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PILOT ANALYSIS OF GLOBAL ECOSYSTEMS Coastal Ecosystems LAURETT A BURKE YUMIKO KURA KEN KASSEM CARMEN REVENGA MARK SPALDING DON MCALLISTER CAROL ROSEN PUBLICATIONS DIRECTOR HYACINTH BILLINGS PRODUCTION MANAGER MAGGIE POWELL COVER DESIGN AND LAYOUT CAROLL YNE HUTTER EDITING Each World Resources Institute Report represents a timely, scholarly treat- inquiry. It also solicits and responds to the guidance of advisory panels and expert ment of a subject of public concern. WRI takes responsibility for choosing reviewers. Unless otherwise stated, however, all the interpretation and findings set the study topics and guaranteeing its authors and researchers freedom of forth in WRI publications are those of the authors. Copyright © 2001 World Resources Institute. All rights reserved. ISBN: 1-56973-458-5 Photo Credits: Cover: Digital Vision, Ltd., Smaller ecosystem photos: Forests: Digital Vision, Ltd., Agriculture: Viet Nam, IFPRI Photo/P. Berry, Grasslands: PhotoDisc, Freshwater: Dennis A. Wentz, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 2001088657 Coastal: Digital Vision, Ltd., Extent and Change: Patuxent River, Maryland/NOAA, Shoreline Stabilization: Georgetown, Guyana/L. Burke, Water Quality: Noctiluca bloom, California/P.J.S. Printed in the United States of America on chlorine-free paper with Franks, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Biodiversity: Caribbean Sea/NOAA, Marine Fisheries: recycled content of 50%, 20% of which is post-consumer. NOAA, Tourism: Bunaken, North Sulawesi, Indonesia/L. Burke. Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems Coastal Ecosystems LAURETT A BURKE–WRI YUMIKO KURA–WRI KEN KASSEM –WRI CARMEN REVENGA –WRI MARK SPALDING –UNEP-WCMC DON MCALLISTER –OCEAN VOICE INTERNA TIONAL With analytical contributions from: John Caddy, Luca Garibaldi, and Richard Grainger, FAO Fisheries Department: trophic analysis of marine fisheries; Jaime Baquero, Gary Spiller, and Robert Cambell, Ocean Voice Interna- tional: distribution of known trawling grounds; Lorin Pruett, Hal Palmer, and Joe Cimino, Veridian-MRJ Technology Solutions: area of maritime zones and coastline length. Published by World Resources Institute Washington, DC This report is also available at http://www.wri.org/wr2000 Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems (PAGE) Project Management A series of five technical reports, available in print and on-line at Norbert Henninger, WRI http://www.wri.org/wr2000. Walt Reid, WRI Dan Tunstall, WRI AGROECOSYSTEMS Valerie Thompson, WRI Stanley Wood, Kate Sebastian, and Sara J. Scherr, Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Arwen Gloege, WRI Agroecosystems, A joint study by International Food Policy Research Institute and World Elsie Velez-Whited, WRI Resources Institute, International Food Policy Research Institute and World Resources Institute, Washington D.C. Agroecosystems December 2000 / paperback / ISBN 1-56973-457-7 / US$20.00 Stanley Wood, International Food Policy Research Institute COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS Kate Sebastian, International Food Lauretta Burke, Yumiko Kura, Ken Kassem, Carmen Revenga, Mark Spalding, and Policy Research Institute Don McAllister, Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Coastal Ecosystems, World Resources Sara J. Scherr, University of Maryland Institute, Washington D.C. April 2001 / paperback / ISBN 1-56973-458-5 / US$20.00 Coastal Ecosystems Lauretta Burke, WRI FOREST ECOSYSTEMS Yumiko Kura, WRI Emily Matthews, Richard Payne, Mark Rohweder, and Siobhan Murray, Pilot Analysis Ken Kassem, WRI of Global Ecosystems: Forest Ecosystems, World Resources Institute, Washington D.C. Carmen Revenga, WRI December 2000 / paperback / ISBN 1-56973-459-3 / US$20.00 Mark Spalding, UNEP-WCMC Don McAllister, Ocean Voice FRESHWATER SYSTEMS International Carmen Revenga, Jake Brunner, Norbert Henninger, Ken Kassem, and Richard Payne Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Freshwater Systems, World Resources Institute, Forest Ecosystems Washington D.C. Emily Matthews, WRI October 2000 / paperback / ISBN 1-56973-460-7 / US$20.00 Richard Payne, WRI Mark Rohweder, WRI GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS Siobhan Murray, WRI Robin White, Siobhan Murray, and Mark Rohweder, Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems, World Resources Institute, Washington D.C. Freshwater Systems December 2000 / paperback / ISBN 1-56973-461-5 / US$20.00 Carmen Revenga, WRI Jake Brunner, WRI Norbert Henninger, WRI Ken Kassem, WRI The full text of each report will be available on-line at the time of publication. Printed Richard Payne, WRI copies may be ordered by mail from WRI Publications, P.O. Box 4852, Hampden Station, Baltimore, MD 21211, USA. To order by phone, call 1-800-822-0504 (within Grassland Ecosystems the United States) or 410-516-6963 or by fax 410-516-6998. Orders may also be Robin White, WRI placed on-line at http://www.wristore.com. Siobhan Murray, WRI The agroecosystem report is also available at http://www.ifpri.org. Printed copies may Mark Rohweder, WRI be ordered by mail from the International Food Policy Research Institute, Communica- tions Service, 2033 K Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20006-5670, USA. iv PILOT ANALYSIS OF GLOBAL ECOSYSTEMS Contents FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................................................................................... ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................................................................. xi INTRODUCTION TO THE PILOT ANALYSIS OF GLOBAL ECOSYSTEMS ................................................................ Introduction/1 COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 1 Scope of the Analysis Key Findings and Information Issues Conclusions COASTAL ZONE: EXTENT AND CHANGE ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Working Definition of Coastal Zone Estimating Area and Length of Coastal Zone Characterizing the Natural Coastal Features Extent and Change in Area of Selected Coastal Ecosystem Types Human Modification of Coastal Ecosystems Information Status and Needs SHORELINE STABILIZATION ................................................................................................................................................................... 25 Importance of Shoreline Stabilization Effects of Artificial Structures on the Shoreline Condition of Shoreline Stabilization Services Capacity of Coastal Ecosystems to Continue to Provide Shoreline Stabilization Information Status and Needs WATER QUALITY ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Coastal Water Quality Condition of Coastal Waters Capacity of Coastal Ecosystems to Continue to Provide Clean Water Information Status and Needs BIODIVERSITY ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39 Importance of Biodiversity Diversity of Coastal Ecosystems Condition of Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Capacity of Coastal Ecosystems to Sustain Biodiversity Information Status and Needs Coastal Ecosystems v FOOD PRODUCTION—MARINE FISHERIES ....................................................................................................................................... 51 Importance of Marine Fisheries Production Status and Trends in Marine Fisheries Production Pressures on Marine Fishery Resources Condition of Marine Fisheries Resources Capacity of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems to Continue to Provide Fish Information Status and Needs TOURISM AND RECREATION .................................................................................................................................................................. 63 Growth of Global Tourism Status and Trends of Tourism in the Caribbean Impacts of Tourism on the Environment and the Economy Tourism Carrying Capacity Sustainable Tourism The Role of Protected Areas Information Status and Needs TABLES Table 1. Coastal Environments ............................................................................................................................................................ 11 Table 2. Coastal Zone Statistics by Country .................................................................................................................................. 14–15 Table 3. Coastal Characterization Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 16 Table 4. Mangrove Area by Country .................................................................................................................................................... 18 Table 5. Mangrove Loss for Selected Countries ................................................................................................................................... 19 Table 6. Coastal Wetland Extent and Loss for Selected Countries ....................................................................................................... 20 Table 7. Comparison of Two Coral Reef Area Estimates .....................................................................................................................
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  • Genetic Divergence and Polyphyly in the Octocoral Genus Swiftia [Cnidaria: Octocorallia], Including a Species Impacted by the DWH Oil Spill

    Genetic Divergence and Polyphyly in the Octocoral Genus Swiftia [Cnidaria: Octocorallia], Including a Species Impacted by the DWH Oil Spill

    diversity Article Genetic Divergence and Polyphyly in the Octocoral Genus Swiftia [Cnidaria: Octocorallia], Including a Species Impacted by the DWH Oil Spill Janessy Frometa 1,2,* , Peter J. Etnoyer 2, Andrea M. Quattrini 3, Santiago Herrera 4 and Thomas W. Greig 2 1 CSS Dynamac, Inc., 10301 Democracy Lane, Suite 300, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA 2 Hollings Marine Laboratory, NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Sciences, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 331 Fort Johnson Rd, Charleston, SC 29412, USA; [email protected] (P.J.E.); [email protected] (T.W.G.) 3 Department of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 10th and Constitution Ave NW, Washington, DC 20560, USA; [email protected] 4 Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, 111 Research Dr, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs) are recognized around the world as diverse and ecologically important habitats. In the northern Gulf of Mexico (GoMx), MCEs are rocky reefs with abundant black corals and octocorals, including the species Swiftia exserta. Surveys following the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill in 2010 revealed significant injury to these and other species, the restoration of which requires an in-depth understanding of the biology, ecology, and genetic diversity of each species. To support a larger population connectivity study of impacted octocorals in the Citation: Frometa, J.; Etnoyer, P.J.; GoMx, this study combined sequences of mtMutS and nuclear 28S rDNA to confirm the identity Quattrini, A.M.; Herrera, S.; Greig, Swiftia T.W.