An Insight Into the Organisation of Metal Production in the Argaric Society

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

journal homepage: http://ees.elsevier.com/jasrep

An insight into the organisation of metal production in the Argaric society

Mercedes Murillo-Barroso a,⁎, Ignacio Montero Ruiz b,1, Gonzalo Aranda Jiménez c,2 a UCL Institute of Archaeology, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom b CCHS-CSIC, C/Albasanz, 26-28, 28037 Madrid, Spain c Universidad de Granada, Dpto. de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras - Campus de la Cartuja, 18071 Granada, Spain article info abstract

Available online 3 February 2015 Metallurgy is a common topic when discussing Early Bronze Age societies, as its social impact has been tradition- ally used to support the appearance of social inequality. Different models have been proposed for the Bronze Age Keywords: Argaric society of SE Iberia. One includes a highly centralised hierarchical production system, and the other con- Metallurgy sists of decentralised production at a local scale. Early Bronze Age Though metallurgical debris has been found in more than 30 sites in the Argaric society, and despite metallurgy Copper provenance being a core subject of discussion, very little research has been conducted on these ﬁnds. In this article, we draw Lead isotope analysis from provenance studies using lead isotope analysis to gain a better understanding of the organisation of metal Iberia Argar culture production and distribution. We present new MC-ICP-MS lead isotope and SC-ICP-MS trace element analyses of 23 arsenical copper and bronze objects from two Argaric sites: Cerro de la Encina and Cerro San Cristóbal. Both sites are located in the Granada basin. These results, contextualised with metallurgical evidence already published, allow us to depict a decentralised system of metal production in which different and distantly located copper mines were being exploited. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (Hook et al., 1987). Only in the past decades has the concern for international dissemination grown (e.g., Lull, 2000; Aranda Jiménez and Molina One of the main subjects in the study of the late prehistory of the González, 2006; Bartelheim, 2007; Bartelheim et al., 2012; Aranda Mediterranean Basin is the emergence of increasingly complex Jiménez, 2013; Lull et al., 2013, 2014a,b; Aranda Jiménez et al., 2015). societies, including how they became progressively more stratified The large amount of archaeological evidence, effective preservation of and ultimately led to the appearance of early States. Studies on this archaeological sites and the fact that individuals were buried inside topic usually focus on the Eastern Mediterranean region, such as the dwellings –allowing direct correlation between domestic and funerary Levant, Egypt, Anatolia, Cyprus and the Aegean. The counterbalance in realms– have made the Argar a key culture for the study of early social Western Europe would be exemplified by the Argaric society, which is stratification. located in Southeastern Iberia (c. 2200–1550 cal BC) and started to Early Bronze Age Argaric communities are the result of a long process become known at the end of the 19th century (Siret and Siret, 1887). of increasing inequality that started in the Copper Age and that leads to This is probably the largest and most intensely researched area in Iberia. profound social asymmetries and individualised identity (e.g., Lull and However, the international impact of this research has been partially Estévez, 1986; Chapman, 2008). During the Argaric period, important limited due to the publication of findings predominantly in Spanish changes occurred at the domestic and funerary realms, as well as in the following Siret's work in French (1987). Few exceptions to this settlement pattern. These changes led to an increase in population and trend have been evident (e.g., Gilman, 1987; Chapman, 1990), with a population concentration. Previous open-air settlements with round specific research on early metallurgy through the Studienzuden huts were exchanged for artificially terraced sites with square dwellings. Anfängen der Metallurgie (SAM) project (Junghans et al., 1960, 1968), These dwellings were preferably built on hilltops, although there are still Arqueometalurgia de la Península Ibérica (PA) project (Montero Ruiz, sites in the plains. Individual inhumations within settlement areas were 1993) or technological studies of new materials by the British Museum widespread at the time, although the reuse of megalithic monuments remains as a standing feature (see Aranda Jiménez, 2013, Aranda Jiménez, 2014; Aranda Jiménez, forthcoming; Aranda Jiménez and Lozano ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 20 7679 8872. Medina, 2014). Researchers agree that artefacts in these communities E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Murillo-Barroso), changed typologically, including standardised shapes, copper-based or- [email protected] (I. Montero Ruiz), [email protected] (G. Aranda Jiménez). 1 Tel.:+34 91 602 24 83. naments and proper weapons such as swords and halberds (Lull, 1983; 2 Tel.:+34958249570. Chapman, 2008; Aranda Jiménez et al., 2015).

Table 1 Metallurgical evidences from Argaric sites.

No. Site Ore Technical Slag Prills/metallic Casting Anvil/hammer/ Scrap Reference ceramicsa lump moulds grinding stone

1 Peñalosa X X (SM + M) X X X X Contreras (2000) 2 Siete Piedras X Moreno and Contreras (2010) 3 Cerro de la Encina X X Xa Arribas Palau et al. (1989: 75) 4 Pago Al-Rután X Montero Ruiz (1991: 319) 5 Terrera del Reloj X X X Xa X Arribas Palau et al. (1989: 77) 6 Cerro de la Virgen X X X X Delgado-Raak (2013: 111ff) 7 Castellón Alto X Bashore Acero et al. (2014) 8 Cerro del Fuerte X Montero Ruiz (1991: 269) 9 Barranco de la Cera X Montero Ruiz (1991: 263) 10 El Picacho X X Montero Ruiz (1991: 258) 11 Fuente Vermeja Xb X Siret and Siret (1890: Lám. 14) 12 Lugarico Viejo X X Xa Siret and Siret (1890: Lám. 16) 13 Cerro de las Viñas X X X X Montero Ruiz (1991: 358) 14 Fuente Álamo X X X X Montero Ruiz (1991: 230) 15 El Argar X (SM + M) X X X X X Siret and Siret (1890: Lám. 27) 16 Gatas X X X X Siret and Siret (1890: 222, 275) 17 La Alquería X Montero Ruiz (1991: 359) 18 Rincón de Almendricos X Montero Ruiz (1991: 442) 19 La Finca de Félix X Montero Ruiz (1991: 360) 20 El Oﬁcioc XXa XXX Siret and Siret (1890: 243, 245) 21 Cuesta del Negro X X X Arribas Palau et al. (1989: 76) 22 Cerro de las Víboras, Bagil X X Lull et al. (2010: 336) 23 Lorca X X? X Martínez Rodríguez et al. (1996: 44; 48) 24 Los Cipreses XXDelgado-Raack and Risch (2006) 25 Las Anchuras X X Siret and Siret (1890: 124) 26 La Bastida X? X X X X Lull (1983: 318–319) 27 Ifre X Siret and Siret (1890): Lám. 18 28 Cerro de la Campana X Montero Ruiz (1991: 351) 29 Cobatillas or Peñica de Santomera X Montero Ruiz (1991: 355), Lull (1983: 335) 30 El Puntarrón Chico X Montero Ruiz (1991: 354) 31 San Antón X X X Simón García (1998: 29) 32 Laderas del Castillo X X X X Simón García (1998: 42) 33 El Tabayá X X X X Simón García (1998: 71)

a SM = smelting; M = melting. b After Lull et al. (2010: 336). Original references are not provided and we have not found further descriptions of these metallurgical evidences. c These metallurgical evidences are consider post-Argaric by Lull et al. (2010: 334).

The development of metal objects increased almost fivefold finished products triggered the process of social stratification. As a compared with the Chalcolithic period (Montero Ruiz, 1991, 1993). result, a tributary system was developed from territories of agricul- Significant technological innovations, such as tin–bronze alloys, silver- tural villages (mainly located in the plains) to hilltop sites where so- smithing and annealing were developed (Montero Ruiz, 1991; Rovira cial elites lived and controlled the manufacture and distribution of and Gómez Ramos, 2003). The fact that silver metallurgy production metal objects (Chapman, 2008; Lull et al., 2010). According to this outgrew other contemporary Bronze Age societies from Iberia and view, metallurgical production would have been organised centrally Western Europe3 was especially remarkable (Bartelheim et al., 2012; by Argaric elites in what is called ‘a hierarchical production system’. Murillo-Barroso, 2013; Lull et al., 2014b). The typology of metal objects Only specific sites, such as Peñalosa, would have developed the also changed. Metal ornaments, bracelets, pendants, earrings, rings, di- smelting process,4 whereas others carried out the casting. Most set- adems and beads indicate novel design concepts of personal ornaments tlements would have remained excluded from metallurgical produc- during this period (Murillo-Barroso and Montero-Ruiz, 2012). These tion (Lull et al., 2010). This view suggests a specific isotopic pattern, items represent more than half of all Argaric metal objects. The increas- whereby the same isotopic signature should be detected in most ing demand of these objects stimulated some of the technological objects throughout the Argaric area. This isotopic signature would innovations mentioned above, such as silver metallurgy, annealing be the one detected in Peñalosa (and its copper catchment area) and the development of tin–bronze alloys in c. 1800 cal. BC (Aranda as the main metal supplier, i.e., the isotopic signature of the mining Jiménez et al., 2012; Murillo-Barroso et al., 2014). Finally, it is worth district of Linares (Hunt Ortiz et al., 2012). noting that metallic tools –axes, knifes and awls– gained importance Alternatively, metallurgy may be viewed as a low-scale, decentralised and replaced Chalcolithic tools, which were made of stone and bone system of production. Accordingly, the restricted access to metal objects (Lull et al., 2009, 2010). imposed by the Argaric elite is believed to reflect social inequalities Two different perspectives have emerged regarding changes in whose origins are not directly related to metallurgical craft specialisation Argaric metallurgy. Some authors consider this activity a full-time (see Montero Ruiz, 1992; Montero Ruiz, 1993; Gilman, 2001, 2013; craft specialisation, in which the exchange of raw materials and

4 The site of Peñalosa is described by its excavators as a ‘metallurgical settlement’ where production was controlled by the elite. Control of other areas, however, is hazy, as several 3 Recent studies have quantiﬁed 792 silver objects and 34 silver–copper alloys (Murillo- elite groups sharing the same ideology are proposed (see e.g. Moreno and Contreras, Barroso, 2013: 233). 2010). M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155 143

Fig. 1. Argaric sites with archaeometallurgical remains (listed in Table 1) and copper deposits from southeastern Iberia. 1) Peñalosa; 2) Siete Piedras; 3) Cerro de la Encina; 4) Pago Al-Rután; 5) Terrera del Reloj; 6) Cerro de la Virgen; 7) Castellón Alto; 8) Cerro del Fuerte; 9) Barranco de la Cera; 10) El Picacho; 11) Fuente Vermeja; 12) Lugarico Viejo; 13) Cerro de las Viñas; 14) Fuente Álamo; 15) El Argar; 16) Gatas; 17) La Alquería; 18) Rincón de Almendricos; 19) La Finca de Félix; 20) El Oﬁcio; 21) Cuesta del Negro; 22) Cerro de las Víboras; 23) Lorca; 24) Los Cipreses; 25) Las Anchuras; 26) La Bastida; 27) Ifre; 28) Cerro de la Campana; 29) Cobatillas or Peñica de Santomera; 30) El Puntarrón Chico; 31) San Antón; 32) Laderas del Castillo; 33) El Tabayá.

Bartelheim, 2007 or Montero Ruiz and Murillo-Barroso, 2010 for further museums. However, thorough excavation notes and drawings of these discussion). From an isotopic point of view, this system should show a materials clearly evidence slag, ‘technical ceramics’ (sensu Martinón- different isotopic pattern. If many sites smelt metals locally –although Torres and Rehren, 2014),6 casting moulds and scrap (Fig. 2). More obviously exchange cannot be ruled out– different workshops will ex- recently, the excavation of several locations has yielded references to ploit different copper resources at the same time, and many isotopic sig- archaeometallurgical by-products in a total of 33 sites. Sometimes, natures should be identified. Provenance studies based on lead isotopes only vague references to these remains are provided (Table 1). These may help provide a better understanding of how metallurgical produc- materials are either not considered important by their excavators or tion was organised and its role in the development of stratified societies. are relatively scarce. In any case, Peñalosa is the only location in which Surprisingly, this approach has not been extensively developed. studies of these by-products have been conducted (Moreno Onorato No additional research has been conducted to explore Argaric metal et al., 2010; Hunt Ortiz et al., 2012). provenance since the first 20 LIA of Argaric copper-based objects The scarcity of archaeometallurgical by-products could also be relat- were published (Stos-Gale et al., 1999; Stos-Gale, 20015). However, ed to the type of raw material and technology used in the production our knowledge of the isotopic characterisation of copper outcrops and process. Experimental copper smelting has shown that very little slag mines of Southern Iberia has increased significantly in the past is produced when using high-grade copper ores, which are abundant 20 years (Hunt Ortiz, 2003; Santos Zaldegui et al., 2004; Tornos and in South-eastern Iberia (Rovira, 2004). Moreover, slag is crushed to ob- Chiarada, 2004; Klein et al., 2009; Hunt Ortiz et al., 2012). In this tain the metallic prills trapped in the slaggy matrix. Therefore, large context, a new suite of 23 samples from two different sites located in amounts of slag are unlikely (Rovira, 2004; Hanning et al., 2010). If we the basin of Granada, Cerro de la Encina and Cerro de San Cristóbal, accept that melting and casting would produce small amounts of slag, has been analysed. Results are discussed in a more general cultural if any, then we must also assume some smelting is being carried out context, taking into account available metallurgical data and new geo- in at least 14 sites where archaeological evidence of this refuse has chemical information. been found. A third possibility is that the metallurgical process was carried out outside the settlement in most sites, which greatly reduces the 2. Copper-based metallurgy of the Argar culture: archaeological possibility of gathering evidence. background and new perspectives 3. Lead isotope analysis: the geological background It is well known that despite the abundance of metal objects in most Argaric sites, archaeological evidence related to the metallurgical pro- The accuracy of provenance interpretation by lead isotope analysis cess is not as abundant as that of the previous Chalcolithic period depends on the available geological isotopic information in the study (Table 1, Fig. 1). Nevertheless, it is worth noting that many of the area. Southeast Iberia is geologically defined by the Betic Chain (Fig. 3), most significant sites were excavated in the second half of the 19th cen- which is characterised by the abundance of mineral deposits. These tury (Siret and Siret, 1887). These materials have since been separated, mines and outcrops are linked to two major metallogenic periods that and some are now missing or dispersed throughout several European

6 As these materials have not been analysed and therefore cannot be determined to have been used for melting or smelting, we will use the generic term cited. Only when 5 Ten unpublished lead isotope analyses of Argaric copper-based objects from Gatas are their function is established through analytical study can we determine whether they now available in OXALID, totalling 30 analyses. are ‘smelting’ or ‘melting vessels’. 144 M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155

Fig. 2. Some examples of metallurgical debris from El Argar recorded by Siret and Siret (1890: Lám. 27). influenced their lead isotope ratios. The first period began in the Late Ni–Cu; ʄ Fe–Cu–Pb–Bi; ʄ Fe–Cu; ʄ Cu) and stratigraphic deposits (εCu; Palaeozoic era and reached its peak during the Triassic era. The second εCu–Fe; εPb–Cu; εPb–(Zn,Cu,Fe)) in the Internal Zone of the Betic Chain period developed during the Middle Miocene era (Sánchez-Valverde (Nevado–Filabride, Alpujárride and Maláguide Complexes) date from et al., 2013). Main copper deposits were formed during the first the Palaeozoic period. During the Triassic period, only stratigraphic de- Palaeozoic and Triassic periods. Some veins (ʄ Pb–Fe–Cu–Ag–Ba; ʄ Fe– posits were formed in the internal (εCo–Cu; εPb–(Zn,Cu,Fe); εCu) and M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155 145

Fig. 3. The Betic Chain. external (εCu; εCu–U) zones of the Betic Chain.7 In the Alpujárride Com- 2010). The northern reaches of the Argaric culture, Linares–La Carolina plex, Triassic carbonates reached their largest development. Metallogenic mines, further La Alcudia valley and Los Pedroches have also been isoto- activity was lower during the Jurassic and Miocene periods, when pically studied (Santos Zalduegui et al., 2004; Hunt Ortiz et al., 2012; epithermal processes replaced sedimentary ones (Sánchez-Valverde Klein et al., 2009). Nonetheless, several areas still exist, especially the et al., 2013). Nevado–Filábride Complex, without any isotopic information. According to these metallogenic processes, ore deposits are classi- Now-depleted copper deposits (Fig. 1) and small outcrops in South- fied into three groups (Arribas and Tosdal, 1994; Arribas Rosado and eastern Iberia were surely more abundant during late prehistory. Addi- Arribas Moreno, 1995): tionally, most of the Argaric sites with metallurgical debris have copper mines in their vicinity. This is also the case in sites analysed in this 1. Fe–Pb–Zn–(Ba) stratabound deposits hosted by Triassic carbonate paper. Cerro San Cristóbal and Cerro de la Encina are less than 12 km rocks (e.g., Sierra de Gádor and Sierra Alhamilla); from the closest copper mines of Güejar–Sierra. 2. Polymetallic (Pb–Zn–Fe–Ba–[Ag–Cu–Sb–Sn]) hydrothermal vein- and manto-type deposits hosted by Palaeozoic and Triassic meta- sedimentary rocks and Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks 4. Materials and methods (e.g., Sierra de Cartagena, Mazarrón, Loma de Bas, Sierra del Aguilón and Almagrera); Eleven copper-based objects from Cerro San Cristóbal and 12 from 3. Base and precious metal epithermal deposits hosted by volcanic Cerro de la Encina have been sampled (Figs. 5 and 6, Table 2). They rocks of the Cabo de Gata volcanic field (e.g., Rodalquilar and have been compared with analyses of 30 copper-based objects from San José). the sites of Gatas, El Argar, Fuente Álamo, La Bastida, El Barranquete, Two different periods are recognised pertaining to geologic relations Monteagudo and Rincón de Almendricos (Stos-Gale et al., 1999; and lead isotope composition. The older period corresponds to group 1, Stos-Gale, 2001; OXALID) and eight silver objects from Cerro de la whereas the younger one corresponds to groups 2 and 3. These periods Encina (Bartelheim et al., 2012; Murillo-Barroso, 2013). resulted from hydrothermal processes associated with the formation of Cerro San Cristóbal is a small settlement (c. 0.6 ha) located in the fer- Almería–Cartagena volcanic belt during the Late Miocene period tile plain of Granada Basin, away from the usual Argaric hilltop settle- (Arribas Rosado and Arribas Moreno, 1995). ment pattern. Human occupation in this site has been identified Southeastern Iberia has been isotopically characterised by several archaeologically since the Neolithic period –second half of 5th Millenni- authors (Graeser and Friedrich, 1970; Dayton and Dayton, 1986; um– 4th Millennium cal. BC. A necropolis existed in this site dating from Arribas and Tosdal, 1994; Stos-Gale et al., 1995, 1999; Tornos and the 6th to 7th centuries AC. During the Bronze Age, the settlement was Chiarada, 2004; Klein et al., 2009; Montero Ruiz and Murillo-Barroso, inhabited by Argaric communities. The habitation areas are poorly con- served, but the 14 burials under the dwellings are well preserved. Eight 7 The internal zone is referred to as the Betic Chain, and the external zone is the Subbetic of these tombs contain metallic ornaments and tools. Grave goods that Chain and Prebetic Chain. were considered indicators of the highest social status (with noble 146 M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155

Table 2 Funerary contexts of analysed objects. M = male, F = female, CH = children, YO = young, A = adult, S = senile, Y = year, G = gold, S = silver, C = copper-based, br=bracelet,ne= necklace, dag = dagger, kn = knife, be = beads, ear = earring, pot = pottery vessels, st = stone, cat = cattle, off = offering.

ID Site Type Metal Burial Grave goods Individuals ICP-MS LIA

MO 39281 Cerro de la Encina Knife Cu 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39255 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet CuSn 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39260 Cerro de la Encina Ring CuSn 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39264 Cerro de la Encina Dagger CuAgSn 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39258 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet Cu 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39257 Cerro de la Encina Awl CuAs 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39261 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet CuAs 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 39279 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet CuAs 21 1C. dag., 4C. br., 2S. br., 2S. ear., 1C. ring, 1S. ring, 1C. awl, 1S. hair-pin, 1MA 20–22Y/1F 16–17Y X X 1C. kn., 2C. be., 2ne. st. be., 1archer br., 7pot., 3cat. off. MO 55208 Cerro de la Encina Dagger Cu 18 1C. axe, 1C. dag., 1S. br., 1C. awl, ne. st. be., 4pot., 1cat. off. 1MA/2FA X X MO 55195 Cerro de la Encina Axe CuAs 18 1C. axe, 1C. dag., 1S. br., 1C. awl, ne. st. be., 4pot., 1cat. off. 1MA/2FA X X MO 55209 Cerro de la Encina Awl CuAs 18 1C. axe, 1C. dag., 1S. br., 1C. awl, ne. st. be., 4pot., 1cat. off. 1MA/2FA X X MO 21292 Cerro de la Encina Dagger CuAs 8 1G. br., 1C. dag., 5C. rivets, 4S. nails, 1pot. 1CH X X OSC 11015 Cerro San Cristóbal Scraper CuSn 8.4 1st. be, 1C. scraper 1F X X OSC 7002 Cerro San Cristóbal Bracelet CuSn 6 1C. dag., 1C. br, 1pot 1A X X OSC 11006 Cerro San Cristóbal Ring CuSn 7 1be, 1C. ring, 2pot 1FA 20–30Y/1CH 4Y X X OSC 11017 Cerro San Cristóbal Awl CuSn 8.2 1C. awl, 4be 1FA 20–30Y X X OSC 11010 Cerro San Cristóbal Rivets CuAs 8.1 4C. rivets 1FA X X OSC 13001 Cerro San Cristóbal Dagger CuAs 9 1C. da., 1pot. Bone shards X X OSC 13005 Cerro San Cristóbal Dagger CuAs 17 1C. da., 83C. nails 1MA X X OSC 13006_15 Cerro San Cristóbal Nail CuAs 17 1C. da., 83C. nails 1MA X X OSC 13006_71 Cerro San Cristóbal Nail CuAs 17 1C. da., 83C. nails 1MA X X OSC 15013 Cerro San Cristóbal Awl CuAs 12 1C. awl, 1C. da., 2pot 1MA/1? X X OSC 15014 Cerro San Cristóbal Dagger CuAs 12 1C. awl, 1C. da., 2pot 1MA/1? X X

metals and weapons) were absent in this site (see Fig. 4 and Table 2; • To assess differences between objects of different metals; Aranda Jiménez et al., 2012). • To evaluate the impact of lead isotope analyses on our current under- Cerro de la Encina is known since the beginning of the 20th century standing of Argaric metallurgical organisation of production. and could be considered one of the classical Argaric sites. Located on the right bank of the Monachil River, one of the valleys leading to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the settlement extends over a large and steeply Chemical characterisation was analysed by SC-ICP-MS using a sloping hill bounded by two deep ravines that clearly set it apart from Thermo Scientific ELEMENT XR spectrometer. This procedure was its immediate surroundings. Research undertaken mainly in the 1970s conducted at the Material Science Laboratory of the Deutsches and early 1980s documented a long occupation sequence during the Bergbau-Museum Department of Archaeometallurgy (Bochum, Bronze Age. This sequence occurred in two distinct phases, separated Germany). Lead isotope analyses were conducted at the laboratories by a phase of abandonment. The first phase, on which this paper will of the Institut für Geowissenschaften, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt focus, corresponds to the Argar culture. The second one occurred during am Main (Germany) using a MC-ICP-MS Thermo ScientificNeptune™, the Late Bronze Age. Finnigan MAT. Standard reference material NBS981 was used to moni- The Argaric habitation area occupies the hillside and plateau, follow- tor the measurement precision and accuracy. The average accuracy of ing the traditional urban planning pattern of this culture. Twenty-two reference material is estimated to be b0.01% (2σ) for 208Pb/206Pb, burials were recovered under the floors of dwellings, 17 of which have 207Pb/206Pb and 206Pb/204Pb and 0.006% for 207Pb/206Pb and been systematically excavated. The remaining five were originally doc- 208Pb/206Pb. This accuracy is very similar to the individual in-run pre- umented by Cabré (1922) and Tarradell (1947–48). These five burials cision on unknown samples (see Klein et al., 2009 for methodological is- primarily consisted of plundered tombs. Grave goods stand out because sues). Bar errors are smaller than symbols in the graphs. Data obtained of their quantity and variety, and indicate differential access to wealth of by TIMS from the literature and used for comparison have an estimated different social categories (Aranda Jiménez and Molina González, 2005, analytical error of 0.1% (2σ); when used, bar errors are shown in the 2006; Aranda Jiménez et al., 2008 and references therein). It is worth- graphs. while to underline the metallic grave-ornaments made of mainly gold and silver. Sample objects came from tombs 8, 18 and 21, which 5. Results and discussion belonged to the wealthiest social levels (Fig. 5 and Table 2). This sampling will allow us to address the following objectives: Objects from Cerro San Cristóbal and Cerro de la Encina do not differ significantly in their trace element composition. Specifically, no differ- • To assess homogeneity of grave goods and determine whether they ences were found in either arsenical copper or tin bronzes (Table 3). were specifically manufactured for the funerary ritual; The elemental composition of this assemblage is consistent with • To compare differences in raw materials used in both the wealthy the general trend observed in Argaric metallurgy (Rovira et al., 1997; burials found in a large hilltop settlement and the humbler ones Montero Ruiz, 1993). Accordingly, copper objects contained noticeable from a small lowland site; levels of arsenic, which ranged from 1.2% to 6.7%. Bronze items .MrloBrooe l ora fAcaooia cec:Rprs2(05 141 (2015) 2 Reports Science: Archaeological of Journal / al. et Murillo-Barroso M. – 155

Fig. 4. Objects analysed from Cerro San Cristóbal. Grave 8.4: a) scraper OSC 11015. Grave 6: b) bracelet OSC 7002. Grave 7: c) ring OSC 11006. Grave 8.2: d) awl OSC 11017. Grave 8.1: e) rivets OSC 11010. Grave 9: f) dagger OSC 13001. Grave 17: g) dagger OSC 13005, h) nails OSC 13006 (15 and 71). Grave 12: i) awl OSC 15013, j) dagger OSC 15014. 147 148 .MrloBrooe l ora fAcaooia cec:Rprs2(05 141 (2015) 2 Reports Science: Archaeological of Journal / al. et Murillo-Barroso M. – 155

Fig. 5. Objects analysed from Cerro de la Encina. Grave 21: a) knife MO 39281, b) bracelet MO 39255, c) ring MO 39260, d) dagger MO 39264, e) awl MO 39257, f) bracelet MO 39258, g) bracelet MO 39261, h) bracelet MO 39279. Grave 18: i) dagger MO 55208, j) axe MO 55195, k) awl MO 55209. M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155 149

Table 3 Results of ICP-MS analysis. Selected major, minor and trace element compositions. Data in ppm except Sn, As and Cu (wt.%).

Site Type ID Ag Sb Te Au Pb Bi Hg S Fe Co Ni Zn Se Sn As Cu

ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm % % %

Cerro de la Encina Dagger MO 55208 290 27 b1 18 97 2.3 b1 16 878 0.4 30 6.5 5 b0.0001 0.14 99.7 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet MO 39258 525 122 b1 12 575 125 34 406 1993 0.8 43 20 15 0.0009 0.87 98.6 Cerro San Cristóbal Nail OSC 13006_71 1114 568 b1 23 168 105 b171b0.5 0.2 151 12 9.5 0.0092 1.22 98.4 Cerro San Cristóbal Nail OSC 13006_15 966 533 b1 22 248 93 b1 316 755 0.1 142 14 7.3 0.0013 1.28 98.3 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet MO 39279 524 62 b1 3189 349 85 18 1442 772 0.3 36 22 9.3 0.0047 1.42 97.7 Cerro San Cristóbal Rivets OSC 11010 322 331 b1 6.6 68 118 b1 27 2.5 0.1 34 0.4 13 0.0006 2.38 97.5 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet MO 39261 355 47 b1 7.0 133 73 b1 b1 b0.5 b0.001 108 0.4 12 0.0014 2.52 97.4 Cerro de la Encina Awl MO 55209 232 128 b1 5.6 189 134 b1 45 3368 1.7 34 22 b0.2 0.0008 3.28 96.2 Cerro de la Encina Axe MO 55195 351 126 b1 30 136 17 b1 b1 740 10.0 593 3.9 b0.2 0.0008 3.46 96.3 Cerro San Cristóbal Dagger OSC 15014 999 107 b1 8.4 98 401 b1 b1 166 0.3 18 0.6 16 0.0002 3.50 96.3 Cerro San Cristóbal Awl OSC 15013 641 41 b1 4.0 134 208 b1 154 b0.5 b0.001 11 3.2 21 0.0016 4.07 95.7 Cerro San Cristóbal Dagger OSC 13005 400 8 4.5 19 75 531 b1 b1 b0.5 b0.001 5.5 1.6 16 0.0006 5.05 94.8 Cerro de la Encina Awl MO 39257 179 73 b1 3.8 78 184 b1 329 14 b0.001 74 1.0 6.5 0.0044 5.27 94.6 Cerro San Cristóbal Dagger OSC 13001 67 41 5.5 12 82 25 b1 219 b0.5 2.5 185 0.3 6.7 0.0002 6.47 93.4 Cerro de la Encina Dagger MO 21292 420 200 2.2 16 190 245 b1 175 119 0.09 5.7 2.0 28 0.0007 6.73 93.1 Cerro de la Encina Dagger MO 39264 23.9 56 0 19 240 135 0 421 1593 0 152 21 0 2.36 1.93 71.5 Cerro de la Encina Bracelet MO 39255 579 112 1.5 24 323 14 b1 1671 b0.5 3.0 69 7.0 b0.2 4.09 0.12 95.4 Cerro San Cristóbal Ring OSC 11006 780 2.5 1.8 3.2 104 1.8 b191b0.5 0.4 27 1.3 49 4.47 0.01 95.4 Cerro San Cristóbal Scraper OSC 11015 314 254 5.3 25 279 219 b1 184 b0.5 5.4 314 1.4 17 4.90 0.87 94.0 Cerro San Cristóbal Bracelet OSC 7002 336 142 3.2 28 1393 47 b1 449 76 11 142 2.5 8.1 5.58 0.42 93.7 Cerro San Cristóbal Awl OSC 11017 1154 17 3.7 10 418 26 b1 1785 b0.5 4.1 80 10.3 74 6.61 0.01 93.0 Cerro de la Encina Ring MO 39260 1177 521 4.7 25 585 16 5.8 867 b0.5 1.3 183 28 12 8.94 0.23 90.0

contained low amounts of tin that ranged from 2% to 9% Sn. As we have amount of arsenic (b1%) in tin bronzes is an exception, which could discussed elsewhere (Montero Ruiz, 1991; Aranda Jiménez et al., 2012; be related to technological conditions related to bronze smelting. No Murillo-Barroso et al., 2014), Argaric bronzes were characterised by a evidence of bronze production has been analysed within the Argaric low quantity of tin. These bronzes were primarily used in ornaments, society thus far (but see infra for references of bronze crucibles). Only whereas most ‘functional’ objects (daggers or axes) were cast in arsen- a few bronze slag samples from other Iberian Bronze Age communities ical copper. The chaîne opératoire that followed provides greater hard- have been analysed. These samples were by-products from co-smelting ness to arsenical copper objects than tin bronzes reaching up to c. 12% copper and tin ores. However, the presence of magnetite and rhombic Sn. These data suggest that the innovation of tin bronze was not cassiterite suggests that bronze was produced under high oxidisation intended to increase proficiency or production, but rather for purposes (Rovira, 2005; Rovira, 2011: 51). This high oxidisation would have of ostentation, being tin is scarcer than copper and having trade and allowed the evaporation of arsenic. On the other hand, if different cop- aesthetic value (Aranda Jiménez et al., 2012; Murillo-Barroso et al., per ores were used for arsenic and tin–bronzes, different patterns of 2014). Colour may have also played an important role in the develop- trace elements and isotopic ratios (infra) would be expected. ment of arsenical copper and bronze production in Europe (Keates, Lead isotope analyses (Table 4) show significant differences between 2002; Pereira et al., 2013). metals from both sites. Lead isotope data of objects from Cerro San Differences in trace element compositions between arsenical copper Cristóbal is more tightly grouped than those from Cerro de la Encina. and bronze are not detected. This finding could be related to the high This greater heterogeneity in the latter group probably occurred because purity levels of most cassiterite (Pernicka, 2014: 255). The lower of the use of different copper sources, even within the same grave

Table 4 Results of lead isotope analysis.

Type ID Site Grave 208/206 207/206 206/204 207/204 208/204 Metal

Knife MO 39281 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.04937 0.82343 19.0859 15.7161 39.1139 Cu? Bracelet MO 39255 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.06744 0.83662 18.7718 15.7048 38.8098 CuSn Ring MO 39260 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.09340 0.84805 18.5056 15.6936 38.7392 CuSn Dagger MO 39264 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.08821 0.84746 18.4454 15.6320 38.5177 CuAgSn Bracelet MO 39258 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.10083 0.85542 18.2335 15.5971 38.3061 Cu Awl MO 39257 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.08232 0.84497 18.5117 15.6420 38.5471 CuAs Bracelet MO 39261 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.08673 0.84754 18.4456 15.6330 38.4901 CuAs Bracelet MO 39279 Cerro de la Encina 21 2.09797 0.85346 18.3214 15.6370 38.4387 CuAs Dagger MO 55208 Cerro de la Encina 18 2.09618 0.85212 18.3674 15.6499 38.4991 Cu Axe MO 55195 Cerro de la Encina 18 2.12020 0.86517 18.0277 15.5965 38.2220 CuAs Awl MO 55209 Cerro de la Encina 18 2.09502 0.85131 18.3702 15.6391 38.4852 CuAs Dagger MO 21292 Cerro de la Encina 8 2.09326 0.85203 18.3518 15.6361 38.4150 CuAs Scraper OSC 11015 Cerro San Cristóbal 8.4 2.10320 0.85880 18.2049 15.6347 38.2883 CuSn Bracelet OSC 7002 Cerro San Cristóbal 6 2.10112 0.85527 18.2805 15.6342 38.4086 CuSn Ring OSC 11006 Cerro San Cristóbal 7 2.08718 0.84741 18.4805 15.6604 38.5719 CuSn Awl OSC 11017 Cerro San Cristóbal 8.2 2.08710 0.84709 18.4838 15.6570 38.5775 CuSn Rivets OSC 11010 Cerro San Cristóbal 8.1 2.09038 0.84825 18.4168 15.6220 38.4980 CuAs Dagger OSC 13001 Cerro San Cristóbal 9 2.08068 0.84561 18.4487 15.5998 38.3852 CuAs Dagger OSC 13005 Cerro San Cristóbal 17 2.09449 0.85111 18.3392 15.6058 38.4113 CuAs Nail OSC 13006_15 Cerro San Cristóbal 17 2.08975 0.85208 18.3351 15.6226 38.3155 CuAs Nail OSC 13006_71 Cerro San Cristóbal 17 2.09144 0.85399 18.2863 15.6166 38.2441 CuAs Awl OSC 15013 Cerro San Cristóbal 12 2.09069 0.84982 18.3864 15.6255 38.4405 CuAs Dagger OSC 15014 Cerro San Cristóbal 12 2.08947 0.84802 18.4370 15.6350 38.5235 CuAs 150 M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155

Fig. 6. Lead isotope data of objects from Cerro de la Encina and Cerro San Cristóbal. Analyt- Fig. 7. Lead isotope data of objects from graves with several metal objects. Analytical errors ical errors for the samples analysed in this work are smaller than the size of the symbols. for the samples analysed in this work are smaller than the size of the symbols.

(Fig. 6). However, objects from these two sites do not form two separat- isotopic ratio with higher 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb values, ed clusters in either the site or composition. This fact suggests that differ- whereas the other is closer to the Linares isotopic field but has higher ent resources were used in both sites, and some may have been shared. 206Pb/204Pb values (Fig. 7). This later provenance is shared with grave Fig. 7 shows the samples from tombs with more than one metal 12 from Cerro San Cristóbal. Objects from grave 18 (Fig. 7) also suggest object, including silver ones. These samples were taken to evaluate the the use of two different copper ores, as two of them are clustered to- homogeneity of metal provenance within specific grave goods. Lead iso- gether with values of c. 18.4 in the 206Pb/204Pb ratio. The third has tope values from Cerro de la Encina show higher heterogeneity than an altogether different isotopic signature — c. 18 in the same ratio. those from Cerro San Cristóbal. Objects found in grave 21 at Cerro de The use of different copper sources in the same burial was especially la Encina are especially noticeable. 16 items were analysed at this site, evident in tombs 21 and 18 of Cerro de la Encina. This finding could sug- including eight copper- and silver-based each. These findings showed gest that grave goods were not manufactured ex professo for the burial at least three supplying areas. All silver objects are closely clustered, ritual but accumulated during the deceased's lifetime and/or donated by showing different Pb ratios than most copper-based objects. Interest- different relatives. Wear marks and re-sharpening evidence on daggers, ingly, one copper object from grave 21 (MO 39258) matches one silver axes or halberds (Brandherm, 2011) also support this idea. Wear marks object from the same grave and another silver object from grave 8 in all are especially evident in some daggers from Cerro San Cristóbal and the axes. These objects appear to be made of ores originating from the edge of the axe from tomb 18 of Cerro de la Encina (Fig. 8). Linares mining district. The copper mines of this district where na- Determining a specific origin in provenance analysis is difficult, but tive silver and silver chlorides have also been documented some mining districts can be proposed. Three samples (bracelet MO (Murillo-Barroso, 2013: 173ff. and references therein) were being 39261 and daggers MO 39264 and OSC 15014) have similar isotopic ra- exploited by Argaric settlements, such as Peñalosa (Hunt Ortiz et tios and match the Los Pedroches mining district. In fact, the closest- al., 2012). Isotopic values of the rest of the copper-based objects of matching geological sample comes from the Fontanar copper mine grave 21 are more heterogeneous, with the extreme being radiogen- (Klein et al., 2009)(Fig. 9). Evidence of prehistoric mining has not ic values of the knife MO 39281. This finding suggests that at least been found in this mine, but Roman activity has been identified two other catchment areas exist, although their specificprovenance (Domergue, 1990: 190). An awl from grave 21 in Cerro de la Encina cannot be currently identified. One of these catchment areas has an also matches the Los Pedroches district in all axes. The closest geological M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155 151

Fig. 8. Wear marks in the edge of axe MO 55195 in grave 18 from Cerro de la Encina and sharpening and wear marks in daggers from Cerro San Cristóbal.

sample in this case comes from the Higueruela copper mine (Klein et al., However, the isotopic signature of one bronze production debris sample8 2009). Domergue (1990: 127) found grooved hammers at this site, found in Gatas (OXALID) is comparable to these two objects (Fig. 10). which could indicate a prehistoric exploitation. These two mines are Interestingly, one of these objects was found in the only pithos (grave approx. 30 km from each other, and 160 km from Cerro de la Encina 7) from Cerro de San Cristóbal, which is similar to those used in Gatas and Cerro San Cristóbal. burials (Aranda Jiménez et al., 2012: 148). The crucible was ascribed to Only two bracelets can be clearly linked to the Linares mining dis- a post-Argaric phase by the excavators (Castro et al., 1999: 227), demon- trict: a copper one from grave 21 in Cerro de la Encina (MO 39258) strating prolonged use of the same copper resources in the area. and a bronze one from grave 6 in Cerro de San Cristóbal (OSC 7002). No other specific provenance can be proposed for the remaining The former matches in all of the axes with the Los Arrayanes copper objects, although their heterogeneous values suggest a diversity of mine, where some Bronze Age pottery has been found (Domergue, origins. This diversity is especially apparent for the two objects 1990: 127). The bracelet MO 39279 from grave 21 at Cerro de la Encina with the most extreme values, which oscillate from 38.22 to 39.11 also matches the Linares mining district, although in a peripheral way in in ratio 208Pb/204Pb. The first one is the axe MO 55195, whose some graphs (Fig. 9). This area would have seemed to be the origin of values –2.1202 in ratio 208Pb/206Pb– cannot be correlated with the ore from which an arsenical copper nail from Cerro de San Cristóbal Southeastern mining districts (Fig. 9). The most similar signatures are was cast it not been for the significant divergence in the isotopic field of those of Alcudia Valley (Santos Zalduegui et al., 2004)andcopper the 208Pb/206Pb ratio (Fig. 9). This object is part of a group of 83 nails mines of Navalparedón in Ossa Morena (Tornos and Chiarada, 2004), al- and staples found together in grave 17 from Cerro de San Cristóbal though they do not match. The other object, which sits apart in its radio- which were probably part of an artefact made of perishable materials genic values, is the knife MO 39281–2.0493 in ratio 208Pb/206Pb. These (Aranda Jiménez et al., 2012: 154). Two of these nails showed very sim- values cannot be related to any known mining district. The only samples ilar trace element compositions. Therefore, they could have been made with similar ratios are found in both the Santomera mines9 (Murcia), from the same casting. These objects also show an isotopic similarity, whose isotopic field is still to be defined, and Sierra Cabrera (Almería) but are far from homogeneous (Fig. 9). Their performance in relation (OXALID). to copper mines in different Pb ratios hints that some recycling or a mix- ture of different ores is possible. 8 Lull (1983: 335), by personal communication of its excavator, states that a bronze The copper mining district of Alcolea (Almería) is the last prove- “ ” fi crucible was found in the site of Las Peñicas de Santomera although not being clear if this nance that could be suggested. However, its isotopic eld is not would be a melting or smelting crucible. However, he also asserts that any comment on accurately defined due to the limited number of geological samples this site must be cautious, as it had not been published yet. More than 30 years after Lull's analysed in this area. The bronze bracelet MO 39255 from grave 21 in publication, these analyses are still unpublished; therefore, although we include this tech- Cerro de la Encina matches with the limits of Alcolea in all axes, making nical ceramic in Table 1, the only secure evidence of bronze production up to now is the one found in Gatas, whose analytical results showing 11.7% Sn are published in OXALID it the most similar mining district. and the crucible from El Argar published by Siret and Siret (1887: Table III) with 8.9% Finally, two bronze objects from Cerro San Cristóbal (ring OSC 1106 Sn. While clearly linked to bronze production, further analytical work on this ceramics is from grave 7 and awl OSC 11017 from grave 8.2) are clustered together still needed to know if they are melting or smelting vessels, as well as the technical condi- in all axes, suggesting that they are derived from the same copper source. tions of bronze production. 9 Although these objects have similar isotopic ratios to the Los Pedroches Unpublished data. Sample of copper ore analysed using a MC-ICP-MS Neptune at the Geochronology and Geochemistry Service SGIker of the University of the Basque mining district in most axes, they slightly differ in 207Pb/204Pb. There- Country: 206Pb/204Pb = 19.0975; 207Pb/204Pb = 15.6914; 208Pb/204Pb = fore, their precise provenance cannot yet be confidently identified. 38.9524; 207Pb/206Pb = 0.82165; and 208Pb/206Pb = 2.0396. 152 M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155

matches with Cartagena and Mazarrón10 (Figs. 10 and 11). Other provenance areas to bear in mind include Santomera and Sierra Cabrera for one object in Cerro de la Encina, and the Alcudia Valley for two objects found at Cerro de la Encina and Fuente Álamo. No other provenance can be proposed for the rest of the objects analysed, although the exploitation of multiple copper sources is evident. The possibility of some provenances being obscured by recycling or mixing metals cannot be completely discarded, although no alignment pattern has been documented thus far (Stos-Gale 2001: 453; Montero Ruiz and Murillo-Barroso, 2010: 42).

6. Conclusions

Abundant copper mines in the Southeast still lack precise isotopic characterisation. Additionally, archaeometallurgical materials – especially processing by-products– have not been systematically analysed. Therefore, an accurate picture of ore supplying networks cannot be completely established. Despite these limitations, these results combined with existing evidence will enable us to start draw- ing an image of the organisation of copper production in the Argaric society.

1. Metal objects found in Cerro de la Encina, especially those of grave 21, have a higher diversity in alloys and provenances than those from Cerro San Cristóbal. The heterogeneity found in objects from the same burial could suggest that grave goods –at least for the Argaric rulers– were not specifically manufactured for the burial ritual but accumulated through the lifetime of the deceased or offered on behalf of others. 2. The high diversity of isotopic composition of copper-based objects in the whole Argaric area evidences the exploitation of different and distant copper resources. This area ranges from the Los Pedroches mining district in northern Córdoba to Cartagena and Mazarrón in the Southeast. Some of these resources were shared between different sites or their objects were exchanged. 3. Most of the lead isotope analyses conducted on copper-based objects (67.9%) do not match any of the copper mines that have been isotopically characterised. This finding indicates diversity of the Fig. 9. Provenances of metal objects from Cerro de la Encina and Cerro San Cristóbal. Ana- sourcesexploited,evenifsomeofthemweremanufactured lytical errors for the samples analysed in this work are smaller than the size of the symbols. with recycled metal and must be considered a relevant feature of Argaric metallurgy. 4. Although the Peñalosa site presents evidence of the whole productive chain and a relevant amount of metallurgical by- products, Argaric copper production was not exclusively depen- If we compare all of these samples with other Argaric copper-based dent from this site. Only eight objects match the Linares mining metals published so far (Stos-Gale et al., 1999; OXALID), the heteroge- district, representing just 15% of the metal objects analysed. neity of the isotopic values of the archaeological samples emerges as a 5. The high variability of isotopic compositions linked to the key feature (Fig. 10). The pattern emerging from Granada, Murcia and presence of metallurgical by-products in several sites (Table 1) Almeria does not fit into the single provenance model. Several sources indicates that many different copper districts and workshops were used in a single site. Note that metal obtained from different min- were in use at the same time. ing districts was found in Fuente Álamo, Gatas, El Barranquete, Cerro de la Encina, Cerro de San Cristóbal and El Argar. This metal was shared by a These insights suggest that a decentralised copper production sys- number of sites. El Barranquete was using the same copper source as tem was present, in which several sites exploited different sources Fuente Álamo and Cerro de la Encina. Cerro de la Encina was sharing and probably with intense artefact exchange. This finding is believed copper ores with Gatas, Fuente Álamo and Cerro San Cristóbal. These to be because different and distant sites have several objects with the sites also shared copper with Cabezo Negro and Rincón de Almendricos same provenance. More copper by-products have been recovered (Figs. 10 and 11). in Peñalosa than in any other Argaric site. Additionally, copper by- Precise provenance cannot be proposed for most of these samples, products were more evident in the Copper Age than in the Argaric peri- given that relevant copper mining districts, especially those from the od. However, the explanation of this archaeological record does not Granada province, have not been isotopically characterised. Only seem to fit a centralised production system. If a centralised and hierar- 32.1% of the samples have probable provenances. Eight objects –two chically structured system develops with the site of Peñalosa serving from Fuente Álamo, two each from Gatas, Cerro de la Encina and one as the main productive site, higher homogeneity in trace element each from Cabezo Negro and Cerro San Cristóbal– match in all axes with the isotopic field of Linares. Four other objects –three from Cerro de la Encina and one from Cerro San Cristóbal– seem to have a prove- 10 Although the main mineralization in this mining district is galena and copper only oc- nance in Los Pedroches mining district. One object from Cerro de la curs occasionally (see Fig. 1), some evidence of copper exploitation during the Bronze Age Encina could come from the Alcolea mines, and one object from Gatas in Cartagena has been documented (Domergue, 1990: 127). M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155 153

Fig. 10. Lead isotope data of all Argaric objects published up to now and possible provenances. Analytical error of 0.1% 2σ represented here is for data from the literature analysed by TIMS. Analytical errors for the samples analysed in this work are smaller than the size of the symbols.

composition and lead isotopes should be expected, particularly behind these objects has been documented (Murillo-Barroso, 2013). matching in Linares as it is the catchment area of Peñalosa. Changes The productive pattern in Peñalosa should be considered as the excep- from open air sites with space between dwellings to more structured tion and not the norm within Argaric metallurgy. sites with narrow streets between the Copper and Bronze Age must Based on the ﬁnished objects, it is possible to determine several also be considered. Metallurgy is a dirty activity that requires open distant zones from which raw materials were being extracted and proc- spaces. Argaric urbanism did not provide such spaces, leaving only essed. In fact, lead isotope analyses show the exploitation of various dis- streets for intra-settlement movement. If this activity was carried out persed mineralisations. These ﬁndings suggest that there were several outside the settlement areas and beyond the reach of on-site archaeo- local metallurgical workshops active during the Argaric period in what logical excavations, by-products would mostly remain unrecorded. appears to be a decentralised system. This scenario is consistent with Argaric silver metallurgy is a good example of the material obscurity the archaeometallurgical record, with no evidence of any type of pro- of a metallurgical-productive activity in the Argaric society. A greater duction that exceeded local needs (Bartelheim, 2007). Nonetheless, amount of silver objects has been found in this region than within rest the lead isotope approach to Argaric metallurgy needs further analyses of Iberia and Europe. However, no evidence of the productive process of ore and slag remains to properly assess the whole production chain. A 154 M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155

Fig. 11. Archaeological sites with objects analysed by LIA. 1) Cerro de la Encina. 2) Cerro San Cristóbal. 3) Cabezo Negro. 4) La Bastida. 5) Monteagudo. 6) Rincón de Almendricos. 7) El Argar. 8) Fuente Álamo. 9) Gatas. 10) El Barranquete. Red arrows show their ore provenance (discontinuous lines when provenance is only suggested). White lines link sites using common resources with different provenances yet to be established. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this ﬁgure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

detailed study of by-product evidence found in different sites has yet to Aranda Jiménez, G., Molina González, F., 2006. Wealth and power in the Bronze Age of the South-east of the Iberian Peninsula: the funerary record of Cerro de la Encina. Oxf. be produced. J. Archaeol. 25 (1), 47–59. Aranda Jiménez, G., Molina González, F., Fernández Martín, S., Sánchez Romero, M., Al Oumaoui, I., Jiménez-Brobeil, S., Roca, M.G., 2008. El poblado y necrópolis argáricos Acknowledgements del Cerro de la Encina (Monachil, Granada). Las campañas de excavación de 2003– 2005. Cuad. Prehist. Arqueología Univ. Granada 18, 219–264. This research was supported by the R&D projects “Innovation, conti- Aranda Jiménez, G., Alarcón García, E., Murillo-Barroso, M., Montero Ruiz, I., Jiménez- Brobeil, S., Sánchez Romero, M., Rodríguez-Ariza, O., 2012. El Yacimiento Argárico nuity and hybridization. The Copper and Bronze Ages societies in the del Cerro de San Cristóbal (Ogíjares, Granada). Menga, Rev. Prehist. Andalucía 3, Southern Iberian Peninsula” (HAR2013-42865-P) and “Links between 141–164. local resources and metallurgical production: Southern Catalonia as a Aranda Jiménez, G., Montón Subías, S., Sánchez Romero, M., 2015. The Archaeology of ” Bronze Age Iberia: Argaric Societies. Routledge, New York. contrasting model (HAR2010-21105-C02-02) funded by the Spanish Arribas Palau, A., Craddock, P., Molina, F., Rothenberg, B., Hook, D., 1989. Investigación Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and a Marie Curie Intra arqueo-metalúrgica en yacimientos de las Edades del Cobre y del Bronce en el European Fellowship within the 7th European Community Framework Sudeste de Iberia. In: Domergue, C. (Ed.), Coloquio internacional sobre minería y “ metalurgia en las antiguas civilizaciones mediterráneas y europeas (Madrid 1985), Programme ( Society, Metallurgy and Innovation: The Iberian Hypoth- pp. 71–79 (Madrid). esis”—SMITH project, PN623183). Arribas Rosado, A., Arribas Moreno, A., 1995. Caracteres metalogénicos y geoquímica isotópica del azufre y el plomo de los yacimientos de minerales metálicos del sureste de España. Bol. Geol. Min. 106 (1), 23–62. References Arribas, A., Tosdal, R.M., 1994. Isotopic composition of Pb and S in base and precious metal deposits of the Betic Cordillera, Spain: origin and relationship to other European de- Aranda Jiménez, G., 2013. Against uniformity. Cultural diversity: the “others” in Argaric posits. Econ. Geol. 89, 1074–1093. societies. In: Cruz Berrocal, M., García Sanjuán, L., Gilman, A. (Eds.), The Prehistory Bartelheim, M., 2007. Die Rolle der Metallurgie in vorgeschichtlichen Gesellschaften/The of Iberia Debating Early Social Stratiﬁcation and the State. Routledge, New York, Role of Metallurgy in Prehistoric Societies. Marie Leidorf, Rahden. pp. 99–118. Bartelheim, M., Contreras, F., Moreno, A., Murillo-Barroso, M., Pernicka, E., 2012. The silver Aranda Jiménez, G., 2014. La memoria como forma de resistencia cultural. Continuidad y of the South Iberian El Argar culture: a ﬁrst look into production and distribution. reutilización de espacios funerarios colectivos en época argárica. In: García Afonso, E. Trab.Prehist.69(2),293–306. (Ed.), II Congreso de Prehistoria de Andalucía (Antequera, 2012). Consejería de Bashore Acero, Ch., Moreno Onorato, A., Contreras Cortés, F., Molina González, F., 2014. La Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla, pp. 255–277. metalurgia argárica: nuevas aportaciones. Los yacimientos de Castellón Alto (Galera) Aranda Jiménez, G., 2015. Resistencia e involución social en la comunidades de la Edad del y La Terrera del Reloj (Dehesas de Guadix). In: Juanes Barber, D., Roldán García, C. Bronce del Sureste de la Península Ibérica. Trab. Prehist. 72 (1) (forthcoming). (Eds.), X Congreso Ibérico de Arqueometría. IVC+R de CulturArts Generalit, Castellón. Aranda Jiménez, G., Lozano Medina, A., 2014. The chronology of megalithic funerary prac- Brandherm, D., 2011. Use–wear on Bronze Age Halberds: the case of Iberia. In: tices: a Bayesian approach to Grave 11 at El Barranquete necropolis (Almería, Spain). Uckelmann, M., Mödlinger, M. (Eds.), Bronze Age Warfare: Manufacture and Use of J. Archaeol. Sci. 50, 369–382. Weaponry. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 23–38. Aranda Jiménez, G., Molina González, F., 2005. Intervenciones arqueológicas en el Cabré, J., 1922. Una necrópolis de la Primera Edad de los metales en Monachil, yacimiento de la Edad del Bronce del Cerro de la Encina (Monachil, Granada). Trab. Granada. Memorias de la Sociedad Española de Antropología, Etnología y Prehist. 62 (1), 165–180. Prehistoria I, Madrid. M. Murillo-Barroso et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015) 141–155 155

Castro, P., Chapman, R., Gili, S., Lull, V., Micó, R., Rihuete, C., Risch, R., Sanahuja Yll, M.E. Martínez Rodríguez, A., Ponce García, J., Ayala, J.M.M., 1996. Las prácticas funerarias de la (Eds.), 1999. Proyecto Gatas 2. La dinámica arqueoecológica de la ocupación cultura argárica en Lorca – Murcia. Ayuntamiento de Lorca, Lorca. prehistórica. Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th., 2014. Technical ceramics. In: Roberts, B.W., Thornton, Chapman, R., 1990. Emerging complexity. The Later Prehistory of South-East Spain, Iberia C.P. (Eds.), Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective. Springer, NewYork, pp. 107–131. and the West Mediterranean. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Montero Ruiz, I., 1991. Estudio Arqueometalúrgico en el sudeste de la Península Ibérica. Chapman, R., 2008. Producing inequalities: regional sequences in late prehistoric South- Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid (http://eprints.ucm.es/1835/1/ ern Spain. J. World Prehistory 21, 195–260. AH0000301.pdf). Contreras, F., 2000. (Coord.), Proyecto Peñalosa. Análisis histórico de las comunidades de Montero Ruiz, I., 1992. La actividad metalúrgica en la Edad del Bronce del Sudeste de la la Edad del Bronce del Piedemonte meridional de Sierra Morena y Depresión Linares- Península Ibérica: tecnología e interpretación cultural. Trab. Prehist. 49, 189–215. Bailén. Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. Montero Ruiz, I., 1993. Bronze Age metallurgy in southeast Spain. Antiquity 67, 46–57. Dayton, J.E., Dayton, A., 1986. Uses and limitations of lead isotopes in archaeology. In: Montero Ruiz, I., Murillo-Barroso, M., 2010. La producción metalúrgica en las sociedades Olin, J.S., Blackman, M.J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 24th International Archaeometry argáricas y sus implicaciones sociales: una propuesta de investigación. Menga. Symposium. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, pp. 13–41. Revis. Prehist. Andalucía 1 (37–51 and 225–232. Bilingual). Delgado-Raak, S., 2013. Tecnotipología y distribución espacial del material macrolítico del Moreno Onorato, A., Contreras Cortés, F., Renzi, M., Rovira Llorens, S., Cortés Santiago, H., Cerro de la Virgen de Orce (Granada). Campañas 1963–1970: Una aproximación 2010. Estudio preliminar de las escorias y escorificaciones del yacimiento metalúrgico paleoeconómicaBAR International Series 2518. Archaeopress, Oxford. de la Edad del Bronce de Peñalosa (Baños de la Encina, Jaén). Trab. Prehist. 67 (2), Delgado-Raack, S., Risch, R., 2006. La tumba Nº3 de Los Cipreses y la metalurgia argárica. 305–322. Alberca 4, 21–50. Moreno, A., Contreras, F., 2010. La organización social de la producción metalúrgica en las Domergue, C., 1990. Les Mines de la Péninsule Ibérique dans l'Antiquité Romaine. École sociedades argáricas: el poblado de Peñalosa. Menga. Rev. Prehist. Andalucía 1, 53–75 française de Rome, Rome. (Bilingual). Gilman, A., 1987. Unequal development in Copper Age Iberia. In: Brumfield, E.M., Earle, Murillo-Barroso, M., 2013. Producción y Consumo de Plata. Un Análisis Comparativo entre T.K. (Eds.), Specialization, Exchange and Complex Societies. Cambridge University la Sociedad Argárica y los Primeros Asentamientos Orientalizantes en el Sur de la Press, Cambridge, pp. 22–29. Península Ibérica. Universidad de Granada, Granada. Gilman, A., 2001. Assessing political development in Copper and Bronze Age Southeast Murillo-Barroso, M., Montero-Ruiz, I., 2012. Copper ornaments in the Iberian Chalcolithic: Spain. In: Haas, J. (Ed.), From Leaders to Rulers. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, technology versus social demand. J. Mediterr. Archaeol. 25 (1), 53–73. pp. 59–81. Murillo-Barroso, M., Aranda Jiménez, G., Montero Ruiz, I., 2014. Aspectos sociales del Gilman, A., 2013. Were there states during the later prehistory of Southern Iberia? In: cambio tecnológico: nuevos datos para valorar la introducción de la aleación del Cruz Berrocal, M., García Sanjuán, L., Gilman, A. (Eds.), The Prehistory of Iberia Debat- bronce en las sociedades argáricas. In: Movilidad, Contacto y Cambio (Ed.), II ing Early Social Stratification and the State. Routledge, New York, pp. 99–118 Congreso de Prehistoria de Andalucía. Consejería de Cultura, Sevilla, pp. 417–427. Graeser, S., Friedrich, G., 1970. Zur frage der altersstellung und genese der blei-zink- OXALID, D. http://oxalid.arch.ox.ac.uk. vorkommen der Sierra de Cartegena in Spanien. Miner. Deposita 5, 365–374. Pereira, F., Silva, R.J.C., Monge Soares, A.M., Araújo, M.F., 2013. Theroleofarsenicin Hanning, E., Gauß, R., Goldenberg, G., 2010. Metal para Zambujal: reconstrucción experi- Chalcolithic copper artefacts e insights from Vila Nova de São Pedro (Portugal). mental de una tecnología de 5.000 años. Trab. Prehist. 67 (2), 287–304. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 2045–2056. Hook, D.R., Arribas, A., Craddock, P.T., Molina, F., Rothenberg, B., 1987. Copper and silver in Pernicka, E., 2014. Provenance determination of archaeological metal objects. In: Roberts, Bronze Age Spain. In: Waldren, W.H., Keennard, R.C. (Eds.), Bell Beakers of the West- B.W., Thornton, C.P. (Eds.), Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective. Springer, New ern Mediterranean. British Archaeological Reports, International Series S331. York, pp. 239–268. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 147–172. Rovira, S., 2004. Tecnología metalúrgica y cambio cultural enla prehistoria de la Península Hunt Ortiz, M., 2003. Prehistoric mining and metallurgy in south west Iberian peninsula. Ibérica. Norba. Rev. Hist. 17, 9–40. British Archaeological Reports, International Series. 1188. Archaeopress, Oxford. Rovira, S., 2005. La Producción de Bronces en la Prehistoria. In: Molera i Marimon, J., Farjas Hunt Ortiz, M., Contreras Cortés, F., Arboledas Martínez, L., 2012. La procedencia de los i Silva,, J., Roura i Grabulosa, P., Pradell i Cara, T. (Eds.), Avances en Arqueometría. recursos minerales metálicos en el poblado de la Edad de Bronce de Peñalosa Actas del VI Congreso Ibérico de Arqueometría. Universidad de Girona, Girona, (Baños de la Encina, Jaén). Resultados de análisis de isótopos de plomo. Actas del V pp. 21–35. Congreso Internacional sobre Minería y Metalurgia Históricas en el Suroeste Rovira, S., 2011. Contribution of the analytical work to the knowledge of the early metal- Europeo, León, 19–21 de Junio de 2008, pp. 197–208 (Madrid). lurgy in the Iberian Peninsula. In: Giardino, G. (Ed.), Archeometallurgia: Dalla Junghans, S., Sangmeister, E., Schroder, M., 1960. Metallanalysen Kupfer.zeitlicher und Conoscenza Alla Fruizione. Edipuglia, Bari, pp. 43–55. fruhbronzezeitlicher Bodenfunde aus Europe. Studien zu den Anfange der Metallurgie Rovira, S., Gómez Ramos, P., 2003. Las Primeras Etapas Metalúrgicas en la Península 1. Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Berlin. Ibérica III. Estudios metalográficos. Instituto Universitario Ortega y Gasset, Madrid. Junghans, S., Sangmeister, E., Schroder, M., 1968. Kupfer u. Bronze in der fruhen Rovira, S., Montero Ruíz, I., Consuegra, S., 1997. Las Primeras etapas metalúrgicas en la Metallzeit Europas. Studien zu den Anfange der Metallurgie. 2. Romisch- Península Ibérica. I. Análisis de Materiales. Instituto Universitario y Fundación Ortega Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Berlin. y Gasset. Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid. Keates, S., 2002. The Flashing Blade: copper, colour and luminosity in North Italian Copper Sánchez-Valverde, J., Fernández-Leyva, C., Navarro, R., 2013. Síntesis de los principales Age society. In: Jones, A., MacGregor, G. (Eds.), Colouring the Past: The Significance of recursos de minerales metálicos de la Cordillera Bética en Andalucía y las zonas de Colour in Archaeological Research. Berg, Oxford, pp. 109–125. potencialidad minera. Geogaceta 54, 79–82. Klein, S., Domergue, C., Lahaye, Y., Brey, G.P., Von Kaenel, H.-M., 2009. The lead and copper Santos Zalduegui, J.F., García de Madinabeitia, S., Gil Ibarguchi, J.I., Palero, F., 2004. Alead isotopic composition of copper ores from the Sierra Morena (Spain). J. Iber. Geol. 35 istope database: the Los Pedroches — Alcudia Area (Spain); implications for (1), 59–68. Archaeometallurgical connections across southwestern and southeastern Iberia. Lull, V., 1983. La cultura del argar. Un modelo para el estudio de las formaciones Archaeometry 46 (4), 625–634. económico-sociales prehistóricas. Akal, Madrid. Simón García, J.L., 1998. La metalurgia prehistórica valenciana. Servicio de Investigación Lull, V., 2000. Argaric society: death at home. Antiquity 285, 581–590. Prehistórica, Valencia. Lull, V., Estévez, J., 1986. Propuesta metodológica para el estudio de las necrópolis Siret, L., Siret, H., 1887. Les Premières Âges du Métal dans le Sudest de l'Espagne argáricas. Homenaje a Luis Siret (1934–1984). Consejería de Cultura, Sevilla, (Anvers). pp. 441–452. Siret, L., Siret, H., 1890. Las Primeras Edades del Metal en el Sudeste de España. Henrich Lull, V., Micó, R., Risch, R., Rihuete, C., 2009. The Argar. La formación de una sociedad de and Cia, Barcelona. clases. In: Hernández Pérez, M.S., Soler Díaz, J.A., López Padilla, J.A. (Eds.), los confines Stos-Gale, S., 2001. The development of Spanish metallurgy and copper circulation in Pre- Argar. Una cultura de la Edad del Bronce Alicante. Museo Arqueológico Fundación historic Southern Spain. In: Gómez Tubío, B., Respaldiza Galisteo, M.A., Pardo MARQ, Alicante, pp. 224–245. Rodríguez, Mª.L. (Eds.), III Congreso Nacional de Arqueometría. Universidad de Lull, V., Micó, R., Rihuete, C., Risch, R., 2010. Metal y relaciones sociales de producción Sevilla, Sevilla, pp. 445–456. durante el III y II milenio ANE en el sudeste de la Península Ibérica. Trab. Prehist. 67 Stos-Gale, Z.A., Gale, N.H., Houghton, J., Speakman, R., 1995. Lead isotope data from the (2), 323–347. Isotrace Laboratory, Oxford: Archaeometry Data Base 1, Ores from the Western Lull, V., Micó, R., Rihuete-Herrada, C., Risch, R., 2013. Funerary practices and kinship in an Mediterranea. Archaeometry 37 (2), 407–415. Early Bronze Age society: a Bayesian approach applied to the radiocarbon dating of Stos-Gale, S., Hunt Ortiz, M., Gale, N., 1999. Análisis elemental y de isótopos de plomo de Argaric double tombs. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 4626–4634. objetos metálicos de los sondeos de Gatas. In: Castro, P., Chapman, R., Gili, S., Lull, V., Lull, V., Micó, R., Rihuete-Herrada, C., Risch, R., 2014a. The La Bastida fortification: new Micó, R., Rihuete, C., Risch, R., Sanahuja Yll, M.E. (Eds.), Proyecto Gatas 2. La dinámica light and new questions on Early Bronze Age societies in the western Mediterranean. arqueoecológica de la ocupación prehistórica. Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Antiquity 88, 395–410. Andalucía, Sevilla, pp. 347–361. Lull, V., Micó, R., Rihuete-Herrada, C., Risch, R., 2014b. The social value of silver in El Argar. Tarradell, M., 1947–48. Investigaciones arqueológicas en la provincia de Granada. In: Meller, H.H., Risch, R., Pernicka, E. (Eds.), Metalle der Macht — Frühes Gold und Ampurias IX–X, 223–236. Silber. Metals of power — Early gold and silver. 6 Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag Tornos, R., Chiarada, M., 2004. Plumbotectonic evolution of the Ossa Morena Zone: Iberian vom 17. bis 19. Oktober 2o13 in Halle (Saale) 6th Archaeological Conference of Cen- Peninsula: tracing the influence of mantle–crust interaction in ore-forming processes. tral Germany October 17–19, 2013 in Halle (Saale). Tagungen des Landesmuseums Econ. Geol. 99, 965–985. für Vorgeschichte Halle, Band 11, pp. 557–576.