As the fi rst two conditions were not met, Britain did ARTICLE not withdraw her troops from the Maltese islands. On 14 May 1801, Mr C. Cameron was appointed Civil Pharmacy in Malta in the nineteenth Commissioner of the Islands of Malta and Gozo by the century authorities in Britain, but it took fourteen years of fur- ther dispute with France, Russia, and other European John Joseph Borg nations before Malta was fi nally recognised as a British colony.3 Abstract When the Maltese Islands came under British control Laws regulating pharmacy in the nineteenth century in 1800s pharmacy was already well established as an On occupying Malta, the British found that a legal sys- independent profession following several centuries of tem governing pharmacy was already in existence. In rule by the Knights of the Order of St John. Th is article Britain no legislation had been enacted prior to the describes the transition of pharmacy practice and edu- 1800s, and as the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Brit- cation during the course of the nineteenth century. In ain had not yet been established, the civil government hospital dispensaries pharmacists had a wide range of of that time opted to implement the laws used by the duties although their status in relation to doctors was Order of St John of Jerusalem right up to 1900, when slowly eroded during the period of British rule. Retail the Sanitary Ordinance regulating the practice of phar- pharmacies were originally based on Italian lines, but macy was drawn up. with British occupation increasing numbers of English- Gradually, the colonial authorities on the island is- style pharmacies appeared, and the number of propri- sued Ordinances concerning the pharmacy profession. etary medicines increased. British pharmacy has had a Th e governor, Th omas Maitland, issued the fi rst Proc- far-reaching and lasting impact on the practice of phar- lamation in 1814; this stated that all pharmacists, in macy in Malta. order to practise their profession, should possess a cer- tifi cate signed by the ‘Protomedico’ (the most senior British control of Malta Maltese doctor on the island).4 In 1816, an Order to On 5 September 1800, the French Garrison in Malta regulate weights and measures was enacted. Th is stated capitulated after a twelve-month blockade in the three that ‘All the weights, scales and measures in Mdina, cities and Valletta. Articles of Capitulation were signed Rabat and Dingli, shall be forthwith called in by the by Vaubois (General of the French Division) and Rear- Jurats [magistrates] of the Four Cities, in order to ex- Admiral Villeneuve (commander of the French Marine amine and re-stamp them if found according to law. on Malta) on the French side; and by Major-General Th e said operation shall take place at Mdina’. All defec- Pigot (commander of the British troops) and Captain tive weights, scales and measures were to be forfeited Martin (commander of the British Squadron during the and destroyed.5 blockade) on the British side.1 Th e Temporary Revolu- In 1827, another law which dealt with the issue of tionary Government which had been set up during the language aff ected pharmacists. Th is stated that no blockade with Captain Alexander Ball as its civil ad- pharmacist could fi ll up vacancies in the hospital dis- ministrator was dissolved, and both civil and military pensary unless he knew how to read, write, and speak command were placed under General Pigot.2 the English language.6 On 21 October 1829, a law for British control was formally ratifi ed by the Treaty establishing a modifi ed trial by jury in certain criminal of Amiens, signed on 27 March 1802 between England cases was enacted and published in the Malta Govern- and France (together with her allies Spain and the Bat- ment Gazette. In article VIII of the law, no mention was avian Republic). According to Article X, the islands of made of exempting pharmacists from becoming jurors, Malta, Gozo, and Comino had to be restored to the even though all advocates, priests, physicians and sur- Order of St John of Jerusalem, but four conditions had geons working in his majesty’s army or navy, were ex- to be met before Malta was handed over by the British empted.7 Th is was diff erent to the situation under the troops. Th ese were: 1) Th e Maltese language had to be Knights of St John, when pharmacists were exempted established within the Order; 2) Russia, Prussia and from military service and recognised as professionals in Bavaria had to guarantee that the Maltese islands would their own right. be independent; 3) A Grand Master had to be elected In 1851 ‘Instructions for the guidance of the offi c- and approved by the Pope and the Russian priory; and ers and servants of the Government and of the charita- 4) A Neapolitan garrison had to be established on the ble institutions of the Islands of Malta and Gozo’ were islands to defend them. issued. Th e Commissioners of Charity were appointed

PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 65 to enforce the regulations and instructions established Th e guidelines also laid down the duties of the assistant for the management of the charitable institutions. physician of the Franconi Lunatic Asylum (Box 2). Meanwhile, the Inspector of Prisons and Charitable in- stitutions was instructed to frequently visit and inspect Box 2. Duties of the assistant physician at the Franconi 9 the government dispensaries, hospital dispensaries and Lunatic Asylum apothecaries’ stores. Th e duties of the apothecary at the Central Civil Hospital were laid down in these guide- 1. To act as an apothecary at the lunatic asylum. lines (Box 1). 2. To assure that the medicines compounded were of good quality, and that they are properly ad- Box 1. Duties of the apothecary at the Central Civil Hos- ministered. pital8 3. To furnish a statement of the expenditure of medicines twice a year. 1. To be responsible for the dispensary, laboratory 4. To order medicines. and medical storerooms. 5. Responsibility for all the medicines at the dis- 2. To direct the preparation of decoctions, infu- pensary. sions, distilled waters etc, in the laboratory, and to keep furnished the dispensary with all active ingredients. In 1854, a law was enacted obliging apothecaries to fol- 3. To give advice and assistance to the junior med- low the London Pharmacopoeia in the preparation of ical offi cers in the preparation of medicines. drugs. Th e British Pharmacopoeia was adopted as the 4. To be responsible for medicines, instruments, offi cial one in Malta in 1864, when it replaced the Lon- 10 surgical materials, and to ensure that the quality don Pharmacopoeia in the United Kingdom. Prior to and packaging of medicines was up to standard, 1854, independent Maltese apothecaries and pharma- and that they were dispensed before their expiry cists used a variety of Italian and other pharmacopoe- date. ias. Th ese included Brugnatelli’s Farmacopea (Venice, 5. Not to issue any medicines, except when it was 1803), Campana’s Farmacopea Ferrarese (Bologna, a written requisition by the principal or an ap- 1827), and Orasi’s Farmacopea Italiana (Livorno, 1849). proved offi cer by the inspector. Th e requisition Pharmacists in government hospitals were obliged to 11 had to be numbered and fi led. follow the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. 6. To present an application to the inspector for the No laws in the nineteenth century limited the authority to purchase any medicines and active- working hours of pharmacists. Th e British govern- ingredients. ment’s ‘laissez-faire’ policy resulted in self-regulation of 7. To avoid any undue wastage. the working hours of the apothecary according to the 8. To inform the inspector when any supplies were workload of his pharmacy. As a result, the nineteenth received, in order that, the quality of the medic- century apothecary worked longer hours than other inals received could be inspected by an examin- Maltese businesses, sometimes working until eleven 12 ing board. o’clock at night. 9. To check any invoices. 10. To fi le an application to the inspector, in order Th e dispensary of the General Hospital under the that a stock take could be made. Th is was usu- British ally done on the 1st of January. As during the times of the Knights, the head pharma- 11. To keep a General Entry Book where supplies cist was responsible for the running of the hospital were recorded. pharmacy. In 1821, the magazine ward was converted 12. To keep a General Expenditure Book, which was into an apothecary store, whilst the pharmacy still oc- used as a day-to-day ledger. cupied its old site. Th e pharmacy was still stocked with 13. To make a stock take every half-year, which was antique pots and jars. Th e laboratory was equipped with to be compared to the balance obtained from the all the necessary apparatus to distil and express oils. general entry book, after all receipts and invoic- Th ese crude drugs were required for the preparation of 13 es were written. ointments, powders, and extracts. 14. To submit every half-year a detailed accounts re- On 1 January 1859, Filippini Felice was appointed port. by the Governor to become the head pharmacist of the 15. To co-ordinate his assistants to compound med- dispensary and the medical stores of the charitable in- icines and draw up accounts. stitutions. He held this post for more than fourteen years, and had an annual salary of ninety pounds ster-

66 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 ling.14 Dr Giuseppe Bonnici was Filippini’s assistant, Box 3. Small pox declaration by governor, 183017 and had an annual salary of seventy pounds sterling.15 Although the remuneration of the pharmacist was con- Several cases of smallpox having occurred in these sidered to be quite generous, it was more than twenty Islands, the Lieutenant Governor urgently calls on times less than that earned by the Governor. the people not to delay placing themselves under the Th e medicaments prepared were similar to the ones security providently aff orded by vaccination. made during the times of the Knights. By 1820 (twen- His Excellency trusts that no part of the popula- ty-four years after Edward Jenner made the fi rst suc- tion will be found insensible to the advantages de- cessful demonstration of immunisation against small- rived from this protective process, or careless enough pox by the use of the related but mild viral disease, to forego thus extended to them. cowpox) vaccination against smallpox was given free of Generally speaking there is no reason to think charge from the General Hospital on Sundays only. that smallpox has abated anything of its wonted vir- During the week the Maltese people could be inocu- ulence, or that it is more controllable by the expedi- lated with the vaccine free of charge from the Civil ents of the medical art; but a just and confi dent ex- Hospital in Valletta. Th e procedure to be vaccinated pectation exists that almost complete protection is was to present an application at the hospital, at the aff orded when the operation of vaccination has been hours of service.16 performed with due care and circumspection, and Th e importance given by the British government to also in such case, that the gradual diminution and the control of smallpox can be observed in an an- wearing out of the effi cacy of the vaccine lymph by nouncement published in the Malta Government Ga- time is not to be apprehended. zette in 1830 (Box 3). Daily vaccination, gratis, will be performed as follows, viz: Th e Dispensary of the Civil Hospital for men at Val- For the inhabitants of Valletta at the Civil Hos- letta pital and the General Hospital; For those of the In 1802, a set of rules and regulations modelled on three cities on the other side of the Harbour at the those of the Holy Infi rmary were drawn up for the Naval Hospital; Dr Gavagna the Police Physician management of the hospital and its dispensary. One of and a number of Medical assistants will daily visit the diff erences in management that occurred with the the Casals for this purpose; And in respect to Gozo, drawing up of these regulations was that drugs were no instructions have been sent to the Lieutenant Gov- longer purchased by the pharmacist, but by two admin- ernor of that island. istrators who were also responsible for the purchase of Palace, Valletta, 30th March, 1830. foodstuff s. By Command of His Excellency, A Principal Apothecary was responsible for the di- Fred. Hanky, Chief Secretary to Government. rection of the hospital dispensary. He also had four pharmacists to help him, two of whom accompanied the physician during the ward-round. During the ward- dered by the apothecary from local suppliers and paid round prescriptions were written by one of these phar- for by the administrators. However, it now became macists, while the other pharmacist carried a box con- clear that the quality of these medicaments was not up taining medicinal preparations such as opiates, cordials, to standard, that commonly used items such as Peru- and anodyne spirit. Th ese medicines were usually ad- vian and Quill bark were unobtainable, and that prices ministered to the sick during the ward visit. It is inter- were high. Th e Permanent Committee of the charitable esting to note that during the day, the pharmacists also institutions began purchasing drugs at London prices administered the medicines prescribed by the physician from the Military General Hospital. By 1849, drugs to the patients under the supervision of two junior phy- were directly purchased from London through the sicians. Th ese junior physicians also used to write down agent general for the Crown Colonies. Drug expendi- prescriptions, and helped in the preparation of medica- ture was always a burden on the hospital budget, and ments in the hospital pharmacy. strict control of the medicines used at the hospital was Th e pharmacy not only supplied the drugs needed made by adopting the Military Hospital system to con- by the hospital, but it supplied medicines to other in- trol drug wastage.18 Attempts to raise funds by petitions stitutions like the Ospizio, to prostitutes, to the offi cers were made throughout the period, and perhaps these of the Royal Malta Regiment, to the crews of British might have been used to purchase drugs.19 merchantmen in quarantine, and also to several con- In May 1850, the Civil Hospital in Valletta was vents and nunneries. Up to this time, drugs were or- closed and all patients were transferred to the Central

PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 67 Hospital at Floriana. Th e Central Hospital had a dis- on the mahogany shelves in ceramic drug pots. Th e jars pensary, and it was run by one pharmacist who was ap- used to store medicines were decorated.25 pointed in 1850 based upon the results he obtained in Th e nineteenth century pharmacist was very indus- his University examinations.20 trious, and he spent many hours preparing his selected medicaments extemporaneously, by distilling, extract- Th e government dispensaries ing, mixing the crude drugs. His knowledge of plants Th e fi rst Government dispensary was opened in Val- guided his choices when preparing the prescriptions his letta in 1832. Its aim was to reduce the workload of the fellow doctors prescribed, and helped him to store them Civil Hospital. Th e dispensary was run by an apothe- in the best possible way.26 Although no refrigeration cary, while two surgeons and two physicians off ered was available in this century, a tender for the supply of their services free. According to Cassar, ‘by 1833 a total ice was issued by the government in the Malta Govern- of 22,000 persons had been seen and assisted at the dis- ment Gazette. Food and drugs may have been preserved pensary’, thereby proving the popularity of the dispen- by this means. sary.21 As in the time of Mastru Salvatore Passa, the ma- Dispensaries were consequently set-up in towns and jority of crude drugs used to prepare the medicaments villages, usually adjacent to the police station. In 1849, were imported. Opium arrived in bales from Alexan- the government established 17 government dispensaries dria, Constantinople and Marseilles. Honey was im- besides that of Valletta. By the last quarter of the nine- ported from Marsala; Gum Arabic and manna were teenth century, there were twenty-six public dispensa- imported in barrels from Tripoli, Alexandria and Tri- ries,22 all run by physicians who were known as ‘medi- este. Leeches arrived from Gibraltar, Patras and Cor- cal dispensers’.23 Th e duties of these dispensers were also fu;27 from Boston (USA) came boxes of logwood; sacks laid down in the instructions for the guidance of the of ipecacuanha were imported from Messina and senna offi cers and servants of the Government of the charita- from Naples. Advertisements in the Malta Government ble institutions of the Islands of Malta and Gozo. Of Gazette off ered pharmacists the opportunity to pur- particular importance was the total responsibility for chase drugs, balances, weights, pestles and mortars at the medicines under the dispenser’s care, his assistance bargain prices in a public auction held in Valletta.28 of the sick, his promotion of vaccination, his assistance Behind a partition, the pharmacist compounded his during post mortem examinations, and his keeping all mixtures, rolled pills, fi lled cachets and wrapped pow- registers up to date. ders, according to the reference books he had, following Th e job of the Medical Dispenser was somewhat the laws laid down therein. Other books such as the similar to the work of the apothecary in the United prescription ledger (used to register the prescription just Kingdom in the early nineteenth century. Both diag- prepared) were kept by the pharmacist. nosed, prescribed, compounded and dispensed. Drugs Th rough a prescription register kept at the phar- were dispensed free of charge, and the active ingredi- macy of Messrs Collis and Williams of Valletta in the ents and materials used were obtained from surplus ma- 1860s, it is possible to determine what type of clientele terials produced from the army hospital dispensary. Th e this pharmacy had. Th e clients were almost all British annual remuneration of the Medical Dispensers was in residents and visitors of every rank in society. Naval a range of £40 to £80 sterling, and after thirty years of captains, civil servants and their wives, nobles, physi- service an increase of £40 sterling was given.24 cians, seamen, army offi cers were some of the clientele. Maltese customers at this period were the domestic Retail pharmacies in Malta during this period staff of British residents or the employees of the hotels In 1842, there were thirty-nine pharmacies in Malta of Valletta. Most of the customers lived in Valletta but and Gozo, twenty-eight of which were in Valletta and some came from Floriana, Pietà and Sliema. Th e the three cities. A pharmacy in those days had a large names of the British customers were registered in full, wooden entrance, and a large sign board made out of whilst Maltese domestic staff were registered as ini- wood over the doorway but no display window. Th e tials.29 name of the pharmacy was inscribed on a sign board Th e directions given to patients were almost always and at night it was illuminated by a lantern. Some of in English, and most of these directions are hardly ever these pharmacies had their ceiling painted by Guiseppe seen today. For example, a preparation of ‘Alumen’ and Calì. Internally, wooden shelves, partitions and plinths ‘Decoctum Quercus’ had to be administered with the covered the walls of the shop. Drawers were labelled use of a syringe three times daily due to its astringent with the names of the leaves, roots, and seeds stored in properties. Th e directions for the administration of a them. Powders, ointments, and galenicals were stored mixture to a baby was prescribed as ‘one drachma as

68 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 often as he will take it’. Compliance was always a prob- Box 4. Selected pharmacists working in Malta during the lem especially because of the unpalatable taste of the nineteenth century medicine. Th us, the pharmacist had to compound the medicine using various methods. Powders were dis- 1. Mr Clemente Mifsud Bonnici, pharmacist of Ze- solved in water and brandy; drops of ‘Liquor Cincho- jtun, wrote an account of the plague of 1813.36 nae’ were put into lumps of sugar; and a glass tube was In this account, Bonnici criticises the medical used to administer medicines that could stain teeth practitioners for their ignorance to implement such as ‘Syrupus Ferri Phosphatis’. Pills containing qui- those measures which he thought would keep nine and gentian were wrapped in silver leaf to shield the plague at bay. His ideas were based on the them from the palate and increase their shelf life. Lini- autopsies made on the corpses of plague-stricken ments were applied on pieces of ‘spongio-piline’, a ma- patients where putrefaction was found. Bonnici terial made out of wool and sponge with a layer of rub- believed that plague was brought about by eat- ber to make it impermeable to moisture.30 ing ‘bad and putrid grain’.37 During the 1860s the most common domestic 2. Mr Paul Stivala obtained his diploma from the measure was the wine glass, but by the 1880s this was University of Malta in 1817. He was from Val- replaced by the table, dessert and teaspoon. Th e prices letta. His father was the senior assistant pharma- of medicines during the last half of the nineteenth cen- cist of the Holy Infi rmary and later the Civil tury did not vary so much. A four-ounce bottle of med- Hospital for men in Valletta.38 icine was sold for one shilling and sixpence (1s. 6d.); all 3. Dr Saviour Bezzina M.D., Ph.C., from Zejtun, powders cost two pence each, to ensure that the same was appointed Medical Dispenser of the village price would be charged for a repeat prescription. A code of Luqa. He was also responsible for the inhabit- was used as a reference tool to check the price of the ants of Safi and Kirkop.39 medicine. Th is code consisted of the name of a drug 4. Joseph Mamo, born in Sicily and the son of Mal- which contained ten letters. Care was taken that no let- tese parents. He studied at the local University ters were repeated and each letter was then numerated. and served as assistant chemist during the plague For example: of 1813 at the Lazzaretto. After obtaining his di- ploma in 1819, he served at the Civil Hospital F L O R A N T H E M for men in Valletta. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 5. Mr Andrew Debono, obtained his diploma from On the corner of the register two letters were written to the University of Malta, but only practised his set the standard price of the prescription. For example, profession at the Rosetta Hospital in Egypt. He the letters R/A meant 4s. 5d. which would be the price worked also as a merchant of Arabic gum, and is charged again if a repeat prescription was dispensed. renowned for the explorations he made on the Cassar reports that “passers-by were greeted by various Nile.40 kinds of odours, depending on the nature of the ingre- dients being compounded at the time - ranging from During the mid-nineteenth century few social clubs ex- the garlic smell of the gum resin asafoetida through the isted. As a result, pharmacies became the rendezvous of pungent aroma of camphor to the fragrance of cloves professional and cultured men of the island. After clos- and the scent of the orange peel”.31 ing hours, these people would go to the pharmacy and Th e impact on pharmacy of the British presence in while away their time, discussing political topics of the Malta could be seen from the names of the pharmacies day.41 Consequently, some pharmacies came into the such as the English Dispensary (1833), Th e New Brit- limelight for their activities. One such pharmacy, Gio- ish Dispensary (1843), Red Cross Dispensary (1884),32 vanni Bardon’s in Merchants street, Valletta, became and by the introduction of the consulting room in the the place where Nicola Fabrizi (1804-1885) used to pharmacy.33 In 1863, there were forty-fi ve pharmacists hang around. Fabrizi was the head of the association in Malta and Gozo.34 All these pharmacists were male ‘Giovane Italia’, where he operated between 1837 and except for one female from Mosta.35 1864 forging links and communications between J. Borg wrote a series of articles throughout the Mazzini in London and other Italians in various parts 1980s, in Th e Pharmacist entitled ‘Pharmacists of Old’. of the Mediterranean. ‘La pharmacia della Carità’ was In these articles, Borg presented a list of prominent managed by the pharmacist Emanuele Maria Borg, a Maltese pharmacists of the past. Selected pharmacists member of the Associazione Patriottica Maltese. He working in Malta during the nineteenth century are supported the Italian liberals and was in favour of the listed in Box 4. unifi cation of Italy and opposed the power of the

PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 69 Papacy. During the 1850s, political grievances by the Patent medicines in Malta in the nineteenth century citizens were made known to the government by public Th e fi rst patent medicine to be advertised in Malta was petitions and memorials. Some of these petitions spon- one for the Italian dentist Giovanni Ornieri, which was sored by the Associazone Patriottica Maltese were advertised in 1765.47 Th is medicine – invented by Orn- signed in pharmacies including the ‘Farmacia Della ieri – was claimed to relieve toothache, hearing loss, Carità’ (the Pharmacy of Charity), the ‘Farmacia della cataracts and fever.48 With the industrial boom that oc- Pietà’ (the Pharmacy of Piety), and the ‘Farmacia Un- curred throughout Europe in the nineteenth century, ione’ (the Union Pharmacy). more research, time, and money were invested in phar- With the unifi cation of Italy in 1861, most of the maceuticals. Newly invented products needed to be Italian political refugees went back to Italy. Conse- protected by law, and this led to several countries de- quently, after 1861 Maltese pharmacies were no longer veloping the necessary legislation to protect patents. By the centre of Italian propaganda and political activity. the end of the nineteenth century most European coun- However, stories and reminiscences about those days tries had a well-developed legal system protecting pat- 42 still continued into the twentieth century. ents and trademarks.49 During the nineteenth century few patent medicines were produced in Malta, although Th e importation of medicines there were some small ventures run by the pharmacist’s Although Malta’s economy in the fi rst half of the nine- family. Early entrepreneurs are listed in Box 5. teenth century was one that did not bring about pros- perity, trade fl ourished in times of war.43 Unlike other Box 5. Patent medicine makers in Malta commodities and goods, medicines were always in de- mand, and fresh supplies were always available. 1. Mr Louis Calleja was an importer of patent med- Zerafa, in his study, Provenance of Registered and icines. His pharmacy was situated in 112, Arch- imported Pharmaceutical and Related Products, Malta bishop Strada, Valletta.50 In February 1844 he 1900-1990 (and the nineteenth century), states that: “In started marketing his Calleja’s Liver Pills indi- 1838, drugs and dyestuff s were not subject to any duty, cated for liver diseases. unlike other imported items like: beer, cattle, charcoal, 2. William Kingston was a British chemist and grain, oil, potatoes, pulse & seeds, spirits, vinegar and druggist who owned the ‘English Pharmacy’ and wines”.44 In a supplement to the Malta Government Ga- ‘British Dispensary’ in Valletta. He sold his pat- zette issued on 12 December 1832, a complete list of ent medicines in his own pharmacies. In 1858 he the tariff s on imported goods was published. Two dif- invented an expectorant which was marketed as ferent import duties were charged on the importation Kingston’s Compound Balm of Horehound, using of medicines. For every £100 worth of medicines im- the locally growing plant Marrubium vulgare. ported from Great Britain or her colonies an import 3. Francesco Caruana Dingli obtained his diploma duty of £1 sterling was charged, while an import duty as a pharmaceutical chemist from the University of £2 sterling was charged on every £100 worth of med- of Malta, and was a member of the Pharmaceu- icines imported from any other place. Drugs could be tical Society of Great Britain. He invented a me- stored in a bond store with the government, at a fee of dicinal liquid preparation which he marketed as 10 shillings for the fi rst three months of storage.45 Al- Ferro-Quassia Caruana Dingli. Th e preparation though the British followed a policy of laissez-faire, was used to strengthen the stomach and the they were always interested to know about the trade nervous system.51 that her colonies had with the United Kingdom, and with her competitors. Th eir goal was to increase and According to Zerafa, the views of the medical profes- secure as much trade as possible with the colonies. One sion on patent medicines were varied. It is clear that way to do this was to increase the duties of imported some members of the pharmaceutical profession were goods from other countries not forming part of the involved in the importation, distribution, manufacture British Empire. and promotion of patent medicines. In several medical According to Zerafa, data on the quantities of drugs publications published during the nineteenth century imported in the nineteenth century are incomplete. no references to patent medicines could be found. In Since the National Library of Malta holds incomplete exploring why, Zerafa suggested that “the reason could collections of statistical publications concerning the be that the medical profession was wary of these new trade between Great Britain and its colonies, only frag- medicines, or else the publishers of the medical journals ments of data could be obtained to elucidate the ques- of that time did not feel the fi nancial need to include tion of the importation of drugs in Malta.46 advertisements in their publications”.52

70 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 Th e fi rst time the effi cacy and the health benefi ts of Box 6. Advertisement for Dr Giraudeau’s Vegetable Rub these patent medicines were questioned in Malta was in a newspaper called La Salute Publica (public health) Radically cured by the Vegetable Rub of Dr Gi- edited by Dr Paolo Agius. In this newspaper Agius gives raudeau de St Gervais, analysed and sanctioned by his views regarding medicines which, according to him, the College of Medicine, at Paris and Montpellier. were dangerous and poisonous. Th ese included podo- Th is valuable Medicine at a small expense, in the phyllin, sodium salicylate, carbolic acid, tablets of calo- short space of one or two weeks, without reference mel, iodine tincture, Gregory’s powder and sulphonal.53 to diet or confi nement, eff ectively cures various Dis- Towards the end of the nineteenth century, some phar- orders, arising from the abuse of Mercury, the Syph- macists distilled aromatic waters and essential oils. Th e ilitic Diseases, recent or however inveterate in their scale of their production must have been large as they most insinuating forms, without the use of mercury. were listed in the yearly almanac Il compagno per tutti, Doctor Giraudeau de St Gervais being regularly under the heading of Distillerie di Acque e Olii Essen- admitted as a physician, pledges his reputation on ziali (Distillers of waters and essential oils). Table 1 lists the success of his medicine. Th e numerous cures it has eff ected can be seen in “Th e Treatise,” attested these pharmacists along with their names and speciali- by men of the greatest eminence on the continent ties. and in Great Britain, when no doubt every one af- Table 1. Distillers of aromatic waters and essential oils fected will use this Anti-mercurial remedy, which and their preparations (Malta, 1888)54 heals without confi nement, and guards against all relapse in future. Th is treatment is perfectly harm- Name Address Specialities less, and will not prevent any individual from fol- Abela, P.G. 58 Strada Essential oils. lowing his ordinary occupation, and everyone may Ponente, Medicated waters. be his own doctor. Valletta Agent: In Malta, M.L. Zammit, No. 263 Strada Arpa, C. Medicated waters. Cham- Reale. omile water (Dudos). Borg, C. Medicated waters. Mizzi, C. Medicated waters. Cham- omile water. Gavino Gulia’s Dispensary in 73, Piazza Marina, Cospicua, advertised in the Compagno newspaper that Press and pharmaceutical advertisements it had for sale “hair dyes and a soap for the removal of Th e local newspapers, almanacs and yearbooks of the all kinds of stains from cloths”.60 Advertisements ap- last half of the nineteenth century contained numerous pearing towards the end of the nineteenth century in- advertisements for patent medicines. Prior to 1839, cluded one for the Speranza’s Pharmacy at Strada Reale, wholesalers and drug dealers used to advertise in the Valletta, which advertised ‘Prescriptions Prepared from 55 Malta Government Gazette. Th e fi rst advertisement to Th e Best and Present Drugs. Patent Medicines and be published in the Gazette was a cure for the conta- Medical advice’. Another from the Vilhena Dispensary gious venereal disease, syphilis. Th e advertisement had at 101 Strada St Anna, Floriana, owned by Dr T.V. Bon- no diagrams and elucidated the benefi cial aspects of the nici & Co., advertised “Physicians’ Prescriptions Accu- 56 medicine “Vegetable Rub” (Box 6). rately Prepared. Every item of English and French pat- Th e Malta Mail and United Service Journal in its ent medicines and perfumery. Teeth extracted and fi rst issue of 7 July 1842 advertised Smiths Compound Consultations daily from 8 am to 10 pm”.61 57 Extract of Sarsaparilla. Also, Muir’s Malta Almanac Th e advertisements for patent medicines in the (1845)58 advertised ‘Morison’s Hygean Medicines’, United Kingdom during the nineteenth century were ‘Bonbons de Malte’, ‘Pabalum Capillorum’ (oil of Ban- similar to the ones found in Malta. In a sample of ad- galore)’, and the ‘Genuine Balm of Mecca in the form vertisements collected systematically from seven Bristol of lozenges’.59 newspapers published in 1851 and 1861, it was found In 1850, Dr Giuseppe Maria Stilon’s pharmaceuti- that – of the 100 advertisements sampled – 28 medi- cal company advertised its imported cod liver oil in the cines included the name of the doctor who invented the Malta Mail. In 1870, interestingly, electricity was being medicine, 17 included the proprietor’s profession (such used to soothe pains; this was made possible through as surgeon or pharmacist), 11 quoted medical authori- the use of “Galvanic chain bands, belt and pocket bat- ties claiming their effi cacy, and 4 advertisements gave teries” imported by Kingston’s Dispensary. In 1872, testimonials.62

PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 71 Prior to the liberalisation of the press in 1839, the Th e appointment of the professor of chemistry was a Malta Government Gazette sometimes published arti- rigorous process. On 25 February 1834, the Medical cles on certain diseases. One such article on cholera63 Council held a meeting at the University of Malta in included a description of the disease, its putative causes Valletta to discuss the employment of either the phar- (which in the 1820s was still unknown), its cures (an macist Giuseppe Fenech or the doctor D. Aquilina, as example was the bleeding technique carried out in Rus- professor of chemistry at the University. Th e following sia), and prevention (such as quarantine for the infected day, Fenech and Aquilina both had to sit an examina- patient). After 1839, specifi c journals dedicated to tion to assess who was the better candidate for the job. health and medicine were published. One was Il-Barth Th e questions they had to answer were those in a set of edited by G. Gulia, and printed in the 1870s. Th is pe- questions submitted prior to the examination by each riodical was published every forty days. It dealt with member of the medical college. Th e sets of questions medicine and natural sciences, and was aimed at the were placed in an urn, and one picked out at random. pharmacist and the medical practitioner. Copies were The two candidates had five hours (between available both in English and Italian, and an annual 10.30am and 3.30pm) to answer the examination ques- subscription cost 8s. 4d., postage not included.64 tions selected. Th ey were: “Who discovered morphine? What are the constituents of morphine? Its properties Th e teaching of pharmacy in Malta and characteristics? What reactions occur with carbon- During the fi rst two decades of the nineteenth century, ic acid, vinegar, solforico idroclorico, vitrico tartarico? students were examined by the protomedicus, who is- What are the general characteristics of morphine salts?” sued a certifi cate of profi ciency.65 On 24 March 1821, Th e pharmacist, Giovanni Fenech, felt sick during the Medical Council was constituted and the duty to the examination, and at 11am he asked the Rector to issue these certifi cates was devolved. This Medical be exempted due to his ‘weakness of memory’. He was Council was the forerunner of today’s Medical Board.66 exempted, and only Dr D. Aquilina fi nished the exam- Th e Faculty of Medicine and Surgery appointed two ination. Th e following day an oral examination was professors to instruct pharmacy students during the held for Dr Aquilina – the only candidate left. Th is oral 1830s: a professor of botany, who was in charge of the examination lasted for three quarters of an hour. Dr running of the Botanical Garden, and lectured also in Aquilina was then employed as professor of chemistry natural history and jurisprudence; and a professor of at the University.69 organic chemistry, practical chemistry and materia In February 1835, a proposal was made by the Med- medica, whose lectures were accompanied as often as ical Council70 that pharmacy students had to sit for the 67 possible by experiments in the laboratory. Th e posts following exams during their course: during the fi rst- were openly advertised. On 19 February 1834 a notice year, chemistry, botany, and natural history; during the appeared in the Malta Government Gazette (Box 7). second-year, pharmaceutical chemistry and pharma- cognosy; and during the third-year, pharmacology, practical chemistry and botany.71 Th is proposal throws Box 7. Notice of appointment of professor of chemistry, some light on how the pharmacy course was conducted, 68 1834 and on what pharmacy students used to study prior to 1838, when the statute of the university established the Th e professorship of chemistry is now vacant, the way in which the pharmacy course had to be carried Council of the University hereby gives notice, that out.72 a concourse will be held for fi lling up the same on To be admitted into the pharmacy course in 1838, Tuesday the 25th instant, and on such succeeding students had to conform to the educational standards days as may be required. required by the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery. Th at Th e Council requests, therefore, such gentlemen, as is, they had to present a Diploma as Master of Philoso- intend to become candidates for the appointment, phy and Arts obtained from the University, or produce to call at the offi ce of the University any day from a certifi cate of approval obtained from the Faculty of the 20th to the 24th instant inclusive, between the Philosophy and Arts. Th is certifi cate was only issued if hours of 8 and 11 in the morning; to inscribe their the student passed examinations in Latin, Italian lit- names, and be informed of the conditions of the erature, English composition, elocution and literature, election, as laid down by the regulations of the Uni- elementary mathematics, and physics. If the student did versity. not have the above requisites, then he had to sit for an University, Valetta, 17th February 1834. examination set by the relevant professors of the Fac- E. Canonico Rosignaud, Rector. ulty of Philosophy and Arts, in the presence of the

72 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 Rector, where he had to show proof of his knowledge apothecary.77 Th e last modifi cation in the course of in the subjects mentioned previously. pharmacy during the nineteenth century occurred in In 1838, the course of pharmacy was conducted 1889, when practical pharmacy was extended over the over a two-year period. During the fi rst-year, pharmacy two years of the course. Also, prior to sitting for their students had to study natural history, botany, and gen- fi nal examinations, students had to produce a satisfac- eral chemistry; in the second-year, they had to study tory certifi cate of their regular attendance at practice practical medicinal botany, pharmaceutical chemistry, sessions.78 and materia medica. Th ey also attended the pharmacy Th roughout the nineteenth century students at the and the laboratory of the Civil Hospital for practical university had to pay for their tuition and also for the work, but they could have also attended private phar- examinations they undertook. In 1898, regular stu- macies. Th e special council of the Faculty of Medicine dents had to pay 6 pounds per annum for the entire regulated the examinations set, and passing all exams course, and a fee of 10 shillings per annum for labora- entitled the student to obtain his certifi cate.73 tory work, while the annual examination fee for cours- In Italy, a law was passed on 13 November 1859 to es in the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery was thirty regulate all University courses. From that day, phar- shillings.79 macy came to be off ered as a course in the Faculties of Medicine and Surgery, and, as in Malta, it led to a di- Conclusion ploma. Th e topics in Italian pharmacy courses were When the British took over the Maltese islands, they similar to the ones studied in the Maltese pharmacy found an advanced pharmaceutical system, which had course during the nineteenth century. Th ese were: bot- been developing for hundreds of years. Th e British, in any, chemistry, pharmacy practice and mineralogy. In their stay of one hundred years, left an indelible imprint 1862, the Matteucci regulation was passed in Italy, and on the culture of these islands, as well as on the profes- the course of pharmacy was no longer off ered by the sion of pharmacy. Trends in the pharmaceutical profes- Faculties of Medicine and Surgery. Instead, schools of sion moved very fast in the United Kingdom and on pharmacy were established and the course of pharmacy the continent. Th roughout the nineteenth century, lo- in Italy became a three-year course.74 cal Maltese pharmaceutical entrepreneurs tried hard to For forty-nine years no modifi cations to the local keep abreast of this progress. Th e introduction of patent pharmacy course were made, until the promulgation of medicines, the consulting room in the pharmacy, the the University statute in 1887, when practical pharma- use of imperial measures, the use of the English lan- cy was introduced in the second-year of the course. Th e guage, the names of pharmacies referring to Britain or two-year course now involved the study of organic England, the use of the London and British Pharmaco- chemistry and practical chemistry during the fi rst-year, poeia, the importation of medicines from the United the aim of these lectures being to give students practice Kingdom, the laws passed regulating pharmacy on the in the manipulation of the chemical techniques used in British model after the 1850s, are all examples of the the preparation of medicines. During the second-year impact of British rule on pharmacy in Malta. materia medica, medical botany, and practical phar- During the mid-nineteenth century, the Pharma- macy were studied. Practical pharmacy had to be car- ceutical Society of Great Britain attempted to pass a Bill ried out at the dispensary of the Central Hospital or at which would enable its members, the pharmaceutical any other pharmacy approved by the Special Council75 chemists, to be exempted from jury members, and thus of the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery.76 Towards the achieving professional status. Th is goal was achieved, end of the nineteenth century, many books on phar- and a clear-cut distinction between the pharmaceutical macy were available for purchase in Malta. Most of chemist and the chemist and druggist became appar- them were in Italian, but Maltese students attending ent. Unfortunately, the reverse situation happened in University had no problem understanding them, as cer- Malta. Maltese pharmacists who were always consid- tifi cates in both the Italian and English languages were ered to be professionals, and thus exempted from mili- required to enter University. tary duties under the Knights of St John of Jerusalem In 1887, students who wished to enter the course of were faced with a situation, that caused their social and pharmacy had to have matriculated and passed exami- professional status to decrease under the British, and as nations in subjects required for admission to the Fac- a consequence they were not exempt from jury service. ulty of Arts. Only candidates who passed the examina- One important movement which Maltese pharma- tion in the subjects studied during the fi rst- and cists did not keep abreast of throughout the nineteenth second-years, before the Special Council of the Faculty century was the foundation of a local Pharmaceutical of Medicine and Surgery, were given the warrant of Society, which would have addressed any pharmaceuti-

PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 73 cal issues raised, and laid down a code of ethics, which Scudo, 6 Tari or 360 Grani. Th e shilling (s.) equivalent to 7 Tari would have enabled pharmacists to deal with moral di- 4 Grani or 144 Grani. Th e sixpence equivalent to 3 Tari 12 Gra- lemmas in a systematic manner. ni or 72 Grani. Th e penny (d.) equivalent to 12 Grani. Th e ½ penny equivalent to 6 Grani. Th e farthing equivalent to 3 Grani. Author’s address: John Joseph Borg, 8, No. 40, 15. Section M. Malta Blue Book for the year 1873. Valletta, Dingli Court, Howard Str, Sliema, SLM 1751, Malta. Malta: Government Printing Offi ce, 1874: M64. Email [email protected]. 16. Malta Government Gazette, 1 June 1825: 741; 157. 17. Malta Government Gazette, 31 March 1830: 999; 200. Endnotes and References 18. Cassar, P. Medical History. (Note 13) 1965: 77-81. 1. Hardman, W. Th e French Government of Malta. In 19. Malta Government Gazette, 5 January 1825: 720; 2. Holland Rose, J. (ed.) A History of Malta during the period of 20. Cassar, P. Medical History. (Note 13) 1965: 84-85. the French and British occupations 1798 - 1815. Facsimile edi- 21. Cassar, P. Medical History. (Note 13) 1965: 348-349. tion Malta: Midesa Books Ltd, 1994: 648. Neither the Maltese 22. Th ese were located in the following towns and villages: people nor the Neapolitan troops stationed in Malta during the Valletta, Floriana, Cospicua, Senglea, Vittoriosa, Pieta, Samra, blockade had any say in the Articles of Capitulation signed by Rabat, Zebbug, Siggiewi, Birkirkara, Balzan, Sliema, Naxxar, the parties mentioned. Captain Alexander Ball informed Gen- Mosta, Qormi, Paola, Luqa, Zurrieq, Qrendi, Zejtun, Zabbar, eral Pigot about the rights of the Maltese people to sign the Sannat, Rabat (Gozo), Nadur, and Xewkija. Articles of Capitulation because of their eff orts in the blockade. 23. Section M. (Note 15) 1873: M180-184. But the British and the French objected. Consequently, Malta 24. Section M. (Note 15) 1873: M180-184. fell under the British crown as one of its colonies in the Medi- 25. Cassar, P. (Note 10) 1967: 28-29. terranean. 26. Cassar, P. (Note 10) 1967: 28-29. 2. Captain Alexander Ball was made head of this govern- 27. Cassar, P. (Note 10) 1967: 31. Cassar states: ‘Th is ani- ment by His Majesty the King of the Two Sicilies (the rightful mal, with its mouth in the form of a sucker, was applied to the owner of the Maltese Islands) and Lord Nelson, by request of the skin of sick persons. Being greedy for blood, it fi xed itself to the Maltese people. infl amed part and drew as much as a teaspoonful of blood. 3. It became clear that the Order of St John of Jerusalem Leeches were employed in fevers, abdominal pain and to provoke would not be able to sustain its power and independence when the fl ow of menses in cases of amenorrhoea’. again in control of the Maltese islands. Th e Maltese were close- 28. Malta Government Gazette, 23 April 1824: 681; 3904. ly attached to the British and wanted to either form part of the 29. Cassar, P. Two centuries of medical prescribing in Mal- British Empire or fend for themselves as an independent state. ta 1683-1882. Th e St. Luke`s Hospital Gazette, 1969: 4(2); 109- Th e British parliament was strongly opposed to handing over 111. Malta to the Order of St John, as the Neapolitan troops were 30. Cassar, P. Two centuries. (Note 29) 1969: 4(2); 109-111. dependent on France, which would then have command of Med- 31. Cassar, P. Two centuries. (Note 29) 1969: 4(2); 109-111. iterranean trade routes. With possession of Malta, Britain – with 32. Cassar, P. Pharmacies and Apothecaries One Hundred a navy superior to that of France – would have control in the Years Ago in Malta. Journal of the Malta Union of Pharmacists. Mediterranean. 1967: I(1); 28-41. 4. Malta Government Gazette, 29 January 1814: 36; 143. 33. Cassar, P. (Note 11) 1978: 2. In this article Cassar states 5. Malta Government Gazette, 14 August 1816: 146; 625. the following regarding consulting rooms: ‘On 12 September 6. Malta Government Gazette, 3 October 1827: 868; 247. 1843 a Mr Walter Tyrrel, “a surgeon oculist”, who passed 7. Malta Government Gazette, 21 October 1829: 976; 329. through Malta from London on his way to Alexandria, was treat- 8. Anonymous. Instructions for the Guidance of the Offi cers ing eye diseases at Calleja’s (English) Dispensary, 112 Strada and Servants of the Government Charitable institutions of the Is- Vescovo, Valletta. In 1868 we hear of a Dr St John Edwards see- lands of Malta and Gozo. Malta: Government Printing Offi ce, ing patients at Kingston’s Dispensary, Valletta’. Th us, although 1851: 26-28. the consulting room has been introduced in the pharmacy dur- 9. Anonymous. (Note 8) 1851: 38-40. Th e dispensary of ing the nineteenth century it was still a one-off occasion, con- the Lunatic Asylum was situated in the female division of the trary to the present day. lunatic asylum, most probably for security reasons; it was not a 34. Th irteen were from Valletta, 3 from Floriana, 4 from large room. A plan of the asylum can be seen in the appendices Vittoriosa, 7 from Cospicua, 2 from Senglea, 3 from Rabat and of the Blue Books. Mdina, 1 from Zebbug, 1 from Siggiewi, 4 from Birkirkara, 1 10. Cassar, P. Pharmacies and Apothecaries. Journal of the from Balzan, 2 from Naxxar, 1 from Mosta, 1 from Zabbar, and Malta Union of Pharmacists, 1967: I; 35. 2 from Kercem (Gozo). 11. Cassar, P. Impact of British Pharmacy in Malta. Phar- 35. Giglio, A. Census of the islands of Malta, Gozo and Com- maceutical Historian. 1978: 8; 2-4. ino, 1861. Malta: Government Printing Offi ce, 1863: 60-111. 12. Cassar, P. (Note 10) 1967: 35. In the United Kingdom 36. Th is was the second largest outbreak, where 4,676 peo- during the nineteenth century, chemists and druggists worked ple died. long hours, usually till eleven o’clock at night, and with little 37. Cassar, P. Th e Pharmacist Clemente Mifsud Bonnici profi t. and his views of the Plague of 1813. Th e Pharmacist. 20 April 13. Cassar, P. Medical History of Malta. London: Wellcome 1989: 23-27. After eighty-one years, Bonnici’s views were scien- Historical Library, 1964: 65-68. tifi cally proved to be erratic, and the disease was found to be 14. Th e following data regarding exchange rates used in caused by Yersinia Pestis, a pathogenic bacillus, which is trans- 1825 are obtained from the Malta Government Gazette, 15 June mitted to man by the rat fl ea Xenopsylla cheopis, and to a lesser 1825: 743; 162. Th e crown or 5-shilling piece was equivalent to extent by the human fl ea Pulex irritans. Bonnici’s manuscript 3 Scudi or 720 Grani. Th e ½ crown (2s. 6d.) equivalent to 1 never got published.

74 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2021 · Volume 51/3 38. Borg, J. Th e First Recorded Pharmacists. Journal of the boxes of 2s. 6d. and 8s. 4d. each. A discount of £1 sterling was Malta Union of Pharmacists, 1968; II(1); 17-18. given to anybody who purchased 12 large boxes. 39. Borg, J. First Recorded Pharmacists. (Note 38) 1968; 58. G. Muir was a local agent who imported the popular II(1); 17-18. ‘Genuine Balm of Mecca in the form of lozenges’. 40. Borg, J. First Recorded Pharmacists. (Note 38) 1968; 59. Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 67-70. II(1); 17-18. 60. Cassar, P. stationery and Press Advertisements of Mal- 41. Cassar, P. Pharmacists and Politics in Malta in the 18th tese Pharmacists of the Past. Pestle and Mortar, Journal of the and 19th Centuries. St Luke’s Hospital Gazette. 1970: 1(June); Malta Pharmaceutical Students Association, 1975: 14-15. 37-41. During the 1840s and 1850s, Europe was experiencing 61. Cassar, P. (Note 60) 19??: 14-15. great political turmoil. As Malta depended on European nations 62. Holloway, S.W.F. Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great for its subsistence, European politics was followed with great in- Britain 1841-1991: A Political and Social History. London: Phar- terest by the Maltese. Attention was particularly focused on It- maceutical Press, 1991: 56. aly and Sicily. Between 1821 and 1861, Malta became the resi- 63. Malta Government Gazette, 20 April 1831: 1070. dence of many Italian political refugees. Th ese refugees were 64. Articles published in the sixth issue of the journal in- helped by both the liberal and conservative elements of the Mal- cluded: Sulle macchie di sangue nei giudizi criminali (the empha- tese professional men. sis put on blood stains in court cases); Sulle varie specie di Diar- 42. Cassar, P. Pharmacists and Politics. (Note 41) 1970: rea dei bambini (On the diff erent types of diarrhoea aff ecting 1(June); 37-41. children); and Nuova formula di Laudano (New formula by 43. Clare, A.G. Features of an island economy. In: Mallia- Laudano). Th e formula was claimed to be an improvement on Milanes, V. (ed.) Th e British Colonial Experience 1800-1964: Th e previous ones because it used purifi ed opium extract rather than impact on Maltese Society, Malta: Mireva Publications, 1988: 127. the crude drug, thus limiting the side eff ects caused by chemi- 44. Zerafa, L. Provenance of registered and imported pharma- cals found in the latter. ceutical and related products Malta 1900-1990. (Also refers to the 65. Th e protomedicus had to issue this certifi cate of profi - nineteenth century) [Th esis]. Msida, Malta: Department of ciency, according to a Government Notice published on 18 June Pharmacy, University of Malta, 1992: 191. 1814. 45. Malta Government Gazette, 12 December 1832: 1141; 66. Cassar, P. Medical History. (Note 13) 1964: 498. 391. 67. University of Malta. Fundamental Statute of the Univer- 46. Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 25. sity of Malta. Malta: Government Printing Offi ce, 1838: 40-46. 47. Matthews notes that ‘the term “proprietary” applied to 68. Malta Government Gazette, 19 February 1834: 1204; 63. a medicine has been used for one in which the sole rights of man- 69. Archives of the University of Malta, No. 11, 1833-1838: ufacture were claimed by virtue of a secret formula known only fol. 4. to the preparer; to a medicine for which Letters Patent were 70. Between 1833 and 1838, the president of the Medical granted; or to one to which the preparer, by affi xing his name Council was Rector D. Emanuele Rosignaud. Th e other mem- (and often his trade mark or emblem in addition) indicated his bers were Dr Gavino P. Portelli, Dr Costantino Schinas, Dr Ste- sole rights of presentation. Th e term describes what was com- fano Zerafa, Dr Agostino Bonnici, Dr Gaetano Aquilina, Dr monly known as “patent medicine” or “secret remedy”, in most Luigi Gravagna (Head Doctor of the Department of Police), Dr cases advertised to the public. In recent times [early 1960s] a Salvatore Cutajar (Doctor of the Civil Hospital), Dr Salvatore “proprietary” medicine is also a designation for a pharmaceuti- Bardon (Surgeon of the Civil Hospital), Dr John Liddle (Doctor cal speciality, also known as an “ethical” medicine, issued by a of the Naval Hospital), Dr Nicolò Randon and Dr Jommaro sole manufacturer or by a group of manufacturers and which is Chetcuti. Duties of the Medical Council included preparing the not advertised except to the medical or allied professions’. Leslie prospectus of the pharmacy course, deciding the examination G. Matthews. History of Pharmacy in Britain. London: Living- questions, and interviewing job applicants. stone, 1962: 282. 71. Archives. (Note 69) 1833-1838: fol. 4. 48. Cassar, P. L-Ispizjar mal-Milja taz-Zmien: It-Tmien Par- 72. Archives. (Note 69) 1833-1838: fol. 4. ti. L-Ewwel Patent Medicines f’Malta. It-Torca, 20 March 1983: 73. University of Malta. (Note 67) 1838: 40-46. 19. 74. Gaureschi, I. La chimica in Italia dal 1750 al 1800. Isis, 49. Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 33. 1913: 1(1); 393-420. 50. Th is pharmacy was one of sixteen found in Valletta in 75. Th e Special Council consisted of the Director of Educa- the mid-nineteenth century. tion (president); professor of descriptive anatomy, histology, and 51. Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 61-63. pathological anatomy; professor of physiology, pathology, thera- 52 Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 71. peutics, and clinical medicine; professor of surgery and clinical 53. Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 72. medicine, and midwifery; professor of medical botany, hygiene 54. Zerafa, L. (Note 44) 1992: 66. and public health, and of forensic medicine; professor of organ- 55. On 14 March 1839, the British enacted legislation in ic chemistry, practical chemistry and materia medica; and ex- favour of a free press in Malta, the fi rst newspaper-printed ad- aminers of the Faculty. vertisements for patent medicines in sale in Malta start to appear. 76. University of Malta. (Note 67) 1887: 11-15. 56. Malta Government Gazette, 4 February 1834: 1202; 48. 77. University of Malta. (Note 67) 1887: 11-15. 57. Th ese were pills used to purify blood. Th ey were sold by 78. Cassar, P. Medical History. (Note 13) 1964: 498. George Muir, Stationer and Bookseller, 43 Strade Mezzodi, in 79. University of Malta. (Note 67) 1898: 30.

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