MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND YOUTH „LUCIAN BLAGA” UNIVERSITY, SIBIU „NICOLAE LUPU” FACULTY OF HISTORY

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION SUMMARY

The Neolithic in Nord­West of Romania and neighbouring area

ADVISER Prof. PhD GHEORGHE LAZAROVICI

DOCTORALCANDIDATE Virag Cristian

SIBIU, 2008 The Neolithic in Nord­West of Romania and neighbouring area

Geografic enviroment In the past, people’s life was more closely influenced by the natural environment than nowadays. The settling of human communities and the human behavior in a certain geographical area are directly influenced by the relief, by the existent resources and by the communicational possibilities. On the other hand, the human activities influenced the natural environment of an area by modifying it. The touch of man reached dramatic proportions, especially in the recent years, human activity radically transformed the natural environment. These general observations are valid for the greatest part of the European continent, and are prominent on the present territory of Satu Mare county. The various reliefs of the territory determined an uneven exploitation, according to the opportunities offered to use the resources. The relation between man and the environment from Satu Mare County was different throughout the time. If we look retrospectively to the natural environment of the county in the last centuries, it can be noticed the difference between its aspect then and today. The human activities carried out especially during the last two centuries have transformed it radically. The birth of the new geographical units – Ecedea Plain and Ier Plain – can be mentioned, as a consequence of draining the two swamps. The draining of the Ecedea Swamp at the end of the 19th century meant the destruction of one of the largest swamp­areas in Europe. More major modifications of the landscape in other areas of the county were produced by regularization of the river­courses by damming up and cutting the curves. In this sense, the biggest change was made with the regularization of the inferior course of Someş river, the inferior course of Homorod river, the building of the dams in the valleys of Crasna and Tur, and in the inferior courses of rivers Maja, Talna and Valea Rea etc. The draining of the swamps and the controlling of river courses decreased the floods and increased the surface of agricultural fields, but, at the same time, it reduced dramatically the swampy land, rich in various resources. The spatial distribution of the archaeological finds shows differences from one age to another in the inhabitance of different territories. The preference for certain areas was determined by the way of wielding the natural resources specific for each period. In the Neolithic Age, when agriculture was practiced exclusively by hand, are favored the low and humid lands from the shores of the swamps and rivers. This land was easier tilled with simple tools made of wood, stone and bones. Prehistoric communities preferred to set their dwellings alongside rivers, on heights with the aspect of small hills or banks, dominating the surroundings. These island­like points were safe places against floods. In this sense, on the territory of Satu Mare County, the edge of the Ecedea and Ier Swamps is the richest in Neolithic settlements.

Historic of the research. An archaeological collection was created in the region of Ciumeşti–Berea, called Kovács­collection, in the 1960’s. The Calvinist priest of Berea, Gyula Kovács started to collect archaeological finds from the region of Ciumeşti, Foieni and Sanislău, advised by doctor Ernő Andrássy. The information provided by Kovács collection, led to the systematic researches carried out in the sites Ciumeşti II–Păşune, Berea I, IX, X–XI, between 1962 and 1965. Further research was made by Eugen Comşa and János Németi in the regions of Carei, Dindeşti, Moftinu Mic, Tiream, Văşad, and in the sites of Pişcolt–Nisipărie, –Lutărie, –Cărămidărie, between 1970 and 1982. Most of these were rescue excavation. The issue of the early Neolithic in North­Western Romania was somehow clarified by the results of the excavations in Homorodu de Sus, Homorodu de Mijloc and Dumbrava in the 1970’s and 80’s. During the last two decades, important discoveries were made in the sites of Tăşnad– Sere (where the late Neţa Iercoşan worked for over a decade) and Călineşti­Oaş – Dâmbul Sfintei Mării, the northernmost point of the Starčevo–Criş culture from Romania. The researches of the last two decades were rescue excavation; only one systematic research was made in Pişcolt, by János Németi, starting from 1995. The results, however, remained unpublished. In addition, two excavations were started at the sites Halmeu–Vamă and Urziceni–Vamă, during the last five years. Starčevo­Criş descouveries have also been made beyong the limit which has been imposed by hungarian siencemen for the area of Köröş group establishing the north limit in Beretău Valley ((Kalicz, Makkay 1977, p. 18­19; Comşa 1960, p. 217­218; Kalicz 1971, p. 146­147). Such discovery also exist at Nadykörübol, Nadycsed, Tiszabezded, Fenyeslitke, Tiszacsege, Retközberencs, Mehtelek in Ungaria, and Buciumi, Chendu, Ciumeşti, Dej, Dragu, Fughiu, Homorod, Moigrad, Sarciu, Zăuan, Tăşnad etc. in România (Lazarovici, Németi 1983, p. 25).

The Piscolt Group The Neolithic Group of Piscolt is a cultural group which unfolds itself in North­ West of Romania and which frames in the large space of a painted pottery culture. This space is certificaded in Transilvania but also in the East of Hungary, Slovacia and Ucraina (Potushniak 1997, p. 37­39). The origin of this group is in the old Starčevo background, influenced by Vinča elements from the fields to which there was added the contribution of the Szolnok ­ Szanda, Öcsöd ­ Kitiro, Kötelek, Tiszavolk – Negyes types, genesis that accured at Starčevo Criș IVA – Vinča A2/A3 level, being contemporary with Oszentiván VIII, Starčevo IV and the genesis of the Alfőld and the early east Slovakian linear. This cultural group was redefined because the most representative and numerous materials were discovered at Piscolt and not at Ciumesti. The space of this group is welldelimited by the existence of some stations between the Tur valey and Crisul Repede. The pottery is degreasing of the paste with silt and vegetal remains. The ornaments consisted in impressing with the finger or nail, pinches and less winding or zigzag incisions, short cuts, shared portions, indented and alveolated belts. The painted ornaments consisted of short vertical bands, zigzag lines spared in pozitiv by painting in black, angular bands under the lip, wide bandes in angles, curved lines and lines with spots. The pottery forms are the ones specific for this chronological horizont: cilindrical, spherical sides large and medium pots; large and medium size pots with a high, narrowed neck; conical and frequently deep bowls, small, spherical cups with a narrowed throat; tulip shaped vasel on tall cylindrical and bell shaped pedestral; amphora like pots with high, cylindrical neck. A major problem of romanian archaeology is represented by the fact that every research of a archaeogical settlement is going to transform itself in cultural facies, cultural aspect, grop or culture. We may say that there were many denomination for the archaeological group and culture: group Ceşmeu, group Suplacu de Barcău, Tisa II, Tisa–Herpály– Csőszhalom, Tisa II–Herpály, group Dumbrava­Suplac­Salca II­Seleuş, group Dumbrava, Salca­Herpály.

Prehistoric communities preferred to set their dwellings alongside rivers, on heights with the aspect of small hills or banks, dominating the surroundings. These island­like points were safe places against floods. In this sense, on the territory of Satu Mare County, the edge of the Ecedea Swamp, situated on the line of Berveni, Cămin, Căpleni, Domăneşti, Moftinu Mare, Ghilvaci, Doba, Boghiş, and continuing beyond the border, is the richest in Neolithic settlements. Generally, the settlements were small, covering about 2–3 hectares with the average number of the population of 60­ 85 inhabitants. These types of settlements were set around a central settlement covering about 50 hectares. This type of settlement­network can be documented in all researched cultural horizons. Large settlements of this type were discovered in Tăşnad, Tăşnad–Sere, Pişcolt, Urziceni, Halmeu, Moftinu Mic, Homorodu de Sus, Carei, Berea, etc. Dwellings were either dug in the soil, either built at the surface. The subteranean houses were found in Tăşnad– Sere, Pişcolt, Urziceni, Halmeu, Moftinu Mic, Homorodu de Sus, Carei, Berea, etc., and they had among many inconveniences, the advantage of keeping cool in summer and warming up easier during winter. At the entrance was a sunken step on one side of the house, usually positioned to south. The heating was made with portable cooking vessels. Surface dwellings were found in Tăşnad–Sere, Moftinu Mic farming in Neolithic societies. The feminine statues depict pronounced feminine features: prominent breasts and hips marking womanhood and fertility. A great number of such statues were discovered in Tăşnad–Sere and Homorodu de Sus–Ograda Borzului. They were built of wood and clay, while wood was rarely used. Prehistoric communities proffered for constructions wicker­net and clay or just earth with straws and chaff. Usually the annexes had one of the walls against the wall of the house for practical purposes, this way the houses were loosing less warm during winter. These dwellings were not always provided with a source of heat inside, probably because the majority of the activities were implemented outside; therefore, the houses were mostly used for sleeping. The roof was made of straws, reed, and had a tent­like shape. The houses were short and thus protected from wind. Usually prehistoric people built their houses facing south, because of the lack of light and warmth. The verandah became the place for different house activities like spinning and weaving clothing articles. The houses used to have only one room. During this period, several cultures were present on the territory of Satu Mare County: Starčevo– Criş culture, Pişcolt group (or Ciumeşti culture), and Herpály culture (or Salca– Herpály). These archaeological cultures can be differentiated through the techniques of making and decorating pottery: incision, pinching, barbotine, paint, applications etc. The pottery is the most frequent find in the Neolithic settlements. Beside the pottery, however, the chipped stone tools of the previous period and a new artifact type, the polished stone axes, are present. These axes were perforated in later phases allowing to introduce a handle for a better efficiency in use. The religious belief of the period is reflected through special finds, like the anthropomorphic, and zoomorphic statues, small shrines, seals, etc., (Tăşnad, Homorodu de Sus, Carei, Pişcolt, Căpleni, Moftinu Mic, Berea, Ciumeşti, Urziceni, Dumbrava, Halmeu). These artifacts show the cult of the earth that gives life, highlighting the importance of the the fetal position, therefore, the whole rite represents the rebirth to the after­life.

The burials are mostly inhumations, the body being laid in crouching position on a “bed” of pottery fragments originating from large vessels, and it is also “covered” with pot­shreds. The deposition and the covering of the body are related to the idea of the cosmic genesis of man. This concept can be found in many mythologies about the creation of man from earth and his final turning to dust. The myths preserved such formulation, like “he turned to pots and small pots” that fit with the rite of breaking vessels at the burial. The crouching position of the body is interpreted in some practices as an attempt to prevent the dead to come back among the living. Other interpretations are also possible, the crouching position being linked to – Pescărie B, Căpleni– Canton CFR, Căpleni – Togul lui Reök, Urziceni–Vamă, Halmeu–Vamă, etc. The funerary or probable funerary finds from the Neolithic Age from the Satu Mare county, north­western Romania was made in 25 features from 14 archaeological sites. However, parts of them are uncertain and controversial finds. Four graves recently discovered at Tăşnad, are assigned to the Early Neolithic (late Starčevo­Criş culture). All finds are individual inhumations in the settlement area, three of them in the proper grave pits, and one founded in another typ of feature, probably a refuse pit or a pit house. All Early Neolithic skeletons are laid in contracted position on their left side. No grave goods had been found, except for the grave nr. 3, with two blades from obsidian. One grave from Urziceni, two from Pişcolt – Lutărie and one from Căpleni ­ Togul lui Reök, certainy belong to the Middle Neolithic times (Pişcolt culture). Other 8 graves from 6 sites are uncertain assigned to the Middle Neolithic. In addition, a clump of human bones without anatomic connections was found in an unfunerary context, in a ditch from Urziceni. In most cases, the deceased were laid in proper grave pits, except of the skeletons founded in the refuse pits. All the deceased were buried inside settlement area. In the same time, all well dated skeletons are laid in contracted position either on their left or on their right side. The majority of graves lacked by inventory, and only few clay vessels being discovered (Pişcolt). A special case is a grave with marble beads and one Pişcolt type pottery fragment from Urziceni. Its Middle Neolithic assingment, albeit possible, is however uncertain, because the grave was discovered in the context of an Middle Cooper Age (Bodrogkeresztúr) cemetery and the mentioned single pottery fragment can be in secondary position. The Late Neolithic Herpály culture is represented by two graves with contracted skeletons, without goods, from Carei ­ Cozard, and possible other one from Cămin. Apart of these, there are two special features from Halmeu (Iclod I pottery style): rectangular pits, without human skeletons , but with a grave specific inventory such as clay potteries, polished and chipped stone tools, boar tusk pendants. The two features from Halmeu could probably be interpreted as symbolic graves (cenotaphs).

Methods of pottery analyze The system for managing the archaeological data was named ZEUS, created using Paradox under DOS the first variant and the second variant using Microsoft Access under Windows. The organization of the files and the data exploitation is realized by a neuronal system implemented for the information bases and the databases, which have as final objective the creation of the expert systems. The scheme of the BAZARH systems presents three main components: the Database, the information base and the Expert systems. Each base is formed of files grouped by an archaeological system. The relationships between these components are reciprocal, being realised by an interrogation and processing system. The Database is formed of files with the primary data grouped in three sectors: typology, prospecting and determination. The Knowledge Basis is structured on information about the ecosystem, the communities and links. These databases use dictionaries and catalogues. The interrogation is made by selecting the data, by matrix generation, modification, import and export of date or files. For eliminating the lost times and the redundancy and for minimizing the occupied space in the memory of the computer, the Knowledge Basis was conceived in an encoded method system (alphanumerical). This method made easier the work to inputs the data and of the computers. The data is from subsystem of the material culture, because is the material discovered by archaeologist (pottery, lithic industries, osteologic, etc.). The data files are under the forms of tables, organized on rows (records) and columns (fields), each field contains information about the object and a record is formed of all the characteristics of that object. The data processing is made from matrix or tables created through interrogation.

Repertory of the archaeological discoveries In the description of the archeological repertory, we used the theses elements: toponymical points, geographical description, archeological research, types of discoveries, cultural framed bibliographies. Archeological repertory for middle Neolithic discoveries contains 29 localities with 66 archeological sites. Archeological repertory for late Neolithic contains 22 localities with 38 archeological sites.

Pottery material of the Kovács Collection The Ciumești–Berea (Csomaköz – Bere) Collection formed in the 1950s. It was named Kovács Collection after Calvinist priest Gyula Kovács from Bere. With all probability he was the one who started to collect archaeological material of the nearby villages, like Ciumești, Sanislău (Szaniszló), Berea, Foieni (Fény) encouraged by Dr. Ernő Andrássy (NÉMETI 1999. 14). Gyula Kovács identified about 100 sites from different ages. Material includes a great number of Neolithic pottery and many obsidian microliths coming from the sand­dunes of the mentioned settlements (Păunescu 1964. 321). In 1961 a large part of the Kovács Collection was bought by the Museum of Baia Mare. In 1967, 660 pieces got into the town museum of Carei, and the rest was bought by the Museum of County Satu Mare in 1977. Judging from the material of the Kovács Collection and from information concerning it, first systematic excavations went on between 1962–1965 near Ciumești, in the following sites: Ciumești II – Pășune (Legelő), Berea I, Berea IX, Berea X–XI (Păunescu 1964. 322, Păunescu 1963. 467–475, Comșa 1963. 477–484). Later excavations were carried out by Eugen Comșa (Comșa 1972/73. 39–49) and by János Németi between 1970–1982 in Carei, Dindești, Moftinu Mic, Pișcolt at Nisipărie (Sand­pit), Lutărie (Adobe­pit) and Cãrãmidărie (Brick factory), in Tiream (Terem) and Vășd. Among these, several were rescue excavations like the one in Sãcuieni–Horo in 1965 (Comșa–Nánási 1971. 633–636, Comșa–Nánási 1972. 3–18). Neolithic and aeneolithic material of the Kovács Collection acquired in 1977, come from several sites of Ciumești and Berea. Ceramic material belonging to Group Pișcolt, Phase I/II was found at seven sites: Ciumești (III)–La Silozuri / Fântâna Pășunii (Csomaköz–Legelőkút / Silógödrök), Ciumești (VII) – Cãrãmidărie (Csomaköz–Téglavető), Berea (XIIa–b) – Viile Berei (Bere–Berei szőlő), Berea (II) – Miriștea lui Csányi (Bere–Csányi sűrűje), Berea (I) – Stavilă Mică (Bere – Kisrengátja), Berea (XVI)–Grădina florilor (Bere–Virágkert), Berea (IXa) – Togul lui Sultész (Bere–Sultész tag). Pottery belonging to Group Pișcolt Phase II/III is very few and come from three sites: Ciumești (IIb) – Bostonărie (Csomaköz – Tökös), Berea (IX) – Togul Dolarului (Bere – Dolláros), Berea (X)–Colina cu mãcriș (Bere – Sóskás).

The neolithic settlement from Halmeu The settlement Halmeu­Vamă is situated in North of Halmeu Village, in the free area between romanian and ucrainian border. The settlement is placed on the platform of Egher river (Egherul Mare), being a very marshy region during the ancient age. The settlements from the marshy area were built only on the high region, uneasily flooded, and the agriculture ground was also limited on such area. The pastures and the hayfields, which formed a varied landscape, appeared after the reclamation of the forests. The site was found during saving excavation from november 2000. A surface of 20x7 m. was excaveted, finding three complexe: two from Neolithic and one from Bronze Age. Close by this area we found pottery from different ages (Midle Age, Bronze Age, Neolithic), wich lays on the brook Eger terrace. During the 2001 autum, some checking up excavation from Kiraly Domb/ Dâmbul Craiului point, situated on the edge of terrace, proved the extension of Neolithic settlement from Vama point. The point composed by two dome­shaped hill (Kiraly Domb I and II), with approximate equal dimensions, with oval surfaces, with maximum of 40x45 m. diameter, without calculating the surrounding ditch. During 2003, we wanted the Feature 1 which, during 2000, was excavated on the custom region, to be finalized. That's why we excavated a surface of 15.20 x 8 m. During the February­May of 2006, new excavations were made on the Halmeu Custom area, in an uneasily lower region as the one where there were the previous investigations, but yet paced at a distance underneath 100 m. These excavations were necessary because of the building of a veterinary check point which was to be placed on the 6000 m2 area, including two buildings, roads and parking. The excavations were made mechanized (with the control of the humus) and by hand digging of the archaeological features. All the discoveries of this archaeological campaign were of late Neolithic and proved that the site represents a settlement. About 30 features were investigated, most of them being pits, trenches, remainders of burnt houses, and two features with a special character. Some of the pits seemed to have domestic role because there were discovered material and broken up clay. But, there also are four pits where all artifacts were unbroken and deposited in pits (Feature 2 and Feature 9, Feature 31, Feature 33).The two special feature (Feature 22 and 24) might be considered as symbolical tombs because their inventory is similar with the tombs of late Neolithic from Hungary. The variety of archeological features, the significant quantity of the artifacts (pottery, anthropomorphic statues, lithic tools) are elements which show the importance of the investigations from the Halmeu Custom for the middle and late Neolithic age from this region. The researches were continued during 2008, making rescue excavations on the region of building of some Duty Free Shops, an area of 800 m2 being investigated. The excavations from Halmeu covered a relative large area being not yet systematic and dependent on rescue excavations and possibility to place the archeological surface. During 2006, was descovered the C. 2/2006­it is a trench which is oriented to SE­NV, dug on the length of 18,60 m. We didn’t find the ends of this trench which seems to be one of fortification. The line of the trench is easily arched with the breadth of 3,90 m. and 5,50 m. The bottom was flat, the its breath being between 0,30 m. and 1,30 m. The makeshift was blakish and it contains a big quantity of pottery burnt clay, and lithics. C4/2008, as shape and dimentiones, seems to be in connection with C2/2006, being part of a fortification system. C9/2008 seems to be trench of palisade, having entrance and being marked with four pit of pillar and which are outside of the area which is clesed of C2/2006­C4/2008, being, probably an earlier stage of fortification.

The neolithic settlement from Urziceni The settlement Urziceni ­ Vamă is situated in North of Urziceni Village, in the free area between romanian and hungarian border. The presentation of materials: The pottery. a) The invoice: on the whole, the clay of the pots with trick walls contains organic ingredients, sand. In general, the pottery was well fired, their color is different: from dark brawn to red­grey. The ornaments. The majority of the pottery are represented by painted vessels. The surface was covered by slip and, in general, the painted segments are relative good preserved. The painted pottery has very good analogy with Piscolt Collection (Piscolt–Lutarie; Sacuieni–Horo), but also in the East of Hungary, Slovacia and Ucraina. The painted ornament was made exclusively with black paint and the basic elements of the ornamental pattern are bands of various widths used in the composition of an unfinished pseudo spiral, meandres. Some pieces were decorated by an impressed by fingers, or one fragments there is a pattern deeply incised zig­zag lines, or a linear ornament consisting of incized meandric. The pottery forms: cilindrical, spherical sides large and medium pots; large and medium size pots with a high, narrowed neck; conical and frequently deep bowls, small, spherical cups with a narrowed throat; tulip shaped vasel on tall cylindrical and bell shaped pedestral; amphora like pots with high, cylindrical neck. The Middle Neolithic Complex of the Urziceni–Vamă settlements is directly analogous with the settlements of Piscolt – Lutărie and Săcuieni–Horo. We place these sites to the final midlle stage of Piscolt Group of the Painted Pottery Culture.

The neolithic settlement from Carei ­ Cozard Regarding the excavations from Carei ­ Cozard, Neta Iercosan brings into light the “S” profiled vessel forms (cups or pots), with decorations along the maximum level of the diameter, and with a foot­shaped handle. They represent specific features for the Bicske II­Sopot II culture from the Transdanubian region, and have a well defined role to the origin of Lengyel culture, considered to be an import from Tisa culture. The author allots the finds from Carei­Cozard to the Dumbrava­ Suplac­Salca II­Seleus type, representing a different cultural facies in the Western Apuseni Mountains and providing links to and interferences with Gorzsa, Herpaly, Csoszhalom and Tisa. The author infers well the analogies, although a definition of the cultural facies like the Dumbrava ­ Suplac­Salca II­Seleus type wouldn’t have been necessary. The most important settlements to this chronological level are those from Zauan­Dambul Spanzuratilor, Suplac­Corau, Oradea­Salca, Giurtelecu Simleului, Carei­Cozard, Dumbrava­Mediesu­Aurit. The discoveries from Zauan­Dambul Spanzuratilor are allotted by the excavation authors, Gh. Lazarovici and E. Lako, to the phenomena of the type Tisa II, Tisa II ­ Herpaly or Tisa­Herpaly ­ Csoszhalom. According to the observations made by the excavation authors, in the area between Crisuri and Barcau, the connections between Tisa and Szakalhat are very strong, the Hungarian colleagues giving a genetic role to the Szakalhat culture in forming the Tisa culture. Between the Crisul Repede River and Somes River, in the Northern side of Bihor County and in the neighboring areas from Hungary, to the West, North­East and East sides is spread the Herpaly culture, a civilization that belongs to a larger complex from the Late Neolithic, called the Tisa­ Herpaly ­ Csoszhalom complex. The finds within this complex are classified as Tisa II­Herpaly. The materials from Dumbrava ­ Mediesul Aurit were published as a distinct phenomenon, the Dumbrava group, and their theory has been reiterated after finishing the excavations from Oradea­Salca). Luca redefines this phenomenon, giving up to the name of “Dumbrava Group” and proposing the term of Salca­Herpaly culture. The author defines under this name the finds from Zauan­Dambul Spanzuratilor, Suplac­Corau, Oradea­Salca, Giurtelecu Simleului, Carei­Cozard, Dumbrava­Mediesul Aurit, due to the close analogies with the Berrettyoujfalu­ Herpaly settlement. Having not the purpose to redefine a culture or a cultural group, we consider necessary the use of one unitary name for the cultural phenomena of the same type, preferably the name of Herpaly or Salca­Herpaly.

The neolithic settlement from Medieșu Aurit – Togul lui Schweizer The archaeological researche at the site was undertaken withinthe framework of the Transgaz proiect rescue excavations between Medieșul Aurit and Potău villages. In this area, the pipeline cuts 150­250 m. of the midlle terrace of Somes river, in the Togul lui Schweize point. The plastic ornaments of pottery are: simple notches on the pottery rim, deep notches on the increased rim of the pottery; bulding on the rim of the cups, with one or two perforations under the rim, small or big bulging, etc., all of these having analogies at Oradea Salca and Carei Cozard. Since the slip on the potteryis very poorly preservet, there is no pained decoration visible. Shards with incised ornamentation are not very numerous. Nevertheless, they are of great importance, reflecting some influence of vincian tradition. Exemples of similar inciset pottery are known also from Giurtelecu Simleului and Halmeu Vamă. According to prof. S. A. Luca, they indicate cultural connection with communities of Turdaș Group. The most important settlements at this choronological level are those from Zăuan ­ Dâmbul Spânzuraților, Suplac – Corău, Oradea – Salca, Giurtelecu Șimleului, Carei – Cozard, Dumbrava – Medieșu Aurit, Halmeu – Vamă.