© Kamla-Raj 2013 Stud Tribes Tribals, 11(2): 161-178 (2013) The Nature and Causes of Bride Abduction Cases in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Makho Nkosi1* and Thabisile Buthelezi2
1School of Education, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa 2School of Languages, Drama and Media Education, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa
KEYWORDS Bride Abduction. Women’s Rights. Violence. Education. Rape
ABSTRACT The paper reports on an investigation carried out to ascertain the nature and causes of bride abduction cases in KwaZulu – Natal in South Africa. The study utilized a qualitative survey design. Focus group discussions were used to collect the data on a purposefully selected sample of thirty research participants from three purposefully selected research sites. The sample consisted of eighteen (18) women and (12) twelve men comprising of abductors, witnesses of abductions, abducted women, local chiefs, headmen, head-girls and station commanders in the local police stations. Content analysis, through emerging themes, was used in analysing the data. The study revealed that bride abduction (contemporary and negative ukuthwala) is an abuse of the custom of ukuthwala (traditional bridal abduction) which is perceived by many people to have disappeared during social transformation. However, it is still prevalent in some deep rural areas of KwaZulu – Natal. Bride abduction grossly violates women’s fundamental rights. Whereas traditional bridal abduction (ukuthwala) (to carry away with intent to marry), is a custom to many African tribes and is a global practice. The study also revealed that the nature and causes of bride abduction cases vary depending on the context where it is taking place. Furthermore, the nature and causes of bride abduction differ from that of traditional bridal abduction (ukuthwala) as a custom. The study therefore, concludes that before any hasty judgements are made about any cultural practice we need to separate what is culture from the abuse of culture. Recommendations were made that Law and Government should deal with the abuse of (ukuthwala). If the South African Government is serious about making lives of women, children, youth and the disabled better, the issue of the abuse of ukuthwala (bride abductions) should be made a priority.
INTRODUCTION ever, it is still vigorously practiced among some deep rural Zulu communities in KwaZulu – Na- South African girls as young as twelve are tal, South Africa (Nkosi 2009) ; in the Eastern being abducted in most cases by total strangers Cape among rural Xhosa and Mpondo commu- and forced into marriages from hell under the nities and possibly in other areas as well (Mfono pretext of the age – old custom of ukuthwala 2000). This paper arose out of an intensive PhD which literally means to be carried away (Nkosi research project one of the researchers carried 2009). The custom of ukuthwala (traditional out in selected deep rural areas of KwaZulu– bridal abduction), traditionally allowed the car- Natal. The researchers spoke to dozens of young rying of a young woman away to a young man’s men (abductors and witnesses of abductions) and home with an aim of marrying her. This practice young women who had been set up , sometimes is sometimes referred to as to carry away a young with the help of their families to be kidnapped, woman (ukuthwala intombi). Dent and Nyembezi locked up in guarded huts and forced to have (1969:1) refers to this practice as abduction unprotected sex with strangers who had suddenly (ukuthwala ngenkani). The custom of ukuthwala become their husbands. Abducted girls are beaten (traditional bridal abduction) also allowed par- if caught trying to escape, and if they managed ents to arrange the marriage of their children, but to get away, they are disowned for defying tradi- was never intended to violate the rights of chil- tion. dren. The custom of ukuthwala is assumed to Statistics show that there is a rapid growth in have vanished in the face of social change; how- the cases of abductions and attempts at abduc- tions the world over. This really indicates that *Address for correspondence: Makho Nkosi abductions and attempts at abductions are a cause University of KwaZulu Natal for concern. It is difficult to report with accu- School of Education racy the numbers of abductions and attempts at Ashwood, 3605 abductions as there are several factors that make South Africa Cell: +27 (0)823823639 / +27 (0) 761337936 this impossible. For example in South Africa, the E-mail: [email protected] practice of bridal abduction is confused with 162 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI marriage. In fact it is regarded as one form of tional bridal abduction). This is inappropriate marriage. Furthermore, the custom of ukuthwala because as explained earlier in this paper, bridal (traditional bridal abduction) is confused with abduction happens before the negotiations of bride abduction. These are three different con- marriage start. It is after the woman has been cepts. Traditional bridal abduction or abducted (thwalwa’d) that negotiations start and (ukuthwala) is a custom to open up marriage when the two families reach an agreement, any negotiations whereas bride abduction is an abuse of the forms of marriages, for example, custom- of the custom of ukuthwala which is an act of ary, Christian or civil law, may take place. De criminality and is illegal whereas the custom of Jager (1971) does not fully explain the ukuthwala ukuthwala (traditional bridal abduction) is not. cultural practice, but mentions it briefly in pass- According to the Oxford Advanced Learners ing by stating that there are two forms of Dictionary of Current English: New International ukuthwala. Monger (2004) concurs with De Jager Students’ Edition (1995:2), abduction means ‘to (1971) that there is “forced bridal abduction” take away illegally using force or deception’. (ukuthwala), which is called “bride abduction”, Seleoane (2005) argues that commentators have and there is “agreed bridal abduction” spoken about the custom of ukuthwala as ab- (ukuthwala), which is called “elopement” (Mon- duction. “I am not sure that it is. Abduction is ger 2004:2). Furthermore, bridal abduction prac- illegal from start to end. The custom of ukuthwala tice is confused with arranged marriage (Radio is not” (Seleoane 2005:1). Msimang (1991), Talk Show Debate on 23 March 2011 at 6- 9pm states that ukuthwala is a Zulu custom that opens on radio 2000 presented by K.G). This is also up marriage negotiation process and it means to problematic as it confuses the custom of carry away. The most significant demarcation ukuthwala with the abuse of the custom that is between the custom of ukuthwala (traditional happening in some communities. This indeed, bridal abduction) and the abuse of the custom of shows how complex the phenomenon of bridal ukuthwala (bride abduction) is on the process in abduction is among the Zulus of KwaZulu – which these practices are carried out. With the Natal, South Africa. custom of ukuthwala (traditional bridal abduc- Studies on different aspects of bride abduc- tion) no beatings of a woman are taking place tion and attempts at abductions have been car- whereas with bride abduction there is gross vio- ried out in different parts of the world. Examples lation of women’s rights in terms of beatings that for the above can be seen in research outputs on take place, sexual abuse and rape, witchcraft, bride abduction and attempts at abductions, for violation of a woman’s bodily integrity, emotional example, in Europe and Africa, Westermarck abuse, the payment of lobola by the prospective (1926) discusses “marriage by capture” as it took husband is guaranteed with the custom of place in different parts of the world. He men- ukuthwala because the practise is not meant to tions different words alluded to such a practice harm a woman whereas with abduction, most but sums them up under “marriage by capture” abductors do not pay lobola as the aim of abduc- (Westermarck 1926: 110) and the custom of tion is to punish a woman. Arguably, some ab- ukuthwala (traditional bride abduction) can be ductors finally pay lobola. With the custom of added on the list. Westermarck details places ukuthwala (traditional bridal abduction) a where the practice took place as well as where it woman’s consent is sought before marriage ne- was prominent. He states that in Tierra del Fuego gotiations are open and there is no sexual inter- it occurred among both the Yahgans and the Onas. course taking place before marriage consumma- He further states that marriage by capture oc- tion whereas with bride abduction, rape takes curred among the Brazilian tribes; among South place to leave a woman with no option but to American Indians; among Luiseno Indians on the consent to the abductor’s terms. coast of Carlifornia; among Chuchee inhabiting Some scholars confuse bridal abduction with the North Eastern of Asia; among Samoyeds, marriage, where it is regarded as another form Votyaks, Ostyaks, and among various other of marriage. For example, De Jager (1971) gives peoples belonging to the former Russian Empire; an account of four ‘types’ of marriages in the rural among the Kalmucks; among several tribes in areas of the Ciskei namely: traditional or cus- India; among the Bhuiyas of the Orissa State; tomary marriage, Christian marriage, marriage among the Hos in Bengal among the Chittagong by civil law, and the custom of ukuthwala (tradi- hill tribes in general; in the Malay Archipelago THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 163 and Melanesia and are reported from all parts of It is apparent that the meanings people make the Australian continent. Furthermore, examples about ukuthwala vary. It is therefore, imperative for the above can be seen in research outputs on to distinguish the custom of ukuthwala from the bride abduction and attempts at abductions, for abuse of the custom before one can make a judge- example, in Thailand and India (Park et al. 2000), ment about the practice. Media reports show that in Britain; China; and among Australian Aborigi- some people are against ukuthwala and seek help nes (Monger 2004; Thompson 1993), South from the law; this is a negative view of ukuthwala. Australia (Fison and Howitt 1880), in the world, On the other hand, traditional views, for example among the ancient Greeks, Romans, Spartans, those of Msimang (1991), Nyembezi and Russians, Bedouis and Wahabys (Monger 2004), Nxumalo (1995) of ukuthwala are positive, in Rome (McLennan 1865), Central India and in where the practice is viewed as a custom. Fur- Africa (Bryant (1949), in Lesotho (Molapo thermore, limited research has been conducted 2004), in Mozambique (Pritchard 2006), in Ni- to investigate ‘the custom’ of ukuthwala among geria (Olaniyi 2003), in South Africa (Soga the Zulus of KwaZulu - Natal as it existed or 1931), in Pondoland (Hunter 1961), in Ciskei exists among the traditional Zulu communities, (De Jager 1971), in KwaZulu – Natal (Bryant and to determine how it has been affected by 1949; Krige 1950; Bryant 1949; Vilakazi 1962; the cultural contact and social transformation that Schapera 1946; Msimang 1995; Nyembezi and took place in KwaZulu – Natal, South Africa. Nxumalo 1995). This shows that issues of bride Such information as does exist is very fragmen- abduction and attempted abduction are a global tary and often biased, so that it would not amount concern. to much more than conjecture. As a result, there Wadesango et al. (2011: 121) review “harm- is a dearth of empirical research, literature and ful traditional and cultural practices” which lead thus knowledge about ukuthwala in KwaZulu - to violation of women’s rights in SADC region Natal as it exists today. This paper therefore seeks and measures taken by Member States to address to answer the questions: What meanings do them. They reviewed studies, reports, policy people make about the practice of ukuthwala; documents and surveys from various data sets and what are the causes of ukuthwala? from national, regional and international organisations to gather their data. Amongst the Nature of Bride Abduction variety of “harmful traditional and cultural prac- tices” investigated was marriage by abduction Nkosi (2009) observes forcibly carrying away and conclude that such practices have devastat- of a young woman by a group of young men in ing physical and psychological effects on women. most cases comprising of her abductor and his They argue that such practices continue even peers with an intent to marry her, with beatings though States have put in place legislation and taking place if she resist, and a young woman other measures to outlaw harmful traditional and helplessly crying and seeking for assistance with cultural practices on women. On the other hand, no one willing to rescue her, as the most com- Wood (2005) states that the process of bride ab- mon nature of bride abduction associated with duction involves having sex with the girl, and if the Zulu speaking people of KwaZulu–Natal in she resists, force is used. According to Wood, South Africa. Bride abduction is coupled by this form of sexual encounter marks the girl’s sexual violence and rape. What is clear here is union with the man, and in their tradition the act the deliberate forcibly carrying away of a young is not in any way regarded as rape (Wood woman with an intent to marry. Furthermore, 2005:314). Abduction may or may not be with bride abduction is characterised by rape. In al- the girls consent, but is often done with the con- most all the studies, the researchers agree on the sent of the girl’s family in exchange of a cow most common nature of bride abduction and at- (Wood 2005: 314). Furthermore, ukuthwala is tempts at bride abduction and some of these in- reported negatively by the media and is described clude kidnapping, bride snatching, forced mar- as kidnapping, rape and abduction, which are riage, marriage by capture, to carry off, bride criminal activities (Thulo 2003; Prince 2009). stealing, seizure of a girl, rape marriage, forc- Whilst on the other hand Bhengu (2005) gives a ible abduction, wife stealing or arranged mar- positive view of ukuthwala, indicated in the riage, delict, jackrolling (Westermarck 1926; choice of words she uses to report the incident. George 2005; Abrahams et al. 2004). 164 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI
Westermarck (1926) reports that in Europe and mentions different words used in different parts in Africa, forcible abduction was the most com- of the world that refer to the practice of mar- monly reported form of marriage. Abductors riage by capture and states that the list is end- continue to develop newer ways of abducting less but these he sums them up under “marriage young women and the intentions are not to marry by capture”. These words include to carry off; them but are for sexual violence and rape and bride stealing; seizure of a girl; rape marriage; others are due to a myth that if an HIV positive and forcible abduction. The custom of bridal man sleeps with a virgin, the disease will be abduction (ukuthwala) can be added to the list. cured. In KwaZulu – Natal, South Africa, some He argues that the process varies from place to people were using witchcraft as a new method place; hence, different words. However, what is of abducting young women. For example, hyste- common across all communities is that a man, or ria (ukuhayiza) whereby a man would use herbs his relatives and friends carry off a woman with mixed with animal portions (muthi) to cause a an intention to marry her. woman to cry hysterically and consequently run to the man’s home to present her for betrothal Causes of Bride Abductions (ukugana). This process is called to throw / be- witch (ukuphosa). This shows that there are a The custom of bridal abduction (ukuthwala) number of forms in which bride abductions oc- among the Zulu people dates back in pre–con- cur. tact times or before the Whiteman encountered In the studies that have been accessed, the them (Bryant 1949; Msimang 1991; Nyembezi researchers agree on the most common nature of and Nxumalo 1995). The custom of bridal ab- bride abduction and attempts at bride abduction duction (ukuthwala) is a Zulu practice that opens and some of these include lack of a girl’s con- up marriage negotiation process when it is diffi- sent, the age at which abduction is taking place cult to have these started. Msimang (1991) ex- is below the legal age of consent to marry, the plains the process of the custom of bridal abduc- place where abduction occurs is usually outside tion (ukuthwala) as it was taking place in tradi- a girl’s home whereby a young woman is caught tional Zulu communities. He states that a young performing gender roles, usually there is conniv- man and his “sib–mates” carried the woman to ance of an abductor with a young woman’s par- the young man’s home. On arrival, they would ents or relatives or friends in exchange for bride dress the young woman in a black leather skirt wealth (lobola), immediately on arrival at an (isidwaba). Professor Hulumende Maphalala of abductors home , the young woman is given a the University of Zululand (cited in Seleoane black leather skirt (isidwaba) as a symbol that 2005) says a woman who has been carried away she has “come out of age” from girlhood to wom- (thwalwa’d) must not cry, because if she does, anhood, thereafter, she is made a wife through there will be faction fights (izimpi zezigodi). forced sexual intercourse by her abductor, she is After a young woman was carried away kept in a safeguarded hut with other people keep- (thwalwa’d), a message through marriage nego- ing a close eye on her to make sure she does not tiators (abakhongi) was sent to her parents tell- run away, the following day she is expected to ing them to search from this side for their miss- perform gender roles (for example, fetching wa- ing daughter (funelani nganeno) which is an ter from the river, fetching fire wood from the expression that simply informs them about where bush, doing washing, cooking for the entire in – she was. In this case, bride price (ilobolo) nego- laws etc.) as would have been expected from tiations resume and marriage negotiation process any married woman to please her in – laws and becomes open. This is an indication that the man her husband and to show off that she is indeed a who carried away (thwala’d) the young female “real woman”. did not mean bad. Places where a young woman Research reports show that the custom of bride is carried away (ukuthwala) and the times of abduction (ukuthwala) is not unique to occurrences vary, but usually it happens when KwaZulu–Natal and South Africa, although it is the woman is not at home (for example, during not referred to as such in other parts of the world. traditional ceremonies, or when young women Westermarck (1926: 110) argues that marriage go to fetch water or firewood). by capture is a global practice and research shows The customs of bridal abduction (ukuthwala) that such a practice is not unique to Africa. He was meant to solve a problem between a young THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 165 man and a young woman who were in a love re- is not legal. Currently, the custom of carrying lationship and intended to marry but were faced away the young woman (ukuthwala) is still prac- with obstacles to realise their dream (Nyembezi tised in South Africa in some of the KwaZulu– and Nxumalo 1995: 115). The obstacles could Natal rural areas such as Zwelibomvu, Bergville, be that the young woman’s parents were not ready and KwaNgcolosi and more so in their surround- to let their daughter marry. It could happen also ing rural areas. These include EMaPhephethweni, when a young woman who is about to marry and at KwaNyuswa (EMaQadini). In these ar- someone met another young man whom she loved eas, the practice of carrying away the young more than the one who had paid bride price woman (ukuthwala) is a normal customary prac- (ilobolo) and was about to marry her. In this situ- tice as is the case at Olundi (EMahlabathini) in ation, a plan would be made to break the love the district of Okhukho (EMaChunwini) and in relationship with the man who has paid bride the district of EZiKhumbeni (EBaThenjini). price (ilobolo) by arranging that the woman is While some earlier studies on bride abduction in thwalwa’d. Those who have carried away KwaZulu-Natal had been conducted, documen- (thwala’d) the young woman would send a mes- tation on the practice of carrying away the young sage on the following day to the young woman’s woman (ukuthwala) are nothing more than con- parents to tell them to search from this side for jectures and the researchers’ research presents their missing daughter (funela nganeno), which comprehensive and extended arguments from a means search from this side. This is a cultural gendered analysis perspective of the practice as way of reporting to the young woman’s parents it exists today (post- 1994) in rural areas of about the whereabouts of their daughter. Then, KwaZulu-Natal. the family who had carried away (thwala’d) the In contemporary Zulu societies, some males young woman would immediately pay the bride forcibly marry unwilling women and abuse them price (ilobolo) to her parents. This was done under the name of ukuthwala. In such cases, immediately so that the young woman’s parents witchcraft is also practiced (Msimang 1991) and would be able to return the bride price (ilobolo) gender-based violence (Thulo 2003) becomes that was paid by the first lover back to his family part of the process of carrying the target woman (Nyembezi and Nxumalo 1995:115). The young away. Msimang (1991) partially addresses some man’s family who had carried away (thwala’d) aspects of traditional ukuthwala in contemporary the woman, takes care of her. No sexual inter- Zulu communities. In his book titled Kusadliwa course happened between the young man and ngoludala, Msimang (1991) reports his study woman until the marriage negotiations were which examined traditional Zulu culture and tra- finalised and the two were officially married. In ditions. Discussing courtship and betrothal this way, the practice of the custom of bride ab- among the Zulu, Msimang (1991) reports about duction (ukuthwala) was not regarded as a crimi- alternative ways embarked upon by izishimane nal offence because the young woman was not (a derogatory term used to refer to young men harmed in any way and often she would have who do not have skills in courtship and there- colluded with the young man in that situation. fore end up not having love relationships with Other authors such as Doke et al. (1990) some- women) and he argues ukuthwala is one. He times refer to the practice of carrying away the found that izishimane employ different forms of young woman (ukuthwala) as bride abduction. ubuthakathi (witchcraft) on target women. Thulo According to the Oxford Advanced Learners (2003) states that “The abuse of ancient tradi- Dictionary of Current English: New Interna- tions has resulted in young women being kid- tional Students’ Edition (1995: 2), abduction napped and raped in the Bergville district.” Thulo means ‘to take away illegally using force or de- (2003) confirms Molapo’s assertion and states ception. Based on this definition of abduction, that, a target woman is beaten severely with sticks Seleoane (2005) argues against referral of the and sometimes with sjamboks, her arms twisted, practice of carrying away the young woman and even her body is dragged on the rough paths (ukuthwala) as abduction, which he explains as and her clothes torn apart. illegal from start to end. Seleoane argues that the While Msimang (1991) admits that ukuthwala practice of carrying away the young woman is a well - known patriarchal weapon or tool that (ukuthwala) is a custom and a custom is legal as is employed by some men (izishimane) to sup- compared to bride abduction, which he claims it press women’s interests, he nevertheless agrees 166 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI that there is no unanimity regarding the exact ers’ background knowledge and experience in meaning of ukuthwala practice as far as differ- rural life and in particular from one researcher’s ent societies are concerned in contemporary Zulu knowledge as the daughter of the soil in one of culture. He states that sometimes ukuthwala takes the research sites of this project. According to place when a young woman has jilted her sweet- Edgerton (1974:3), the best tool for studying heart. A jilted lover then decides to thwala a ‘alien’ culture and coming to understand it, is the young woman with an intention to marry her. He intellect, sensitivity, and emotion of another hu- claims in this case a woman is beaten and forc- man being and the fact that culture must be seen ibly thwalwa’d (ibid 1991). Furthermore, through the eyes of those who live in it. Msimang claims her brothers may come to res- cue her and this may result to a faction fight. He Data Collection Tools then concludes that if the men who thwala’d the women are victorious, a young woman would be Multiple methods of data collection were married off (Msimang 1991:228). used in this study which included life history methodology, in- depth interview techniques, Goal of the Study systematic observations, field notes, single sex focus group discussions and a local census to The study aimed at establishing the nature and check the frequency of bride abductions.All in- causes of bride abduction cases among the Zulu terviews and narratives used in this article were speaking people living in selected rural areas of tape – recorded and then transcribed. Four inter- KwaZulu – Natal in South Africa by answering views were conducted with each research par- the question: What is the nature and causes of ticipant. With all, the first interview was the long- bride abduction cases among the Zulu speaking est (average two hours), the three subsequent people living in selected rural areas of KwaZulu ones each lasting an average of one hour. In the – Natal in South Africa? first interviews the researchers’ aim was to es- tablish a good rapport with the research partici- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY pants. The researchers discussed the aim of the research and major themes. The second interview Research Design encouraged participants to tell the researchers the story of their lives from childhood to their teen- This study adopted a qualitative case study age years and adulthood. The third interview was design and sought an understanding of the views in – depth to probe further data on the major of thirty purposefully selected Zulu speaking re- themes of the study. These were linked to par- search participants from purposefully selected ticipants’ life experiences as elicited during the three rural areas of KwaZulu – Natal in South second interview. The fourth interviews were Africa. “Case studies aim to describe ‘what it is used particularly for validation of data collected like’ to be in any particular situation” whereby clarifications were sought where there (Christiansen et al. 2010: 37). This approach used was a need in relation to data collected during written, spoken and observed data or behaviour. the previous interview sessions. The importance The researchers aim to capture the reality of the and richness of in – depth interview method is participants’ lived experiences of and thoughts summed up by Seidman (1998: 3): about, a particular situation (Cohen 2000: 182). At the root of in-depth interviewing is an in- The qualitative approach tells a story from the terest in understanding the experience of other participants’ point of view (Rossman and Rallis people and the meaning they make of that expe- 1998), thus providing the rich descriptive infor- rience. mation necessary to demystify taboos and to break silences about issues pertaining to sex and Research Participants sexuality that are under discussion in relation to ukuthwala. Qualitative research methods are The researchers targeted men and women (ab- generally used for identification, description and ductors and those who witnessed abductions, explanation (Paton 1990), an approach relevant abducted women and women who escaped ab- for this research. This study draws on the char- ductions, local chiefs, headmen, head girls, and acteristics of this design as well as from research- ordinary people) in the areas in which the study THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 167 was carried out. Participation in the study was not to answer questions they felt uncomfortable voluntary hence there was no specific number of in answering and that they could withdraw their each category. The initial sample for this study participation from the study at any time. Partici- was in total of 30 research participants (10 from pants were assured of confidentiality and ano- each research site comprising of 5 men and 5 nymity hence the use of pseudonyms. women) meaning gender balance was ensured). But because of non - availability due to other Data Analysis commitments, it was not possible to meet the number also due to time constraints and the in- Data collection and first stages of analysis accessibility of men who serve as migrant occurred simultaneously in line with views by labourers and were not available during the times Bogdan and Biklen (1998) that it is the nature of of the interviews. However, eighteen (18) women qualitative studies that the two processes nor- and twelve (12) men have been included in the mally occur simultaneously. Audio-taped inter- sample for analysis.The participants represented views were transcribed after the interview pro- a wide range of ages with the youngest being 18 cess and appropriate coding was done (Willig years old and the oldest 75. The participants were 2001). Coding entailed grouping common issues Zulu speaking from the deep rural areas of the on the nature and causes of bride abduction from province of KwaZulu – Natal in South Africa. the different interviews. Data analysis was mainly The majority (14) of the research participants based on content analysis as emerging themes were completely illiterate (in the Western norm). from interviews guided the analysis. Some participants represented different academic levels ranging from Grade 2 (lower primary Researcher Neutrality school level) = 1 , South African Junior Certifi- cate = 1 and Ordinary Level qualification = 1 One common criticism levelled against quali- and the old Standard two qualifications = 1. Some tative studies is researcher bias. As the researcher participants indicated that they had never been is fully involved in the data collection process to formal school but were able to read and write there is bound to be researcher bias in the inter- after attending adult literacy classes in the early pretation of results if mechanisms are not put in years of the country’s independence = 2. None place to control this (Munikwa et. al 2012). In of the participants had diploma or degree quali- ensuring researcher neutrality, the researchers’ fications. interpretations were wholly drawn from the ac- counts provided by participants. This was fur- Pilot Focus Group Discussions ther assisted by the use of verbatim quotations from the participants. Multiple methods of data An initial focus group discussion was con- collection also ensured that researchers cross ducted with educators at X Secondary School checked interview transcriptions with partici- before the main study was conducted. The aim pants meaning data was validated. This was done of conducting the pilot focus group discussion to ensure that the transcriptions represented par- was to explore, and identify possible research ticipants’ views. sites, and gain more insight into the practice of ukuthwala. This also helped in conceptualisation Trustworthiness of the questions to be used in the in - depth inter- views and subsequent Focus Group Discussions. Mishler (1991) describes validity in qualita- tive research as “Trustworthiness: grounds for Ethical Issues belief and action”. This is affirmed by Scheurich (1997: 82) who argues that validation is the pro- This study went through the University’s Eth- cess through which researchers make claims for ics Committee for approval before it was carried and evaluate the trustworthiness of reported ob- out. Children under the age of eighteen were not servations, interpretations and generalisations. part of this study. A written consent and a verbal The multi–method approach adopted in the study consent were sought from the participants after is a means of triangulation. According to Denzin the purpose of the study was explained to them. (1970) triangulation is a method of cross-check- Participants were also advised they were allowed ing and confirming the information elicited from 168 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI qualitative data sources. He proposed the mul- her peers that she ends the relationship with that tiple methods of data collection as part of the man who is wasting her time. Without such a rea- methodology. The adopted multiple methods son, young women who just end relationships yielded rich data and provided opportunities for simple because they have seen another man they more in–depth analyses, which is a major ben- love more are viewed as weak in that they can- efit of research design in this study. Data inter- not think carefully before they make a decision. pretation was based on valid data that the re- Research participants indicated that “intombi searchers collected. Researchers make certain iyakhishwa esokeni” (a woman can be separated claims based on the data which they collected from her lover by his competitor). In addition, during their study (Christiansen et al. 2010 : 111). the researchers were frequently told by research In–depth interviews were conducted over a pe- participants that “intombi iyathwalwa ngisho riod of 4 interviews per participant thus offering isiganile. Inqobo nje uma ingakasini esigcawini them opportunities to confirm correct or refute noma ingakagcagci” (a woman is thwalwa’d earlier submissions, meaning data was triangu- even if she is engaged as long as she has not been lated. Transcribed and analysed data were also officially declared married). Gugu from Bergville shared with participants in the various commu- indicated that in most cases a woman who is nities, before the final compilation to enhance thwalwa’d is the one who is already having her authenticity and quality. lover. This is what she says:
RESULTS Gugu
The Nature of Bride Abduction Cases Ukuthwala is linked to the Zulu saying: ‘oseyidlile udlicala’, which is interpreted as ‘it’s The following are the participant’s views on not your wife until marriage is consummated’. the nature of ukuthwala and attempted ukuthwala In most cases a woman who is thwalwa’d is the cases. In finding out the nature of ukuthwala and one who is already having her sweetheart. How- attempted ukuthwala cases in some rural areas ever, her other wooer is not satisfied that he has of KwaZulu – Natal in South Africa there were been beaten in the game of courtship by his com- two main themes that the researchers could as- petitor. Since in Zulu culture a woman gets en- certain from the data collected. These were tra- gaged once (‘intombi iqoma kanye’), then the ditional ukuthwala which I termed positive competitor is only left with one option that of ukuthwala and contemporary ukuthwala which ukuthwala. in Zulu culture, ‘intombi iqoma is bride abduction and which I termed negative kanye’ (a woman gets engaged once) then the ukuthwala. In the following sections the research- only option that the woeer is left with is to thwala ers discuss the two themes. the woman. The only option he is left with is to thwala the woman. Traditional (Positive) Ukuthwala Gyekye (1987) argues that “philosophical concepts, ideas and propositions can be found Research findings reveal that in the traditional embedded in African proverbs, linguistic expres- (positive) ukuthwala it is usually an engaged sions, customs and traditions of the people”. woman who is thwalwa’d. This happens when Based on the above saying “oseyishayile the woman is faced with a dilemma of having akakayosi” We argue that the above case indi- met a man she loves more than the one she is cates Zulus philosophical thought which justi- already engaged with. In Zulu culture intombi fies the practice of ukuthwala. As Buthelezi iqomakanye (a woman is supposed to get en- (2006) argues that among the Zulus love rela- gaged once). Although, it is not totally prohib- tionships between young people are not expected ited for young women to end relationships with to last forever, they can be terminated at any time their lovers and get engaged to other men, this is even after ilobolo has been paid, ukuthwala is discouraged. Unless there is a compelling rea- one way of allowing a woman to change her mind son such as when the young woman is engaged about the choice of a man without harming her for a long time and the man does not start paying own dignity—where she would be viewed as a ilobolo (bride wealth) in preparation for mar- weak woman. Furthermore, there is connivance riage, the young woman may be encouraged by between a thwalwa’d woman and her prospec- THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 169 tive husband. The arrangement is done in such a for another woman. She also states she has to way that it is also not obvious that the woman provide for her husband and a child as her hus- has agreed to the situation. There is no woman band is unemployed. She says this is her abuse and there is no physical assault or beat- acknowledgement that he made her his wife as ings of a woman. The custom of ukuthwala is other women of her age at that time wanted to arranged with the woman concerned as Zodwa get engaged, but could not as men were not in- from Bergville also says: terested in them. From the above case it is clear that Zodwa Manyokazane is happy and has no regret that she was thwalwa’d. In fact Manyoka is proud to be So many people take ukuthwala literally thwalwa’d. Learning from the above cases and whereas it is not the case. It is arranged with the with reference to Maphalala’s (2005 cited in woman who will be thwalwa’d who then avails Seleoane 2005:1) comments on ukuthwala, herself. The question we need to ask ourselves where he asserts that in the process of ukuthwala is: do men who thwala women enter the woman’s a woman must not cry for if she does, it would house and take her out of her home, the answer mean she has not agreed. Manyoka did not cry is no, men find a woman somewhere. which signifies that she had agreed. A cry would The following case encountered at Bergville, result to tribal wars whereby young men of the in the district of Emangwaneni indicates that a district from where the woman is taken will come woman is found somewhere in an arranged place. out armed and in defence not of a woman alone The researchers align this case with the positive but also in defence of their own dignity since ukuthwala done by powerful men where Man- men are expected to protect women of their yokazane gives an account of her ukuthwalwa. isigodi (district). This is what she says: Traditional (positive) ukuthwala is genuine and is done according to cultural rules. Its inten- Manyokazane tions are honest and have some aspects of the original practice of ukuthwala as discussed ear- Saxoxisana, savumelana ukuthi angithwale, lier in this article. The process follows socially ngazihambela ngazifikela la kanye established procedures, and the rules are adhered nababezongithwala. Angizange ngishaywe. to (for instance, the report is sent immediately to Ngeqa ekhaya… (We discussed and agreed he the woman’s family that she has been taken, she must thwala me. I was not abducted. I walked is not hurt and there is no sexual intercourse, voluntarily and got to a place where I would meet penalty is paid and ilobolo follows immediately). the people who would thwala me. There were no This indicates that this is a mere power display beatings. I eloped from home). On my arrival, I by men who compete for a woman they both love. was made to wear isidwaba (black leather skirt). It is also a way of allowing a woman to change Incision was performed on my body. I was given her mind regarding her choice of a lover but with- herbal medicines to drink and to sniff. Impepho out the woman losing her dignity. Women who (incest) and izinyamazane (Zulu mixture of por- change men are termed lose women and thus to tions of animal medicines) were burnt and I was protect this dignity, the woman is thwalwa’d by made to inhale them. By so doing, I was reported the new lover to give an impression that the to my in–laws’ ancestors. I then entered into woman was helpless in this situation. womanhood, till today. Giving an account of her marriage life through Power Display by Men ukuthwala, MaNyokazane states that she is happy in her marriage especially because she managed Traditional (positive) ukuthwala is done by to get children for her husband which otherwise powerful men from powerful families. These men would have been a problem if she was not able are powerful in terms of having enough resources to do so. She states that if she was unable to bear and enough money thus they afford to pay ilobolo children her husband would have found another immediately. They are therefore accorded the woman who would be able to give him children. status of ‘real men’ in the communities they live She says that she is happy that she is still a woman in. For once a woman is thwalwa’d, there is im- even today and her husband has never left her mediate follow up through abakhongi(marriage 170 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI negotiators) to the thwalwa’d woman’s family custom removes any other barrier that might have with a penalty whereby the negotiators would prevented negotiations to commence. shout funelani nganeno! (Search from this side) However as indicated in Ngcongo’s case and thus ilobolo negotiations become open and above, when the woman is thwalwa’d she should immediately the payment of ilobolo follows. This perform cries to pretend as if this is done against is evidenced by the following account by her will. Most women who were thwalwa’d in Mr.Ngcongo who thwala’d his wife. This is what this way were found to be happily married and Ngcongo says: proud of the fact that they werethwalwa’d. To most of the women, ukuthwalwa is an honour to Ngcongo them (see, Manyoka’s case above). The woman is overtaken by the new love, and therefore agrees I had courted this woman for eight years. I to be thwalwa’d. In some cases everything is had loved her since her childhood. I was faced planned accordingly and a woman has agreed. with a high number of competitors who also Reasons could be the new lover sees inkawu wanted this woman. I realised that the woman idlala ngesikhwebu (the literal meaning is that loves me but is confused because of so many the monkey plays with a corn. The actual mean- wooers she is faced with and her mother did not ing is that his competitor is not the right man for like me. I then planned to thwala her. I connived the woman). This statement was frequently en- with her friend to take her out of home to the countered in the field as highlighted by Nokwazi local shop so I can get a chance to thwala her. I from Zwelibomvu who states that: was accompanied by other men who were my friends. We managed to escape with her despite Nokwazi her outcries. On arrival at home, everything was prepared. She was made to sniff burnt Zulu medi- Ukuthwala is from the saying ‘isikhwebu cine (izinyamazane) and incision was performed sidlala inkawu’ (the monkey is playing with the on her body and love charms were given to her corn). This phrase implies that the couple does in order to love me and not runaway. I made her not match, the woman being too good for the to wear isidwaba (leather skirt). We slept in the man and thus he does not deserve her, but the same room, but on that night I did not sleep with new lover is a good match for the woman. In her (i.e. have sexual intercourse). I respected her most cases the man knows who the ‘monkey’ that virginity until it was the right time for us to have is playing with the corn is. Therefore decides to sexual intercourse. The following day, I sent thwala the woman. umkhongi to her home and paid penalty of one As an indication of good intentions by a man cow. Thus marriage negotiation process was who thwala’s a woman, rules pertaining to the opened. Ilobolo process continued and she is now custom of ukuthwala are obeyed; for example, betrothed (uganile). Asikagcagci (traditional a penalty which could be in the form of cattle or wedding has not yet occurred). usually a certain amount of money is paid and This power display is not meant to punish the also ilobolo follows immediately which could woman but it is just a mere display of power by also be in the form of cash or the cattle. There is men directed at other men. That is why the man no engagement in sexual intercourse between a who would thwala a woman connives with a thwalwa’d woman and her prospective husband woman first, through the woman’s friends or rela- until all wedding processes are completed, that tives, to seek for her approval. In Ngcongo’s case, is, after payment of ilobolo, and after all proce- it was not only a matter of competition between dures have been followed. This may take a long him and other men, but also the problem of the time though, but the new lover has nothing to woman’s mother who did not like him. The worry about and has no rush as the woman al- mother could have become a barrier in the open- ready belongs to him. He is also assured by the ing of the negotiations and therefore ukuthwala fact that he has already made a thwalwa’d woman custom dealt with that barrier. When a young to wear isidwaba (a black leather skirt made of a woman has been thwalwa’d all what is required cow’s skin.) and a woman has already been re- is for her to confirm to her parents that she loves ported to the new lover’s ancestors through the the man who has thwala’d her, thereafter ilobolo burning of impepho (incest) and through the negotiations proceed. In this way, ukuthwala burning of izinyamazane (Zulu medicine) to in- THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 171 troduce her to the family members of her new Then the man who feels threatened plans to home as indicated in the cases by Manyokazane thwala the woman to display his physical and Ngcongo. strength. This assertion of physical power is di- Most participants referred to this traditional rected to the woman who is overpowered through (positive) ukuthwala as the only form of the abuse of ukuthwala. Such men use witchcraft ukuthwala and they said, “ukuthwala kunye nje to control women. The man would go to the vo” (there is only one form of ukuthwala). From witchdoctor to get umuthi (medicinal substance) the above cases, I therefore deduce that to bewitch the woman. In addition, men who ukuthwala that research participants refer to is thwala the woman beat her up severely during that which has some aspects of the original prac- the process of ukuthwala to prove their power tice of ukuthwala in traditional Zulu communi- and to punish her for her choice of the other male ties. This statement was frequently encountered competitor. They lock her up indoors, having during field work in all selected communities. sexual intercourse with her against her will Research participants insisted that anything that (which the researchers could term rape) with an does not follow these established social rules and aim of breaking her virginity to leave her with procedures should not be referred to as ukuthwala no option except to surrender to the man who because it is not ukuthwala but ubugebengu thwala’d her. Men watch on her so that she may (criminality). In this article the researchers refer not escape. They force her to take herbal medi- to this form of ukuthwala (that is, in participants’ cines in an attempt to kindle in her love for the views, ubugebengu) as the contemporary nega- man who thwala’d her. tive ukuthwala or bride abduction, which the re- Young (1990), states that the powerless people searchers discuss later in this article. are those who lack either authority or power. The findings also reveal that when a case of According to Young (1990:56-57), powerless traditional (positive) ukuthwala is reported to the status is best described negatively: the power- police, the law cannot prosecute because the less lack the authority, status, and sense of self. In other words they lack recognition, authority woman colludes to the process. For instance, af- over others, and respect. According to Young, Vamisile thwalwa’d, Khanyile ter was sent the powerless have to prove their respectability abakhongi (negotiators) to Vamisile’s home to due to exposure to disrespectful treatment be- pay ilobolo so that Vamisile’s parents could re- cause of the status one occupies. Young concludes imburse Ntombela—Vamisile’s first original boy- by saying that these injustices have distributional friend. Abakhongi got arrested by police because consequences and we I argue in this article that Vamisile’s mother had reported the matter to the the abuse of ukuthwala is one consequence of local police. However, later abakhongi were re- powerlessness among some of the Zulu men in leased because they were not found guilty. selected rural areas of KwaZulu–Natal. Apply- ing Young’s (1990) theory of powerlessness to Contemporary (Negative) Zulu men in contemporary society, some power- Ukuthwala or Bride Abduction less Zulu men who lack status, recognition and charm to attract the love and attention of women, This study reveals that in contemporary Zulu resort to the abuse of ukuthwala custom to as- culture, ukuthwala is done by emasculated pow- sert their power. Even as they thwala a woman erless men. This form is what the researchers using physical strength to overpower her, they term the contemporary negative ukuthwala or still feel powerless in themselves. Hence, in at- bride abduction, which is the abuse of ukuthwala tempting to empower themselves such men first custom. In this case power display by powerless consult with the witchdoctor to get medicine that men is directed to vulnerable females even if the will assist them to overpower the woman. The females have not yet reached their marriageable following case of Ngcongo is an example of the stage. In this situation women are the victims of contemporary (negative) ukuthwala which takes ukuthwala. There is no agreement between the place in contemporary Zulu communities: man and the thwalwa’d woman. Sometimes power is directed to another male competitor who Ngcongo is viewed as powerful and serves as a threat to the man who thwala’s a woman because the com- “…I then planned to thwala her. I connived petitor has resources and money to pay ilobolo. with her friend to take her out of home to the 172 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI local shop so I can get a chance to thwala her. I do. “I was kept in the bedroom and an old woman was accompanied by other men who were my gave me isidwaba (a black leather skirt worn by friends. We managed to escape with her despite married women). They forced me to drink muthi her outcries. On arrival at home, everything was (traditional medicine) and also to sniff burnt prepared. She was made to sniff burnt Zulu medi- izinyamazane (animal portions mixed with cine (izinyamazane) and incision was performed muthi) and they also performed incision on my on her body and love charms were given to her body. In the evening my abductor forced to have in order to love me and not runaway. I made her sexual intercourse with me, threatening that if I wear a black leather skirt (isidwaba) despite cry he will beat me… For a number of days I her refusal”. was locked in a hut during the day, and released In the above case, nowhere is it indicated that in the evenings. I was watched closely through the girl’s consent was sought. The woman was day and night …My mother is all by herself, old, even forced to wear a black leather skirt and reports to my grandfather who is also very (isidwaba) against her will. This is therefore not old. She said when she reported the matter to traditional bride abduction (ukuthwala) but the elders; they said she must leave the child criminality (ubugebengu ) and a form of GBV alone because she is betrothed (iganile). My fam- which violates women’s rights and body integ- ily never came to visit me and I was not allowed rity, and was condemned by both men and women to visit them for a very long time…” research participants likewise as it is condemned This form of ukuthwala from Ngcongo’s case by the South African Constitution (1996). Such has negative implications for a woman. criminal acts are subjected to conviction by law. Ngcongo’s case reveals that the contemporary However, in contrary, the South African law fails (negative) ukuthwala is aligned to contemporary to deal with criminality in the name of ukuthwala Zulu culture and is practised by some people who arguing that there is no evidence to lay charges have developed it to deal with their own social against the suspects. In Ngcongo’s case it was circumstances. It abuses women and is the fake not only a matter of competition between him form of ukuthwala custom. The way it is prac- and other men, but there was also the problem of tised is not different from bride abductions that I the woman’s mother who did not like him. There discussed earlier on in this article. The contem- is no evidence that the woman loved Ngcongo, porary (negative) ukuthwala is characterised by he just assumed that she did. This is an example criminal activities such as violence against of patriarchal power imposed on a woman. The women, witchcraft and sexual assault. Power is man thinks and concludes for the woman that she more directed at the female rather than the male loves him; he does not take her refusal seriously. competitor. The social rules of ukuthwala are not Contrary to the participants in the previous dis- adhered to, for example, penalty and ilobolo are cussion who connived with their lovers, this man not paid immediately, and the man who thwala’s connived with a friend of the woman, which a woman also has forced sexual intercourse with means that this woman was caught unaware. It the woman, and has no respect for the virginity was therefore not ukumuthwala (to carry her and dignity of a woman. As shown in Xoli’s case, away) but ukumtshontsha (to steal her). the woman is subjected to humiliating situations. For instance, Xoli was forced by men to com- Xoli’s Case: pletely take off her clothes and the prospective husband had sex with her in front of other men. “On the way to school from home, three men Xoli was also forced to drink muthi. This was came out from the car and grabbed me by the humiliating for her and is also aligned to witch- school uniform… I got shocked and lost con- craft where filthy and inhumane activities occur. trol.… I was crying. They twisted both my arms This is against established social rules of the and started beating me with sticks. They tied my Zulus where the virginity of a woman is highly mouth with a huge cloth…They took me to my respected and as a result it is regarded as a greatly abductor’s home in the neighbouring village. On punishable offence to have penetrative sex with arrival, I was handed over to an elderly couple a young woman. In this study the researchers did who were to be my parents – in – law. My father not come across a case of contemporary nega- – in – law warned me severely against trying to tive ukuthwala that was reported to the police. run away, threatening to punish me severely if I Therefore, the researchers could not determine THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 173 how the law would deal with this form of ilobolo for her. He sleeps with her and then aban- ukuthwala. dons her afterwards without paying her parents ilobolo. If a man thwala’s a woman then pay Emasculated Men and Ukuthwala Practice ilobolo for her, that man is honest. It happens that after ukuthwala, the woman develops love The study reveals that emasculated men as- for her man who thwala’d her, only to find that sert power on women through the abuse of the man was just using her and had no inten- ukuthwala. Most research participants revealed tions of marrying her. Then a woman becomes a that it is unlikely that an emasculated man who laughing stock in her community when she re- lacks resources especially financial resources turns home after she was thwalwa’d. would be accepted by women. This is apparent As highlighted earlier, in some cases power- in Xoli’s case where her husband who thwala’d less men who engage in contemporary (negative) her could not afford even to pay ilobolo for her. ukuthwala bewitch their targeted victims. They He cannot compete in courtship with powerful engage in ubuthakathi (witchcraft) through the men who have resources to pay ilobolo. Most use of herbs to blind and confuse women to ac- men are emasculated by poverty and unemploy- cept things they would not accept in their nor- ment in contemporary society of KwaZulu–Na- mal senses as in the following case by Dleni of tal. Consequently, men are deprived of their male Zwelibomvu. role or identity. Powerless men resort to the abuse of the custom of ukuthwala by asserting power Dleni to vulnerable women as in Xoli’s case above. Since men who practise this form of ukuthwala I remember because I was going to another are powerless, they carefully choose their vic- house of Gumede. I was sent to buy beers of tim. Women who come from vulnerable families which I did not get. I then proceeded to another become the victims. For example, in Xoli’s case, shop called Toni. On my way, I met a group of she did not have a father or brothers to protect men (about 3 of them), they hit my hand and all her. The males in her life (the grandfathers) were the money split over the ground. I started cry- old and weak and thus unable to protect her and ing: Hi! Hi! Hi!It was during the day. I can’t to file a case against the ‘abusers’. However, not remember the year when this happened. I was only men without resources feel powerless. sixteen (16) years old when I got thwalwa’d (re- Sometimes men who can afford to pay ilobolo peated statement four times). I cried hysterically. practice the contemporary (negative) ukuthwala. They put a towel into my mouth. They told me no one will hear my cries. They took me and said Appropriation, Punishment and “bayongiganisa” (I am going to be betrothed) Women’s Oppression because when my prospective husband is going out for courtship, clouds gather and the storm Sometimes when a man proposes love to a breaks. He was therefore believed to be be- woman who does not love him, the man then witched by his competitors in courtship, so she thwala’s the woman to punish her and show her said. Just take a close look at the competition he cannot be rejected. This is women appropria- that was taking place because of me, the other tion as it happens against their will for men’s own one taking bat vs. the other. At that time both my benefit. Men do this to show women and society parents were still alive.On arrival at my prospec- that men are in control and dominant. The mo- tive husband’s home, they made me to drink dif- tive is to render women subjective to men; if ferent kinds of herbal medicines by force. They women refuse to submit; therefore they need to also performed incision on my body. After, a be appropriated. Sometimes such men thwala a while I then developed love for my husband. I woman even when they have no intention to pay frequently felt like hugging him because of love ilobolo for her and marry her as Sabelo states that had developed in me for him. The following below: day when my father came to fetch me, I told him that he must leave me alone as I was betrothed Sabelo with someone I love. He had to go back home and wait for ilobolo… It happens that a man thwala’s a woman just In Dleni’s case, it is apparent that her hus- to abuse her. He is not even prepared to pay band thwala’d her because of the many competi- 174 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI tors he was faced with. However, he did this be- to her home having not been touched and her cause he felt he was unlikely to win in the com- virginity still being intact. A woman’s consent is petition as Dleni did not love him. In other words, key to all negotiations to follow. he was scared that his competitors were more The findings show that there are various rea- powerful than him. He used ukuthwala to take sons behind the traditional (positive) ukuthwala Dleni away and used umuthi (medicine) to make custom. However, although reasons behind Dleni to develop love for him. In this case, Dleni ukuthwala slightly vary, all men who thwala was thwalwa’d against her will although later she women in the traditional (positive) ukuthwala are developed love for her husband because of driven by the love of that particular woman and umuthi that was used. However, that love van- in the context where there are other men who ished after some time because it was not genuine love the same woman. This creates a situation love. Wadesango et al. (2011: 121) state that where many men compete for the same woman. “harmful traditional practices emanate from the The man who would then thwala the woman fast- deeply entrenched discriminatory views and be- tracks the ilobolo and other processes that lead liefs about the role and position of women in to marriage and thus he becomes the winner in society”. In patriarchal Zulu communities girls the competition. In this way the man who thwala’s are brought up being aware that they will have to a woman must be more powerful in terms of hav- get married at the later stages of their lives. Some ing more resources and status in the community families in contemporary society view girls as a because all expenses including penalties for source of wealth for their families and the train- ukuthwala, should be paid in full within a short ing they girls get at home is supposed to prepare time and the woman gets married. The following them for marriage. The above evidence also are some of the participants’ views regarding the shows that ukuthwala is done for various rea- reasons for ukuthwala as it takes place in the se- sons. For example, in the case of Dleni’s son, lected rural communities of KwaZulu-Natal. they thwala’d his wife for him because he has some disability and presumably could not attract FGDs the love of women himself. On the other hand, his thwalwa’d wife also has a disability and there- Ukuthwala happens when a man loves a fore was the ideal victim for the practise. woman. They may just engage in ukuthwala with- out even having started by courtship. Sometimes, Analysis it happens when a man was still engaged in courtship, and the woman has not accepted him, It was clear from the above narratives on the or has not spoken to him to indicate whether she nature of ukuthwala that the abuse of the custom loves him or not, suddenly the man decides to of ukuthwala (bride abduction) was the common thwala her. way in which ukuthwala was practiced although there are still certain people who engage in tra- Gugu ditional practice of ukuthwala as a Zulu custom. Ukuthwala is from the Zulu saying: ‘oseyidlile Causes of Bride Abduction udlicala’ (this means it does not matter that it is your lover, as long as she is not yet your wife, In an attempt to establish the causes of other men may take her). In most cases a woman ukuthwala from the participants’ point of view, who is thwalwa’d is the one who is already hav- the following major causes emerged as common ing her sweetheart. However, her other wooer is theses; the rationale behind the practice not satisfied that he has been beaten in the game ofukuthwala is to open up the marriage negotia- of courtship by his competitor. In Zulu culture, tion process in situations where it might be diffi- ‘intombi iqoma kanye’ (a girl gets engaged cult to open these. This process will never be once). The only option he is left with is to thwala opened unless a thwalwa’d woman confirms to the woman. her family that she loves the man who has thwala’d her. If she does not confirm, no further Nokwazi negotiations are engaged with and the man who thwala’d the woman pays a penalty for ukuthwala From a saying ‘isikhwebu sidlala inkawu’ (the called inkomo yokuthwala and the woman returns monkey plays with the corn). This implies that THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 175 the couple does not match, the woman is too good research sites. Therefore, in the traditional (posi- for her current lover and thus he does not de- tive) ukuthwala, the identity of a young man who serve her, but the other man suitor is the right thwala’s a woman is important. The woman match for the woman and thus deserves the agrees to be thwalwa’d because she herself would woman. In most cases the man will thwala the prefer to be married to the young man with so- woman knows who is the ‘monkey man’ who is cial standing in the community. At the same time playing with the corn and undermines him. the young woman who is thwalwa’d attracts the Therefore he decides to thwala the woman. love and attention of many young men because of her status and qualities. Sipho On the other hand men who lack the social standing or status resort to engage in the con- Sometimes the man is fearful of his competi- temporary (negative) ukuthwala to assert their tor. It could happen that he views his competitor power by abusing the women they thwala. For as above himself in one way or the other, there- example, Lucky Mazibuko of Bergville (aged 35) fore he sees himself left with no option than to asserts that those who engage in ukuthwala and thwala the woman before the competitor wins witchcraft are izigwadi / izishimane (men who the woman’s love. are rejected by women). Lucky states he himself Apparently, the evidence presented above also engaged in a number of ukuthwala incidents in indicates that traditional (positive) ukuthwala is Bergville to assist izishimane to get engaged. sometimes used to match the right couple in cases Lucky’s view concurs with Msimang (1991: 227 where the woman’s lover is seen as not the right - 228) that those who thwala women are called match for the woman. Traditional (positive) izishimane. According to Msimang (1975) ukuthwala also opens up and fast tracks marriage izishimane / izigwadi are powerless men who lack negotiations. Apart from being the tool to open ugazi (charm to attract women). He contends that up marriage negotiation process, ukuthwala has some of the izishimane engage in “ukuphonsa” connections to ideas around sexuality, masculin- (witchcraft) and ukuthwala intombi uma seyalile ity, gender, power, and cultural identity which (to carry away a woman once she has jilted her renders the practice a social and cultural con- lover) (Msimang 1991: 228). The powerless men struction. Culturally, men should have dignity and lack authority, status, and sense of self (Young status in the community. They attain this status 1990). The researchers therefore argue that the through the way they conduct themselves. For privileges and recognition enjoyed by the pow- example, they must be amagcokama (people who erful man serves as oppression for isigwadi / are clean and healthy), amagagu (people artistic isishimane who therefore resort to the contem- in music, dance and talks), amaqhawe (people porary (negative) ukuthwala because he cannot who are not cowards) and must also have re- face this competition. In other words, the man sources or at least come from families who have cannot face other male competitors and then turn resources to show they are not lazy (Msimang to the woman who becomes his victim of abuse. 1975). Through their artistic ways of talking to women they are able to attract the love and at- DISCUSSION tention of women. Similarly, women who attract the love and attention of many young men are It emerged from the study that the practice of those with status, wisdom, and good characters. ukuthwala and attempts at ukuthwala took a num- They also have to come from families with so- ber of forms with traditional (positive) ukuthwala cial standing in the community because such and contemporary (negative) or bride abduction families are respected by the way they bring up being most prevalent forms. This is in contrary their children (Msimang 1991). Msimang (1991: to Becker (1998) who observes one form of mar- 225) contends that if a man has resources and riage by abduction in South Africa, when he says, wealth or his father is a wealthy man, or has a “Sometimes a more romantic procedure called position and is respected in his community, he is ukuthwala is resorted to, when there is some most likely to attract many women during court- obstacle to a marriage, imposed by the girl’s ship as it is sometimes believed that women like guardian” (Becker 1998, cited by Wadesango et to marry to wealthy families. Such an account al. 2011: 123). Such a contrast emanates from was frequently encountered in the field from all Becker’s confusion of ukuthwala as a form of 176 MAKHO NKOSI AND THABISILE BUTHELEZI marriage. Ukuthwala is a per formative act of ukuthwala is to open up the marriage negotia- opening up a marriage negotiation process and tion process in situations where it might be diffi- is not a marriage per se. cult to open these. This finding corroborates as- Research findings indicate that ukuthwala sertions by Msimang (1991) that ubushimane is kunye nje VO (there is only one form of the number one cause for ukuthwala among the ukuthwala) and that is traditional ukuthwala. The Zulu of KwaZulu - Natal. Positive ukuthwala is traditional (positive) ukuthwala is done with a done by powerful men in terms of resources and willing woman whereas the contemporary (nega- money in the form of cash. This form of tive) ukuthwala is a “claimed culture” or abuse ukuthwala is not directed to women but is a power of ukuthwala (bride abduction) which uses crimi- display by powerful men at powerless men (who nality in the name of culture. Such findings are lack such resources) who happen to be their com- contrary with findings in a similar study by petitors. However, powerless men engage in the Molapo (2004) who adopted a Christian analyti- abuse of ukuthwala to appropriate and oppress cal perspective to ukuthwala practice among the women by displaying power over them. This form Basotho of Lesotho. Molapo found that of ukuthwala grossly violates women’s funda- ukuthwala were mostly as a result of bride ab- mental rights and their bodily integrity. It is also duction. He failed to acknowledge that there are against the Constitution of the Republic of South African people who did not accept Christianity Africa in terms of the legal age of consent to who are popularly known as pagans (amabhinca) marry. The finding also serve to authenticate re- and practice traditional African culture of which lated press reports on the abuse of ukuthwala ukuthwala is one. Although this study concurs (bride abduction) as (Thulo 2003) writes that the with some of the aspects on the procedure of abuse of ancient traditions has resulted in young ukuthwala as outlined by Wadesango et al. (2011: women being kidnapped and raped in the 123), however, the study highlights the fact that Bergville district. Similar report was done by no marriage negotiations become open without Prince (2009) that in Eastern Cape, teens as the girl’s consent which is the crucial aspect of young as 14 are kidnapped and locked up, par- ukuthwala that Wadesango et al. (2011) left out. ents sell them as child brides in exchange of The nature of ukuthwala found in the study ilobolo (bride wealth) and uses the custom of also differs with some found in other studies. De ukuthwala as an excuse. Jager (1971) for example, report on elopement as a method of ukuthwala in Ciskei. Elopement CONCLUSION and ukuthwala are two different customs with different procedures. The differences could be The study uncovered that there were various attributed to differences in contexts. Furthermore, causes of ukuthwala and bride abduction cases among the Xhosa of Transkei Soga (1931) found in the rural areas under investigation. With the that ukuthwala is one form of marriage. This is a custom of ukuthwala, this is done to solve a prob- confusion as ukuthwala is not a form of marriage lem for the young man and a young woman who but is an act of opening up marriage negotiation finds it problematic to get married in a normal process when it is difficult to do so. The differ- way. With bride abduction it is done to abuse ences could also be attributed to the confusion women. It also emerged that the nature of of ukuthwala and bride abduction (the abuse of ukuthwala is only one and that it involves tradi- ukuthwala).It also emerged from the study that tional ukuthwala; and the abuse of ukuthwala traditional ukuthwala is prominent among the which is usually known as bride abduction. This traditional Zulu communities living in deep ru- article has discussed ukuthwala practice and ral areas of KwaZulu – Natal. Such a finding is highlighted that the practice has various mean- consistent with earlier findings by Msimang ings to different people. The practice is a Zulu (1991) and Nyembezi and Nxumalo (1995) who custom which aims to open up marriage negotia- found that there is only one form of ukuthwala tion process where there are barriers for these to and that is traditional ukuthwala and anything happen. The researchers discussed the assertion beyond that is not ukuthwala but the abuse of of masculinities relating to powerful men versus ukuthwala which they termed ubugebengu other men and powerless men versus vulnerable (criminality) which is done by izishimane. women. In the discussion, the researchers have On the causes of ukuthwala, the study re- generated two concepts of ukuthwala, which they vealed that the rationale behind the practice of discuss as two forms of ukuthwala (that is, tradi- THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF BRIDE ABDUCTION CASES 177
tional (positive) and contemporary (negative) 16. From
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