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1 Rape, Rage and Culture RAPE, RAGE AND CULTURE: AFRICAN MEN AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS FOR JUSTIFICATION OF, AND SANCTIONS AGAINST RAPE by AMANI OLUBANJO BUNTU submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION in the subject PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF. CATHERINE ODORA-HOPPERS JUNE 2012 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration 6 Abstract 7 Acknowledgements 8 1. INTRODUCTION 10 1.1. Personal reflections of researcher 10 1.2. Introduction to the study 11 1.3. Background, rationale and significance of the study 12 1.4. Research problem and research question 13 1.4.1. Research problem 13 1.4.2. Research question 14 1.5. Cultural conditions 14 1.6. Research aim and objectives 15 1.7. Conceptual and theoretical framework 16 1.8. Definition of terms 17 1.9. Structure of the study 19 2. LITERATURE REVIEW: RAPE, MASCULINITY, CULTURE AND RAGE 20 2.1. Introduction 20 2.1.1. Concepts and thematic focus 20 2.1.2. Paradigms and approaches 23 2.2. Rape 26 2.2.1. Introduction of rape as concept 26 2.2.2. Defining rape 27 2.2.3. Reasons for rape 28 2.2.4. Ontology of rape 30 2.2.5. Rape in the context of Africa 31 2.2.6. Under-reporting of rape 32 2.2.7. Rape as culture 33 2.2.8. Rape and warfare 34 2.2.9. South Africa as “rape capital” 34 2.2.10. Rape and race 36 2 2.2.11. Historical injustices and rape 37 2.2.12. Summary 38 2.3. Masculinity 38 2.3.1. Introduction of masculinity as concept 38 2.3.2. Defining masculinity 39 2.3.3. Masculinity studies 40 2.3.4. Masculinity and power 42 2.3.5. Hegemonic and multiple masculinities 42 2.3.6. African masculinities 43 2.3.7. The impact of African-centred analyses on masculinity 44 2.3.8. Masculinity in South Africa 46 2.3.9. African masculinities and violence 47 2.3.10. Summary 50 2.4. Culture 51 2.4.1. Introduction of culture as concept 51 2.4.2 Defining culture and cultural conditions 52 2.4.2.1. Culture 51 2.4.2.2. Cultural conditions 52 2.4.3. African culture 53 2.4.4. African culture, masculinity and violence 56 2.4.5. Interpretation of culture and cultural manifestations − a model 59 2.4.6. Summary 60 2.5. Rage 61 2.5.1. Introduction of rage as concept 61 2.5.2. Defining rage 61 2.5.3. Rage and justice 62 2.5.4. Rage and African masculinities 63 2.5.5. Summary 64 2.6. Summary of literature review 65 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 68 3.1. Introduction 68 3.2. Afrocentricity as both paradigm and approach 68 3 3.3. Research design 69 3.3.1. Selecting the research methodology 69 3.3.1.1. Frame of reference 69 3.3.1.2. Qualitative methodology 70 3.3.1.3. Focus group 71 3.3.2. Research design 72 3.3.3. Purpose of the focus group and focus group questions 73 3.3.4. Role of the participants 74 3.3.5. Role of the research team 74 3.3.6. Sampling method 75 3.3.7. Procedure 76 3.4. Data analyses 78 3.4.1. Data collection methods 78 3.4.2. Data analyses 78 3.4.3. Results 81 3.4.4. Reporting 83 3.5. Considerations regarding the study’s reliability 83 3.5.1. Ethical considerations 83 3.5.2. Reflexivity 84 3.5.3. Reliability and credibility 85 3.6. Summary 86 4. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS 87 4.1. Introduction 87 4.2. Points of similarity and difference in the interviews 88 4.2.1 Similarities 89 4.2.2. Differences 89 4.3. Interpretation of the data 90 4.3.1. Thematic categories 91 4.3.2. Matrix for interpretation 92 4.4. Discussion of findings 93 4.5. Theoretical notions emanating from the investigation 123 4.5.1. Rape in (South) Africa 124 4.5.2. African men and masculinity 124 4 4.5.3. African culture 125 4.5.4. Rage and African men 126 4.5.5. Solutions to rape 127 4.6. Summary 129 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 131 5.1. Introduction 131 5.2. Central issues 131 5.3. Limitations and delimitations 134 5.4. Recommendations 135 5.5. Conclusion 137 REFERENCES 140 APPENDICES 169 5 DECLARATION Student number: 4628 4044 I declare that Rape, Rage and Culture: African Men and Cultural Conditions for Justification of, and Sanctions against Rape is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ________________________ _____________________ SIGNATURE DATE (Mr) 6 ABSTRACT This study is a cultural investigation into rape, with specific focus on the role of African men. With more than 70 000 cases of rape and sexual violence reported in a year in South Africa, and estimations that this may reflect one ninth of the actual number only, South Africa has been labelled the “rape capital” of the world. The study seeks to explain the root causes of rape, its ontological make-up and possibilities for resolving the issue by identifying cultural aspects, factors and manifestations that either justify or sanction rape. Four concepts, namely, rape, masculinity, culture and rage, serve as the thematic lens for identifying and interrogating cultural conditions through multidisciplinary and African- centred perspectives. The analyses contained in the study are based on a mapping process involving comparing the data from a wide range of literature and also focus group interviews. Highlighting the multi-layered complexities of rape as phenomena, the study then outlines recommendations for transformative work in research, cultural institutions, communities, families and men. Keywords: Rape, culture, rage, masculinity, African, Afrocentricity, de-colonial theory, focus groups, sexual violence, black 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Aboru, Aboye, Abo ṣiṣe [May these offerings be carried, accepted and bring about change] First of all, I give reverence to Olódùmarè, Òrúnmìlà, Obàtálá and Egúngún for all revelations through Ifá. I would not exist or survive without your interventions. This work would have remained a philosophical construct if it were not for Queen Mother, Professor Catherine Odora-Hoppers, my supervisor. I thank her for doing the impossible by luring me back into academia and enabling me to realise that there is a place − and duty − for my rebellious, nonconformist self in that world. I thank her for pushing and challenging me and for demanding delivery at the highest level. If I have succeeded in delivering, I owe this to her. I wish to give thanks to my Royal Queen and Master Teacher, Mama Tebogo Buntu, my wife, for her faith in me and for her ability to keep up with all my impossible ways and also for offering endless support in the completion of this thesis. I want to acknowledge all costudents, staff, research fellows and resource people affiliated to the South African Research Chair in Development Education (SARChI), especially Dr. Chester Benson Kamuzu Shaba and Prof. Phillip Higgs, for their advice and suggestions. A special thank you to my student peer reviewers, Rutendo Ngara and Zelezeck Biidou, for their detailed and instrumental input. I also wish to thank my research assistants, Pitsi Ra Ragophala and Siyabonga Lerumo, for all their help, both on the practical and the content levels. I am also very grateful for the insightful recommendations from Prof. Kopano Ratele in the initial stage of my thesis. I owe my being to many Mothers − of whom I wish to single out Mama Winifred Carty in Anguilla, Mme Duiker in Mafikeng and Mama Kena in Rustenburg − and many Fathers, amongst who I will mention Baba Oliver Lerumo Carty in Anguilla, the late Ntate Kgalushi Koka, Baba Barra in Johannesburg and Babalawo Abiodun Fafolarin Agboola in Oyo, 8 Nigeria and the many others who have challenged me, held my hand and pushed me over the edge to embrace my purpose. I also wish to acknowledge my “partners in conscious crime”; the committee of SHABAKA − MEN OF AFRIKA − Pitsi Ragophala, Galafani Matsimela, Cyprian Ikani, Xolani Majola, Mabule Mokhine, Siyabonga Lerumo, Rah Motaung, Biidou Zelezeck and the hundreds of Brothers who have joined SHABAKA in their affirmations and visionary work. Thank you for helping me to situate every word in this thesis where it belongs − in reality. To my Brothers, Kevin Bonginkosi Carty, Baba Mphephethi Thembitshe Bediako Dangazele and Mkhulu Ǻ Aunkh Khem S-Maã − I thank you for your guidance and conscious warriorhood. To my extended African family across the Caribbean, Africa, Europe and the Americas − you all have contributed to what this research seeks to achieve, namely, transformation within an epistemology of hope. I dedicate this work to my many Daughters and Sons who have helped to develop and protect Ebukhosini, our home and fortress, and who have aided its growth and implementation. I will specifically mention PitsiRa, Baruki, Siya and Maluleke − my protectors and inspiration- givers throughout the research process. I thank all my Children for grounding me, providing lectures in advanced classes in the School of Life and constantly sharpening my performance. I am because you are. Aché 9 1. INTRODUCTION [...] they [migrant workers in townships] existed under such stress and absorbed so much emotional pain that tears, grief, fear, hope and sadness had become alien to most of them. They were the walking dead. Stripped of their manhood, they hated the white man with every fibre in their being.
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