the coral skeleton. Vaterite is the corals, sediments and spicules were crushed to next mineral with a wider variation from 2.5% to powder by using pestle and mortar very slowly to 25% (average 18%) in the coral skeleton. avoid the excessive heat generation. The Though, the calcite appears as dominating powdered samples were sieved through 80 mesh mineral in the ancient and recent consolidated and packed for analysis. origin, its average percentage is found as low as RESULTS 9% in the coral skeleton, when compared to Aragonite and Vaterite in same species. X-RAY- DIFFRACTION METHODS Magnesium, Strontium and Dolomite were not X-ray diffraction analysis of the samples was detected in all coral samples. X-ray diffraction carried out at Central Electrochemical Research pattern of powdered samples of Octo coral (soft ECO-CHRONICLE 61 , Facviidae,Agariciidae , Agariciidae, Pocilloporidae,Acroporidae . Some of the genera were easily confused under water and careful examination of the skeleton were Faviidae and carried out for positive identification (References: Wood, 1993; Pillai, 1971., C.S.G. 1983; Mukesh, 1997) M.V. Table 1. FeaturesTable that assist in the diagnosis of corals from families of Pocilloporidae,Acroporidae 62 ECO-CHRONICLE Facviidae, , Agariciidae, Pocilloporidae,Acroporidae . Some of thegenera were easily confused under water and careful examination of the Faviidae and Pocilloporidae,Acroporidae , skeleton were carried out for positive identification (References: Wood, 1993; Pillai, 1971., C.S.G. 1983; Mukesh, 1997) M.V. Table 1. (...contd.)Table Features that assist in the diagnosis of corals from families of Agariciidae ECO-CHRONICLE 63 Species Samples Calcite Aragonite Vaterite Dolomite Others Acroporidae Montipora digitata X X Acroporidae Montipora foliosa X X X Faviidae Montastrea annularis X X Acroporidae Acropora hyacinthus X X X Acroporidae Acropora nobils X X Agariciidae Agaricia fragilis X X Pocilloporidae Pocillopora damicornis X X Sediments Location Calcite Aragonite Vaterite Dolomite Others Van island X X Koswari island X X Kariyashuli island X X

Table 2 List of species and sediments used for X-ray diffraction and the mineral identification coral) species revealed that Magnesium is found Though, Calcite and Aragonite are important in high content than that of Vaterite. Traces of mineral fractions found in the recent sediments, Calcite and Strontium were also found in Spicules. the dissolution and inversion processes might XRD analysis of the reef sediments from Van, have inverted the Aragonite into stable form such Koswari and Kariyashuli islands showed a as Calcite. Ultimately Calcite and Dolomite had variation of 34% to 60% for Aragonite (average obtained the supremacy in the evolutionary 45%). Vaterite, next abundant mineral in the reef sequence as carbonate of minerals in the ancient sediment, varied from 24% to 50.3% (average rocks. 36.5%). Calcite percentage in the reef sediments ranged from 9% to 12% (average 11.50%). Calcite and Vaterite are third polymorphic Dolomite and Magnesium were found to be 5% forms, which crystallize in the hexagonal system and 6% respectively. Sr+2 ‘Mg’ conspicuously whereas; Aragonite crystallizes in the absent in the reef sediments. Biaxial data plotting orthorhombic system. Vaterite is having a close of Aragonite vs. Vaterite + Calcite + Mg+2 + Sr+2 + similarity with Aragonite structure, but differ Dolomite, clearly demarcated two zones as living appreciably from Calcite. The positive optical coral zone and carbonate sediments zone (Fig. 2). character of the Vaterite is distinctive from the other carbonate minerals with the optically 80 negative character (Tucker, and Wright, 1990). 60 But the trend of the mineral availability 40 exhibits that, Carbonate in the living as well as

Aragonite 20 in the very recent sediment is reversible. The 0 calcite is the least mineral with 9% in corals and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 12% in recent reef sediments respectively, Vaterite,Calcite,Magnesium, Strantium and whereas the Aragonite is the dominating mineral Dolomite with average percentage of 71% and 45% for coral and reef sediments. The abnormal higher Fig 2. Biaxial data plotting of two zones of percentage of the Aragonite in the carbonate living corals and sediments zones. skeleton is related to the prevailing temperature conditions in shallow sea. The Gulf of Manner is DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION located in the tropical climatic zones, and so the scleractinian corals in this warm water secrete the higher proportion of Aragonite than the Calcite and Dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2) are the most dominating carbonate minerals in the Calcite. ancient rocks, but in modern sediments Calcite and Aragonite are the common minerals. The Vaterite, next dominating mineral in the living dissolution and inversion process invert the corals (17%) and recent reef sediments (36%) Aragonite percentage, so the Calcite and disappears from the scene, due to its structural Aragonite are never compositionally ideal. deformity. Trace metal analysis of the coral 64 ECO-CHRONICLE D Montiporafoliosa (B) G Pocilloporadamicornis (G) Montiporadigitata C Agariciafragilis (F) F Acroporanobils (E) B Acoporahyacinthus (D) E ) Montastrea) annularis (C A Table 3. Peak values and correspondingPeakvaluesand3. minerals identified(A)diffractionTable fromX-ray the graphsof ECO-CHRONICLE 65 Table 4. Peak values and corresponding minerals identified from the X-ray diffraction graphs of sediment samples (i) Van Island (ii) Koswari Island (iii) Kariyashuli Island A B 2Ø D obs I Element 2Ø D obs I Element obs obs

26.200 3.399 206 Aragonite 26.600 3.348 645 Vaterite 27.400 2.252 343 Aragonite 29.700 3.006 356 Calcite 29.700 3.006 322 Calcite 33.000 2.712 235 Aragonite 32.900 2.720 238 Vaterite 36.100 2.486 221 Aragonite 36.000 2.499 207 Aragonite 38.300 2.348 201 Aragonite 45.700 1.984 212 Aragonite 39.800 2.263 158 Dolomite 48.300 1.883 181 Vaterite 41.000 2.199 151 Dolomite 52.600 1.739 141 Aragonite 42.800 2.111 146 Aragonite 65.700 1.420 89 Vaterite 45.800 1.980 208 Aragonite 68.200 1.374 362 Aragonite 48.300 1.883 188 Vaterite 69.700 1.348 77 Vaterite 50.200 1.816 146 Aragonite 72.900 1.297 68 Dolomite 52.500 1.742 134 Aragonite 76.900 1.239 75 Dolomite 84.100 1.150 78 Vaterite

Aragonite 59.70% Calcite 11.50% Aragonite41.60% Dolomite 12.00% Vaterite 23.68% Dolomite 5.10% Vaterite 32.70% Calcite 13.86% +2 C that Sr inhibits the alteration of Aragonite to Calcite under natural environment. Inversion of 2Ø D obs I Element Aragonite to Calcite happens only when Sr2+ is obs removed. (Siegel, 1968; Ohde and Kitano, 1981; 20.800 4.267 354 Vaterite Deer et al., 1983; Mitsuguchi et al., 2003). From 26.500 3.361 705 Vaterite XRD analysis it has been found that the Aragonite 27.700 3.218 229 Aragonite has been inverted its average percentage from 29.800 2.996 294 Calcite 71% (coral) to 45% (reef sediments). The 33.100 2.704 215 Vaterite discernable variation is due to the mechanical 36.200 2.479 207 Magnesium or biological abrasion, that they will not produce 38.300 2.348 200 Aragonite needle shaped crystals of Aragonite and yielded 41.200 2.189 145 Aragonite only fine material. The parrot fish in the reef 42.700 2.116 164 Vaterite environment eats stony coral for the consumed 45.800 1.980 233 Aragonite organic material and rejects the finely 48.300 1.883 179 Vaterite disintegrated carbonate from the skeleton of the 50.100 1.819 148 Aragonite coral with possible, exception of the breakdown 52.600 1.738 141 Aragonite of the fibrous aragonite abrasion.

Aragonite 34.00% Calcite 9.14% The reduction of the percentage of Aragonite Vaterite 50.30% Magnesium 6.44% in the coral skeletal sediments can be related to the release of Sr2+ from the coral skeleton by samples of the study area reveals that the higher abrasion process. Sr2+ ions whose radii are concentration of Sr+2 (16.807 ppm) is found in the greater than Ca2+ accommodate in the Aragonite coral skeleton (Ramanujam and Mukesh, 1999). structure might have been expelled during the The major element Sr+2 are found in the coral abrasion process. skeleton, next to Ca2+ in the living coral. Corals absorb ions of Calcium and Strontium from Corals are veritable biochemical factories, seawater. Corals do not fractionate Calcium and which catalyze a large-scale transfer of dissolved Strontium like mollusks, and as a result of that calcium and carbonate ions from seawater into corals synthesize skeletons with high Strontium a gel like CaCO3. This semi solid gel made up of

Aragonite. (Friedman, 1968). It has been reported CaCO3 is transformed into lattice of solid 66 ECO-CHRONICLE crystalline Vaterite with same chemical Friedman, G. M. and Sanders, J. E. 1978. composition. Principles of sedimentology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. p. 792. Vaterite is metastable with hexagonal form with same chemical composition has been Friedman, G. M.1968. Geology and Geochemistry recorded in the shells of young gastropods. Some of Reefs, Carbonate Sediments and waters, Gulf of Aquaba Red Sea: Jous: Sediment. Detron. Vol. organisms form a gel like CaCO3, which quickly changes into Vaterite with same chemical 38: pp. 895 - 919. composition, but with a different lattice structure in sequence. Larsen, G. and Chilingar, G. V. 1967. Diagenesis Sediments. Elsevier Publishing. Gel  Calcite  Vaterite  Aragonite (Larsen and Chilingar, 1967) Mukesh, M. V. 1997. Sedimentology of the Coral Reef, Ecosystem in and around the Barrier The Calcite and Aragonite are more stable Islands of Chidambaranar District, Tamilnadu when compared to the earlier two phases of (Ph.D. Thesis) p. 345. minerals in the sequence. Chemical nature of the Mitsuguchi, T., Matsumoto, E. and Uchida, T. minerals in the organism, coral reef, is 2003. Report on Mg / Ca and Sr / Ca ratio of responsible for the unequal distribution of porites coral skeleton: Evaluation of the effect of polymorphic pattern of Aragonite, Vaterite, skeletal growth rate, Coral Reefs. Vol. 22, No. 4. Calcite, Mg2+, Sr2+ and Dolomite in the coral pp. 288 - 381. skeletons. Water temperature is another important factor that controls the higher Ohto, S. and Kitano, Y. 1981. Behaviour of minor precipitation proportion of the Aragonite than the elements in the transformation of coral Aragonite Calcite in the coral skeletons. Variety of skeletons to Calcite. Proc. of fourth Inter. Coral Reef Symp. of such as high Magnesium or low Magnesium Manila. Vol. 2. pp. 91 - 94. or Strontium carbonate and polymorphs of Carbonates are the function of water temperature, Pillai C.S.G (1983) Structure and genetic diversity water composition and chemical structure of the of recent Scleractinian of India. Jour.of Marine organic material of the corals. Biol. Assoc. Indi. Vol. 25:p.78 - 90. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Pillai, C. S. G. 1972. Composition of the coral The authors acknowledge the Vice- fauna of the southeastern coast of India and chancellor of Annamalai University for giving Lacuadive. Symp. Zoo. Soc. Land No. 28. p. 301 permission to publish this work, our sincere - 327. thanks to Central Elelctro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karikudi, Tamilnadu for the Ramanujam, N. and Mukesh, M. V. 1999. Metal analysis work. We also express our sincere concentrations in corals in Gulf of Mannar. In Biochemistry of rivers in tropical south and gratitude to Department of Science and Southeast Asia. M. H. Geolpalaont Ins. Univ. Technology, Government of India for helping us Hamburg, Germany. pp. 279 - 283. to carryout the work under DST - SERC. Sigel, F. R. 1961. The effect of strontium on the REFERENCES Aragonite - Calcite ratios of Pleistocene coral. Jour. Sedi. Petro., Vol. 30. pp. 297 - 304. Bricker, O.P. 1971. John Hopkins University Carbonate cements studies of Geology No.19 Tucker, E. M. and Wright, P. V. 1990. Carbonate John Hopkins press p.376 Sedimentology, Blac Scientific publications, Oxford, London. pp. 468. Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A., Zussman, J. 1983. An Introduction to the rock forming minerals. The Wood, E. M. 1983. Corals of world. T. F. H. English language Block Society and Longman, Publication Inc. Ltd. Neptune city, pp. 1 - 256. pp.473 - 501 ***** ECO-CHRONICLE 67 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 67 - 72 EFFECT OF POWER TILLER VIBRATIONS ON OPERATOR

Bini Sam* and K. Kathirvel**

*Farming Systems Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Sadanandapuram, Kottarakkara, Kerala **Department of Farm Machinery, College of Agricultural Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT The ergonomic aspects of power tiller are of great importance, as the operator of a power tiller has to endure various environment and stress. Excessive vibration and noise level are the important shortcomings in power tiller design. The hand transmitted vibration of a 7.46 kW power tiller was investigated for selected operations in accordance with ISO 5349 (1986). The selected operations are rototilling in untilled and tilled field conditions at 1.5, 1.8, 2.1 and 2.4 km h -1 forward speeds and transporting at 3.5, 4.0, 4.5 and 5.0 km h-1 forward speeds on farm and bitumen roads. Acceleration levels varied widely and were greatly dependent on variables such as forward speed, terrain and mode of operation. Acceleration levels increased with forward speed of travel under all operating conditions. Hand transmitted vibration was of serious concern restricting the safe exposure level to <1/2 h to 1 - 2 h in rototilling and 1 - 2 h to 2 - 4 h in transporting operations respectively while operating at different speeds. The terrain condition of untilled field resulted in 16 to 29 per cent increased hand transmitted vibration than tilled field. The result indicated that the latent period or the duration of exposure necessary before the onset of vascular symptoms, characterized by finger blanching for 10 percentiles of an exposed population varied from 4 to 8 years during rototilling and 6 to 13 years during transport while operating at different speeds.

Key words: Power tiller, Ergonomics, Hand transmitted vibration, Latent period

INTRODUCTION and high frequency range was either stored or Power tiller is a multi purpose hand tractor dissipated in the carpal, metacarpal and designed primarily for rotary tilling and other farm phalangeal areas and the hand arm system was operations. Now it has become a versatile power most sensitive in the low ranges (Abrams and source in small and medium size farms in India Suggs,1969 and Pyykko et al.,1976). The owing to the development of a variety of matching increase in grip force increases the vibration level equipment. The ergonomic aspects of power transmitted to the hand (Griffin et al.,1982). tillers are of great importance as working with power tiller involves considerable physical strain Hand transmitted vibration of a walking to the operator. An operator has to walk behind tractor is very strong because the handle grip of the machine for a distance of about 15 to 20 km, a walking tractor is a cantilever beam, and the merely to till one hectare of land with rototiller power is obtained from a single cylinder diesel once. Besides walking, the strains resulting from engine. Hand transmitted vibration can cause the stress factors due to noise, mechanical vibration, well-known “Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome” workload and exhaust emission also affects the (HAVS), which includes vascular, neurological performance of the operator (Kern and and skeletal diseases. It is characterized by the Muntzinger, 1986). “white finger” symptom, due to a sudden arteriolar vasoconstriction. Neurological component mainly Hand transmitted vibration is the vibration consists of a loss of tactile and thermic sensitivity, entering the body at the hand. Exposure to hand disorders of the fine motor functions of the hand, arm vibrations are complex and cannot be with difficulties of handling. Hence measurement quantified simply. Transmissibility measurements and evaluation of vibrations are necessary for showed that the hand and wrist operate as a low- assessing operator’s comfort and to suggest pass filter, most of vibrational energy in the mid limits for the continuous operation of power tillers. 68 ECO-CHRONICLE MATERIALS AND METHODS data acquisition unit- front end type 2827, vibration and noise analysis software type 7700, Among different makes of power tillers data recorder type 7701 and hand arm transducer popular among the farmers, a walking type (7.46 type 4392. kW) power tiller (Table 1) was selected for the study. Two main operations of the power tiller such Hand transmitted vibration was measured as as rototilling and transporting were selected for frequency weighted r.m.s value of acceleration the investigation. The power tiller was put in for the one-third octave band, having centre proper test condition before conducting the frequencies from 6.3 to 1250 Hz (ISO 5349). It experiments, that is, in full working order with full was measured at handle-grip level as per the fuel tank and radiator, without optional front guidelines issued in ISO 5349 (1986). The weights, tire ballast and any specialized transducer employed was a piezoelectric components. Tyres used for the tests were of accelerometer (B&K, Type 4392) mounted on a standard size and depth of treads was not less hand adapter to insert between the fingers and than 70 per cent of the depth of a new thread. the grip and fixed on the grip by tape (Ragni et There were no known mechanical defects that al.,1999). The right hand was used for operating would result in abnormal vibration in power tiller. the controls. Also as per the instruction manual The subjects for operating the power tiller were of B & K for measuring hand arm vibration, selected based on age (25 to 35 years), weight transducer should be fitted between the middle and fitness (Grandjean, 1982 and Mc Ardle et al., and ring fingers for right hand and between the 1994). All the subjects were well acquainted with middle and index fingers for left hand. The hand the controls of power tiller and had experience of arm vibration was measured in x direction. It operating power tillers for different operations. was previously found through trials that the vibration was higher in x direction and hence the Sl. Details readings were recorded in that direction only. no. 1 Engine type Single cylinder, The experiments were conducted during four stroke, water rototilling with rotavator in untilled and tilled field cooled, horizontal conditions and during transport mode of power diesel engine tiller with empty trailer on farm and bitumen roads 2 Rated crankshaft output 7.46 kW at (Table 2). 2400 rev min-1 3 Fuel tank capacity (l) 11 Mode of Terrain Soil Bulk Remarks 4 Specific fuel consumption, 0.276 operation moisture density -1 kg/ kWh d.b % kg m-3 5 Number of forward speeds 6 6 Number of reverse speeds 2 Rototilling Untilled Dry, undulating, 7 Number of rotavator speeds 4 field 11 1310 weed intensity 8 Forward speed range, km/h 1.75 – 15.0 0.37 kg m-2 9 Reverse speed range, km/h 0.9 – 3.8 Tilled Dry, small 10 Weight of power tiller, kg 442 field 7 1200 undulations and 11 Tyre size 6.00  12 without weeds 12 Tilling width, m 0.60 Transport Farm Dry, small 13 Number of tines in rotavator 18 road - - undulations and 14 Tilling depth, m 0.15 without weeds 15 Seating arrangement Without seat Bitumen Dry, level with road - - medium Table 1. Main Specification of the power tiller surface finish

Hand transmitted vibration was measured Table 2. Terrains used for hand transmitted using the portable four channel PULSE multi- vibration measurements analyzer system (Brüel and Kjær Type 3560 C). Type 3650 C is a portable system powered by The depth of operation was maintained at internal batteries or an external DC supply. The constant level of about 0.15m during rototilling. base software for a PULSE system is vibration Pneumatic wheels with recommended tyre and noise analysis type 7700. On this base, pulse pressure of 147 kpa and 245 kpa were used software such as data recorder type 7701 was during rototilling and transporting operations installed. The entire system consists of portable respectively. A speedometer was used for ECO-CHRONICLE 69 calibrating the engine speed of power tiller to If the total daily exposure to vibration is not monitor and maintain constant forward speed equal to 4 h, then the energy equivalent during the operation. Trials were conducted in acceleration for a period of 4 h is determined by the actual field condition by varying the engine the integration of the square of the frequency speed for finding out the engine speed weighted acceleration over the daily exposure corresponding to the selected levels of forward time. This is expressed by the following equation: speed. The subjects were instructed to hold the 1 / 2 handle grip with a light and constant compression T  1 2  force. The speedometer was monitored  ah, wt dt (ah,w)eq(4) =  -- (1) continuously to ensure constant forward speed T 4 0  selected during each trial. Measurements were made at different forward speeds, viz., 1.5 km h- Where, 1 -1 -1 -1 (a ) = energy equivalent acceleration , 1.8 km h , 2.1 km h and 2.4 km h during field h,w eq(4) trials and 3.5 km h-1, 4.0 km h-1, 4.5 km h-1 and for a period of 4h -1 a (t) = instantaneous value of the 5.0 km h during transport mode. The PULSE h,w programme was activated after the power tiller weighted acceleration was started for the operation and the T = total duration of the working measurement was recorded with an acquisition day, hours T = 4 h period of 60 seconds (Ying et al., 1998). Each 4 trial was repeated five times for all operating The energy equivalent acceleration for a conditions. The same procedure was repeated period of 4 h was arrived for all operating for all the selected subjects. conditions as per ISO 5349 and the values were ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN EXPOSURE TO then compared with the figure shown in the HAND TRANSMITTED VIBRATION Annexure A of ISO 5349 (Fig.2) to find the latent period or the duration of exposure necessary The values of hand transmitted vibration of before the onset of vascular symptoms, 5 runs were averaged at corresponding frequency characterized by finger blanching for 10 for one subject. The procedure was repeated for percentiles of an exposed population. all the subjects and the mean value for three subjects for each selected levels of forward speed The results were statistically analysed using at corresponding frequency was computed. The analysis of variance technique (ANOVA) with exposure time limit is then predicted by IRRISTAT package by following Completely superimposing the mean measured values of Randomized Design (CRD) to assess the effect three subjects at each frequency on the exposure of levels of variables namely subject (S), guide line ISO 5349 (1984) (Fig.1). operation (T) and forward speed (F) on hand ISO 5349 (1984) ISO 5349 (1986) Annexure A

Fig.1. Exposure guide lines for vibration Fig.2. Exposure time for different percentiles of transmitted to the hand a population group exposed to HTV 70 ECO-CHRONICLE transmitted vibration separately for rototilling and hand arm vibration was highest in the frequency transporting operations. range of 6.3-16 Hz for all levels of selected speed. This result confirmed that human hand-arm RESULTS AND DISCUSSION system was most sensitive in the frequency range of 6.3-16 Hz (ISO 5349(1986)). The The Hand transmitted vibration of the test exposure time predicted from the graph for each power tiller was assessed in terms of safe speed is given in Table 3. The exposure time is exposure limit and latent period. As per the limited from 1/2 - 1 h to <1/2 h with the increase guidelines in ISO 5349 (1986), hand arm vibration in forward speed from 1.5 to 2.4 km h-1. It is should be evaluated in the direction in which the indicative of the fact that hand arm vibration was most serious vibration happened. Hence in this more serious in a power tiller (walking tractor). investigation it was evaluated in x direction. Similarly the increase in forward speed from 1.5 to 2.4 km h-1 reduced the exposure limit from 1 - Rototilling 2 h to < 1/2 h in the case of tilled field.

It is observed that as the forward speed The result indicated that if a group of subjects increased the hand transmitted vibration also exposed to hand arm vibration for a daily period increased for both the field conditions (Table 3). of 4 h or operating the power tiller continuously Untilled field Tilled field Forward Mean Exposure Probability Mean Exposure Probability speed rms value time (h) of white rms value time (h) of white finger (km-1) (ms-2) finger (ms-2) syndrome syndrome (years) (years)

1.5 3.39 1/2 - 1 6 2.66 1-2 8 1.8 3.56 1/2 - 1 5.5 2.97 1-2 7 2.1 4.38 < 1/2 5 3.74 1/2 - 1 5.5 2.4 5.24 < 1/2 4 4.55 < 1/2 4.5 Table 3. Hand transmitted vibration during rototilling The increase in forward speed from 1.5 to 2.4 km h-1 resulted in an increased mean value of r.m.s acceleration by 53 per cent in untilled field and 71 per cent in tilled field. This might be suggestive of the fact that the increase in engine speed which contributes the major excitation of the hand transmitted vibration of the walking tractor as reported by Jiao Qunying et al., 1989; Dong, 1996 and Ying et al., 1998. The rototilling in untilled field resulted an increase of 16 to 29 per cent of vibration transmitted to the hand arm compared to rototilling in tilled field. This might be due to the damping caused by engagement of the rotovator with tilled soil and tilled soil beneath the wheels which acting as damping medium. The result clearly showed the effect of terrain condition in inducing vibration.

The exposure time limit for power tiller in untilled field at selected levels of forward speed is depicted in Fig.3. It is quite evident that exposure time decreased with increase in forward Fig. 3. Exposure time for during rototilling in speed of travel of power tiller. The magnitude of untilled field ECO-CHRONICLE 71 for 4 hours daily in untilled field at a speed of 2.4 speed of 3.5 km h-1 and limited to 6 and 7.5 years km h-1, 10 per cent of the group of subjects might at 5.0 km h-1 respectively for farm and bitumen be expected to show symptoms of vibration roads. induced white finger disease after 4 years. The symptoms are a decrease in skin temperature The ANOVA results indicated that there was associated with reduced blood supply to the significant difference among the treatments at 1 fingers causing a slight tingling or numbness in per cent level of probability. There was significant the fingers ( Miyashita et al, 1981; Griffin, 1982; difference in hand arm vibration with regard to Noel et al, 1998 and Bovenzi, 1999). Later the terrain condition and forward speed of operation. tips of one or two fingers suffer from attacks of In the treatment effect, the order of significance blanching particularly in the morning and in cold was highest for forward speed, followed by conditions. operation. CONCLUSION Transporting The major excitation of the hand transmitted It is observed that hand transmitted vibration vibration of the walking tractor is the engine. Hand increased with increasing forward speed as arm system was most sensitive in the in the observed in filed operations (Table 4). The frequency range of 6.3-16 Hz for all operating Farm road Bitumen (tar) road Forward Mean Exposure Probability Mean Exposure Probability speed rms value time (h) of white rms value time (h) of white finger (km-1) (ms-2) finger (ms-2) syndrome syndrome (years) (years)

3.5 2.21 2 - 4 9.5 1.67 2 - 4 13 4.0 2.63 1 - 2 8 2.00 2 - 4 10.5 4.5 3.08 1 - 2 7 2.29 2 - 4 9 5.0 3.61 1/2 - 1 6 2.77 1 - 2 7.5

Table 4. Hand arm vibration during transport with empty trailer increase in r.m.s. weighted acceleration with the Fig. 4. Exposure time for during transport with increase in forward speed from 3.5 to 5.0 km h-1 trailer on farm road was 63 per cent in farm road and 66 per cent in bitumen road. This confirmed that higher engine rpm resulted in higher value of acceleration as observed in field operations. But the peak value was lower in bitumen road compared with farm road. This may probably due to the fact that unevenness and surface roughness of farm road induced more terrain vibrations compared to the relatively medium surface finish level in bitumen road.

The mean spectrum super imposed on the exposure guideline during transport on farm road at selected levels of forward speed is furnished in Fig.4. The increase in forward speed resulted in the reduction of exposure limit from 2 - 4 h at 3.5 km h-1 to 1/2 - 1 h at 5.0 km h-1 for farm road and the corresponding values are 2 – 4 h to 1 – 2h in bitumen road respectively. The time in years expected for the appearance of disorders was 9.5 and 13 years for transporting at the forward 72 ECO-CHRONICLE conditions and the most serious vibration among assessment of human exposure to hand three directions is in x direction. On the basis of transmitted vibration, Printed in Switzerland by the study, it is concluded that exposure time for the ISO. the power tiller operator should not exceed 2 h during rototilling and 4 h during transport with a International Organization for Standardization., trailer. Increasing exposure time may cause ISO 5349-1986(E), Mechanical vibration- severe discomfort, pain and injury Continuous use Guidelines for the measurement and the of the power tiller can involve a risk of vascular assessment of human exposure to hand disorders of the hands after relatively short transmitted vibration, Printed in Switzerland by periods. In the conditions examined, if the power the ISO. tiller is used at least 4 h per day at the forward speed of 2.4 km h-1, the time expected for the Jiao Qunying; Dai Shiliang and Ji Chunliang, appearance of disorders is 4 year, for the 10 per 1989. The dynamic characteristics of a walking cent of the operators, under usual working tractor. Transactions of the Chinese Society of conditions. The vascular disorders of the hand Agricultural-Machinery, 20 (4), 3 - 8. (Vibration White Finger) will be delayed while operating the power tiller with lesser forward Kern and Muntzinger, W. F. 1986. Ergonomics speeds. The hand transmitted vibration of the design of a two-hand operated multi-purpose walking type power tiller (7.46 kW) is large and device for cultivation. Trends in Ergonomics / we should take steps to reduce the vibration Human factors III, W. Karwowski (Ed.). Elsevier transmitted to the user’s hands, by providing Science Publishers, B. V., North-Holland, pp. adequate insulating systems. 1141 - 1148.

REFERENCES Mc Ardle, D. E; Katch, F. I. and Katch, V. L. 1994. Essentials of exercise physiology, Lea & Febiger, Abrams, C. F. and Suggs, C. W. 1969. Chain saw A waverly company, Philadelphia, pp. 508. vibration: Isolation and transmission through the human arm, Transactions of the ASAE, 423 - 425. Miyashita, K; Shiomi, S; Itoh, N; Kasamatsu, K. and Iwata, H. 1981. Epidemiological study of Bovenzi, M. 1999. The hand-arm vibration vibration syndrome in response to total hand tool syndrome: (II). The diagnostic aspects and fitness operating time, Brit. J. Ind. Med., 40, 92. criteria, 90 (5), 643 - 649. Noel, B; Holtz, J; Savolainen, H. and Depairon, Dong, M. D. 1996. Testing analysis and evaluation M. 1998. Hand-arm vibration syndrome with of vibration transmitted by handles of GN-5 proximal ulnar artery occlusion. Vasa, Aug; 27 walking tractor, Journal of Zhejiang Agricultural (3), 176 - 178. University, 22 (1), 68 - 72. Pyykko, I; Farkkila, O; Starck, M; Aatola, J. and Grandjean, E. 1982. Fitting the task to the man- Jantti, V. 1976. Vibration syndrome among An ergonomic approach, Taylor & Francis Ltd., Finnish forest workers, Scandinavian Journal of London, pp. 77 - 81. work, Environment & Health, 12, 307 - 312.

Griffin, M. J. 1982. The effects of vibration on Ragni, L; Vassalini, G; Xu, F. and Zhang, L. B. health, Memorandum No. 632, Institute of Sound 1999. Vibration and noise of small implements and Vibration Research, University of for soil tillage. J. agric. Engg. Res., 74, 403 - 409. Southampton, U. K. Ying, Y; Zhang, L; Xu, F. and Dong, M. 1998. International Organization for Standardization., Vibratory characteristics and hand- transmitted ISO 5349-1984 (E), Mechanical vibration- vibration reduction of walking tractor, Guidelines for the measurement and the Transactions of the ASAE, 41 (4), 917 - 922. ***** ECO-CHRONICLE 73 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 73 - 78 IMPACT OF TSUNAMI ON COASTAL GROUNDWATER - A CASE STUDY FROM PORTNOVA TO PUMPUHAR, TAMIL NADU

S. Chidambaram, M. V. Prasanna, A. L. Ramanathan, K. Srinivasmoorthy, D. Loganathan, P. Anandhan and G. Senthil kumar Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT The coastal groundwater has gained its own importance in the recent years. This fragile ecosystem has to be used sustainably to avoid salt water intrusion and to safeguard them for the future. The problem of sea water intrusion, saline connate water, recharge from brackish waters, back waters, estuarine waters, aquaculture activities, urban sewage etc. adds more complexity to this problem. The study area falls from Portnova to Pumpuhar area and lies in between 79°46’E to 79°51’E longitudes and 11°07' N to 11°30' N latitudes. The Vellar and Coleroon are the major rivers flowing in the study area and they form an estuary with a marshy mangrove environment at Pichavaram. The fluvial sediments occupy the flood plains of the Vellar and Coleroon rivers. It consists mainly of sands, sandy loams or clayey loams. Irregular mounds of 10 to 15 m height are the prominent feature due to wind action near Porto Novo. Totally 33 samples were collected from the shallow groundwater. 11 parameters are analyzed for all these samples, namely EC, pH, TDS, Na, K, Ca, Mg, HCO3, Cl, SO4, and H4SiO4 for hydro geochemical interpretations. It was noted that the ground water from the aquifers of the southern part of the study area has been more contaminated by the impact of tsunami than the northern part.

Key words: Tsunami, water quality, ground water In Tamil Nadu state, the north eastern part was INTRODUCTION more affected from Pondicherry to Nagapattinam. The proposed study area falls under this region Most tsunamis are caused by underwater from Pumpuhar to Port-Nova. Waves, entered earthquakes in which fault slippage moves huge from sea, have affected the coastal ecosystem, segments of oceanic crust vertically, displacing its geomorphology, sediment characteristics and water column over vast areas. Off the coast in also water quality. The critical part is documenting deep water, the initial height may be only a meter the physical evidence of Tsunami’s character- the or two, even for major tsunamis. But as they travel area inundated, wave heights, current velocities, from deep to shoaling waters, waves slow down, and sand deposits. Many of the clues, such as wavelength shortens, and their height increases water marks and debris caught in treetops, dramatically causing distress to environment. wouldn’t last long. Hence it is essential to find Historic event of tsunami on December 12, 2004, out scientifically the impact of Tsunami. Deeper caused drastic disturbances to natural aquifers of coastal environments are fragile and environments and human lives. Causalities of this at the threat of salt water intrusion due to over event in tsunami affected Indian states shows that exploitation. This becomes more serious when Tamil Nadu, in the south eastern part of Indian shallow aquifer is also contaminated by saline subcontinent (Table 1), has been worst affected. waters due to invasion and percolation of sea There are regions where tsunami run-up water water by the giant wave. Hence,in the present has washed up surface and returned back to sea, study, an attempt has been made to decipher the without getting stored in topographic lows. But extent of damage after the event. there are many planes where water has easily entered inland through distributaries, channels Study area of rivers and along river mouth where they got locked up and slowly recharges shallow aquifers. The study area, falling from Portnova to Since, the region is a coastal terrain with Pumpuhar, lies in between 79° 70’E to 79° 86' E considerable extraction of groundwater for longitudes and 11°12' N to 11° 51' N latitudes agriculture, aquaculture and other allied activities, (Fig 1). It falls in the survey of India toposheets It is intransitive that a clear differentiation has to of 58 M/15 & 16. Vellar and Coleroon are major be made to get the impact of Tsunami in this rivers flowing in the study area which form an aquifer system. estuary with marshy mangrove environment at 74 ECO-CHRONICLE

Parameters Length Incursion of Average Villages Population Dwelling Cattle Cropped Los of the water into height of affected affected unit lost area hit of life coast the land waves affected affected

Andhra 985 km 500m to 2m to 305 2.15 lakhs 1,570 200 800 ha 112 Pradesh 2Km 5m

Kerala 250 km 1Km to 3m to 190 2.5 lakhs 11,840 Nil Nil 170 2Km 5m

Pondicherry 25 km 300m to 8m to 40 45,000 11,000 700 800 ha 700 3Km 10m

Tamil Nadu 1000 km 1Km to 7m to 380 7 lakhs 1,15,000 6000 2,600 ha 80000 1.5Km 10m

Table 1. Casualities of Tsunami event in Indian States Pichavaram. Small river Pattinatharu flows in from June to September, north-east monsoon southern part of study area near Pumpuhar. from October - December 28, the winter and hot seasons from January - May. Long term analysis Quaternary formation in the district consists of rainfall recorded 1162.35mm/yr. It’s clear that of sediments of fluvial, fluvio-marine and marine north-east monsoon contributed 53.01% and facies. It includes various types of soils, fine to about 32.6% of the total rainfall. coarse grained sands, silts, clays, latrite and lateritic gravels. Fluvial sediments occupy flood Bathymetry plains, Vellar and Coleroon rivers. It consists Bathymetry map of study area indicated that mainly sands, sandy loams or clayey loams. the distances between bathymetry contours are Irregular mounds of 10 to 15 m height are lesser in north, indicating steepness of the region. prominent feature due to wind action near Porto In the southern part, the distance between the Novo. contours were higher indicating gentleness of slope. It is understood that the northern part of Maximum temperature ranged between the study area is near the Vellar river mouth and 0 0 27.9 C and 36.9 C and minimum temperature the mangrove ecosystem. The shelf is steeper 0 0 from 20.8 C to 27.1 C at Annamalai Nagar. Higher when compared to the southern part near temperatures were recorded during the month of Pumpuhar. Aquifers in the study area are April and May. Lowest were recorded during confined to unconfined. Water table in majority December and January. Study area is benefited of the study areas ranged from 5 - 20 mgbl during by the influence of south-west monsoon stretching premonsoon, whereas, depth to water table during post monsoon period ranged from 2 - 10 mbgl. In Coleroon alluvial belt the shallow water table conditions existed less than 2 mbgl. The areal extent of this region has been further extended, occupying major part of Vellar alluvial and coastal alluvial formations in east, indicating extent of water logging conditions during post monsoon period. MATERIALS AND METHODS Based on the literature survey conducted and the reference collected from different institutions, a reconnaissance survey was made. The reconnaissance survey conducted was helpful in finding and fixing the sampling points. Totally 33 samples (Fig. 2), representing shallow Fig. 1. Location map of the study area groundwater, were collected and analysis were ECO-CHRONICLE 75 carried out using standard procedures (APHA, Higher concentration of H 4SiO 4 indicates 1998). 11 parameters are analyzed for all these dissolution and existence of alkaline environment. samples, namely EC, pH, TDS, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cations HCO3, Cl, SO4, and H4SiO4 for hydrogeo- chemical interpretations. Sodium is an important and abundant alkali RESULTS AND DISCUSSION metal which is highly mobile and soluble in groundwater. The dominant cations are as follows The groundwater samples from different Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+. Na+ concentration in the locations were collected and analyzed and the present study varied from 137.6 mgl-1 to 3065 results are depicted in Table 2. pH of water is an mg l-1, with an average of 669.2 mgl-1. Weathering indictor of its quality and geochemical equilibrium process of Na+ plagioclase or leaching of for solubility calculation (Hem, 1970). pH indicates secondary salts from the saline water contributes the state of equilibrium reaction in which the water this ion to water. Calcium is an important element precipitates. In the present study, the groundwater in many geochemical processes. Minerals like was generally alkaline with pH ranging from 7.1 Calcite, Plagioclase and Hornblende are the to 8.1with an average of 7.64. Electrical primary sources for Calcium in groundwater. Conductivity (EC) ranged from 856.78 to Calcium concentration ranged from 60 mgl-1 to 8873.464 µs/cm with an average of 2930.82 µs/ 960 mgl-1 with an average of 198.58 mgl -1. cm. EC of pure water is 0.05 µs/cm (Hem, 1991). Magnesium in groundwater is mainly due to the Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 599.75 leaching of magnesium bearing minerals from mgl-1 to 6211.425 mgl-1 with an average of Mafic and Ultramafic rocks like Pyroxenite, 2051.579 mgl-1. The higher EC and TDS may be Peridotite, Dunite, Anorthosite and Gabbro. Mg2+ due to the impact of sea water intrusion in these ranged from 4.79mgl-1 to 612 mgl-1 with an average shallow groundwaters. of 94.02 mgl-1. Potassium in groundwater is generally lesser due to its higher solubility Anions (Herman bouwer, 1978). K+ ranged from 3.1 mgl- 1 to 264 mgl-1 with an average of 79.488 mgl-1. Bicarbonates represents the major sum of Higher concentration noted may be due to alkalinity. Alkalinity in water is the measure of its weathering of Mica and Orthoclase feldspars. K+ capacity of neutralization. It is formed mainly due ions released during weathering are used up in to the action of atmospheric CO and CO 2 2 the formation of secondary minerals (Mathus, released from organic decomposition. In the 1982). K+ is well within the prescribed limit of 45 present study, bicarbonate ranged from 24.399 mgl-1 in groundwater with fewer abnormalities mgl-1 to 1726.299 mgl-1 with an average of 549.71 mgl-1. Chloride is the dominant anion followed by Bicarbonate, Sulfate and Nitrate. Cl- ranged from 124.075 mgl-1 to 5695.125 mgl-1 with an average of 1289.85 mgl-1. Cl- is higher in the present study, indicating the impact of saline water and Base Exchange reactions (Allan freeze and Cherry 1979; Bower 1979). Cl- concentration is also higher in most of the places than the permissible limit (500 mgl-1). Sulfate is found in water due to breaking down of organic substances from weathered soil / water and also due to the influence of saline waters (Miller, 1979; Craig and Anderson, 1979 and Singh et al., 1994). The highest desirable limit is 200 mgl -1and the maximum permissible limit in groundwater is 400 -1 2- -1 mgl . SO4 concentration ranged from 100 mgl to 310 mgl-1 with an average of 197.5 mgl-1. Silica is the second most abundant element in the earth crust and essential component of almost all minerals. Silica concentration ranged from 5 mgl- 1 -1 -1 Fig. 2. Ground water sampling locations in the to 28.5 mgl with an average of 14.511 mgl . study area 76 ECO-CHRONICLE and pH) -1 scm µ , except EC in -1 Table 2. Chemical compositionTable of ground water samples (all values in mg l ECO-CHRONICLE 77 irrespective of seasons and this may be due to unsuitable for irrigation. The Gibbs diagram (Fig. urban pollution and fertilizer leaching. 5) elucidates that the major factor responsible for groundwater chemistry falls in the evaporation The sodium concentrations of majority of the zone to certain extent and also in the rock water bore well samples (Table 3) fall from permissible interaction zone. This also helps us to get the to doubtful class of sodium percentage signature of saline water in the aquifers. classification of Wilcox (1955). The major representations of SAR shows that the CONCLUSION groundwater samples fall from excellent to good The resulting degradation of groundwater has category of Richards classification. In the EC become an important international concern. The classification, most of the samples fall from well inventory studies reveal that the regions near permissible to doubtful category. In the USGS the coast and regions where the run up water Hardness classification, most of the samples fall got stagnated were observed with change in in hard category and requires softening before water quality. The sodium concentration of use. The Stuyfzand classification indicates water majority of the bore well samples fall from quality from brackish to brackish salt category. permissible to doubtful class. In the EC classification, most of the samples fall from The Jhonsons plot indicates that (Fig. 3) the permissible to doubtful category. In the USGS Table 3. Results of the Watclast program to categorise the water quality of the area Category Grade Ground Category Grade Ground water samples Ground water 32 samples (32)

Na% Wilcox (1995) USGS Hardness Excellent 0-20 0 Soft <75 0 Good 20-40 3 Slightly Hard 75-150 0 Permissible 40-60 5 Moderately Hard 150-300 6 Doubtful 60-80 22 Very Hard >300 26 Unsuitable >80 2 IBE Schoeller (1965) Na % Eaton (1950) CAI I 8 Safe <60 8 CAI II 24 Unsafe >60 24 Schoeller Classification (1967) S.A.R. Richards (1954) Type I 25 Excellent 0-10 21 Type II 0 Good 10-18 9 Type III 7 Fair 18-26 1 Type IV 0 Poor >26 1 Corrosivity Ratio (1990) R.S.C. Richards (1954) Safe <1 31 Good <1.25 30 Unsafe >1 1 Medium 1.25-2.5 1 TDS Classification (USSL, 1954) Bad >2.5 1 <200 0 E C Wilcox (1955) 200-500 1 Excellent <250 0 500-1500 16 Good 250-750 0 1500-3000 11 Permissible 750-2250 17 Chloride Classification (Stuyfzand, 1989) Doubtful 2250-5000 11 Extremely fresh (<0.141) 0 Unsuitable >5000 4 Very fresh (0.141-0.846) 0 Fresh (0.846-4.231) 0 major water facies is represented by chloride - Fresh brackish 4 sodium facies and chloride - sulfate - bicarbonate (4.231-8.462) facies in the groundwater samples. The USSL Brackish (8.462-28.206) 12 plot (Fig. 4) to determine the water quality Brackish-salt 16 indicates that most of the water has been (28.206-282.064) contaminated as they fall in C3S1, C3S2 and Salt (282.064-564.127) 0 C3S3 by the saline water and has rendered Hyperhaline (>564.127) 0 78 ECO-CHRONICLE Classification of hydrogeochemical facies and environment reconstructed diamond field of Johnson, 1974.

Fig. 5. Gibbs diagram for the groundwater samples in the study area the impact is noted in the shallow unconfined aquifers, that too in the region where the water LEGEND got stagnated and near the mouth of the river. 1 - High Ca + Mg & SO + Cl 4 The gentle nature of the bathymetry has helped 2 - Ca + Mg, SO4 + Cl & HCO3 + CO3

3 - Ca + Mg, HCO3 + CO3 & SO4 + Cl the tsunami waves to propogate to a greater 4 - Recent Dolomitic waters distance inland through the river mouth and the 5 - Recent recharge waters

6 - Ca + Mg, Na + K & HCO3 + CO3 distributary channels.

7 - Na + K, Ca + Mg & HCO3 + CO3 8 - High Na + K & HCO + CO 3 3 REFERENCES 9 - Concentration and precipitation of Na + K, HCO3 + CO3 & Cl 10 - Cl + SO & HCO + CO 4 3 3 Allan freeze, R. and Cherry, J. A. 1979. Groundwater. 11 - Sea water, high Na + K & Cl + SO4 12 - Water contaminated with Gypsum Prentice-Hall. Inc Englewood cliffs. New Jersey. p. 13 - Static and Disco - ordinated regimes 604. 14 - Dissolution and mixing 15 - Dynamic and coordinated regimes APHA., 1998. Standard methods for the examination of th Fig. 3. Jhonsons Plot for the groundwater water and wastewater. 19 edition. APHA. Washington DC. USASS. samples in the study area Hardness classification, most of the samples fall Craig, E. and Anderson, M. P. 1979. The effects of in hard category and requires softening before urbanization on groundwater quality. A case study of groundwater. 17. pp. 456 - 562. use. The Styfzand classification indicates water quality from brackish to brackish salt in the ground Hem, I. D. 1991. Study and interpretation of the chemical water samples. As the region falls in the coastal characteristics of natural waters. 3rd Edn. US Geol Survey. Water supply paper 2254. Scientific pub. region, the water chemistry in generally saline and Jodhpur.

Hem, J. D. 1970. Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water. USGS water supply. 1473. p. 363.

Herman Bouwer, 1978. Groundwater quality. Groundwater Hydrology. Mc. Graw - Hill Kogakusha Ltd. pp. 339 - 375.

Mathus, R. N., Pandey, I. P. and Rai, V. K. 1982. Groundwater Hydrology. Mc.Graw - Hill Kogakusha Ltd. pp. 339 - 375.

Miller GT., 1979. Living in the environment. Belmond California. Wadsworth Publishing company. P: 470.

Singh, R. P. 1994. Groundwater toxicity in Raipur canal command area. Regional workshop on environmental aspects of groundwater, Kurukshetra. (Eds) Singhal DC. pp. 76 - 85.

Fig. 4. USSL plot for the ground water samples Wilcox, L. V. 1955. Classification and use of irrigation in the study area water. U.S. Geological department, Agri Arc. 969. p. 19. ECO-CHRONICLE 79 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 79 - 82

IN SITU DEGRADATION OF POLYTHENE AND POLYPROPYLENE IN A MANGROVE SOIL

Sherin Varghese, Abhirosh Chandran, T. R. Shanthi and A. A. M. Hatha School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala. ABSTRACT Biodegradation of polythene bags and polypropylene cups was analyzed after 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 months of burial in the mangrove soil. The biodegradation of polythene bags was significantly higher (up to 55.09 % in 5 months) than that of polypropylene cups (up to 21.82 % in 5 months). The microbial species isolated from the mangrove soil were identified as 5 Gram positive and 5 Gram negative bacteria, and three fungal genera such as Penicillium, Fusarium and Aspergillus. The predominant bacterial genus was Actinomycetes (Garm + ve) followed by members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and Alcaligenes (Gram –ve). The results revealed that mangrove soil is a good source of microflora capable of degrading polythene and polypropylene that are hazardous to the natural environment.

INTRODUCTION introduced into the market in the past ten years. However, none of the products has gained In recent years there has been growing public widespread use (Anonymous, 1999) as almost concern over environmental deterioration all of them were found to be difficult to biodegrade associated with the disposal of conventional in landfills. polypropylenes. Because of the resistance to microbial attack these polypropylenes materials Since microorganisms are considered as a disposed in landfills will remain in their original highly diverse group of organisms with a range form in perpetuity. Millions of tonnes of of enzymes, studies on the biodegradation ability polypropylene waste, including refuse sacks, and application of polypropylene-degrading carrier bags and packaging, are buried in landfill microorganisms are essential to develop an sites around the world each year. A general effective degradation of polypropylene materials estimate of world wide polypropylene waste that are otherwise hazardous to the environment. generation is annually about 57 million tons The field tests, burying polypropylene samples (Bollag, et al., 2000). The polythene is the most in soil have been widely conducted for their commonly found non-degradable solid waste that biodegradation studies because of the similarity has been recently recognized as a major threat to actual conditions of use or disposal to marine life. The polythene could sometimes (Kathiresan, 2003; Orhan, et al., 2004). In the cause blockage in intestine of fish, birds and present study an attempt has been made to marine mammals (Spear, et al. l995, Secchi and evaluate the effectiveness of microorganisms in Zarzur, l999). Degradation of polythene is a great the mangrove soil along Kumarakom region to challenge as the materials are increasingly used. degrade polythene and polypropylene submerged These solid waste related problems pose threat in the mangrove soil. to mega cities especially coastal ones. The coastal mangroves have historically been favoured dumping sites for the solid waste MATERIALS AND METHODS disposal (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). Description of the study area Assessment of the polypropylene-degrading microorganisms at waste site is desirable to Kumarakom (9o37'N Lat. and 76o25'E Long; estimate in natural environment, where the 51.67 sq.km) is situated on the eastern banks of polypropylenes are disposed as such. Vembanad estuary (one of the most important Ramsar sites of Kerala) about 15 km west of As successful production and marketing of Kottayam, Kerala. Kumarakom mangroves are biodegradable polypropylenes will help alleviate the only extensive mangrove habitat left almost the problem of environmental pollution, several untouched by man all along the Kerala coast. Its biodegradable polypropylenes have been own existence is threatened by the drastic 80 ECO-CHRONICLE ecologic change by anthropogenic activity in the soil were taken out using sterile forceps and Vembanad estuary. There is not much literature transferred to laboratory aseptically. One set of available on the diversity of microorganisms in samples were washed thoroughly using distilled mangrove ecosystem especially in Kumarakom. water, shade-dried and then weighed for final weight. The degradation was determined in terms Estimation of total heterotrophic bacteria of percentage weight loss of the materials over (THB) the study period. Another set of samples were washed gently using sterile distilled water to Mangrove soil samples were collected from remove adhered soil debris with all its microbial Kumarakom Bird sanctuary using sterilised content. One gram of this material was polythene bags and transported to the laboratory transferred into the conical flask containing 99 aseptically. One gram of soil sample was ml of sterile distilled water, and serially diluted. aseptically weighed and transferred to 99 ml of Appropriate dilutions (0.2 ml) of this samples sterile distilled water and shaken thoroughly to were plated on soil extract agar (SEA) medium distribute the microorganisms in the soil to the for bacteria and potato malt agar medium (PMA) dilution blank. It is then decimally diluted with for fungi by spread and pour plate method. All sterile distilled water. Appropriately diluted soil the platings were done in duplicate. The plates samples were plated on soil extract agar medium were then incubated at room temperature for 2 - (SEA) using spread plate and pour plate 4 days. After incubation plates with countable technique. The inoculated plates were incubated range (30 - 300 colonies) were selected for at room temperature for 24 - 48 hrs. After counting using a colony counter and the bacterial incubation, plates with countable range (30 - 300 load in the sample was expressed as total colony colonies) were selected for counting using a forming units (cfu) per gram of the soil sample. colony counter and the bacterial load in the sample was expressed as total colony forming RESULTS units (cfu) per gram of the soil sample. Microorganisms from the mangrove soil Identification of microorganisms Percentage occurrence of different bacterial Among the bacterial and fungal isolates genera isolated from the mangrove soil is given morphologically different colonies were isolated in Table 1. A total of 11 bacterial genera were from the plate, restreaked to ensure purity and isolated. The bacterial genera identified included maintained on nutrient agar slant for further Actinomycetes, Micrococcus, Streptococcus, characterisation. The isolates were identified to Alcaligenes, Vibrio, Psuedomonas, generic level using the taxonomic key for Acinetobacter, Staphylococcus, Bacillus and identification by Buchanan and Gibbons (1984) members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Of and Prescott, et al. (2002). Morphological and these Actinomycetes (38.98%), members of the biochemical characteristics were studied using family Enterobacteriaceae (27.12%) and Gram staining, spore staining, Kovac’s oxidase Alcaligenes (10.17%) were found to be the test, motility test, catalase test and oxidation / predominant genera in the mangrove soil. The fermentation (O/F) test. Fungal species were fungal genera identified were Aspergillus, identified using taxonomic guides and standard Pencillium and Fusarium. However, the procedures (Barnett, et al., 1998). percentage incidence of different fungal groups was not estimated. The overall occurrence of Biodegradation under field condition Gram + ve and Gram - ve bacteria was found to be almost equal. Pre-weighed pieces of polypropylene cups and polythene bags of 1 cm2 area were cut out In situ degradation of polythene and and buried at a depth of 5 to 10 cm in the polypropylene in mangrove soil mangrove soil along the Vembanad estuary (9o37'N lat and 76o25' E) at Kumarakom region. Percentage reduction (weight loss) of The polypropylene and polythene pieces were polythene and polypropylene samples allowed to degrade naturally in the mangrove soil submerged in the mangrove for a period of five for a period of 5 months with periodical sampling months is shown in the Figure 1. A gradual at one month interval. The samples buried in the increase in the weight loss was observed for both ECO-CHRONICLE 81 Bacterial genera Percentage of of polythene and polypropylene material under incidence soil burial conditions. In our study, the biodegradation of the polythene was found to be Actinomycetes 38.98 relatively faster and quicker than that of the Enterobacteriaceae 27.12 polypropylene. The weight loss due to in situ Alcaligenes 10.17 biodegradation for 5 months was 55.09% and Acinetobacter 5.08 21.82% for polythene and polypropylene. This Micrococcus 3.39 may be attributed to the high surface to volume Streptococcus 3.39 ratio of polythene which can provide large surface Psuedomonas 3.39 area for microbial enzymes to act. The thickness Bacillus 3.39 of polypropylene was found to be 5 times thicker Staphylococcus 1.69 than polythene. Apart from microbial activity, other Vibrio 1.69 factors such as moisture, heat etc. might also Unidentified 1.69 contribute to in situ degradation of polythene and Table 1. Percentage incidence of different polypropylene (Anonymous, l999). The mangrove bacterial and fungal genera isolated from the soil maintains moisture by tidal water flood during mangrove soil. high tide and the soil gets heated during low tide when exposed to sunlight as well due to polythene and polypropylene during the period exothermic reactions of biological compounds in of study. However, the degradation of the soil (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001). The polypropylene started only after second month. result reveals that the mangrove soil can be a The weight loss of polythene during the study source of factors responsible for the degradation period was statistically significant at 5% level of polypropylene materials. when compared to that of polypropylene. A maximum weight loss of 55.09% was achieved In the present study 46.06% weight loss was for polythene after five months of in situ observed for polythene after one month of in situ degradation and 21.82% weight loss was degradation and only 0.13% for polypropylene. obtained for polypropylene after the same period. Orhan, et al. (2004) has reported 36% weight loss for natural polymer after 17 week under soil burial DISCUSSION condition. Our results showed higher percentage of weight loss than those reported by Orhan, et To our knowledge, there is only one report, al. (2004) and Kathiresan (2003). The later has Kathiresan (2003), on polythene and polypropylene studied the degradation of the polythene bags degradation in the mangrove environment, which and polypropylene cups, under the soil conditions serves as a dumping site of those materials. of two mangrove species such as Avicennia and However, isolation of polythene and Rhizophora. He has reported that irrespective of polypropylene degrading bacteria were reported mangrove zone, the polythene bags were found from solid waste dumping yards (Nakayama, degraded only after 6 and 9 months. He has also 1997). Orhan et al. (2003) reported degradation reported that the biodegradation of polythene was 3.77% and 4.21% under Rhizophora and 60 Avicennia zones respectively, after 9 months of 50 analysis, and the corresponding values for the 40 biodegradation of polypropylenes were only 0.25% and 0.17%. 30 20 The degradation of different types of 10 polymers by microorganisms under laboratory

% Degradation %(wt. loss) Degradation condition were reported by (Nakayam et al., 1997; 0 Kesal, et al., 1997 ; Lefevre, et al., 2001). Several 1 2 3 4 5 workers had reported that the enzymatic activity Time (Month) of the microorganism is responsible for the Polythene Plastic degradation of polythene and several biodegradable polypropylenes. Uchida, et al. Fig. 1 Percentage degradation of polythene and (2000) has reported that during degradation, a polypropylene during in situ treatment lipase activity was observed in the culture broth 82 ECO-CHRONICLE of a bacterium which degrades a biodegradable genera of imperfect fungi 4th ed. ASP, St. Paul polypropylene. USA. 218.

An increase of bacterial population correlated Bollag, W. B., Jerzy Dec and J. M. Bollag, J. M. with the signs of disintegration of mechanical 2000. In J. Laderberg (ed.). Academic, New York. properties of natural polymer (NP) films, indicating 461 - 471. the role of biotic component in degradation process (Orhan, et al., 2003). It was reported by Buchanan, R. E and Gibbons, N. E. (editors). (Glass, et al., 1989) that polyethylene is 1984. Bergeys manual of determinative susceptible to degradation by fungi. Therefore, bacteriology. 8th ed. Williams and Wilkins, apart from bacterial activity, it is probable that fungi Baltmore, MD.1268. might have also played an important role in the biodegradation of tested samples. Glass, J. E and Swift, G. 1989. Biodegradation and Utilization, ACS.

CONCLUSION Kathiresan, K and Bingham, B. L. 2001. Advances Mar. Miol. 40. 81 - 251. Within the time scale of our experiments, polythene appears to degrade faster than Kathiresan, K.2003). Rev. boil. Trop. 51 (3 - 4): polypropylene after 5 months. The result of the 629 - 634. present study has revealed that a dynamic microflora is present in the mangrove soil capable Kesal, C. D., Wauven, C. V. and David, C. 1997. of degrading polythene and polypropylene. The Polymer degradation and stability. 55. 107 - 113. mechanism of the degradation is not known. This may be due to the compounds secreted Lefevre, C., Tidjani, A., Wauven, C. V. and David, extracellularly by the microbes that may break the C. 2002. J. of Appli. Poly. Sci. 83. 1334 -1340. complex molecular structure of polypropylenes. Hence, further studies on microbial enzymes or Nakayama, A., Kawasaki, N., Maeda, Y., organic acids in degradation of the polythene and Arvanitoyannis, I., Aiba, S. and Yamamoto, 1997. polypropylenes are required to fully evaluate the J. of Appli. Poly. Sci. 66. 741 - 748. potential of this mangrove microflora. Preliminary studies in this regard are being carried out in our Orhan, Y., Orhan, J. Hrenoviæ and Büyükgüngör, laboratory and with the help of necessary H. 2004. Acta Chim. Slov. 51. 579 - 588. collaboration with institutes having advanced laboratories, we could tap the potential of these Prescott, J. M., Harley, J. P. and Doklein, D. A. microorganisms for the bioremediation of the 2002. Mc Graw Hill, New York. 839. environment laden with polythene and polypropylene waste. Secchi, E. R. and Zarzur, S. l999. Aquat. Mammal. 25 (1). 21 - 24.

REFERENCES Spear, L. B., Ainley, D. G. and Ribic, C. A. 1995. Mar. Environ. Res. 40. 123 - 141. Anonymous, l999. A service of Mc Laren Hart Inc. Ohio, p. 14. Uchida, H., Kambe, T. N., Akutsu, Y. S., Nomura, N., Tokiwa, Y. and Nakahara, T. 2000). FEMS Barnett, H. L. and Hunter, B. B. 1998. Illustrated Microbiolo. Letters, 189. 25 - 29. ***** ECO-CHRONICLE 83 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 83 - 86 EVALUATION OF FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN SHALLOW AQUIFERS ALONG THE CHITTAR WATERSHED OF TAMBARAPARANI RIVER, TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT OF TAMILNADU.

T. Jeyavel Raja Kumar, R. S. Kumar, M. V. Mukesh and R. Prabhakaran Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu – 608002.

ABSTRACT

Excessive concentration of fluoride in water brings short or long term health effects in living organisms. The present study has been carried out along the banks of Chittar River, which covers around 40 villages. About 22 ground water samples were collected from shallow aquifers of the study area and apart from fluoride, major cations and anions were also analysed. The fluoride concentration varied from 0 mg/l to 3 mg/l with an average concentration of 1.13 mg/l. The biotite, hornblende, sodic and potash feldspars are the major fluoride bearing minerals, contributing the concentration of fluoride in ground water. Higher concentration of fluoride was observed only in 6 locations, when compared with the drinking water standard (WHO, 1993) limit of 1.5 mg/l. Thus, it is observed that implementing proper controlling measures will help to safeguard our future generation from fluoride related problems.

Key words: Chittar watershed, fluoride, fluoride impacts, fluoride limits INTRODUCTION Western Ghats. The area is located in between the East longitude of 77º 10’to 77º 35’ and the Fluoride concentration is an important factor, North latitude of 8º 52’ to 9º 10’ of the SOI top playing a vital role in classifying ground water sheets (Fig. 1). The watershed comprises around quality, for using it in different purposes. 9 blocks with 148 villages. But the present study Excessive fluoride intake causes fluorosis in falls partly in 7 blocks covering around 40 villages, human beings and livestock. Dental skeletal which are located on either sides of the Chittar fluorosis and non-skeletal manifestations are the River. The ground water is the main source for identified effects. In our country about 38 million both domestic and agricultural purposes. The people have been suffered from mottled teeth and area is confined with the hard rocks of charnockite 1.70 million from skeletal fluorosis (Vasavada, and biotite gneiss (Fig. 2). The river has a 1988). The fluoride concentration in groundwater seasonal water flow for hardly 2-3 months and is mainly influenced by physiography, geology, remaining periods being without water flow. The hydrology, physico-chemical condition and areas adjacent to Western Ghats are of dry to neotectonism (Patel, 1976). Besides, a relatively moist sub humid climatic types (Ram Mohan, closed hydrological network and the dry climate 1984). The average maximum temperature of the arid inland basin provide favorable recorded during April and May is about 39°C and conditions to the dissolution, migration and the average minimum temperature is about 24°C enrichment of fluoride (Wang Genxu and Cheng recorded during the months of November and Guodong, 2003). However, the geological December. The average rainfall is about 918 mm formations such as granites / gneiss of and the depth to water table varies from 1 m to precambrian / archean age and sedimentary 10m below ground level. carbonate rocks of cretaceous age contain fluoride. Granites and pegmatites are also MATERIALS AND METHODS contributing high concentration (Perelman, 1977). As, the geological formations are influencing the In order to understand the concentration of fluoride concentration, an attempt has been made fluoride, about 22 ground water samples were along the shallow aquifers (open wells) of Chittar collected (June 2004) from shallow aquifers along water shed of Tamirabarani river of Tirunelveli the Chittar water shed and is shown in Fig.3. The district, Tamilnadu. ground water samples were collected from both domestic and agricultural wells. The analysis Study area were carried out in the Tamilnadu water and The study area of Chittar watershed is a sub- drainage Board Laboratory, Manjaneerkayal, basin of Tamparabarani river, originating from the Tuticorin by using standard procedures 84 ECO-CHRONICLE prescribed by Hem (1975), Trivedy & Goel (1984) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and APHA (1985). The analyzed data for different parameters are given in Table 1. The chemical parameters are not discussed in this present study, though they are influencing the quality of ground waters. The main objective is to highlight the concentration of fluoride in groundwater and its impact. In the present study, fluoride concentration varied from 0 mg/l to 3 mg/l with an average concentration of 1.13 mg/l. Generally, varieties of sources are contributing fluoride to ground water which can be primary or secondary. Geochemical contaminants like fluorine bearing rocks and fluorine rich soil are the primary sources and secondary sources are anthropogenic in origin. As the present study area contains silicates of biotite, hornblende, mica, alkali feldspar, potash feldspar and tourmaline minerals, they might have been the main contributors for the present level concentration in ground waters. The higher concentration Fig.1 Map of the study area observed in certain sample locations are mainly due to the weathering process of the rocks The parameters like pH, Electrical containing these minerals (Hem, 1975). The Conductivity (EC), major cations such as Ca, Mg, special distribution of fluoride in the study area

Na, K and anions namely HCO3, Cl, SO4 and F is shown in the Fig. 4. The fluoride concentration were analyzed. EC values are expressed in micro of 3 ppm was observed in the sample locations siemens/cm at 25ºC and except pH other 5 and 16. parameters are expressed in ppm.

Fig.2 Geology map of the study area

Fig. 4 Spatial distribution of Fluoride

The desirable limit of fluoride in drinking water has been fixed as 0.6mg/l to 0.9 mg/l by the U. S. Public Health Service in the year 1962. The limit has relaxed upto 1.5 mg/l in the WHO drinking water quality standards (1993). It is ob- served in the present study that about 27% of sample locations have fluoride content above the desirable limit of 1.5mg/l. Moreover, around 23% of locations not at all indicated any fluoride con- Fig. 3 Sample location map of the study area centration. ECO-CHRONICLE 85 Sites pH EC TDS Ca Mg Na K HCO3 Cl SO4 F µ/cm2 1 7.9 1515 1061 89 27 159 11 364 152 106 2 2 7.7 1390 973 47 13 204 19 299 228 28 1 3 6.9 800 560 60 21 62 6 218 103 21 1 4 7.9 545 382 44 13 40 6 137 71 13 1 5 7.2 2310 1617 115 34 271 29 210 491 136 3 6 7.4 3400 2380 174 58 389 33 194 944 32 1 7 7.9 600 420 48 14 40 6 182 49 9 2 8 7.5 3300 2310 218 58 323 19 323 798 41 1 9 7.9 830 581 70 18 77 5 255 65 25 1 10 7.2 3200 2240 182 65 325 34 283 747 106 0 11 7.2 4810 3367 238 70 589 49 226 1338 168 2 12 8.1 765 536 74 20 60 7 242 67 25 1 13 8.1 1320 924 102 26 114 8 238 248 24 0 14 8.2 1980 1386 89 24 260 13 121 510 69 1 15 7.7 1590 1113 112 30 147 9 202 333 44 1 16 7.9 1780 1246 103 28 193 16 275 323 72 3 17 7.7 2700 1890 117 39 345 24 162 682 148 1 18 7.3 450 315 23 6 52 7 105 58 18 1 19 7.3 840 588 82 18 70 11 279 93 17 0 20 7.3 1160 812 82 18 107 12 291 188 57 2 21 7.2 1170 819 68 18 126 13 295 168 11 0 22 8.2 360 252 23 10 30 4 111 17 53 0 Table1 Analytical results of groundwater samples in mg/l (except.pH)

Impacts of fluoride Fluoride, in excess concentration, affects animal breeding efficiency and also mottling of teeth of In general, soluble fluoride in human body is Sl. No. Physiological effect Fluoride (in absorbed almost completely (86-97%) regardless mg/l) the concentration in drinking water. Fluoride is 1. Dental caries reduction 1.0 the most exclusive bone seeking element owing 2. Mottled enamel 2.0 to its affinity for calcium phosphate and is 3. Osteoclerosis 5.0 accumulated in every tissue showing calcification. 4. 10% Osteoclerosis 8.0 This accumulation leads to high skeletal 5. Crippling fluorosis & disorders, including crippling effects. The lack of Thyroid changes 20 – 80 adequate fluoride levels in drinking water is also 6. Growth retardation 100 harmful to human health. The concentration must 7. Kidney changes be maintained in the range 0.5 to 1.5 mg/l (Renal failure) >125 (Mustapha Hichour et al., 2001). The 8. Fatal >2500 physiological effects of high fluoride intake through drinking water are shown in Table 2a and Table 2 (a). Physiological effects of fluoride in 2b (after Neelam Nigam, 1999). drinking water Sl. Group Age (Years) Requirement Recently, it has been claimed that water No. of Fluoride /day containing fluoride causes dissolution of (mg) aluminum from utensils, causing dementia, 1 Infants 0 – 0.5 0.1 – 0.5 leading to loss of memory and related mental 2 Infants 0.5 – 1.0 0.2 – 1.0 impairment like the ability to think and exercise 3 Children 1.0 – 3.0 0.5 – 1.0 proper judgment (Sondhi et al., 1998). The 4 Children 4.0 – 6.0 1.0 – 2.5 fluoride content of water will also change the 5 Children 7.0 & above 1.5 – 2.5 colour of any material which is exposed to it 6 Adults — 1.5 – 4.0 (Naomi Tanoue et al., 2004). For livestock fluoride Table 2 (b). Requirements of fluoride for content of water should not exceed 2 mg/l. different age groups 86 ECO-CHRONICLE young animals (Environment studies board, Gopalakrishnan, S. 2000. Prevalence of fluorosis 1973). The high concentration of fluoride in in 20 villages of Manur block, Tirunelveli drinking water can be diluted or removed by using Kattabomman District, Indian Jl. of Environmental electrodialysis methods. Several studies have Protection, vol.20, No.9. been performed to remove fluoride from groundwater by electrodialysis in continuous Mustapha, H. et al., 2001. Fluoride removal from operation (Tahaikta et al., 2004). waters by Donnan dialysis, Jl. of Arid Environments, Vol. 49, Issue 3, pp. 601 - 614. CONCLUSION Naomi Tanoue, et al.,2004. Influence of acidulated phosphate fluoride solution on the The present study indicates higher color stability of indirect COMPOSITES, The Jl. concentration of fluoride in 6 sample locations. of Prosthetic Dentistry, Vol. 92, Issue 4, pp. 343 This higher concentration in shallow ground water - 347. aquifer is due to fertilizers and rock water interaction between the ground water and easily Neelam Nigam, 1999. Hydrogeochemistry of weathered fluorine bearing minerals like biotite, fluoride in ground water of Agra district, U. P Int. hornblende, sodic and potash feldspars. The low Nat. seminar on Applied Hydrogeo chemistry, fluoride concentrations for the remaining locations Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, pp.12-19. are due to low soluble nature of fluoride bearing minerals and weathering process. Besides, the Patel, D. R. 1997. Study on fluoride bearing water rate of discharge, precipitation and topographical of confined aquifer of Mandla District, M. P., 29th conditions are also controlling the concentration annual Convention of IWWA, Calcutta. of fluoride in ground water. Further, in certain locations the concentration of fluoride has been Ramakrishnan, S. 1998. Ground water, first ed. observed around 1.0 mg/l. The observed pp. 471. concentration may vary as a function of ambient temperature. Hence, the measured concentration Tahaikta, M., et al. 2004. Defluoridation of might have been in higher level and it may change Moroccan ground water by electrodialysis: gradually in future. Thus, the present study continuous operation, conference on emphasizes the need for a detailed field study in Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean the area. In order to safeguard our future Countries, Marrakech, Morocco, 30 May – 2 June generations, proper controlling and management 2004. programmes could be implemented because the fluoride concentration will affect the user Vasavada, B. J. 1998. Excessive fluoride in community for both short and long terms. Gujarat – A perspective plan of solution, Jl. Indian Water Works Association. XXX (3). pp.191 -198. REFERENCES Wang Genxu and Cheng Guodong, 2003. APHA. 1996. Standard methods for the Fluoride distribution in water and the governing th examination of water and waste water,19 ed., factors of environment in arid north-west china, American Public Health Association, AWWA, AIHA Jl .of Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts Washington, D.C. A/B/C, Vol. 28, Issues 20 - 27, pp. 1097 - 1104.

Environmental studies board, 1973. Water quality Water quality and Defluoridation method criteria, 1922 committee of water quality criteria Techniques, 1993. Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking EPA, Washington D.C, EPAR, 373. Water Mission, New Delhi. ***** ECO-CHRONICLE 87 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 87 - 91 GEOCHEMISTRY OF FLUORIDE BEARING GROUNDWATER FROM NORTH-WESTERN PART OF SALEM DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA.

K. Srinivasamoorthy, S. Chidambaram, P. Anandhan, S. Vasudevan and M. V. Prasanna Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, TamilNadu

ABSTRACT

The sources of fluoride in groundwater are minerals like Fluorite, Apatite, Mica, Amphiboles, Cryolite and Fluorspar. The undue concentration of fluoride greater than 1.0mg/l has befallen major toxicological and geoenvironmental issues in India. Excess of fluoride in groundwater causes skeletal and dental fluorisis. The study area forms part of Salem district with records of endemic fluorisis. To decipher process and chemistry of fluoride a total of 46 groundwater samples, collected from major litho units of the study area (Peninsular gneiss and Charnockite) were analyzed for fluoride using standard procedures for two seasons viz. pre and post monsoon. In pre monsoon, maximum and minimum fluoride in Peninsular gneiss and Charnockite ranged from 2.85 to 0.4 mg/l and 4.02 to 0.37 mg/l respectively. In post monsoon, range from 2.84 to 0.32 mg/l and 1.91to 0.37 mg/l was noted. Higher concentration was noted in Charnockite followed by peninsular gneiss in premonsoon and the effect of dilution was well noted in post monsoon season. Statistical analysis undercover the relationship of fluoride minerals with other ions. Modeling results represent the leaching of fluoride minerals and their variation along with seasons.

Key words: Fluoride analysis, correlation analysis, simulation model

INTRODUCTION physiological system of living beings (Srinivasamoorthy, 2004). This is because low Fluorine is widely distributed in the doses (<0.5 mg/l) of it promote tooth decay th environment and ranks 13 among other whereas consumed in ranges >0.5 mg/l causes elements in order of abundance in the Earth’s fluorisis and related diseases. crust. Higher levels of fluoride in drinking water are found in some countries such as India, China, Study area Japan and parts of Middle East and Africa. In India, its occurrence in aquifer system is endemic The area demarcated for study (Mettur) lies to many places of Andhra Pradesh, TamilNadu, in the NW part of Salem district between north Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, latitudes 11030’ and 11057’ and east longitudes Bihar and Kerala. An abnormal level of fluoride 77045’ and 78000’ (Fig. 1). It falls in Survey of in water is common in fractured hard rock zone India map 56 I with a total extent of 777.15 Sq.Km. with pegmatite veins. The veins are composed It is bounded by Karnataka on the northern part of minerals like topaz, fluorite, flour-apatite, and Erode district in the western part. The study villuamite, cryolite and fluoride- replaceable area has the largest reservoir of South India viz., hydroxyl ions in ferro magnesium silicates. “Stanley reservoir”. The southern part of the area Fluorspar occurs in structurally weak planes like contain hill ranges and high land areas where shear fracture zones, joints and at the contact of eastern part is low lying due to the flow of river host rock and vein quartz. Rock minerals weather Cauvery. Rather than that small hillocks are and form calcium and magnesium carbonates, distributed throughout the study area. which serve as good sinks for fluoride ions (Table 1). Fluoride ions from these minerals leach into Geological setting the groundwater, contribute to high fluoride concentrations. Leachable property of fluoride The study area is entirely underlined by ions is governed by two important factors 1. pH Archean crystalline metamorphic complexes. The of the draining solutions and 2. Dissolved carbon rocks of this group is highly weathered, jointed dioxide in the soil (Miller, 1993). Fluoride in and covered by recent valley fills and soil covers groundwater evokes considerable interest due to at some places (Fig.2). A wide range of rock types its unique character as regards to its impact on occur, which is found to be experienced by 88 ECO-CHRONICLE

Rock Fluoride Average 770 45’ 780 00’ ( in ppm) ( in ppm)

Basalt 20 – 1,060 360 Granite 20 – 2,700 870 and Gneiss Shale and Clay 10 – 7,600 800 110 45’ Limestone 0 – 1,200 220 Sandstone 10 – 880 180 Phosphorite 24,000 – 41,500 31,000 Coals (ash) 40 – 480 80

Mineral Fluoride concentration Fig. 3 Sample Locations (in ppm) Next prominent rock type is Charnockite Biotite 970 – 3,500 associated with foliated coarse grained Phlogopite 3,300 – 37,000 Garnetiferous leucocratic rocks called Leptinites. Lepidolite 19,000 – 68,000 Muscovite 170 – 14,800 Aquifers of the study area

Table 1. Fluoride distribution in rocks and minerals The occurrence and movement of groundwater in a hard rock terrain are restricted recurring tectonic and magmatic activities in to open system of fractures like fissures and Precambrian period, which resulted in joints in unweathered portion and also the porous complicated structure and geology. The first major zones of weathered formations. The weathered exposure of the district is Peninsular gneiss, which layer in gneissic terrain of the study area varies are meta sedimentary in nature, belonging to from 2.2 to 50 m. In Charnockite, thickness was Proterozoic – Archean system. between 5.8 to 55m. At contacts of gneiss and

770 45’ 780 00’ Charnockite, thickness was between 9.0 to 90.8m.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 46 representative samples 110 45’ representing major lithology of study area was collected for two seasons pre and post monsoon (June and December) (Fig.3).Water samples were collected in one liter polyethylene bottles with inside stopper, and brought to laboratory immediately and analysis was carried out for major ions using standard procedure (Ramesh Fig. 1. Location of study area and Anbu, 1992). Fluoride ion was determined by using Orion fluoride ion electrode model (94- 0 0 77 45’ 78 00’ 09, 96-09). Correlation analysis among various parameters was done with SPSS statistical software package and geochemical reaction simulation model WATQ4F (Truesdell and Jones 1973; Plummer et al., 1976) has been used to determine the solubility of equilibria for fluoride. 110 45’ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Total fluoride content during premonsoon and post monsoon from Mettur was ranging from 0.37 Fig. 2 Geology of Study area to 4 mg/l and 0.32 to 3.4 mg/l respectively. Higher concentration was noted in Charnockite, followed ECO-CHRONICLE 89 by peninsular gneiss due to presence of dominant Correlation and Factor analysis fluoride bearing minerals like Apatite, Hornblende and Biotite, which has enhanced the fluoride pH of the circulating water is a factor which concentration. Easier accessibility of circulatory controls the leaching of fluoride form the fluoride rain water to weathered rock due to availability bearing minerals. The correlation study has of joints and long term irrigation process is also brought a positive correlation between pH and common in this region (Figs. 4 and 5). High fluoride concentration during premonsoon degree of weathering and easy accessibility of season, indicating higher alkalinity of water circulating water to the weathered rocks due to promoting the leaching of fluoride ions to the intensive and long time irrigation are responsible groundwater (Table 2). No significant correlation for the leaching of fluoride form their parent was observed between fluoride and other ions, minerals present in soils and rocks (Dregne, but good correlation was observed between other 1967). Further concentration has been brought ions indicating chemical weathering process about due to semi arid climate of the region and activated along with leaching of secondary salt long residence time of groundwater in the aquifer formation. This may be the major contributors for (Wodeyar and Srinivasan, 1996). The influence these ions during premonsoon and post monsoon of local lithology and soil aided by other factors seasons. like very low freshwater exchange due to the arid climate of the regions (average daily temperature After computation of correlation matrix, the 28ÚC and average rainfall 450 mm) is responsible correlation coefficient, measures of for higher concentration of fluoride in the interrelationship for all pairs of constituents are groundwater of the region. Effect of dilution was determined. The first principal component well noted in post monsoon season. Higher accounts as much as possible of variance of concentration of fluoride was noted in charnockite observed variants. The second principal due to the easy accessibility of fluoride minerals component accounts for as much as possible of due to the higher degree of weathered zone residual variances not accounted by first principal thickness in charnockite than peninsular gneiss. component. Factor I is represented by Cl, Mg, Na and K indicating anthropogenic and lithological

4 influence on water chemistry. Factor II is

3.5 represented by F indicating weathering from fluoride rich minerals. In post monsoon season, 3 Factor I is influenced by Cl, Ca, Na and HCO 2.5 3 once again indicating the influence of F 2 F (mg/l) --> (mg/l) F anthropogenic and lithological activities. Factor 1.5 II is represented by F and Mg ions indicating the 1 dissociation of fluoride and other minerals. Factor

0.5 III is represented by H4SIO4 which indicates the 0 ability of resistance of weatherability of silicate 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 Fig. 4 Distributionsample of FlourideSample Numbers numbers during --> Premonsoon Season bearing minerals in the study area. Fig. 4. Distribution of fluoride during pre- monsoon season Equilibrium State

2 Disequilibrium indices Log (IAP/KT) was calculated by WATEQ4F geochemical model for

1.5 fluoride minerals like FCO3 Apatite, Flourapatite, Fluorite and Hydroxyapatite were calculated to determine, if water is in thermodynamic 1 F

F (mg/l) --> (mg/l) F equilibrium log (IAP/KT=0), oversaturated log (IAP/KT>0) or undersaturated log (IAP/KT<0) with 0.5 respect to certain solid phases (Trusdell and Jones 1973).

0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 Fig. 5 Distributionsample of FluorideSample numbers numbersduring -->Post monsoon season In premonsoon season FCO3 Apatite was Fig. 5. Distribution of fluoride during monsoon over saturated, Flourapatite was in equilibrium season and Fluorite was undersaturated. In post 90 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 2

H Ions F pH EC Cl Ca Mg Na K 4SIO4 HCO3 SO4

F 1.00 pH 0.41 1.00 EC 0.39 0.23 1.00 Cl -0.28 0.09 -0.09 1.00 Ca 0.00 -0.25 -0.19 0.35 1.00 Mg -0.35 0.16 -0.03 0.73 -0.13 1.00 Na -0.15 0.04 0.06 0.68 0.07 0.34 1.00 K -0.33 -0.10 -0.18 0.77 0.50 0.47 0.44 1.00

H4SIO4 -0.20 0.13 -0.11 0.22 0.26 0.18 0.01 0.01 1.00

HCO3 -0.19 -0.41 -0.04 0.04 0.25 0.17 -0.03 0.34 0.02 1.00

SO4 0.11 0.32 -0.06 0.13 0.15 0.11 0.32 -0.14 0.16 -0.22 1.00 Correlation Matrix for premonsoon

Ions F pH EC Cl HCO3 SO4 H4SIO4 Ca Mg Na K

F 1.00 pH 0.04 1.00 EC -0.17 0.24 1.00 Cl -0.26 -0.08 0.79 1.00

HCO3 0.04 -0.06 0.54 0.38 1.00

SO4 -0.07 -0.09 0.30 0.32 0.26 1.00

H4SIO4 0.02 -0.29 -0.11 -0.06 -0.03 0.26 1.00 Ca -0.31 -0.08 0.78 0.97 0.44 0.32 -0.09 1.00 Mg 0.30 0.05 0.09 0.07 0.36 0.38 0.21 0.03 1.00 Na -0.12 0.06 0.64 0.69 0.38 0.36 0.06 0.63 -0.13 1.00 K -0.11 -0.26 0.25 0.23 0.06 0.18 0.11 0.19 -0.22 0.11 1.00

Correlation Matrix for postmonsoon

Parameters 1 2 3 Parameters 1 2 3

F -0.34 0.54 -0.19 F -0.25 0.57 -0.10 pH 0.16 0.79 -0.15 pH 0.07 0.15 -0.76 EC 0.02 0.31 -0.53 EC 0.91 0.01 -0.14 Cl 0.94 -0.01 0.23 Cl 0.92 -0.13 0.08 Ca 0.10 -0.19 0.78 Ca 0.92 -0.15 0.06 Mg 0.82 -0.03 -0.11 Mg 0.12 0.88 0.10 Na 0.74 0.16 0.05 Na 0.78 -0.09 0.03 K 0.74 -0.39 0.23 K 0.22 -0.38 0.51

H4SIO4 0.11 0.17 0.61 H4SIO4 -0.09 0.25 0.72

HCO3 0.11 -0.66 0.07 HCO3 0.60 0.41 0.02

SO4 0.14 0.63 0.43 SO4 0.45 0.37 0.45

Correlation and factor analysis for both seasons monsoon, effect of dilution is well noted in all the the second factor in the factor analysis. Hence it fluoride minerals where fluorite still shows plays a significant role in water chemistry of the undersaturation. It is aware that, fluorides in study area. Fluoride chemistry of the region is groundwater are mainly due to dissolution of highly influenced by dissolution and precipitation Apatite and fluoride bearing minerals. Statistical along with mixing apart from anthropogenic study also shows that fluoride is represented as activities (Fig. 6). ECO-CHRONICLE 91

25 pH and fluoride concentrations, indicating higher alkalinity of water promoting the leaching of 20 fluoride ions to the groundwater. Factor analysis 15 reveals the influence of anthropogenic and

10 lithological activities. Disequilibrium indices indicate that fluorides in groundwater are mainly 5 due to dissolution of Apatite and fluoride bearing 0 minerals. Log--> (IAP/KT) -5 FCO3Apatite Flourapatite -10 REFERENCES Flourite -15 0 5 10 15 20 25 Dregne, H. E. 1967. Symposium on water Sample Numbers --> supplies for Arid regions, Arizona.

18 FCO3Apatite Miller, G. W. 1993. Flouride, 26. 3 - 22. Flourapatite 13 Flourite Plummer, L. N., Jones, B. F. and Truesdell, A. H. 1976. WATEQF - A FORTRAN IV Version of 8 WATEQ, A computer program for calculating chemical equilibrium of natural waters. US Geol. 3 Surv. Water Resources Investigations Rept 76 - Log (IAP/KT) --> Log (IAP/KT) 13. p. 61.

-2 Ramesh, R. and Anbu, M. 1996. Chemical

-7 methods for environmental analysis - Water and 0 5 10 15 20 25 Sediment, p.161. Sample numbers -->

Fig. 6. Equilibrium index for fluoride minerals Srinivasamoorthy, K. 2004. Hydrogeochemistry of Groundwater in Salem district, Tamilnadu, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION India, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Annamalai University. p. 300. High degree of weathering and easy accessibility of circulating water to the weathered Truesdell, A. H. and Jones, B. F. 1973. WATEQ: A computer program for calculating chemical rocks due to intensive and long time irrigation equlibria of natural waters. J. Research US are responsible for the leaching of fluoride Geological Survey. 2 - 3. 233 - 248. minerals present in the study area. Higher concentration of fluoride was noted in Charnockite Wodeyar, B. K. and Sreenivasan, G. 1996. due to the easy accessibility of fluoride minerals Occurrence of Flouride in the groundwaters and due to the higher degree of weathered zone its impact in peddavankahalla basin, Bellary thickness in charnockite than peninsular gneiss. District, Karnataka - A preliminary study, Current The correlation study reveals correlation between Science, Vol. 70. No.1. pp.71 - 73.

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For editorial correspondance, contact: Honorary Editor, ECO-CHRONICLE, P.B. No. 14, HPO Mahe, Union Territory of Pondicherry - 673310, India. E mail: [email protected] ECO-CHRONICLE 93 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 93 - 96 IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION ON THE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM OF POONTHURA, THIRUVANANTHAPURAM – A GEOCHEMICAL APPROACH

K. S. Arunkumar and Sabu Joseph Dept. of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

ABSTRACT

Poonthura estuary is one of the largest estuarine systems in Trivandrum district. The demographic pressure and urbanization has resulted in the discharge of untreated domestic and agricultural wastes including fertilizers and pesticides into this estuarine system. Hence an attempt has been made to evaluate the concentration gradients of nutrients (N, P, K), texture and organic carbon in the sediments of the estuary.

The values of OC ranged between 6.90mg/g and 78.40 mg/g. The content of sand varied from 32.50% to 96.2% (avg: 59.71), silt from 2.8% to 61.35% (avg: 34.11) and clay from 1.1% to 18.47% (avg: 6.63%). The concentration of TP, TN and K ranged between 0.09 and 0.95 mg/g (avg: 0.46), 0.32 to 5.06 mg/g (avg: 2.12) and 0.18 and 0.82 mg/g (avg: 0.36mg/g). The C: N, C: P and N: P ratio is used to identify the source of organic carbon and the nutrients. From the C: P and N: P values it is observed that the increased load of nitrogen and phosphate reaches the estuary through sewage. Moreover the low ratio value indicates that the major portion of the phosphorus in the sediment was of abiogenic in origin.

Key words: Poonthura estuary, Organic carbon, nutrients, texture, C:N, C:P and N:P ratios INTRODUCTION of the largest estuarine systems in Trivandrum district, has been selected for this study. Over The rapid urbanization, industrialization and the last few years, this estuary is receiving a demographic pressure in the coastal zone pose heavy load of untreated waste from the fast enormous stress on the coastal ecosystems and growing city. The city sewage farm at Muttathara, affect the ecological balance of this zone. Apart on the bank of Parvathy Puttanar canal, leaches from this, the estuaries in the tropics are highly into the estuary through this canal. This waste dynamic owing to variations in tidal forces, energy disposal problem has been studied by of river at the confluence and the interplay of fragmentary work of Anila Kumary  Abdul Azis these forces results in a complicated sedimentary (1992). environment (Passega, 1964). Geochemical reactions taking place in the bottom sediments MATERIALS AND METHODS of aquatic environments (estuaries in particular) are different from those of the overlying water Five stations, viz., Thiruvallom (I), (Sundby, 1986). These reactions not only impart Moonnattumukku (II), Edayar (III), Poonthura (IV) a significant concentration gradient in water but and Kollanthra (V), representing different also intensify the rate of migration of geochemical ecological conditions, were selected for this study signals across the sediment–water interface. The (Fig. 1). Thiruvallom is located in the upstream net result would be the overall change in the portion, followed by Moonnattumukku in the physico-chemical regime of the overlying water. downstream (where the sewage drain open The present investigation focuses on the directly), Edayar, Poonthura (the estuarine mouth) texture, concentration gradients of nutrients (N, and Kollanthara is the southern part. Sediment P and K) and organic carbon (OC) in the samples were collected from all the stations for sediments of the Poonthura estuary in premonsoon, monsoon and postmonsoon using Thiruvananthapuram district. a Van Veen grab sampler. The Total Nitrogen (TN), Total Phosphorus (TP), Potassium (K) and Study Area Organic Carbon (OC) were determined following the standard method (APHA, 1995; El Wakeel, Poonthura estuary (N. Lat. 80 25’- 80 30’ and 1956 and Riley, 1956). The textural study was E. Long. 760 55’- 770 00’) of Karamana river, one done by pipette analysis (Lewis, 1984). 94 ECO-CHRONICLE

76° 56' 15" 76° 57' 47" Stn. Sand Silt Clay TP TN K OC % % % mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g

SEWSEWSEWSEW AGE AGE AGE AGE FORM FORM FORMFORM  1 42.25 46.83 6.15 0.34 1.39 0.28 18.9 2 38.13 48.64 18.23 0.59 3.58 0.74 48.20

Parvathy puthan Ar. 3 59.35 39.18 2.08 0.55 2.39 0.40 23.9 4 93.2 5.2 1.4 0.13 0.46 0.20 8.8 8° 8° 26' 26' 53" 5 56.73 34.48 8.24 0.39 1.78 0.32 25.4 Karamana R. 53" Avg 57.93 34.86 7.22 0.40 1.92 0.38 25.04

 111 222 LEKSHADWLEKSHADW EEP EEP SEASEA  Table 3. Variation of geochemical parameters POONTHURAPOONTHURAPOONTHURA ESTUARYESTUARYESTUARY during Post-monsoon season

333  (seasonal average: s. a. = 59.71), silt between 2.8 and 61.35% (s. a = 34.11) and clay spans 555 1- Thiruvallam  2- Moonnattumukku between 1.1 and 18.47% (s. a = 6.63). The 444 3- Edayar 0 0.5 1 km  444 8° 4- Poonthura pozhi 8° 25' 5- Kollanthara Scale 25' 17" 17" content of sand was highest during monsoon

76° 56' 15" 76° 57' 47" (avg: 69.66%) followed by postmonsoon (avg: 5 7.93) and premonsoon (avg: 51.54). This could Fig. 1. Sampling location be mainly due to the winnowing of finer particles RESULTS AND DISCUSSION towards offshore by the strong monsoon waves. However, the maximum content of silt and clay The urbanization and anthropogenic activities was during premonsoon, followed by are influencing the sedimentation pattern and postmonsoon and monsoon. This might be due geochemical balance of the estuary. This is well to the mixing of saline and fresh water resulting reflected in the sediment texture, nutrients and in reduction of energy of the depositional media OC of the system. The results of texture, OC and as well as flocculation and settling of the nutrients for the different seasons are given in suspended matter, a feature also observed Tables 1-3. elsewhere by Pejrup (1988).

Texture Organic Carbon (OC) The granulometric study shows drastic Organic Carbon in sediments is a reliable difference in the admixture of sand, silt and clay. index of nutrient regeneration and the productivity The content of sand varied from 32.50 to 96.2% of the water body. The content ranges between 6.90 and 78.40 mg/g (s. a: = 28.1). The maximum Stn. Sand Silt Clay TP TN K OC was during premonsoon (avg: 40.7mg/g) in the % % % mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g muddy samples, while the minimum noticed in 1 32.50 61.35 10.82 0.47 1.78 0.21 24.9 the sandy samples during monsoon (18.6 mg/ 2 36.12 58.75 18.47 0.95 5.06 0.82 8.40 g). The upstream stations (I, II, III & V) show 3 56.78 40.65 2.57 0.86 3.64 0.48 38.2 higher OC content and the highest is reported at 4 84.15 10.4 4.85 0.24 0.53 0.24 10.8 station II. These stations are mainly characterized 5 48.19 40.57 10.79 0.71 2.98 0.36 51.2 by weak tidal currents, which favour the Avg. 51.54 42.34 9.5 0.64 2.79 0.42 40.7 accumulation of OC in sediments. The effect of Table 1. Variation of geochemical parameters land drainage, the possible organic supply from during Pre-monsoon season the tributaries in the upstream region, the heavy sewage discharge and the adsorption of organic Stn. Sand Silt Clay TP TN K OC matter by the increased finer fraction can be the % % % mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g other reasons for the elevated values in the above stations. The low OC in station IV can be 1 52.25 44.72 3.03 0.28 1.16 0.22 16.8 ascribed to the sandy nature of the substratum 2 38.65 42.88 5.13 0.54 3.45 0.64 3.40 and the strong tidal current, which continually 3 79.37 18.55 1.47 0.50 2.29 0.38 15.6 4 96.2 2.8 1.1 0.09 0.32 0.18 6.90 drain out the available suspended organic matter 5 81.85 16.74 5.24 0.38 1.16 0.28 20.6 to the sea. Avg. 69.66 25.13 3.19 0.35 1.67 0.340 18.6 Nutrients Table 2. Variation of geochemical parameters Phosphorous is one of the major nutrients during monsoon season sustaining aquatic life and is strongly influenced ECO-CHRONICLE 95 by the physical, chemical and biological process 0.82 mg/g (s. a. = 0.36). It was high during operating in the system. TP ranges between 0.09 premonsoon (avg: 0.42), followed by post and 0.95 mg/g (avg: 0.46). The seasonal monsoon (avg: 0.38) and monsoon (avg: 0.34) averages of TP are 0.64, 0.4 and 0.35 for in all stations. The closure of the mouth of the premonsoon, postmonsoon and monsoon estuary takes place during premonsoon, resulting respectively. TP shows good correlation (fig. 2) in stagnant condition, leading to sharp rise in OC with OC (r = 0.78), mud (r = 0.47) and nitrogen (r and nutrients in all stations. The nutrients = 0.89). From the station wise and seasonal particularly K reaches the system through variety observation it is found that the station II registered of sources. Weathering / decomposition of source higher phosphorous (0.95 mg/g) during rock, clay minerals from soil quarrying area, premonsoon, followed by stations III and IV. The agricultural activities are the major sources. Potassium will be trapped in clay rich finer higher concentration can be attributed by the fraction. The positive correlation (fig.2) of OC with discharge of Phosphorus rich sewage from the TN (r = 0.83) and TP (r = 0.78) indicates a sewage plant and from other sources. The TN common source (organic matter) to the elements. concentration varied from 0.32 to 5.06 mg/g (avg: Total Phosphorus shows good correlation with OC 2.12). The seasonal average during the (r = 0.83), mud (r = 0.0.47) and nitrogen (r = 0.89). premonsoon, postmonsoon and monsoon are 2.79, 1.92 and 1.67mg/g respectively. Like TP The Ratios stations II, III and IV registered higher values of TN. The C: N ratio is a signature of the source of The content of K ranges between 0.18 and OC in sediments. The C: N ratio ranges between

OC- TN Correlation MUD- TP

6 1 0.8 4 0.6 TP TN 0.4 2 R2 = 0.8355 0.2 R2 = 0.4726 0 0 0 50 100 0 50 100 OC MUD

OC- MUD Correlation MUD- TN

100 6 5 80 4 60

TN 3

MUD 40 2 20 R2 = 0.5695 1 R2 = 0.5178 0 0 0 50 100 0 50 100 OC MUD

OC- TP Correlation TN - TP Correlation

R2 = 0.7809 1.2 6 1 0.8 4 0.6 TN TP 0.4 2 R2 = 0.8941 0.2 0 0 0 50 100 0 0.5 1 OC TP

Fig. 2. Correlation of various geochemical parameters 96 ECO-CHRONICLE 6.81 and 21.89 (avg: 14.64). The highly varying it is observed that the increased load of nitrogen C: N ratio may be due to both the complex nature and phosphate reaches the estuary through the of organic matter as well as diagenetic alteration sewage. Moreover the low N: P ratio indicates (Venkittarathan and John, 1981). The C: N ratio that the major portion of the phosphorus in the clearly indicates that the OC in the sediments are sediment was of abiogenic in origin. The mixing of terrigenous origin. of sewage is one of the principal sources of organic pollution in the estuary. The OC and The C: P ratio can be used as an index of nutrients in this estuary is higher than the pollution in any aquatic environments. Its ratio reported values from other estuaries of Kerala. varied between 31.20 and 82.52 (avg: 59.65). The The low level of tidal mixing and seasonal N: P ratio is an indicator of the source of the monsoonal dilution at the polluted stations are phosphorous (whether biogenic or abiogenic). It not adequate to enable self-purifying mechanism varied between 2.20 and 6.38 (avg: 4.37). From to operate successfully. the C: P and N: P values, it is observed that increased load of nitrate, phosphate and organic REFERENCES matter reaches the estuary. Further, the ratios indicate that the major portion of nutrients in the Anila Kumary, K. S. and Abdul Aziz, P. K. 1992. sediment was of abiogenic origin, from domestic Water quality of the Poonthura estuary, sewage and other anthropogenic sources. Thiruvanathapuram, Mahasagar, 25, 1- 9.

The mixing of sewage is one of the principal APHA, 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American sources of organic pollution in the estuary. The Public Health Association, Washington. OC and nutrients in the Poonthura estuary is higher than the reported values from other El Wakeel, S. K. and Riley, J. P. 1956. The estuaries of Kerala (Sankaranarayanan and determination of organic carbon in marine muds, Punampunnayil, 1979; Remani et al., 1980 and J. Cons. Inst. Explor. Mer., 22, 180 - 183. Sajan and Damodaran, 1991). The low level of Lewis, D. W. 1984. Practical Sedimentology, tidal mixing and seasonal monsoonal dilution at Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company, the polluted stations are not adequate to enable Pennsylvania, pp. 227. self-purifying mechanism to operate successfully. Passega, R. 1964. Grain size representation of SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION C - M pattern as a geological tool, J. Sed. PetroL., 43: 830-847. Poonthura estuary, one of the largest Pejrup, M. (1988). Flocculated suspended estuarine systems in Trivandrum district, is sediment in a micro- tidal environment, Sed.Geol, receiving untreated domestic and agricultural 57, 249 - 256. wastes including fertilizers. In the present study, an attempt has been carried out to evaluate the Remani, K. N., Venugopal, P., Sarala Devi, K., Lalitha, S. and Unnithan, R. V. 1980. Sediments concentration gradients of nutrients (N, P and K), of Cochin backwater in relation to pollution, Indian texture and Organic Carbon (OC) in the sediments J. Mar. Sci., 9, 111 - 113. of the estuary. Five stations, viz., Thiruvallom (I), Moonnattumukku (II), Edayar (III), Poonthura (IV) Sajan, K. and Damodaran, K. T. 1991. Studies and Kollanthra (V), representing different on the distribution of organic matter content in sediments of Ashtamudy Lake, Kerala, Bull. Dept. ecological conditions, were selected for this study. Mar. Sci., 20, 221 - 222. Analytical results indicate that OC ranged between 6.90mg/g and 78.40 mg/g. The content Sankaranarayan, V. N. and Panampunnayil, S. of sand varied from 32.50 to 96.2% (avg: 59.71), V. 1979. Studies on organic carbon, nitrogen and silt from 2.8 to 61.35% (avg: 34.11) and clay from phosphrous in sediments of Cochin backwater, Indian. J. Mar. Sci, 8, 27-30. 1.1 to 18.47% (avg: 6.63%). The concentration of TP, TN and K ranged between 0.09 and 0.95 Sundby, B. 1986. Early diagenesis and sediment mg/g (avg: 0.46), 0.32 to 5.06 mg/g (avg: 2.12) – water exchange process in the coastal marine and 0.18 and 0.82 mg/g (avg: 0.36mg/g). environment, (Ph. D. Thesis), University of Bergen, Norway. The C: N, C: P and N: P ratios were also Venkittarathan Kolla Pulok, K. and John, A. 1981. worked out to identify the source of organic carbon Suficial sediments of the Arabian Sea. Marine and the nutrients. From the C: P and N: P values Geology, 41, 183 - 204. ECO-CHRONICLE 97 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 97 - 102 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM IN GEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERAIZATION FOR GROUNDWATER TARGETTING IN VALAPADI TALUK, SALEM DISTRCIT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

B. Gurugnanam*, S. Vasudevan**, N. Prabaharan*, N. Vijayakumar*** and M. V. Mukesh* * Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu ** Department of Geology, Bharathidasan University, Thiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu *** Department of Geology, Government Arts College, Salem

ABSTRACT

There are numerous methods to describe the water resources quantity and the statistical methods are among the most widely used. The basic statistical data assessment provides characteristics of both favorable and unfavorable zones with respect to water resources. Although the former appears to be an independent concentration in general contour map preparation, the latter is required to determine the parameter of positive correlation. The present paper deals with the spatial distribution of the favorable zone demarcation for the groundwater stay station in the subsurface through the basic statistical data approach. Key words: Quantity, potential, spatial distribution. INTRODUCTION preferred method in groundwater contamination studies and hydrogeologic investigations Water is an extraordinary natural (Carpenter et al. 1990). The integrated use of phenomenon. Its attributes, its role in the hydrochemical and geophysical methods is often functioning of the earth and its importance in recommended (Benson et al., 1983; Matias et society excite interest in all branches of al., 1994; Kayabali et al., 1998; Olayinka and knowledge. Since no life can sustain without it, Olayiwola, 2001; Badmus et al., 2001). The water constitutes a source of economic and electrical resistivity studies predict the best political power. The future of modern promising zones for groundwater and also technological society in a world of burgeoning recommend sites for drilling bore wells (Vaidya population may depend as much on judicious et al., 2002). The electrical resistivity technique water management and on availability of cheap is widely used for groundwater exploration and energy. The connections between scientific evaluation (Karanth, 1995; Janardhana Raju et knowledge and the human context of water are al., 1986). examined to understand how the complex task of living with water may be judiciously MATERIALS AND METHODS approached. The base map was generated using the Namias (1968) had studied the trend of administrative boundary and than taken to the rainfall in Central Park Observatory, New York and Survey of India Toposheet on both the scale for related then to general circulation aberration. The the general information preparation. Initially the analysis shows that the magnitude of rainfall has demarcation of the area was carried out in an effective role on the groundwater level status 1:250,000 scale and than taken into the final map during dry season or overall regime of preparation on 1:50,000 scale. The base map groundwater table. This analysis shows that it has includes important locations, drainages and water very weak aquifer from the point of view of stability tanks. The area was divided by using and sustainability of the aquifer (Shetty, 2000). administration unit as a base.

Three geoelectric layers were delineated The rainfall data was collected from the from the interpretation of vertical electrical TWAD division and analyzed the basic statistical sounding data and the map of the depth to the parameter for the meteorological data favorability. top of resistive bed to show the extent of pollution. Similarly the water level data was collected. The (Elijah et al., 2005). Electrical resistivity method correlation between this to the rainfall is assessed of geophysical technique happens to be the most for the subsurface water availability. 98 ECO-CHRONICLE The geophysical data was interpreted to The sustainability of the aquifer is assessed assess the subsurface variations and to locate through the water level fluctuation studies. Sea- the best possible zone. This was achieved by sonal water table fluctuation is a direct response interpreting the data through curve matching of the ground water draft and recharge in an area. method. Rainfall is the principal source of groundwater recharge of the area. Water table rise has sym- Study area pathetic relation to the rainfall intensity and dis- The Valappadi taluk falls in the Salem district, tribution of rainfall is yet another controlling fac- located in the central part of Tamil Nadu. The taluk tor on groundwater recharge. In addition, topog- lies between 11°32’ and 11°52’30" East latitude raphy plays a vital role in the water table fluctua- and 78°14’ and 78°30’ North longitude. The study tion and quantum of recharge. The water level area occupies an area of 427 km2. It is bounded data was also collected from TWAD and is rep- on the north by Papireddipatti taluk, south by resented in Table 2. The depth to water level in Rasipuram, Attur taluk in the east and on the west the study area is interpreted after collecting the by Salem taluk of Salem district. It falls in the water level data from the field as well as from SOI Toposheet nos. 58 I/ 2, 5 and 6. The 24 the Government Department. hamlets are found in the valapadi taluk. S. No. Location Average water The study area is an undulating hilly terrain level at Northern portion and disseminated in other 1 Karipatti 12 parts. The Pilapadi reserve forest and kurichi reserve forest in the north, Godumalai reserve 2 Kattur 11 forest in the central portion and Vellalakundam 3 Nirmullikuttai 10 reserve forest occupies the southern portion of 4 Pudupalayam 21 the study area. The rest of the portions are plain regions. Table 2. Depth to average water level in mts. (2001 - 2005) Drainage and Tanks The VES survey locations are given in the The Singipuram Ar. river in the southern figure 1. The geology map was prepared from portion, is a tributary of Vasista Nadi. It travels Geological Survey of India map and digitized in from south to north to some distance, turns to Geographic Information System. The results of eastern portion in the middle part of the study area geology map (Table 3) (Fig 2) reveals that the and finally joins with the Vasista nadhi. In the following rock type occupies spatially of northern portion, the Anaimaduvu Ar. flows from Charnockite in 193 Km2, Fissile Hornblende north-west to south-east and converge it into the biotite gneiss of 228 km2, Dolerite dyke of 3 Km2 central part at Vasista nadhi. The drainages show and Mafic occupying an area of 3 Km2. that parallel to dentritic, trellies and centrifugal drainage pattern. Geology No. of Area in Polygons Km2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fissile Hornblende To understand the meteorological behavior Biotite Gneiss 3 228 of the study area, the rainfall data was collected Charnockite 1 193 from TWAD for the year 1995 to 2005. The Dolerite Dyke 1 3 average annual rainfall data is represented in Ultrabasic with Table 1. Magnesite 1 3 S. No. Location Average Table 3. Results of Geology in GIS output and its spatial distribution rainfall 1 Ayothiyapatanam 615 The results of the water bearing formation 2 Valapadi 604 thickness (Fig. 3) and its resistivity (Fig 4) are given in the Table 4. It is represented with re- 3 Salem 640 spect to the respective locations. The average 4 Yercad 659 annual rainfall during the last 10 years of the Table 1. Average annual rainfall data in mm study area is 630 mm. It is less than the normal (1999-2004) rainfall of the Taluk. ECO-CHRONICLE 99 The average depth to water level over the last Mafic rocks. The field photographs are shown in one decade of the study area is 14 mts. The mini- plates 1, 2. 3 and 4. mum depth to water level is 10 mts., at Nirmullikuttai and the maximum depth to water level is 21 mts. at The Charnockites are noticed in Western side Pudupalayam. The general trend of the water level and in the rest of the region, fissile Hornblende goes from top to bottom every year (Fig. 5). The gneisses (reaming area) occupied. The study study area mainly comprises of Charnockites, area mainly comprised of this group of rocks. Hornblende biotite gneiss, Dolerite dyke and There is considerable area of Dolerite dyke and Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 100 ECO-CHRONICLE Fig 5.1 Minimum, Maximum & Average Depth to water level in Mts (2001-2005)

Water bearing Water bearing 0 formation formation

-5 S Thickness Resistivity S. Thickness Resistivity -7 No. M. Ohm - M. No. M. Ohm - M -10 1 19.12 298 16 7 48.7 2 18.5 100 17 8.5 58 -14 Depth to water level 3 14 100 18 16.5 110.6 -15 4 21 180 19 9.8 24.6

5 15 105 20 44 151 -20

6 8.00 393 21 42 37.5 Depth to water level in Mts. 7 15 129 22 18.8 104 level water to Depth ___ -25 8 18.4 115 23 18 60 -26 9 28.3 330 24 24 109 10 24.6 225 25 22.1 283 -30 11 15.1 135 26 17.25 276 min avg max 12 34.2 234 27 11.45 113 Depth to water level -7 -14 -26 13 9.5 79 28 21 88.9 14 7.4 171 29 42.8 137 Fig. 5. Maximum, minimum and average depth 15 19.3 294 30 7.6 180 to water level in Mts. (2001 - 2005). than mean zone is noticed in and around locations Table 4. Water bearing thickness and its of 4, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, 21, and 28. resistivities Mafic rocks in the study area. The weathered zone The more than mean zones are favorable thickness varies from 7 to 44 mts. The most frequent for groundwater prospecting because these are thickness is 19 mts. 20 mts were fixed as the zone the areas where we can expect more living space to demarcate favorable and vice versa. The more for groundwater residence. Results of weathered

Plate 1. Highly weathered and jointed rock at Plate 2. Deep dug well in Machinackenpatty Valapadi comprising Hornblende biotite gneiss

Plate 3. Deep dug well at Ayothyapattanam, Plate 4. Fracture and jointed Charnockite zone Massive HBG. at Minnampall ECO-CHRONICLE 101 zone thickness and its spatial distribution are REFERENCES given in Table 5. Badmus, B. S., Odenwande, A. A., Ojelabi, E. A. Weathered zone Count Area and Oyedele, T. 2001. Leachate contamination effect on groundwater exploration, African Jour. Less than mean 7 175.597 Environmental Studies, Vol. 2 (1), pp. 38 - 41. More than mean 10 120.235 Hill 4 131.299 Benson, B. S., Odenwande, A. A., Ojelabi, E. A. and Oyedele, T. 1983. Geophysical techniques Table 5. Weathered Zone Thickness and its for sensing buried waste and waste migration. spatial distribution - Polygon Counts Environmental Monitoring System Laboratory The Weathered Zone resistivity varies from Office Research and Development. U. S. 25 to 393 Ohm mts. (Table 6). 255 Ohm mts. Environmental Development Agency. Las Vegas, were fixed as the zone to demarcate favorable Rep. 68, pp. 03 - 3050. and vice versa. The less than mean zone is noticed in and around 20, 21, 23 and 28. The Carpenter, P. J., Kaufamann, R. S. and Price, B. less than mean zones are favorable for 1990. Use of resistivity soundings to determine groundwater prospecting. land fill structure, Ground water, Vol. 28, pp. 569 - 575. Weathered zone Count Area Resistivity Elijah, A. Ayolabi and Folashade, J. Oyelayo. 2005. Geophysical and hydrochemical Less than mean 5 144.119 assessment of groundwater pollution due to a More than mean 8 151.955 dumpsite in Lagos State, Nigeria. Jour. Of Hill 4 131.299 Geological Society of India, Vol. 66, pp. 617 - 622. Table 6. Weathered Zone Resistivity and its spatial distribution – Polygon Counts Janardhana Raju, N., Reddy, R. V. K. and Naidu, The spatial distribution of area in percentage is P. T. 1996. Electrical Resistivity Surveys for given in Table 7. groundwater in the upper Gunjanaru catchments, Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh, Jour. Geol. Soc. India, Vol. 37, pp. 705 - 716. Weathered zone Area in Thickness Percentage Karanth, K. R. 1995. A text book of ground water assessment, development and management, Favourable zone 28 Tata Mcgraw – Hill Publishing Company Ltd. New Unfavorable zone 72 Delhi, p. 659.

Table 7. Weathered Zone Thickness - GIS Kayabali, K., Yueksel, F. A. and Yeken, T. 1998. output in percentage Integrated use of hydrochemistry and resistivity methods in groundwater contamination caused CONCLUSION by a recently closed solid waste site. Environmental Geology, Vol. 36 (3 and 4), pp. The general average annual rainfall of the 227 - 234. study area shows that it is 630 mm. The water level variation in the study area shows declining Matias, M. S., Marques Da Silva, M., Ferreira, P. trend. This area is mainly composed of Igneous and Ramalho, E. 1994. A geophysical and hydro and metamorphic terrain. GIS gives the spatial chemical study of aquifer contamination by a distribution through Geological favourability. It landfill. Jour. Applied Geophysics, Vol. 32, pp. shows that the Hornblende biotite gneiss 155 - 162. occupies 53%, Charnockite occupies 45%, ultra basic rock occupies 1 %, and Dolerite dyke Namias, 1968. Further studies of drought over occupies 1 %. Through the geophysical data the North-Eastern United States. Proceedings of the favorable zone for the ground water prospecting conference on the drought in North-Eastern is identified through GIS. United States (15 -17 May 1967): 57- 94. 102 ECO-CHRONICLE Olayinka, A. I. and Olayiwola, M. A. 2001. with a simple technique. Journal of Applied Integrated use of geoelectrical imaging and Hydrology, Vol. XIII, Nos. 3 & 4. pp.1 - 3. hydrochemical methods in delineating limits of polluted surface and groundwater at a landfill site Vaidya, S. D., Rani, C. K, Ramteke, R. S. and in Lbadan area, South-Western Nigeria, Jour. Ghosh, N. 2002. Application of electrical Mining and Geology, Vol. 37 (I), pp. 53 - 68. resistivity logging for groundwater exploration at Shetty, A. V. 2000. Simulation of a coastal aquifer CWPRS ***** ECO-CHRONICLE 103 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 103 - 106

STUDIES ON THE HEPATO – PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF SPIRULINA FUSIFORMIS AGAINST FREE RADICALS DAMAGE

A. Subramanian,* M. Murugan,** S. Venkataraman*** and S. Santhosh Kumar**** *Dept. of Biotechnology, Madha Engineering College, Kundrathur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. **Sri Vinayaga Medical College, Karaikkal, U.T. of Pondicherry. ***C. L. Baid Metha Pharmacy College Chennai, Tamil Nadu. ****Department of Physics, Mahatma Gandhi Govt. Arts College, Mahe, U. T. of Pondicherry.

ABSTRACT

Spirulina fusiformis, fresh water blue green algae belonging to Cyanobacterium, is rich in proteins, sulphur containing amino acids (Cystein and Methionine), antioxidants (beta carotenes, Vitamin D, E, K and C), micronutrients (Selenium, Mg, Cu and Fe) and essential fatty acids. It is used as supplementary food in the diet of under-nourished poor children in developing countries. It has been found that 1 kg of Spirulina contain as much nutrition as one Kg of assorted vegetables. Since it provides all the essential nutrients without excess calories of fats, it can be taken by those who want to control obesity.

In the present study, aflatoxin B1 (food toxin) was injected to test animals (albino rats) in two consecutive doses (100 microgram / kg body wt) in 24 hrs gap, after treating them orally with spirulina (1500 Mg/kg body wt.) for a period of one month. After 24 hrs, samples were collected from both control and test animals and subjected to biochemical estimation. The study revealed that spirulina has potential antioxidant activity and it can scavenge the free radicals which cause hepato-cellular damage produced during the metabolism overdoes of drugs and poisonous substances.

Keywords: Hepatocyte, Anti-oxidant, Free Radicals, Aflatoxin B1. INTRODUCTION which causes hepato cellular damage caused by free radicals. Liver is the main functional organ to metabolise all biochemical substances which are MATERIALS AND METHODS ingested through oral as well as parental administration. Improper storage of food grains Male Albino Wister rats (King Institute, like ground nuts, maize, rice etc. and unpreserved Guindy) were grouped into four, each group tinned foods produce bacterial and fungal toxins. containing five animals. Group I was treated as

These toxins are detoxified in the hepatocells. In control. Group II received Aflatoxin B1 in 100mg/ the detoxification process due to the kg body weight (sigma chemicals USA) through accumulation of secondary metabolites, it intraperitoneal injection. Group III was pretreated generates free radicals. These free radicals with Spirulina fusiformis (Murugappa Chettiar attacks plasma membrane of the cell and to some research centre, Chennai) for a month through extend affect the DNA also. oral route and at the end of treatment, two

consecutive doses of aflatoxin B1 (100mg/kg Body Spirulina fusiformis is rich in proteins, sulphur weight) was injected intra-peritoneally. Group IV containing amino acids (cystein and methionine), received spirulina alone. antioxidants (beta carotenes, vitamin D, E, K and

C) micronutrients (selenium, Mg, Cu and Fe) and The day after aflatoxin B1 injection, all the essential fatty acids. It is used as supplemented animals were sacrificed. Blood samples and liver food in diet of under-nourished poor children in tissues were collected for biochemical analysis. developing countries. Since it provides all the Serum was separated from the blood by essential nutrients without excess calories of fats, centrifugation and liver tissue homogenized using it is taken by those who want to control obesity. HCl buffer. This study reveled that spirulina fusiformis, apart from a food supplement, has potential antioxidant The serum total protein, liver marker activity and it can scavenge the free radicals enzymes such as GOT, GPT and ALP and 104 ECO-CHRONICLE antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, Catalase and Parameter Group I Group II Group III Group IV Glutathione peroxides were analyzed in the Ciba corning 550 express plus auto analyzer. SOD 7.6 6.2 7.9 5.3 RESULTS mg/unit ± 1.1 ± 0.8 ± 0.6 ± 0.5 Catalase 68 63 77 64 The levels of aspartate transaminase, alanine mg/unit ± 2.0 ± 3.0 ± 2.8 ± 3.1 transaminase and alkaline phosphatase (AST, GPX 9.72 10.6 11.6 9.9 ALT and ALP) were found to be significantly mg/unit ± 0.56 ± 0.34 ± 0.59 ± 0.81 increased in group II animals (Table 1) when compared to group I (Fig. 1). Enzyme levels in Table 2. Activity of Catalase, Super Oxide group III were increased compared with group II Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione Peroxidase animals. Group IV did not show any marked (GPX) in control and experimental animals. change when compared to group I animals. Antioxidant Enzymes

Parameter Group I Group II Group III Group IV 15

ALT 39.7 76 233 30.6 10 Conc. (g/dl) IU/L ± 6.6 ± 8.2 ± 22 ± 4.4 5 AST 17.3 64.6 148 16.7 IU/L ± 3.4 ± 9.6 ±15.4 ±3.0 0 ALP 48.8 125.2 164 40.0 SOD GPX IU/L ± 46 ± 13.4 ± 8.7 ± 6.7 Group I Group II Group III Group IV Table 1. Levels of Aspartate Transaminase (AST), Anti Oxidant Enzyme Alanine Transaminase (ALT) and Alkaline Phos- 80 phatase (ALP) in various groups of test animals. 60 Conc. (mg/Unit Liver markar Enzymes 40 of protein) 20

250 0 200 Catalase 150 Conc. (g/dl) Group I Group II Group III Group IV 100 50 Fig. 2. Variation in Catalase, Super Oxide 0 Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione Peroxidase ALT AST ALP (GPX) in various groups of experimental animals.

Similarly Serum Total Protein, Albumin level Group I Group II Group III Group IV (Table 3) etc. were found to be significantly decreased in group II animals (Fig. 3). However, Fig. 1. Variation in Aspartate Transaminase (AST), group III animal did not show any significant Alanine Transaminase (ALT) and Alkaline Phos- changes. phatase (ALP) in various groups of test animals. Parameter Group I Group II Group III Group IV Table 2 shows the activity of Catalase, Super Oxide Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione Total Prot- 6.80 5.41 7.10 7.40 Peroxidase (GPX) in the liver of control and ein g/dl ± 0.59 ± 0.92 ± 0.84 ± 0.44 experimental animals (Fig. 2). The catalase and Albumin 3.80 2.70 3.80 4.50 SOD activities in liver were significantly decreased g/dl ± 0.14 ± 0.49 ± 0.49 ± 0.24 in group II when compared with group I animals. Globulin 3.00 2.71 3.22 3.90 In group III, the activities were found to be g/dl ± 0.14 ± 0.49 ± 0.49 ± 0.49 increased when compared with group II animals, whereas no significant changes were found in Table 3. Activity of serum protein, Albumin and group IV animals. Globulin in control and experimental animals. ECO-CHRONICLE 105

Serum Proteins Level Earlier studies have implicated O2 as a potential source of oxidative hemolysis (Goldberg et al., 8 1978). Indeed sickle cells generated substantial

amount of O2 (Hebbel et al., 1982) and have been 6 reported to have reduced Super Oxide Dismutase Conc. 4 (SOD) activity (Schacter, 1985). (g/dl) 2 Present study showed a significant reduction 0 of SOD, Catalase and GPX activity in Aflatoxin Protein Albumin Globulin B1 alone treated animals when compared to control. Spirulina pretreated rats, challenged by Group I Group II Group III Group IV AFB1, showed a significant increase in activity Fig. 3. Variation in Serum Total Protein, of those three enzymes when compared to Albumin and Globulin in various groups of animals injected with AFB1 alone. Pelissier et al. control and experimental animals. (1992) have reported that hepatic microsomal super oxide dismutase enzyme was decreased significantly in AFB1 treated rats, after the DISCUSSION treatment with phenocolr DP6 the SOD and GPX levels were significantly in AFB1 injected rats. The The SGOT, SGPT and ALP are the main same protective mechanism may be applied in marker enzymes used for the evaluation of liver Spirulina to prevent the depletion of SOD in rats function. These enzymes have been measured challenged with AFB1 (Folhe, 1992). The action in the assessment of variety of clinical disorders. may be attributed to its high content of SOD 8.1 SGPT is present in high concentration in liver than unit/mg protein wet materials (Venkataraman, other tissues. High serum concentration of this 1992). The most important H O removing enzyme is relatively specific for hepatic damage. 2 2 enzymes in mammalian cells is essential for SGOT activity is present in the cytoplasm and enzyme activity and it is present at the site of mitochondria of the hepatocytes, whereas SGPT GPX enzymes. are confined to cytoplasm. It has been suggested that reversible liver cell injury results only in the  H2O2 + GSH + EnzGPx Enz - GPX GSH loss of soluble enzymes. It aids as a diagnostic  Enz - GPH + H2O2 H2O + EnzGPX + GS-SG tool for the differentiation of hepatitis, cirrhosis, necrosis and obstructive jaundice. The prolonged selenium (Se) deficiency in the hepatocytes reduces the GPX activity (Reiter In the present study, organisms challenged et al., 1983 and Williams et al., 1986). Hepato with Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) showed significant rise toxicant AFB1 is converted in to a secondary in the level of SGOT, SGPT and ALP in the serum. metabolite, which binds covalently to cellular Animals pretreated with Spirulina fusiformis for macromolecules. One such metabolite 8, 9 month when challenged with AFB1, the level of Eupoxide AFB1 may react with glutathione SGPT, SGOT and ALP were significantly resulting in the formation of glutathione conjugate decreased when compared with rats pretreated and detoxication of the reaction metabolite. The with AFB1 alone. Many herbal molecules have protection offered by Spirulina may be accounted been reported to have hepatopotective effect on for the high content of antioxidant minerals like acetaminophen induced liver damage. Studies on Zn, Se, Mg and Mn. It is a well known fact that Azadirachta (Chattopathyay et al., 1992) and selenium is a cofactor for glutathioin and depletion Picrorhiza kurroa (Dwivedi et al., 1990, 1993) of GSH level in AFB1 treated rats is probably due reported decreased level of SGOT, SGPT and to amino acids present in Spirulina. From the ALP in rats pretreated with respective above data, it is proposed that the protection compounds. given by Spirulina fusiformis is by inducing tissue defense mechanism that involves the enhanced The cell has a number of defense mechanism GPX activity for AFB1 detoxification. Since liver for protecting against lipidperoxidation. Super is the major site of protein synthesis; especially Oxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase and albumin and lipoproteins. In diseased condition Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) are vital anti like cirrhosis, hepatitis, jaundice, drugs and oxidant enzymes in human and animal systems, chemicals induced liver toxicity protein synthesis and are mostly present in liver, kidney and brain. will be affected. The normal level of serum protein 106 ECO-CHRONICLE in spirulina pretreated rats shows that continuous carbontetrachloride induced liver damage in rats. protein supplement by spirulina has substituted Indian J. Med. Res., 92: 195 – 200. the protein depletion due to cellular damage. Dwivedi, Y., Rastogi, R., Mehrotra, R., Garg, N. Samantha (1995), Dwivedi et al. (1993) and K., Dhawan, B. N. 1993. Picroliv protects against the Aflatoxin B1 acute hepato toxicity in Rats, Dwiwedi et al. (1990) reported the hepato Journal of Pharmacol. Res. 27: 189 -199. protective effect of antioxidants and Picrolive against hexachloroxanthine and AFB1 induced Folhe, L. 1992. In free redical Biology (Ed.) U. U. hepatotoxicity with an increased level of total A. Pryor, B. Volume. V. p. 223, Academic Press. protein. Spirulina contain as high as 45% protein. New York. In the recent years, single cell protein has received attention as a major source of increasing Goldberg, B., Stern, A. 1976. Production of super protein supply. oxide anion during the oxidation of hemoglobin by menadione. Biochem. Biophys. Acta., 437: Becker and Venkataraman (1982) reported 628 - 631. that Spirulina is a better source of protein for liver tissue. It is a positive indication that Spirulina Hebbel, R. P. D., Eatyn, T. W. and Balasingam, fusiformis treatment maintains protein balance in M. H. 1982. Spontaneous oxygen radical generation in sickle erythrocyte. J. Clin. Invest., the liver after depletion due to liver toxicity. 70: 1253 - 1257.

CONCLUSION Jeejibai, N. and Seshadri, C. N. 1980. On coiling and Uncoiling Of trichomes in the genus Spirulina fusiformis is rich in antioxidant Spirulina. Arch. Hydrobiol. Algol. Stud. 26. 32 - containing microbial source .the potential 47 antioxidant property this act against the reactive free radicals generated by the toxic secondary Pellissier, M. A., Bentata, M., Decotta, et al. 1992. metabolites accumulated in the liver due to the Effect of phenochar on enzyme alter lipid continuous exposure of carcinogenic, food and peroxidation in liver of Aflotoxin B1 induced rats. drug toxins protect the liver from the cellular as Food Chem. Toxicol., 30. 133 - 137. well as from the nuclear damage. Reiter, R. and Wendel, A. 1983. Selenium and Drug metabolism in multiple modulation of mouse ACKNOWLEDGEMENT liver enzyme. Biochem. Pharmacol. 32. 3063 - 3067. One of the authors (A. Subramanian) is highly thankful to the Director of MCRC, Madras for Samantha and Chainy, G. B. N. 1995. providing Spirulina fusiformis as gift. The Hexachlorocyclohexane induced changes in lipid immense help from colleagues to pursue this work peroxidation, Super oxide dismutase, Catalase is gratefully acknowledged. and GPX activity in pig liver. Ind. J. Exp. Biol. 33. 131 - 133. REFERENCES Schater, L. P., Delbillano, B. C., Gordon, T. M. Becker, E. W. and Venkataraman, L. V. 1982. and Bein, B. J. 1985. Red cell super oxide Biotechnology and exploitation of algae -The dismutase and sickle cell anemia symptoms. Indian approach. Germen agency for technical Haematology, 19. 135 - 139. cooperations, Esschoborn FRG. Spirulina (Ed.) Seshadri, C.V. and Jeejibai, N. Venkataraman, L. V. 1992. What next to spirulina? Central Food Technological Research Chattopatyay, R. R., Sharkar, S. K., Ganguly, S., Institute, (India), Spirulina natural symposium, C. Banerjee, R. N., Basu, T. K. and Mukharjee, 1992. V. Sheshadri, N. Jeejibai, Preprint International, Hepatoprotective effect of Azadirachta indica on Madras. paracetamol induced hepatic damage in rats. J. Experimental biology, 30: 738 – 740. Willium, M. T., Carrignton, H. and Herrera, A. 1986. Stimulation of mouse liver glutathione S. Dwivedi, Y., Rastogi, R., Chander, R., Sharma, transferase activity in propyl thiouracil treated S. K., Kapoor, N. K, and Dhawan, B. N. 1990. mouse in vivo by tri iodo thyronine. Biochem. J., Hepatoprotective effect of Picroliv against 233. 595 - 598. ECO-CHRONICLE 107 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 2. JUNE 2006, PP 107 - 111

ECO - FRIENDLY TREATMENT FOR AN ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE BIS - AZO DYE - RECTRON RED HE3B

S. K. Suja Department of Chemistry, J. J. College of Engineering and Technology, Trichy, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT

Removal of colour in waste water due to dyes is a major problem in recent years in textile industries, paper industries etc. Due to the recent legislation and environmental issues, treatment of dyes assumes great importance. Rectron Red HE3B is a bis –azo chloro triazine type dye and is selected for the investigation. Electrolytic decomposition method is assumed to be an eco-friendly treatment for the selected dye. This method was analysed by varying the variables such as pH, concentration, time and electrolyte using UV-visible spectral and colour analysis. Optimum conditions were given for best treatability. This method was evaluated by comparing the UV-visible spectral and colour analysis with COD measurements. Colour analysis by spectral measurement is found to be better than COD since it is simple, less reagent consumption and no hazardous chemicals are involved. Lower investments, running costs, speed, sensitivity, universality and wide applicability speak in favour of dye decomposition technique.

Keywords: Electrolytic decomposition, treatability, COD, colour analysis

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

The German ban (Singh, 1995) prohibits the The dye used was Reactron RED HE3B and use of certain azo dyes, which could split into 0.01M dye stock solution was prepared in water. arylamines that are suspected to be carcinogenic. 0.1 M H2 SO4, 0.1 M KCl and 0.1 M KOH were Next to Germany, other countries have also used as supporting electrolytes to prepare buffers imposed similar restrictions (GLA, 1998). These in 50% aqueous acetonitrile solvent. Jasco V 530 include Holland, Turkey, France and India. UV- visible spectro photometer instrument was However, the approach in enforcing ban varied used for spectral studies and Aplab – L 3230 DC from one to another. The European Union has power supply unit was used for electrolytic banned around 300 textile dyes of suspected studies. Variables such as solution pH, carcinogen (Motschi and Clarke, 1998). Spent dye electrolysis time, and dye concentration and liquor pose water pollution problem. Treatment electrolyte were studied. Planar graphite methods such as adsorption (Shukla, 1999, electrodes of 7.0 cm2 areas each were used as Moreira et al., 1998 and Mckay et cl., 1999), anode and cathode. Fentons reagent ( Daewon, 1999, Ince and Tezcanli, 1999, Wu et al., 1999), photochemical (Neppolian, 1998, Lieu et al, 1999 and Li and Zhao, 1999) and coagulation (Hsu et al., 1998, Koprivanc et al., 1998) have been applied for different classes of dyes. Most dyes are coloured in nature. The ‘Lab’ or ‘LCH’ colour specifications can able to define any colour in a meaningful manner compared to the tristimulus values or dichromatic coordinates (Sule, 1992). In this work, electrolytic method was studied to treat the reactive dye effluents and the treatment efficiency was tested by spectral analysis, colour analysis and COD analysis and then compared. 108 ECO-CHRONICLE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effect of Electrolysis time

UV - Visible spectral and colour analysis The peaks at 238, 288 and 508 nm are observed for the untreated dye. The L values are of 92. The sign of both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are Effect of pH positive. H value of -1.27 indicates the presence of red colour. After 2 min. of electrolysis, only The untreated dye solution shows three peaks one peak at about 234 nm is noticed. Peak in at about 248, 290 and 538nm in 50 % aqueous the visible range disappeared in all the time aeetonitrile medium in all pH media with little shift intervals studied. The absorbance of peak in in wave lengths. The values of L are at about 90. the UV range increased after electrolysis. This The sign of both “a” and “b” are positive. The colour may be due to the breaking of bulky molecule of the species is red in pH 1, 4, 7 and 10 which is into smaller molecules. L values are at about noticed from the values of H. The value of H in pH 100 and increase with increase in time. This 13 is 59. This shows the change in colour of the shows the direct relationship between the time dye from red to orange in pH 13. and dye decomposition. A reasonable result is observed at a time of 8 min. and used for further After electrolysis, the peak in the visible range studies. disappeared. Only one peak at about 222 nm is noticed in 1, 4, and 10. In pH 7, peak at 298 nm is Effect of dye Concentration formed. Absence of peak in pH 13 reveals the complete decomposition of the species in pH 13. The effect of dye concentration was studied Presence of one peak in pH 1, 4, 7 and 10 may be from 0.25x10-6 to 12.5x10-6 M at constant other due to naphthyl or biphenyl or phenyl moiety formed variables such as a pH of 7, current density by the cleavage of azo group. of 0.03 A/cm2 and time of 8 minutes. Since the electrolysis was carried out at constant The increase in absorbance of the peaks in energy and time, the treatment efficiency was the UV range for the treated solution confirms the inversely proportional to the dye concentration. results. The values of L are about 100. Untreated As the dye concentration increases, the dye solution shows C values at about 20 and absorbance increases. treated solution at about 5. The decrease in C values reveals dye decomposition. The sign of “a” Effect of electrolytes in electrolysis of dyes are negative and “b” are positive. The values of H The role of neutral pH electrolytes such are also changed tremendously. This shows the as KCl and B.R. buffer in electrolysis of dyes change in colour from red to yellow. A pH of 7 was investigated. It is learnt that the presence resulted good decolourization of the dye as of chloride ion in the electrolysis bath influences observed from the C and L values and is used the decomposition of chemical components. In for further studies. Almost similar responses are order to study this effect experiments were observed in aqueous buffer media study for the carried out in neat dye solution, KCl containing dye at different pH media. dye solution and B.R. buffer containing dye solution. Form the table, it is interesting to note From the above results it is clear that a pH of that the KCl is influencing the electrolytic 7 is found to be effective for the decolourization decomposition of dye. This may due to the in / decomposition of the dye. The UV –visible spectra situ generation of chlorine gas during obtained for untreated (curve a) and treated (curve electrolysis. It is noted that chlorine gas is one b) dye solution are given in figure 1. of the powerful oxidizing agents which catalyses the decomposition. The effect of KCl is clearly observed from the L and C values. All these studies were tabulated in Table (1 & 2).

Evaluation of dye decomposition

The dye decomposition was evaluated by three different methods. They are (i) spectral absorbance (Abs) (ii) chemical oxygen demand (COD) and (iii) CIE colour analysis. ECO-CHRONICLE 109 Table 1. UV - Visible spectral data forTable dye solutions - Effects of variables for RR3B (before electrolysis) 110 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 2. UV - Visible spectral data forTable dye solutions - Effects of variables for RR3B (after electrolysis) ECO-CHRONICLE 111 The COD values of treated dye solution show Contam . Cent . East , Eur., Symp. Proc., 4th , the presence of colourless organic compounds Tallahassee, Florida. even after electrolysis. This result is also Lieu,G., Wu,T., Zhao, J., Hidaka, H. and Serpone, confirmed by colour analysis data. Based on N., 1999. Environ. Sci. Technol., 33 (12), 2081 - the results obtained for the dyes studied, colour 2087. analysis method is found to be better than COD and absorbance (optical density) methods for Li, X. Z. and Zhao,Y. G., 1999. Water Sci. dye effluent analysis. Technol., 39 (10-11), 249 - 255.

CONCLUSION Mckay, G., Porter, J. F. and Prasad, G. R., 1999. Water, Air, Soil Pllut.,114 (3-4), 423 - 438. Electrolysis is suitable for the treatment of the dye Reactron Red HE3B. Complete Moreira, R. F. P. M., Kuhnen, N. C. and Peruch, decolourization is possible at specified conditions M. G., 1998. Lat. Am. Appl. Res., 28 (1-2), 37 - only. Based on the results obtained for the dye 41. studied, colour analysis by spectral measurement is found to be better than COD analysis, because Motschi, H. and Clarke E. A., 1998. Rev. Prog. it is simple, less reagent consumption and no Color, 28, 71. hazardous chemicals are involved. Neppolian, B., Palanichamy, M., Arabindoo, B. REFERENCES and Murugasen, V., 1998. Proc. Water Environ. Fed. Tech. Conf. Expo., Alexchandria, 1, 639 - Daewon, C. W., 1999. Water Sci.Technol., 40 (4- 643. 5), 115 -121. Shukla, R., 1999. Asian J. Chem., 11 (1), 259- German Legislation on Azo dyes, 1998. Dystar 260. Textil Farben GmbH & Co. Sule, A. D., 1992., 1992. Colourage, 39 ( 9), 23. Hsu, Y., Pong,R. Y, and Yen, C., 1998. Huang, Hsing-Chao, 21(I),33 - 46. Singh, Y. P., 1995. Guidance for the manufacture Ince, N.H. and Tezcanli, G., 1999. Water Sci. of Eco-friendly Textiles, Textiles Committee Technol., 40 (1), 183 -190. Publication, Mumbai.

Koprivanc, N., Papic, S., Bozic, A. L., and Cafuk, Wu, K., Xie, Y., Zhao, J. and Hidaka, H., 1999. I., 1998. Warsaw 98, Int , Symp. Exhib. Environ. J. Mol. Catal., A: Chem., 144 (1), 77 - 84. ***** 112 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE An International quarterly journal of Environmental and Social Sciences

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Papers should be original, clear and concise and should contain important research results / findings that are novel and of fairly broad scientific interest. They should fall in any of the two categories (1) Full communication, not exceeding 4000 words and (2) Brief communication, not exceeding 1500 words.

Manuscripts (English) should be typed in double space on one side of A4 sized paper leaving enough margins on all sides (Microsoft word, Times New Roman, size 12). Manuscripts for full communication should contain (1) Abstract (2) Introduction (3) Materials and Methods (4) Results and Discussion (5) Summary and Conclusion and (6) References. Brief communication should be in running form with references added at the end. Both categories of papers must be headed by the author’s name and official address below the main title. The title should be brief, specific and amenable to indexing. Not more than five key words should be included. Abstract, Summary and Conclusion have to be precise and should convey only the essence of the paper.

Colour photographs, under normal circumstances, will not be entertained; but can be considered on special request. Photographs should be on glossy paper with high contrast. Tables, charts, line drawings, figures etc., produced on A4 sized paper should be embedded in the manuscript at the appropriate place for the sake of completeness. All pages should be numbered consecutively, starting with the title page and through the text, tables, figures and reference list. All symbols and abbreviations must be defined properly. Units of measure should be SI.

References should include only publications cited in the text. They should be arranged alphabetically and the following pattern can be followed. 1. Swift, M. J., Heal, O. W. and Anderson, J. M., 1979. In Decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford. p. 372. 2. Namassivayan, L. and Venugopalan, R. 1989. Avocet in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (3). 458 – 460.

A soft copy of the paper (floppy / CD) need to be submitted along with the hard copy. The soft copy should be prepared in Microsoft word, with photographs and figures (jpg or tif format), and graphs (xls format) attached as separate files. This can also be e-mailed to: [email protected] or [email protected]

Manuscripts received will be sent for detailed review. Authors will be notified of acceptance, rejection, or need for revision of paper. Proofs under normal circumstances will not be sent to the authors. Free reprints are not allowed. Minimum number of reprints is 25 which can be had on prior payment, at the time when the information with regard to the acceptance of the paper is given to the author (s). Research papers, complete in all respect, be sent to:

THE EDITOR, ECO-CHRONICLE, P. B. No. 14, H. P. O. Mahe, Union Territory of Pondicherry – Pin: 673310, Phone: 0490 2333091; e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]