CONFEDERATION OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY

Travel Geography Study Guide

THIS STUDY GUIDE

BPP Learning Media is the official publisher for the CTH Diplomas in Hotel Management and Tourism Management.

IN THIS JUNE 2011 FIRST EDITION

ƒ The CTH syllabus, cross-referenced to the chapters ƒ Comprehensive syllabus coverage, reviewed and approved by CTH ƒ Plenty of activities, examples and discussion topics to demonstrate and practise technique ƒ Full index ƒ A full CTH past exam for exam practice

® TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

First edition June 2011 A note about copyright

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ii CONTENTS

CONTENTS

page

INTRODUCTION

How to use this study guide iv Syllabus viii The exam paper xii Other titles in this series xii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Travel Geography 1

CHAPTER 2 Patterns of world tourism 31

CHAPTER 3 Geographical resources for international tourism 55

CHAPTER 4 International transport modes and networks 81

CHAPTER 5 International travel destinations 107

CHAPTER 6 The range and appeal of tourism destinations 143

CHAPTER 7 The importance of climate for tourism 169

CHAPTER 8 Tourism and destination development 197

PRACTICE EXAMINATION Questions 229 Marking guide 241

BIBLIOGRAPHY 251

INDEX 255

iii TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

How to use this Study Guide This is the first edition of BPP Learning Media's ground-breaking Study Guide for the Travel Geography paper of the CTH Diploma in Tourism Management. It has been specifically written to cover the syllabus, and has been fully reviewed by CTH. To pass the examination you need a thorough understanding in all areas covered by the syllabus.

Recommended approach (a) To pass you need to be able to answer questions on everything specified by the syllabus. Read the Study Guide very carefully and do not skip any of it. (b) Learning is an active process. Do all the activities as you work through the Study Guide so you can be sure you really understand what you have read. (c) After you have covered the material in the Study Guide, work through the questions in the practice exam at the back. (d) Before you take the real exam, check that you still remember the material using the following quick revision plan. (i) Read through the chapter learning objectives. Are there any gaps in your knowledge? If so, study the section again. (ii) Read and learn the key terms. (iii) Read and try to memorise the summary at the end of each chapter. (iv) Do the self-test questions again. If you know what you're doing, they shouldn't take long. This approach is only a suggestion. You or your college may well adapt it to suit your needs. Remember this is a practical course. (a) Try to relate the material to your experience in the workplace or any other work experience you may have had. (b) Try to make as many links as you can to other CTH papers that you may be studying at the moment.

Help yourself study for your CTH exams Exams for professional bodies such as CTH are very different from those you may have taken at school or college. You will be under greater time pressure before the exam – as you may be combining your study with work. There are many different ways of learning and so the BPP Learning Media Study Guide offers you a number of different tools to help you through. Here are some hints and tips: they are not plucked out of the air, but based on research and experience. (You don't need to know that long- term memory is in the same part of the brain as emotions and feelings – but it's a fact anyway.)

The right approach 1 The right attitude

Believe in yourself

Yes, there is a lot to learn. Yes, it is a challenge. But thousands have succeeded before and you can too. Remember why you're doing it

Studying might seem a grind at times, but you are doing it for a reason: to advance your career.

iv INTRODUCTION

2 The right focus

Read through the syllabus and the chapter objectives

These tell you what you are expected to know. Study the Exam Paper section

It helps to be familiar with the structure of the exam that you are going to take.

3 The right method

The whole picture

You need to grasp the detail – but keeping in mind how everything fits into the whole picture will help you understand better.

ƒ The objectives and topic list of each chapter put the material in context.

ƒ The syllabus content shows you what you need to grasp. In your own words

To absorb the information (and to practise your written communication skills), it helps to put it into your own words.

ƒ Take notes.

ƒ Answer the questions in each chapter. You will practise your written communication skills, which become increasingly important as you progress through your CTH exams.

ƒ Draw mindmaps. The chapter summaries can be a good starting point for this.

ƒ Try 'teaching' a subject to a colleague or friend. Give yourself cues to jog your memory

The BPP Study Guide uses bold to highlight key points.

ƒ Try colour coding with a highlighter pen. ƒ Write key points on cards.

4 The right review

Review, review, review

It is a fact that regularly reviewing a topic in summary form can fix it in your memory. Because review is so important, the BPP Study Guide helps you to do so in many ways.

ƒ Chapter summaries draw together the key points in each chapter. Use them to recap each study session.

ƒ The self-test questions are another review technique you can use to ensure that you have grasped the essentials.

ƒ Go through the examples and illustrations in each chapter a second or third time.

v TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Developing your personal study plan BPP's Learning to Learn Accountancy book (which can be successfully used by students studying for any professional qualification) emphasises the need to prepare (and use) a study plan. Planning and sticking to the plan are key elements of learning success.

There are four steps you should work through.

STEP 1 How do you learn? First you need to be aware of your style of learning. The BPP Learning Media Learning to Learn Accountancy book commits a chapter to this self-discovery. What types of intelligence do you display when learning? You might be advised to brush up on certain study skills before launching into this Study Guide.

BPP Learning Media's Learning to Learn Accountancy book helps you to identify what intelligences you show more strongly and then details how you can tailor your study process to your preferences. It also includes handy hints on how to develop intelligences you exhibit less strongly, but which might be needed as you study for your professional qualification.

Are you a theorist or are you more practical? If you would rather get to grips with a theory before trying to apply it in practice, you should follow the study sequence on page (vii). If the reverse is true (you like to know why you are learning theory before you do so), you might be advised to flick through Study Guide chapters and look at examples, case studies and questions (Steps 8, 9 and 10 in the suggested study sequence) before reading through the detailed theory.

STEP 2 How much time do you have? Work out the time you have available per week, given the following.

ƒ The standard you have set yourself ƒ The time you need to set aside later for revision work ƒ The other exam(s) you are sitting ƒ Very importantly, practical matters such as work, travel, exercise, sleep and social life

Hours

Note your time available each week in box A. A STEP 3 Allocate your time ƒ Take the time you have available per week for this Study Guide shown in box A, multiply it by the number of weeks available and insert the result in box B. B

ƒ Divide the figure in box B by the number of chapters in this text and insert the result in box C. C

Remember that this is only a rough guide. Some of the chapters in this book are longer and more complicated than others, and you will find some subjects easier to understand than others.

STEP 4 Implement Set about studying each chapter in the time shown in box C, following the key study steps in the order suggested by your particular learning style.

This is your personal study plan. You should try and combine it with the study sequence outlined below. You may want to modify the sequence a little (as has been suggested above) to adapt it to your personal style.

BPP Learning Media's Learning to Learn Accountancy gives further guidance on developing a study plan, and deciding where and when to study.

vi INTRODUCTION

Suggested study sequence It is likely that the best way to approach this Study Guide is to tackle the chapters in the order in which you find them. Taking into account your individual learning style, you could follow this sequence.

Key study steps Activity

Step 1 Look at the topic list at the start of each chapter. Each topic represents a section Topic list in the chapter.

Step 2 Proceed methodically through the chapter, reading each section thoroughly and Explanations making sure you understand.

Step 3 Definitions can often earn you easy marks if you state them clearly and correctly Definitions in an appropriate exam answer

Step 4 Take brief notes, if you wish. Avoid the temptation to copy out too much. Note taking Remember that being able to put something into your own words is a sign of being able to understand it. If you find you cannot explain something you have read, read it again before you make the notes.

Step 5 Follow each through to its solution very carefully. Examples

Step 6 Study each one, and try to add flesh to them from your own experience. They are Discussion topics designed to show how the topics you are studying come alive (and often come unstuck) in the real world.

Step 7 Make a very good attempt at each one. Activities

Step 8 Check yours against ours, and make sure you understand any discrepancies. Answers

Step 9 Work through it carefully, to make sure you have grasped the significance of all Chapter summary the key areas.

Step 10 When you are happy that you have covered the chapter, use the self-test Self-test questions to check how much you have remembered of the topics covered and to questions practise questions in a variety of formats.

Step 11 Either at this point, or later when you are thinking about revising, make a full Question practice attempt at the practice exam.

Moving on... However you study, when you are ready to start your revision, you should still refer back to this Study Guide, both as a source of reference (you should find the index particularly helpful for this) and as a way to review (the chapter summaries and self-test questions help you here). And remember to keep careful hold of this Study Guide – you will find it invaluable in your work.

More advice on study skills can be found in BPP Learning Media's Learning to Learn Accountancy book.

vii TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Syllabus

DIPLOMA IN TOURISM MANAGEMENT SYLLABUS

Travel Geography

Description This unit will provide students with a broad introduction to travel geography. It provides an overview of locations, travel destinations and tourism resources from a local and international perspective. Students will study the geographical features and appeal of tourism destinations and develop the skills to be able to identify patterns of international tourism and consider future developments within the industry.

Summary of learning outcomes On completion of this module, students will be able to:

ƒ Assess tourism patterns and international flows of tourism. ƒ Critically evaluate major travel destinations. ƒ Ascertain the resource requirements of international tourism destinations ƒ Assess how the characteristics of tourism destinations affect their appeal to tourists. ƒ Assess the factors that may impact tourism destination development now and in the future.

Syllabus Chapter An overview of world geography and geographical Introduction to travel 1 concepts including continents, countries and regions; geography and its role in latitude and longitude; time and date zones; topology; tourism climate and seasons. Major geographical and geological features including landscapes, deserts, mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, coastlines, seas, oceans and islands and their individual characteristics and attractions.

Patterns of world tourism Definitions of tourist and tourism. Types of tourist, 2 motivations for travel and tourism. Directional flows of international and domestic tourists. Main regions and patterns for world tourism, world economic tourist generation, world distribution of affluence. International travel Location of major destinations including significant tourist 3 destinations attractions, resorts, cities, countryside areas, beach resorts, purpose built resorts, historical and cultural destinations.

Locations of international Landscapes, coasts, beach developments, wildlife areas, 3 tourism national parks, protected landscapes, historical features, man-made and entertainment venues.

viii INTRODUCTION

Syllabus Chapter

International transport modes The transport system, air, road and rail networks, sea 4 and networks travel and cruising. Suitability of transport modes for different geographical regions and customer groups.

The range of tourism The factors that establish tourism destinations. Types of 5,6 destinations historical, cultural, special interest, urban, sport, rural and nature-based tourism.

Climatic importance for Types of climate, suitability of different climates for 7 tourism tourism, climatic appeal for different travellers. The types and scale of natural disasters and their effect on travel and tourism. Resort development model, product life cycle. Impacts of Factors that impact on tourism 8 cultural and ethnic tourism. Virtual reality and information development in the future. technology. Carrying capacity, destination planning, sustainable and alternative destination development. Policies and practices for beach development, ecotourism and sustainable tourism.

Outcomes and assessment criteria

Learning Outcomes Assessment Criteria At the end of this unit the The learner can: learner will be able to:

LO1 1.1 Explain the role of travel geography in tourism (including overview of world geography, definitions of tourist and tourism, and the tourist Assess tourism patterns and system). international flows of tourism.

1.2 Evaluate patterns of world tourism (including four directional flows of domestic tourists, international tourist flows, four main regions and patterns of world tourism, inter-relationships of core and periphery, world economic tourist generation, world distribution of affluence).

LO2 2.1 Identify major geographical and geological features, i.e. deserts, rivers, mountain ranges, lakes and coastlines and their individual Critically evaluate major travel characteristics. destinations.

ix TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Learning Outcomes Assessment Criteria At the end of this unit the The learner can: learner will be able to:

2.2 Evaluate international travel destinations (including significant tourist attractions, resorts, cities, countryside areas, beach resorts, purpose built resorts, historical and cultural destinations).

LO3 3.1 Evaluate geographical resources (including: landform landscapes, coastal, beach development and composition, wildlife resources, Ascertain the resource national parks, protected landscapes, historical features, man-made and requirements of international entertainment resources.) tourism destinations 3.2 Evaluate the suitability of modes of transport for different geographical regions (including: sea, air, road and rail networks, cruising).

LO4 4.1 Explain tourist motivations for travel, (including types of tourists and their motivations. Assess how the characteristics of tourism destinations affect 4.2 Determine the factors that establish destinations (such as historical their appeal to tourists. and cultural factors, types of cultural tourists, special interest tourism, urban facilities, sporting events, rural tourism, nature-based tourism).

4.3 Evaluate the importance of climate for tourism (including types of climate, suitability of different climates for tourism, climatic appeal for different travellers, the types and scale of natural disasters and their effect on travel).

LO5 5.1 Determine the factors to be considered when developing destinations (product life cycle, resort development model, spatial Assess the factors that may process of tourist development, seaside and tourist resort model, impact tourism destination policies and practices for beach development and its impact on host development now and in the region, destination planning and sustainable and alternative destination future. development).

5.2 Assess the impact of technology on destination development (including: virtual reality and information technology).

5.3 Assess the impact of ethnic tourism, culture, ecotourism and sustainability on destination development.

Assessment This unit will be assessed via a 2 ½ hour examinati on, set and marked by CTH. The examination will cover the whole of the learning outcomes and will take the form of 6 x 25 mark questions of which candidates must select and answer four (100 marks).

CTH is a London based awarding body and the syllabus content will reflect this. Any legislation and codes of practice will reflect the international nature of the industry and will not be country specific.

x INTRODUCTION

International centres may find it advantageous to add local legislation or practice to their teaching but they should be aware that the CTH examination will not assess this local knowledge.

Unit Guided Learning

Recommended contact hours: 45 Credits: 12

The recommended contact time with a tutor for this unit is 45 hours which can include lectures, tutorials and supervised study. However learners should note that a further 55 hours of private study and revision is recommended for the successful completion of this unit.

Textbooks

Key Text ƒ CTH Study Guide – Travel Geography, Published by BPP Learning Media, 2011. Available from BPP Learning Media.

Supporting Text ƒ The CTH eLibrary includes recommended text books, course specific material and industry specific text books. Further details are available on the CTH website.

Magazines and Journals ƒ Insights ƒ Tourism Intelligence Quarterly ƒ Travel Weekly ƒ Travel Trade Gazette ƒ Travel Supplements from Quality Newspapers

Websites

Key note – market information www.keynote.co.uk Mintel – media, product and consumer information www.mintel.com World Travel and Tourism Council www.wttc.org National Statistics Online – official UK statistics www.statistics.gov.uk Tourism concern www.tourismconcern.co.uk Visit Britain www.visitbritain.com

Notes on the recommended texts

This unit should be based on the syllabus and the supporting CTH Study Guide.

xi TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

The exam paper All the CTH examinations for the Diploma in Hotel Management and Diploma in Tourism Management follow the same format. Exam duration: 2½ hours Each exam paper will comprise six 25-mark questions, of which candidates must select any four. The questions may be broken down into a number of different parts, but this will not necessarily be the case. The questions will assess the assessment criteria for the unit and they will require candidates to apply their knowledge, not just state it. Candidates are advised to pay particular attention to the wording of the question, to ensure that they do what is asked. For example, an evaluation needs the candidate’s own thoughts and consideration; it will not be enough just to present theory.

Other titles in this series BPP Learning Media publishes the following titles for the CTH Diploma in Hotel Management:

ƒ Food and Beverage Operations ƒ Food Hygiene, Health and Safety ƒ Front Office Operations ƒ Housekeeping and Accommodation Operations ƒ Finance for Tourism and Hospitality* ƒ Introduction to Business Operations* ƒ Marketing* ƒ The Tourism Industry* ƒ The Global Hospitality Industry

*These titles are also papers within the CTH Diploma in Tourism Management qualification.

Additionally Learning Media publishes the remaining titles for the Diploma in Tourism Management:

ƒ Travel Geography ƒ Travel Agency and Tour Guide Operations ƒ Introduction to Tourism Economics ƒ Special Interest Tourism ƒ Destination Analysis

xii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ The nature of geography and the role of travel geography in tourism ƒ An overview of world geography and geographical concepts (including continents, countries and regions; latitude and longitude; time and date zones; topology; and climate and season) ƒ The characteristics and attractions of a range of major geographical and geological features (including landscapes, deserts, mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, coastlines, seas, oceans and islands)

Topic list What is travel geography? The role of travel geography in tourism Overview of world geography and geographical concepts Geographical features

1 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

1 What is travel geography?

Geography is the study of the features of the earth's surf ace, together with their spatial distribution (where they are in the world) and interrelationships, as the environment for human life.

Geography has been a field of study for many thousands of years. The ancient Greeks studied the shape of the earth, and the location of bodies of sea and land. Throughout the early years of world exploration in the 15th – 18th centuries, cartographers began to develop maps and charts which attempted accurately to portray the positions of landmasses, islands and oceans, and the outlines of coastlines. Modern geography was founded in the early 19th century by the German scholars Humboldt and Ritter.

There are two main branches of geographical study.

ƒ Physical geography includes topics such as geomorphology (the study of landforms and how they develop), biogeography (the study of soils and the distribution of animals and plants) and climatology (the study of climate and weather).

ƒ Human geography includes topics such as historical geography (the study of spatial change in an area over time, or the reconstruction of what landscapes would have been like in the past); economic geography (the spatial distribution of economic prosperity and activity: production, trade and consumption), urban geography (the spatial distribution and characteristics of cities) and political geography (political systems, divisions and groupings).

You may have studied some of these topics at school – but don't worry: in this Study Guide we won't be foc using on topics like how mountains are formed, the differences between evergreen and deciduous forests, the economic systems of nations and their trading relations, or different types of clouds!

What interests a travel geographer are topics like: what kinds of economic conditions and other motivations prompt people to travel? Do particular geographical features such as mountains, forests or cities attract tourists to an area? If so, where are these attractions located in the world – and does the fact that some areas have them, and others do not, account for tourist 'flows' from one area to another? Does climate make a difference to whether and where people travel? And since travel implies 'going somewhere', what kinds of transport networks are re quired to get people from one place to another?

Travel geography is the study of the geographical (or spatial) distribution, patterns and development of tourism around the world: where tourists come from (tourist generating areas) and where they go to (tourist destination areas); what natural and man-made features (or 'resources') attract touri sts, where they are located; how resources can be developed to attract more tourism and improve the tourism 'product'; what impacts tourists have on the places they visit; and how those impacts can be managed.

Travel geography therefore includes topics such as: tourist motivations and decision-making (eg what makes tourists choose particular destinations or destination types) and the organisation and influence of the tourist industry (which contributes to the development and delivery of tourism). But again, those topics are not the main focus here: they are covered in detail in other modules of your CTH studies. In this Study Guide, the focus is on the three main 'spatial' elements of tourism:

ƒ The location and characteristics of tourist generating regions: where tourists come from – and why

ƒ The location and characteristics of tourist destination regions: where tourists travel to – and why

ƒ The routes and means of transport available to get tourists from the one to the other: how tourists get to where they're going.

2 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

FOR DISCUSSION Why might it be important for potential travel industry professionals to have a knowledge and understanding of travel geography concepts?

If you'd like a little 'route map' for the Study Guide as a whole, then: ƒ In Chapter 2, we'll look at these three major components of the 'tourist system', and how they shape certain distinctive flows and patterns of tourist movements from one place to another, both within a given country or area – and on an international scale, from major tourism generating areas to major destination areas. ƒ In Chapter 3, we'll look at some of the key na tural and man-made features of destinations which represent 'resources' for tourism: features which can be used, managed and developed to attract tourists to an area. ƒ In Chapter 4, we'll look at the transport links that enable tourism. For the purposes of travel, it is not only important to consider the 'location' of places, but also factors such as their distance and accessibility from the starting point of a tourist's journey. ƒ In Chapter 5, having covered the basic concepts, we'll look at some of the major tourist regions of the world one by one, exploring the features, resources and attractions of a number of countries. Obviously, we can't co ver all the tourism resources of all the countries of the world – but we will give you a foundation to build on in your own further explorations and information searches. ƒ In Chapter 6, we consider how tourism resources can be 'packag ed' to form an attractive destination 'product' for different types of tourism: how destinations become established for rural or urban tourism, cultural and historic tourism, nature tourism, sports tourism, special interest tourism and so on. ƒ In Chapter 7, we look at climate and weather, which may be a resource for tourism – or a constraint on tourism – in a particular area, and which also influences the kinds of holidays and holiday activities that are possible and popular in different areas at different times of year. ƒ In Chapter 8, we explore some of the issues in the development of tourism, and particular tourist destinations – and some of the trends which point to the future of such development. We're going to start in this chapter with an overview of the role of travel geography in tourism, an introduction to some key geographical concepts that will be useful as you proceed – and a brief 'tour' of some of the world's major geographical features (which will be discussed and located in later chapters as potential resources for tourism).

2 The role of travel geography in tourism

Why is geography relevant to tourism – or why study travel geography as part of your CTH qualification?

ƒ Travel and tourism – as we'll see when we explore those terms in Chapter 2 – are about people going from the place where they normally live and work to another place (destination), whether within their own country (domestic tourism) or in another country or region of the world (international tourism). Travel geography has important things to say about: – The location of those places – The distance between those places – The transport links that make it possible to travel between (and within and around) those places – Potential barriers (such as transport difficulties or bad weather) to travel between those places.

3 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

ƒ Tourists are motivated to travel by different needs, desires and interests, but there will be some reason or expectation for their journey – whether it be business or leisure, sunbathing or skiing, adventure or rest. Travel geography has important things to say about:

– What kinds of attraction, amenity and activity attract tourists (tourism resources)

– What geographical areas (within a region, country or the world as a whole) lack those things, and therefore motivate people to travel elsewhere (creating tourist generating regions)

– What geographical areas (within a region, country or the world as a whole) possess and have developed those things, and may therefore be popular tourist destination regions

– What negative factors (such as poor climate, distance, lack of transport links, lack of development or perceived risks) may prevent an area with good tourism resources from becoming a popular tourist destination

– What resources a given region or destination has to offer at a given time of year for a given type of holiday or activity: important elements in destination evaluation and choice.

ƒ Travel geography provides useful information (and underlying statistical data), to governments and tourist industry bodies and operators. Information on tourism resources and tourism patterns is important for purposes such as:

– Advising clients on destination evaluation and choice (based on their needs and destination characteristics and resources)

– Advising citizens or clients of travel health/safety advisories (based on identified risks)

– Identifying and developing potential tourism resources, destinations and tourist products (in an informed and intentional manner)

– Prioritising, planning and providing transport infrastructure and services (based on identified actual and potential tourist movements)

– Planning effective and cost-effective tourism and destination marketing campaigns (based on identified tourist motivations and tourism patterns)

– Ensuring the sustainability of tourism development (based on identified impacts and vulnerabilities, and areas of intense tourist development and activity).

ƒ Tourism impacts on places and resources, especially at the most popular destinations. The very scenic views that attract tourists may be spoiled by the increasing intrusion of tourist facilities, vehicles and people, for example. Natural features and historical sites may be physically damaged by tourist and development activity. Travel geography has important things to say about:

– The vulnerability of tourism resources (including ecosystems, historic sites, distinctive cultures and natural attractions)

– The negative (and positive) impacts of tourism on the resources its consumes and

– How resources can be managed and protected for sustainable consumption: that is, how to ensure that they retain their value for host communities – and future generations of tourists.

4 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

ACTIVITY 1 30 minutes If you have acces to the Internet, browse some of the following sites, which provide travel geography information for different purposes.

Link: http://www.trailfinders.com Trailfinders: a major travel bookings agency

Link: http:// www.fco.gov.uk/en The UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office: click on 'Travel and living abroad' for a range of advice to travellers about different destinations

Link: http://www.tourismconcern.org.uk Tourism Concern: an independent UK-based charity campaigning on tourism issues

Bookmark, print out or make notes on any aspects relevant to areas of the world that interest you – as a starting point for an on-going portfolio of your own research.

3 Overview of world geography and geographical concepts

The first thing you think of when you read the phrase 'world geography' may be a map of the world, an atlas, or a globe. A lot of the basic concepts underpinning travel geography can be found on maps – and a lot of the information you may need for your exams (and to work in the travel industry) too. What continent is the country of Thailand in? What two major oceans are joined by the Panama Canal? What's the capital city of Brazil? What's the highest mount ain in the Alps? What's the time difference between London and Moscow?

ACTIVITY 2 20 minutes Look up the answers to the questions just posed in the paragraph above, using any method you have available.

How easy was it to find the answers?

What sources did you use?

What other sources could you have used to find the information?

The thing is that you need to know what you're looking for – and what you're looking at. In this section, we'll explain some broad concepts in worl d geography, and how they are relevant to Travel Geography.

3.1 Maps, atlases and other information sources

This Study Guide aims to give you some basic knowledge about the locations of world tourism resources and transport routes. But this isn't an atlas (a book of maps) – and it can't give you the kind of detailed, comprehensive, visually presented information that a map or atlas is designed to give.

You may want to visualise, or research, particular countries or transport routes as you proceed through this Study Guide and other materials. You may also want to practise the extremely useful skill of looking up information you need : knowing how to go about it, and knowing where to look. We strongly recommend that you gain access to an up-to-date atlas (or on-line map resources such as Google Maps or the Holt, Rinehart & Wilson World Atlas: http://go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm/world.htm).

5 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Look up any named locations you come across in your reading. ƒ How are they marked on maps? (What symbols are used, and what do they mean?) ƒ Where are they in relation to other countries, capital cities and nearest coastal ports, identifiable tourist resources (such as lakes, mountains, beaches or historic sites) or transport links (roads, railways and airports)? ƒ How far (and/or accessible) are they from the major tourist-generating regions of the world, like the USA, Europe, Australia and Japan?

Some of the key points to look out for in using maps and atlases include the following. ƒ Maps come in different scales. You might use very detailed, 'close-up' local maps for researching tourist attractions, amenities and transport in a particular city (such as Leeds, shown here). You might look at a regional or country map for planning wider tours, or establishing the location of major cities, geographical features and tourist attractions, the distance and transport links between them, and so on. Or you might look at a whole-world map to establish things like which hemisphere a country is in; t he distance and air routes to long-haul international destinations; time

differences between places (which we'll discuss Source: www.leedsliveitloveit.com a bit later); and so on. ƒ Maps are two-dimensional: they make the earth 'flat', and make lines between two points on the earth's surface look like straight lines – wherea s in fact they are curved. The difficulties of representing the surface of a sphere as a two-dimensional map have been dealt with by using various forms of 'projection' – but you still need to exercise some imagin ation (and use the lines of latitude and longitude marked on the world map) to remember that a map 'wraps round' a sphere.

On the next page, we have reproduced a simple (!) ve rsion of a world map, on which basic features such as oceans and countries can be seen relatively clearly (Figure 1.1).

In addition to maps and atlases, some useful and accessible sources of geographical information include: ƒ Encyclopaedias (and their on-line equivalents), which should have entries on different countries (including information on capital cities, history, culture, currency, industries and exports, economic indicators, language, religion and so on) and major geographical features (such as oceans and mountain ranges) ƒ Travel books and guides (such as the Eyewitness Guides or Lonely Planet Guides) which give a wide range of information about countries and the potential destinations within them, focused specifically on the needs and interests of tourists ƒ Travel brochures by tourism authorities and information agencies, travel and tour operators, travel agencies and so on. These can generally be obtained free of charge, and provide a rich resource of information on tourist destinations, tours and activities, transport options, climate and so on. (They are also a good source of simple, tourism-focused maps.)

EXAMPLE If you have access to the Internet, log on to the Holt, Rinehart & Wilson World Atlas site:

Link: http://www.go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm.world.htm

Browse the site and select a continent that interests you, and then select from the list of individual countries within the continent. If you don't have ac cess to the Internet, get hold of a good World Atlas and browse through it. Familiarise yourself with the kind of information that is available.

6 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 1.1: A basic world map

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For the purposes of Travel Geography, it will be useful to distinguish between the concepts of continents, countries and regions.

Continents are areas of land which represent the major land masses of the earth: Asia, Australia, Africa, Europe, North America, South America and Antarctica. A sub-continent is a large land mass that is a distict part of a continent, such as India is of Asia. (India is often known as 'The Subcontinent'.)

Countries are areas of land or territory which are distinct political entities (or nation states). They may reflect distinct ethnic, cultural or geographical divides – or may not, since the drawing of national boundaries is a political process.

Regions are any areas considered as constituting a unit of study. So, for example, a country may be divided into regions for administrative purposes (eg states or provinces), or on the basis of geography (eg mountainous and coastal areas) or culture (eg ethnically distinct areas), or a combination of factors (eg the North and South-East regions of England). On a larger scale, the world may be divided into major climatic regions (eg the Equatorial region), or tourism regions (eg the Mediterranean) across country or continental lines.

Figure 1.2 shows the accepted continental divisions of the world's land masses. You might like to compare this map to Figure 1.1 – and see if you can work out which countries mark the borderline areas.

As you can see, continents may be so large that they contain many different countries – and therefore Equator many different geographical features, cultures and potential tourism destinations. However, it is possible to view them broadly as tourism regions (as we will see in Chapter 2), with North America, Australia and Europe as major or 'core' tourist generating – and destination – areas.

Continents are also so large that there are quite different climatic conditions in the Figure 1.2: The seven continents centre of their land mass (where areas are protected from, or unaffected by, the influence of the ocean) than in coastal areas (which often have more temperate climates).

Countries are highly relevant to travellers, because entering a different country often implies: immigration and customs formalities (eg the need for travel visas); a different language (or dialect); different currency or monetary units ; different legal systems (and road rules); different history and cultural attributes (food, music, customs and so on); and a different political system and structure (including different tourism and transport policies and national tourism authorities).

FOR DISCUSSION Referring to any international destination with which you are familiar, discuss the issues and differences faced by a traveller from another country, on crossing the border into the destination country.

8 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

3.2 Latitude and longitude

The lines of latitude and longitude are imaginary lines on the earth's surface (shown on maps), enabling the location of any point on the globe to be defined in terms of two angles.

The parallels of latitude are imaginary circles running parallel to the Equator, and identified according to the angle (number of degrees) created at the centre of the earth by a line drawn from a point on the parallel and a line drawn from a point on the equator. They basically therefore identify 'distance from the Equator', whether to the north or to the south.

The meridians of longitude are imaginary lines joining the North and South Poles, and crossing parallels of latitude at right angles. Each meridian is effectively half of a 'great circle' (a circle which divides the globe in half).

Figure 1.3: Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude

Because of the way the world rotates, the meridians of longitude are important markers of differences in time and date. In 1884, the meridian through Greenwich, near London, was designated as Longitude 0º or the Prime Meridian, from which the angles of all other meridians are specified – and from which world time differences are calculated (as Greenwich Mean Time +/– a certain number of hours).

Because of the world's 'tilt' and rotation, the parallels of latitude are important markers of differences in climate and season between the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere, and between the regions around the Equator (which are generally hot all year round) and the regions closer towards the Poles (which are generally colder, with great differences in temperature and daylight hours between summer and winter seasons). There are five major parallels of latitude:

ƒ The Equator (0º): a 'great circle' which divides the Earth i nto two equal halves or hemispheres (North and South).

ƒ The Tropic of Cancer (23.5º N) and Tropic of Capricorn (23. 5º S)

ƒ The Arctic Circle (66.5º N) and Antarctic Circle (66.5º S).

Let's explain the time, date, climate and season implications of this in a bit more detail.

3.3 Time and date

The Earth rotates on its axis (the internal line between the North and South Poles), and one rotation equals one day.

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Imagine shining a torch (the sun) on our globe in Figure 1.3 at the Prime Meridian. If you spin the globe anti-clockwise, you will see the light travel clockwise or 'west' around the globe, from 0 º to 30º W to 60º W and so on. This means that different points of the globe are experiencing a different time of day – or night (when the sun is on the other side of the globe).

ƒ If it's ju st growing light at 0º, it's not yet light at 30º W – and dawn is even further away at 60º W: it's effectively 'earlier' (in clock terms) the furthe r west you go. Travellers going west have to put their clocks and watches back, to bring them into line with this earlier time.

ƒ If it's ju st growing light at 0º, it's already been light at 30º E for some time – and the day is even more advanced at 60º E: it's effectively 'later' (in clock terms) the further east you go. Travellers going east have to put their clocks and watches forward, to bring them into line with this later time.

3.3.1 Time zones For convenience, the world has therefore been divided into time zones, in bands of roughly 15º of longitude – one hour's time difference – but with small variations to allow whole countries (or administrative regions of larger countries) to keep a common time zone. This enables people to determine what the time is in other countries, relative to their own, by reference to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Figure 1.4 shows the time zones, and world times (using a 24-hour clock) when it is 12:00 hours (midday) Greenwich Mean Time.

Figure 1.4: World time zones

Source: http://www.the7thfire.com/images

The picture is complicated further by the fact that some countries operate a system of 'Daylight Saving' in summer time, when clock time is altered to make maximum use of daylight hours. Fortunately, there are plenty of calendars and calculators to tell you what time it is in another country or major city, if you need to look this up.

Time differences are important for communication and travel scheduling. Travelling west by plane, it is possible to arrive much later (in local time) than the length of journey would suggest. Similarly, travelling east, it is possible to arrive earlier (in local time) than when you left home! Flight connections, transfers and tour/accommodation bookings may need to take this into account.

10 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

3.3.2 The International Date Line Note that when it is midday (12:00 hours) in Greenwich at Longitude 0º, it is midnight (24:00 hours) on the opposite side of the world. This could be seen as either GMT plus 12 hours (working east from the Prime Meridian to hit Longitude 180º from the west) or minus 12 hours (working west from the Prime Meridian to hit Longitude 180º from the east). Once the clock ticks past midday in Greenwich, GMT–12 hours is the beginning of the same day – but GMT+12 hours is the beginning of the next day!

The time zone boundary which separates GMT-12 from GMT+12 hours – and therefore different calendar days – is called the International Date line. It runs roughly along Longitude 180º – with a few ' kinks' to allow some land areas and island groups to share the same calendar day. You can see it drawn in black in our Time Zone map in Figure 1.4.

The implications for travellers of crossing the IDL are the same as crossing time zones – only more so! When travellers cross the IDL from east to west, they instantly step ahead into the next calendar day. When they cross the IDL from west to east, they instantly step ahead into the previous calendar day – and may well arrive on the day before they set out! Travel itineraries and bookings will need to take this into account.

FOR DISCUSSION If you were advising a traveller who was planning to fly from Sydney, Australia to Los Angeles, USA, what would they need to know about times and dates?

3.4 Climate and seasons

Climate and season are crucial concepts for travel and tourism, because certain climatic conditions are more attractive for tourists than others! By and large, tourists travel from cold, wet, unpredictable climates to destinations where the climate is warm and sunny, appropriate for the kinds of activities they want to do (like sunbathing or skiing), and relatively predictable for the season of travel.

We will explore these issues in detail in Chapter 7. However, our overview of world geography would not be complete without a glimpse of the 'global climate picture'.

Climate is the term given to the average atmospheric conditions of an area, measured over a long period of time. While weather can vary locally and on a day to day basis, different parts of the world have recognisable, relatively stable climatic characteristics.

Seasons are times of the year which can be viewed as having distinctive climatic characteristics.

Latitude is a major factor in global climate patterns. Because of the Earth's tilt and rotation, latitude determines the angle at which the sun's rays hit the Ea rth in a given region at a given time of year. The sun's warming power is greatest when it is high in the sky, and less when it is slanted or oblique.

ƒ In the Northern Hemisphere, the sun is directly overhead at midday at the Tropic of Cancer (Latitude 23.5º N) in June: at this time, the days are longest and warmest – the season we know as summer. North of the Arctic Circle (66.5º N) there is 24-hour daylight at mid summer: a phenomenon known as 'The Midnight Sun'. Meanwhile, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, and experiences winter: the sun is low in the sky, daylight hours are shorter and temperatures cooler. The extreme southern latitudes (such as Antarctica) experience continuous darkness through mid winter.

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ƒ By December, the sun's traj ectory has moved south of the Equator to the Tropic of Capricorn (Latitude 23.5º S) – and the positions are reversed. The Northern Hemisphere's days have grown shorter and colder (towards mid-winter) and the Southern Hemisphere's longer and hotter (towards mid summer).

ƒ Meanwhile, the 'lower latitudes' (also known as ' The Tropics') between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn have the sun more directly overhead all year round: it is generally warmer, and warmer for longer.

The term ' solstice ' is given to days when the sun is at its highest point in the sky (the summer solstice), giving the longest day of the year, and when it is at its lowest point in the sky (the winter solstice), giving the shortest day of the year. The solstices are June 21 (summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere) and December 22 (vice versa).

The general picture can be shown as follows: Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Latitude and climate

Source: http://weather.thefuntimesguide.com

Several other major factors impact on weather patterns – including ocean currents, prevailing winds and altitude – but we will discuss these, and the world climate 'zones' they give rise to, in Chapter 7.

ACTIVITY 3 20 minutes (a) Name two countries through which the Equator passes. (b) What is the difference between a line of latitude and a line of longitude, and why are they useful? (c) What is the effect of crossing the International Dateline on an air flight? (d) Why is the International Date Line not a straight line? (e) What is 'Greenwich Mean Time'? (f) What is a 'solstice'?

12 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

3.5 Topography

Topography is the variety of natural surface features that make up a landscape, such as mountain ranges and valleys, lakes and rivers, forests and deserts.

In the USA, topography is more or less synonymous with ' relief': that is, the three-dimensional aspects of the Earth's surface. Absolute relief is the term given to a feature's height above sea level. Relative relief is the term given to the difference between a landscape's lowest and highest points (which gives visual 'drama' to landscapes with mountains, valleys and cliffs).

In a broader sense of 'study of plac e', still used in Europe, topology concerns local detail in general: not just relief, but other natural features and landforms (such as lakes, rivers and forests), vegetation and even human-made points of interest.

The topography of an area is exteremly important in determining what kinds of tourist destinations and activities are available: eg rock climbing in mountain areas (and skiing at high altitude); boating and watersports on lakes and rivers; sun and sand acti vities on coastlines; or camel treks in the desert. Unusual or scenic topographical features can also represent tourist attractions in themselves: mountains, meteor craters (which may create unique wildlife sanctuaries), canyons, scenic lake districts and so on.

You can see striking contours and altitude variations in 'topographical maps' or 'relief maps', which have a three-dimensional quality to their surface, using techniques such as contour lines and relief shading. Nowadays, you can also see satellite images highlighting the Earth's surface contours, using readily available computer programmes such as Google Earth.

(Note that this is different from 'absolute relief', which is simply the height of land above sea level.)

Altitude – together with latitude – is one of the major influences on other aspects of physical geography, Topographical map of Europe such as: Source: Wikimedia Commons ƒ Climate and weather, since high altitudes are cooler than lowlands, and the direction of slops affect sunshine and wind exposure

ƒ Water flows and the routes (and navigability) of rivers

ƒ Differences in natural vegetation and wildlife (adapted to lowland or highland temperature, soil and weather conditions), and potential for agriculture

ƒ Surface transport routes, since road and rail routes generally follow topographical contours, and high mountains (and related weather systems) present signficant barriers to transport development

ƒ Population areas, since lowlands and valleys are generally more hospitable and accessible

ƒ Cultural and linguistic differences, which may arise in part from populations being cut off from trade and cultural exchange with each other due to topographical barriers

ƒ Tourism resources – such as ski slopes, mountain scenery, adventure tourism (eg climbing and trekking), and unique architectural and cultural communities (eg in Nepal and Tibet).

We will look at mountains and mountain ranges, among other topographical features and landforms, in the following section of this chapter.

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4 Geographical features

The ' geography ' of a place generally refers to broad or 'macro' factors such as the topography, landscape type and climate of a region or country.

The term ' geographical features ' refers to specific natural features which a place (or landscape) may contain: mountains, beaches, lakes, rivers, forests and so on.

Continents may have very different geographies (different landscapes and climates) – but they will generally have the same kinds of geographical features (mountains, lakes, rivers).

The natural geographic features of an area include:

ƒ Landforms: terrain types (such as mountains, deserts, wetlands or islands) and bodies of water (such as rivers, lakes and oceans)

ƒ Flora and fauna: plant and animal life

ƒ Ecosystems: complex systems through which the flora (plants) and fauna (animals) of an area co-exist within the physical environment. Ecosystems come in many types and sizes, including natural wildlife habitats, such as grasslands, forests and rainforests.

Let's look at some of the world's major geographical fe atures in turn. This is just a brief introduction to their types, characteristics and locations. In Chapter 3, we' ll look more specifically at how some of these features may represent (or be developed as) resources for tourism, and how different tourist groups might interact with them. So, for example, in this chapter, we'll talk about the nature of 'lakes': in Chapter 3, we'll talk about the possi bilities for fishing, water-skiing and scenic touring, and the location of major lake-based tourism such as the Great Lakes (in America) or the Lake District (in the UK).

4.1 Landscapes

Landscape comprises all the visible features of an area of land: in effect, the 'view' or 'scenery'. This includes physical geographical features such as landforms (deserts, mountains plains), living elements (especially trees and other plant life), human elements (signs of human activity and the built environment) and less tangible elements such as light and weather conditions.

Landscape – or 'scenery' – is important because of it s aesthetic appeal and interest to tourists. People like to travel through, look at and photograph landscapes which are visually beautiful, different than they are used to from their home region, or interesting in other ways: for example, as the locations for famous films or books, or displaying human activity of historical or cultural interest.

FOR DISCUSSION What types of human activity or other attributes might make a landscape scenically 'interesting' to tourists?

14 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

4.2 Mountainous landforms

4.2.1 Hills and mountains

A hill is an area raised up above the surrounding land, usually to a highest point in the range 500-1,000 feet above the base level: generally, less high and less steep than a mountain (although this tends to be quite subjective).

Hills may form through the erosion and weathering of larger peaks, through the movement and deposit of earth (eg by wind or glaciers) over time – or through human activity (in the case of artificial hills or mounds).

They come in many different shapes and sizes. Slightly raised areas have always attracted human settlement, because while they are relatively accessible, they also offer a good vantage point for defence (as a site for early villages and forts), and protection from river flooding. They also offer prominence for high visibility, making them the most popular site for the churches, cathedrals and castles that form the central point of many historic towns. Wester Ross (Scotland) Source: www.gairloch.org 4.2.2 Mountains

A mountain is a large landform which is raised up above the surrounding land within a limited area, usually in the form of a 'peak', with a highest poin t 1,000 feet (300m) or more above the base level. A mountain range is a chain or cluster of mountains, bordered by highlands, or separated from other mountains by passes (gaps) or valleys.

Mountains are therefore usually distinguished from hills by their height and steepness – although this is sometimes merely a matter of naming: a peak may be called 'Mount such-and-such' even though it is 'technically' only a hill.

Mountains may be formed in a variety of ways, creating different shapes and characteristics.

ƒ Fold mountains were formed when the collision or pressing of two of the 'plates' which make up the Earth's surface caused the buckling or folding of the Earth's crust. This is the most common type of mountain, accounting for the Himalayas (in Asia) and the Alps (in

Europe).

ƒ Fault or fault-block mountains were formed when blocks of rock slid up, or tilted, along faults in the Earth's crust. They include the Sierra Nevada mountains (North America).

ƒ Volcanic mountains are formed, as the name suggests, by volcanic eruptions, during which molten magma piles up on the surface of the Earth. A famous example is Mount Fuji (Japan): pictured (right).

Globally, the main concentration of very high mountains is in the Himalaya Range (separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau) and the Hindu Kush (part of the greater Himalayas, but north of the Himalaya Range, on the borders of India, Pakistan and China). Lesser altitudes – though still very high and more accessible for tourism purposes – are found in the Andes (South America), the Alps (Western Europe), and the Rocky Mountains (North America).

The Himalayas contain the highest mountains on the Earth's surface, including Mount Everest (the world's highest mountain), while the Andes are the longest continental mountain range, stretching some 7,000 down the western length of South America.

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As we mentioned earlier, altitude is a major factor in temperature and climate, and the flora and fauna adapted to them. Tall mountains have different climatic conditions and ecosystems at different altitudes. Their base may be in tropical conditions, with lush vegetation. In the middle elevations, there may be forests suitable to colder, drier conditions. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow: life 'above the tree line' is often sparse and adapte d to harsh alpine conditions.

Because of harsh weather conditions, barriers to transport and lack of level/arable land for agriculture, high mountains are generally less hospitable to human habitation than valleys and lowland areas. Many mountainous areas are therefore primarily used (if they are used at all) for logging, mining or grazing – and, increasingly, for recreation and tourism. Scenic touring, hiking, mountaineering and rock climbing (in summer) and skiing and snowboarding (in winter) are major attractions of mountain areas – as we will see in Chapter 3.

4.2.3 Valleys, canyons and gorges

A valley or dale is an elongated depression in the earth's surf ace, often carved out by a river or glacier, or by the subsidence of the earth's surface along a fault line or 'rift'.

Valleys formed by flowing water, or river valleys, are usually 'V-shaped'. Steeply descending mountain rivers tend to carve out steep walls and a narrow bottom; shallower gradients produce gentler, wider valleys (like the middle Rhine in Germany); and once a river approaches sea level, the valley flattens out and becomes a flood plain (like the Nile River in Egypt).

Valleys carved out by glaciers, or glacial valleys, are usually more 'U-shaped', wit h steep sides and broad floors, contoured by the Rhine Valley, Germany Source: www.greatrail.com shape of the glacier. When the ice recedes or thaws, the valley becomes visible.

Valleys may also be caused by the subsidence of the Earth's surface between more or less parallel faults. The most famous example is the Great Rift Valley, which extends northwards from Mozambique to Jordan through East Africa.

River valleys are important for tourism both for their scenic attractions, and as the location of many places of historical and cultural interest. The agriculturally fertile river valleys of the Mississippi (Southern USA), Nile (Egypt), Ganges (India), Rhine and Danube (Europe) and Yangtze (China) were cradles of ancient Great Rift Valley, East Africa Source: www.winwinvacations.com civilisations whose monuments are still visible to tourists. Valleys still provide hospitable areas within mountainous and desert regions, offering shelter from winds, more temperate climates, transport access and other amenities.

Canyons and gorges are deep, steep-sided depressions carved out of mountainous areas by rivers: in other words, particularly steep, narrow rocky river valleys. They can be particularly scenically spectacular, as well as supporting adventure activities such as hiking, rock climbing, river rafting, caving and canyoning.

Internationally famous examples are the Grand Canyon (USA), and the Yangtze River Gorges (China). Cheddar Gorge (Somerset, England) is a major attraction for domestic tourism.

4.3 Volcanoes

A volcano is an (often cone-shaped) mountain created by the deposit of molten magma, lava and ash which have been ejected through a vent or fissure in the Earth's crust during a volcani c eruption.

16 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Volcanic cones may be of different shapes, depending on how they are formed. They often have a large central crater, created by the volcanic explosion or the collapse of the cone.

Volcanoes are generally classed as active or 'live' (still subject to eruption); dormant (potentially active, with a record of eruption within historical record); and extinct (no eruptions in historical record, and now subject to erosion, over-growth and so on).

Dormant and extinct volcanoes, in accessible areas, may be a resource for scenic, nature and adventure tourism. Some crater rims, and even the craters themselves, are accessible by road, and open for hiking Mount Vesuvius, near Naples (Italy) and camping (although this is generally strictly Source: www.solarnavitagor.net controlled for conservation reasons).

EXAMPLES Some volcanic craters have, over time, become natural wildlife reserves, being sheltered and enclosed from the outside world. The most famous example is perhaps the Ngoro Ngoro Crater Conservation Area in Tanzania (adjoining the Serengeti National Park), which houses some 25,000 large animals, including lions, zebra, gazelles, wildebeest and other East African species.

An extinct volcano can also create sites of archeological, historical and cultural interest, through the preservation of ancient cities buried by volcanic eruption. The ancient city of Pompeii (near Naples, Italy) was buried in 79 AD by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and – now excavated and open to tourists – provides unique insight into daily life in Roman times.

There are also a number of 'live' volcanoes in popula r holiday destinations such as Hawaii (Mauna Loa) and the Italian island of Sicily (Mount Etna), southern Japan (Mount Unzen), the Pacific north-west of the USA (Mount St Helens) and the Canary Islands (Cumbre Vieja).

4.4 Continental plains

Plains are areas of low relief: that is, flatlands or gently rolling lowlands. They may occur as coastal lowlands, at the bottoms of valleys, or on top of high, flat mountain plateaus. The term 'coas tal plains' is often used for areas of low-lying land near the sea – contrasted with higher ground further inland. Fluvial plains are formed by rivers: for example, 'f lood plains', which are created by flooding.

Plains cover a wide variety of landscapes. They may be covered in grassland, woodland or forest – or they may be bare of vegetation, such as the sandy or stony plains found in some desert areas.

4.4.1 Agricultural plains Plains are often important for agriculture, because of the richness of the soil deposited by rivers, the ease with which flat land can be worked, and the support for grasslands for grazing of livestock. This also means that many cities of historical and cultural interest are sited in plains areas.

4.4.2 Grasslands Grasslands are plains where the vegetation is dominated by grasses or grass-like plants. They occur naturally throughout the world (except in the Arctic regions), although they prefer climates where rainfall is somewhere between low (favouring desert vegetation) and very high (favouring rainforest vegetation). They may also be created or maintained by human activity, primarily for the raising of livestock.

There are various types of grassland, depending on altitude, climate and conditions.

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For example: ƒ Temperate grasslands include the prairies of North America, the pampas of Argentina and the steppes of Eastern Europe. ƒ The term ' savannah ' is given to grassland which also has a significant but relatively sparse 'woody-plant' (ie tree) population, insufficiently dense to be classified as a forest. Savannahs often occupy transitional zones between forests, deserts and prairies – however, they cover 20 per cent of the world's landmass. Because of the combination of grassland and tree cover, they support grazing animals such as bison, zebras, rhinoceros and wild horses – and the carnivorous predators that feed on them! The African savannah is a major example of such an environment, supporting large biodiversity – making it the site of several national parks Savannah land: Queensland, Australia and game reserves, and a major attraction for wildlife tourism. ƒ High-altitude grasslands are found high in mountain ranges, above the tree line, where tree growth is hindered by cold temperatures, thin soils and short growing seasons. This type of environment is a form of alpine tundra: the vegetation is mostly composed of grasses, together with small shrubs, mosses and lichens. (Tundra is also found in the Arctic and Alpine tundra Antarctic regions.) Source: www.uwsp.edu

4.4.3 Deserts A desert is an area of land where rainfall is minimal or sporadic – usually below 250 mm (10 inches) per year – creating extremely limited vegetation.

Most hot deserts consist of stony scrubland, with occasional rocky uplands, and some areas of shifting sand dunes (pictured), or salt-covered flatlands. As well as 'hot deserts', there are also 'cold deserts' in the polar regions, with little or no precipitation in the form of snow – and even less vegetation. Deserts are harsh and inhospitable to human habitation – and tourism development. However, where development has occurred Sahara Desert, Morocco in more accessible areas, supported by rivers or man-made Source: www.africatravelpictures.com irrigation, they may offer tourist attractions: interesting and challenging environments for nature and adventure tourism (eg in the 'Red Centre' of Australia); sites of historic or cultural interest associated early desert civilisations (especially in the Middle East); and, more rarely, urban attractions (as in the case of Las Vegas, Nevada, say).

FOR DISCUSSION What would be the attraction of geographical features like volcanoes and deserts for tourists? To what kinds of tourists do you think they would mostly appeal, and for what kinds of activity?

4.5 Forests

A forest is an area of land covered largely with wooded plants (trees) and associated undergrowth. Over 20 per cent of the world's land area is forest , both natural and deliberately planted – although this figure is steadily shrinking as areas are deforested for urbanisation and the creation of agricultural land.

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Forests are a vital part of the global ecosystem. They represent major habitats for wildlife, suppliers of oxygen, consumers of carbon dioxide (reducing one of the key greenhouse gases thought to be responsible for global warming), and a source of materials use in construction, furniture-making, paper- making and other key industries.

The type of forest depends on the species of trees growing – which in turn depends mainly on climate.

ƒ Northern coniferous (evergreen) forests consist mainly of pine, spruce and fir, providing ideal soft wood for paper making.

ƒ In more temperate climate regions, forests consist mainly of mixed deciduous trees, such as oak, ash, elm, beech, sycamore and other hardwoods, often used in furniture making.

ƒ In warm Mediterranean climates, trees are adapted to hot, dry summers, like evergreen oaks, pencil pines and cypress.

ƒ Tropical forests (including rainforests, discussed separately below) are characterised by a huge diversity of species, usually including tall evergreen trees, with climbing vines, tree ferns and epiphytes (plants which grow on other plants).

Oak forest: Sherwood, England Pine forest, New Zealand Mediterranean forest Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: www.teara.govt.nz Source: www.3.bp.blogspot

4.5.1 Rainforests ' Rainforest ' is the name given to a type of vegetation which can be found in areas of high rainfall.

Large-scale tropical rainforests are found in Equatorial climate areas such as the Amazon Basin (South America, the largest rainforest in the world), Central America, parts of Southeast Asia, Indonesia and north-eastern Australia. Smaller pockets of temperate rainforests are found in milder climate regions, such as the Pacific North West of the USA, parts of Europe, East Asia, Southern Chile and Australasia.

The main characteristics of rainforests are:

ƒ Tall evergreen trees, growing closely together to form a high 'canopy' of leaves, with smaller trees and shrubs forming additional canopies at lower levels

ƒ Relatively little undergrowth, except near rivers and clearings, due to the shade cast by the canopy

ƒ Many different species of trees, including rare hardwoods such as rosewood, mahogany and ebony

ƒ Vines, epiphytes and parasitic plants growing on trees, in order to climb towards the light

ƒ Very rich biodiversity both of plants and of animals, birds and insects

Rainforests are a source of fascination for nature and eco-tourists, with their unique vegetation and eco- systems. However, they are also very sensitive and fragile eco-systems, which can be several damaged by human interference and impacts. De-forestation of rainforest areas, loss of biodiversity by species extinction, and the destruction of indigenous cultures are just some of the issues being ever more hotly debated.

19 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

FOR DISCUSSION The cultivation and management of forests is of major economic importance – and is hotly debated worldwide. World demand for timber and other forestry products continues to grow – as does demand for land for urban and agricultural development. Deforestation is a major cause of soil erosion, and in the long term, may contribute to climate change through the build up of greenhouse gases. How might managed tourism contribute to the sustainability of the world's forests?

4.6 Rivers and waterways

A river is a natural freshwater watercourse, confined within a channel by banks, which flows from a source (eg a spring, lake, glacier or snow fields) towards an ocean or sea, a lake or another river. Smaller watercourses may be called by other names, such as streams, creeks or brooks.

Rivers are important in the creating landscape, through the processes of erosion (creating valleys, canyons and gorges) and the transportation and deposition of material (creating hills, plains and river deltas). Sometimes, the deposit of sediment at slower moving curves will cut off a loop in a river, forming an oxbow lake or billabong. Rivers which flow out into an ocean or sea may form estuaries: areas of a lower river, or river mouth, which are affected by tides. A river delta is a landform produced when a river deposits a lot of sediment at its mouth.

Throughout history, rivers have attracted human settlement, due to the availability of water, the fertility of river valleys for agriculture and the potential for river transport to and from the sea. Many of the world's major cities are located on rivers – as are many of its major historical sites (as in the case of the Nile in Egypt, and the castles along the

Rhine in Europe). Source: www.paddlerzone.co.nz In steep mountainous regions, rivers may form rapids and waterfalls, which are often attractions for scenic tourism and adventurous recreation.

EXAMPLE Famous rivers, which we will encounter later in this Study Guide, include: the Nile (Egypt), Rhine and Danube (Europe), Ganges (India), Yangtze (China), Amazon (South America) and Mississippi (southern USA).

Some major waterfalls include: the Niagara Falls (USA/Canada), the Iguacu Falls (Argentina), Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe) and Angel Falls (Venezuela: the ta llest falls in the world) – although even small waterfalls can be a local attraction, because of their scenic beauty.

4.6.1 Lakes and lagoons A lake is a body of water (which may be fresh or salt) occupying a basin or hollow in the earth's surface and surrounded by land. Natural lakes are often found in hilly or mountainous regions. Rivers may flow into and out of lakes, but a lake may also be 'landl ocked', with no outlet: a very large landlocked salt lake may form an inland sea, such as the Caspian Sea.

Natural freshwater lakes are mainly formed when basins are created by mountains, glaciers or volcanic craters, into which water accumulates from rivers, underground springs, rainfall or ice melt.

20 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Some well-known lake clusters include: the Great Lakes (north eastern USA), the Lake District (north west England), and the Italian Lake District (northern Italy). Some individual famous lakes include Lake Titicaca (Peru/Bolivia), Lake Louise (in the Canadian Rockies) and Lake Como (Italy).

Salt lakes form where there is no natural outlet, and water evaporates quickly, leaving a higher concentration of mineral salt in the water. Famous examples include: the Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA) and the Dead Sea (Israel/Jordan). There are many salt lakes or étangs around the Mediterranean in the Lake Como, Italy South of France. Source: www.italianvisits.com

The term lagoon is given to a lake-like body of fairly shallow salt water, which has been separated from the sea or ocean by a sandbank, coral reef or similar exposed barrier. Lagoons are often found in coastal areas, and may be one of the attractions of coastal or beach resorts, for water sports.

Lakes can also be man-made, in the form of artificial lakes or reservoirs,which are developed for domestic water supplies and irrigation, hydroelectric-power generation, recreation and urban landscaping. One example is Lake Burleigh-Griffin, on which the city of Canberra (capital of Australia) is situated.

4.6.2 Wetlands A wetland is an area of land where the soil is seasonally or permanently waterlogged. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, bogs and flooded grasslands. Wetlands represent a distinctive habitat for a unique variety of rate plant, animal, bird, reptile and insect species: they are considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems.

Wetlands, like rainforests, are sensitive ecosystems which are currently under threat. They are being drained for farming and residential development; pump ed for irrigation; 'mined' for peat (deposits of plant debris laid down in waterlogged conditions, which can be used as fuel and for horticultural purposes); and polluted by agricultural and industrial chemicals. A number of conservation organisations, such as the Wetlands and Wildfowl Trust in the UK, is dedicated to the protection and preservation of wetlands and wetland species.

One argument for the preservation of wetlands is their value for tourism and recreation, including nature trails, boating and fishing (in controlled areas) and bird-watching. The Florida Everglades The Norfolk Broads (UK) and the Everglades (Florida, USA) Source: www.kadimasolutions.com are examples of wetland tourist attractions.

ACTIVITY 4 10 minutes (a) What is the largest rainforest in the world (giving its name and location)? (b) Name two characteristics of deserts. (c) Where are (i) the Andes and (ii) the Grand Canyon? (d) Name two active volcanoes, giving their location. (e) In what continent is (i) the River Rhine, (ii) the River Nile and (iii) the River Yangtze? (f) Name the world's tallest waterfall. (g) What is the difference between forest and savannah?

21 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

4.6.3 Canals and dams As a useful reminder that geographical landforms can also be human-made:

ƒ Canals are human-made channels for water. Waterway canals are navigable water transport routes (like artificial rivers), used for commercial transportation – and for cruising. Canals are often built to link natural water routes via lakes, rivers or oceans: the Suez and Panama Canals, for example, link oceans across narrow dividing areas of land.

ƒ Dams are barriers which retain the water from rivers or underground streams, storing up water supplies for an area. Dammed waters can be used to generate hydro-electricity: a major, clean source of power. Similar structures, such as floodgates, levees or dikes, are used to manage or prevent water flow into areas of land (eg preventing river or ocean flooding, or releasing water in a controlled way for irrigation).

4.7 Oceanic and coastal landforms

4.7.1 Seas and oceans Oceans are the large designated bodies of salt water (excluding lakes and seas) which cover about 70 per cent of the Earth's surface. There are five ocea ns: the Pacific Ocean (covering about one third of the world); the Atlantic Ocean; the Indian Ocean; the Arctic Ocean; and (newly designated in 2000) the Southern Ocean.

Seas are designated bodies of salt water, often areas or branches of an ocean – although, as we have seen, it is possible to have a landlocked inland sea.

The whole water mass covering the Earth's surface is known as the ' hydrosphere'.

ƒ The Pacific Ocean includes major cruising areas such as the Coral Sea (off the north-east coast of Australia), the East China Sea (off the east coast of China) and the South China Sea (between Taiwan and Singapore); the Gulf of California; the Gu lf of Carpentaria (the 'bite' out of the top of Australia); and the Bering Sea (between Russia and Alaska).

ƒ The Atlantic Ocean also includes a number of well-known cruising areas, such as: the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea (between Italy and the Balkan peninsula), the Aegean Sea (between Greece and Turkey), the Baltic Sea (between the Scandinavian peninsula and mainland Europe), the Black Sea (bordered by Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria and Rumania) and the Caribbean Sea (east of Central America) – as well as the North Sea (between England and the European mainland).

ƒ The Indian Ocean includes the Arabian Sea (between North Africa and India), the Red Sea (the narrow strip between Egypt and Saudi Arabia) and the Bay of Bengal (to the east of India).

ƒ The Arctic Ocean includes the Barents Sea (North of Scandinavia and Russia).

22 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

ƒ The Southern Ocean (waters south of latitude 40º S) includes the Great Australian Bight.

ƒ The Dead Sea (between Israel and Jordan) is perhaps the best known landlocked inland sea, for the purposes of tourism. (It is also the lowest, with a surface at 422 metres below sea level – and the saltiest, at 8.6 times the salinity of the ocean!)

All the oceans are connected – but the position of the land masses means that it is not always easy to get from one to the other! This problem has been solved by the creation of two major canals, crossing narrow land bridges to allow inter-ocean access.

ƒ The Panama Canal crosses from the Atlantic Ocean/Caribbean Sea to the North Pacific Ocean/Gulf of Panama across the Isthmus of Panama in Central America. (An 'isthmus' is a narrow land bridge with water on either side.)

ƒ The Suez Canal crosses the Isthmus of Suez, linking the Mediterranean Sea at Port Said to the Gulf of Suez, the Red Sea, and eventually the Indian Ocean. (This has long fascinated tourists with the sight of large ships appearing to sail across the Egyptian desert!)

ACTIVITY 5 30 minutes Look up the oceans and seas mentioned above, in an atlas or encyclopaedia – or on-line equivalents – and familiarise yourself with their location. Make sure you know which land masses the oceans separate; which countries the seas are adjacent to; and which oceans the major canals join.

4.7.2 Coasts A coast is an area where a land mass meets a sea or ocean. (Land meeting a lake or river would be called a 'shore' or 'bank'.) Some coastlines directly fa ce open ocean, while others form the rim of a more sheltered gulf, bay or inlet.

Coastal areas, including estuaries, salt marshes and beaches, support a high level of plant and animal biodiversity – which has, in turn, attracted human activity throughout history. An increasing proportion of the global population inhabits coastal regions, because of their temperate climates, rich food resources and access to sea transport – as well as the scenic and recreational attractions of coastal living, and the commercial and employment opportunities arising from tourism. Like other sensitive ecosystems which are popular with tourists, coastal areas face many natural and human-induced environmental challenges, including pollution, erosion, over-fishing and the destruction of landforms, habitats and landscapes through over-development.

4.7.3 Coastal landforms Coastal landforms include: ƒ Coastline contours, including: gulfs, bays, coves, inlets and fjords ('bites' out of the coast of different shapes and sizes) and capes, headlands, peninsulas and spits (bits 'sticking out' of the coast, of different shapes and sizes). ƒ Landforms caused by erosion: cliffs, coves and rock formations produced by the retreat of headlands, such as pinnacles, stacks and arches (such as the Twelve Apostles, in Victoria, Australia: the scenic focus of the 'Great Ocean Road').

23 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

A series of bays (in Spain) The Twelve Apostles A small peninsula (in Croatia) Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

ƒ Landforms caused by the deposit of sediments, such as beaches, spits and sand dune systems.

ƒ Landforms formed by other geographical features, such as lagoons (an area of salt water cut off from the ocean by a sand spit or barrier island), salt marsh, river delta or estuary.

4.7.4 Beaches A beach is an accumulation of sand (and other particles such as shingle, pebbles or shell/coral fragments) that often occurs in a sheltered position on a sea or ocean coastline, but may also be found in more exposed condidtions where there is a plentiful supply of such sedimentary materials.

Given the popularity of coastal living and tourism, many beaches are situated within areas of urban development or have been developed as beach resorts. Famous urban beaches include Ipanema Beach (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), Bondi Beach (Sydney, Australia) and Venice Beach (Los Angeles, California). Within Britain, you might think of the rather different pebble beaches, piers and promenades of Blackpool or Brighton.

Recreational beaches are developed for leisure and tourism, offering opportunities for sunbathing and sand play, beach games, swimming, surfing and other water sports. They typically have surf life saving services and amenities such as toilets and showers, and proximity to food outlets and shops.

Some beaches, particularly in areas which are remote and where tourism has not been highly developed (such as some areas of Thailand, Indonesia and the west coast of Australia), may be classed as wild beaches. They do not have lifeguards and other beach amenities, nor resorts, hotels or urban settlement nearby. Such beaches are often sought-after by more adventurous tourists, for their unspoiled beauty, preserved nature and uncrowded natural amenities.

Ipanema Beach, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Frankland Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Source: Wikimedia Commons Australia

We will look in detail at beach development and its impacts, in other chapters of this Study Guide.

24 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

4.7.5 Islands An island is any area of land surrounded by water (excluding the continents). Very small islands may be called islets or cays (as in the Florida 'Keys'). A gr oup of geographically related islands may be called an archipelago.

Islands vary widely, from tiny uninhabited coral atolls and small islets in the middle of rivers – to vast island nations such as Greenland and island continents such as Australia. They are of three basic types:

ƒ Continental islands lie on the underlying 'shelves' of a co ntinent, separated from the mainland by a relatively shallow stretch of water. Great Britain (off mainland Europe) is an obvious example. Other examples include Greenland (off North America); Barbados (off South America); Sicily and Sardinia (off Europe), and Tasmania (off mainland Australia).

ƒ Oceanic islands do not sit on continental shelves. They are mostly volcanic in origin. Some (like the Japanese islands and Iceland) sit along a line between two of the Earth's plates. Others (such as the Hawaiian Islands and the Galapagos Islands) formed over 'hot spots' in the earth's crust, where molten magma has risen to the surface. Coral atolls (like the Maldives) are islands formed from a coral reef which has grown on the base of a submerged volcanic island: they are typically ring-shaped, with a central lagoon.

ƒ Inland islands are relatively small islands in the middle of a lake (like Taquile Island in Lake Titicaca, Peru) or river (like Manhattan Island in New York, or the Isle de la Cité in Paris).

A small atoll in the Maldives Volcanic crater island: Molokini, Hawaii Source: http://endangerededen.files.wordpress.com Source: gold.libero./hawaii

Tropical islands (islands in the low latitudes between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn) are very various. They include the Maldives, Sri Lanka and the Seychelles (Indian Ocean); Tonga, Polynesia, the Hawaiian Islands and the Galapagos Islands (Pacific Ocean); and city-islands such as Singapore and Hong Kong.

An archipelago or cluster of islands (such as the Greek Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, the Galapagos Islands or the Scottish Isles) particularly lends itself to tourism in the form of 'island hopping': making short sea or air journeys between islands, in order to explore a number of different destinations.

ACTIVITY 6 5 minutes (a) Name two islands found in the Indian Ocean, and two found in the Pacific Ocean. (b) Where are the islands of (i) Shetland, (ii) Corsica and (iii) Crete? (c) What are the prime attractions of (i) Hawaii, (ii) the Galapagos Islands and (iii) the Greek Islands?

25 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

4.7.6 Coral reefs A coral reef is a unique ecosystem, created by the build up of colonies of stony corals (marine animals which secrete rigid external skeletons of calcium carbonate) over many generations.

Reef building occurs mostly in relatively shallow, warm, clear and sunny waters, and over 90 per cent of all coral reefs are in the Indo-Pacific region.

The best known example of a major coral reef is the Great Barrier Reef, in the Coral Sea off the north east coast of Australia. Another major barrier reef exists off the Caribbean coast of Belize in Central America, and smaller pockets of reef can be found around many oceanic islands in the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Source: www.coralreefinfo.com Coral reefs are among the most rare, diverse and sensitive eco-systems in the world. They provide local areas with shoreline protection (as a barrier to wave energy), as well as resources for fishing and tourism. However, they are under significant threat from climate change (being sensitive to changes in water temperature), overfishing (including destructive fishing practices such as the use of explosives), pollution from agricultural and urban wastes, and over- exploitation (including the 'mining' of coral for jewe llery and souvenirs, the removal of fish for aquaria, and damage caused by boating and other tourist activity).

26 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

SUMMARY

27 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 Define the term ' travel geography ' in your own words.

2 Determine whether the following are continents, countries or regions? Tuscany Australia The USA Scandinavia India Republic of Ireland

3 What does this definition describe?

“Imaginary lines on the earth’s surface (shown on maps ), enabling the location of any point on the globe to be defined in terms of two angles.”

4 A flight takes off from London Gatwick at 11.50 am on 10 July, on a nine hour 45-minute flight to Calgary, Alberta. What time does it arrive at its Canadian destination?

5 In topography what is ' absolute relief ' and ' relative relief'?

6 Define the following: (a) Tundra (b) Archipelago

7 Below are two definitions: one describes ' geography', the other ' geographical features'. Which definition relates to each term?

1 Study of 'macro' facto rs such as the topography, landscape type and climate of a region or country.

2 Study of specific natural features which a place (or landscape) may contain: mountains, beaches, lakes, rivers, forests and so on.

28 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Refer back to our definition at the start of the chapter. Have you included all of the main ideas?

2 Tuscany is a region in Italy.

Australia is a country but may also be used to describe the continent which includes New Zea land, Polynesia, New Guinea and some other nations. It is sometimes referred to as Oceania. The USA is a country in the continent of North America, which includes, among other countries, Canada. Scandinavia is a region, comprising many countries within Europe. India – don’t be confused by its sometimes being called 'the Subcontinent' – India is part of Asia. The Republic of Ireland – a country defined by political rather than natural borders.

3 Lines of latitude and longitude.

4 2.30pm the same afternoon.

5 Absolute relief is the term given to a feature's height above sea level. Relative relief is the term given to the difference between a landscape's lowest and highes t points (which gives visual 'drama' to landscapes with mountains, valleys and cliffs).

6 (a) Tundra: High-altitude grasslands found high in mountain ranges, above the tree line, where tree growth is hindered by cold temperatures; (b) Archipelago: a cluster of islands in close proximity.

7 (1) Geography; (2) Geographical features.

29 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 No answer is given for this activity, because it requires your own research and reflection. We urge you to take seriously our advice to start an on-going portfolio of your own research material!

2 Thailand is in the continent of Asia.

The Panama Canal joins the Atlantic Ocean (at the Caribbean Sea) with the Indian Ocean.

The capital city of Brazil is Brasilia. (You might have been surprised that it is not Rio de Janeiro.)

The highest mountain in the Alps is Mont Blanc.

The time difference between London and Moscow is three hours (Moscow is Greenwich Mean Time + 3).

You might have looked these answers up in an atlas or encyclopaedia or on the Internet – or asked someone who knows.

3 (a) The Equator goes through: Ecuador, Colombia and Brazil (South America); Gabon, Congo, Uganda, Kenya and Somalia (Africa); the Maldives (Indian Ocean); Indonesia and Kiriba ti (Pacific).

(b) Latitude measures distance from the Equator; longitude measures distance from the Prime Meridian. Both are useful for locating points on the globe. Latitude is associated with differences in climate/season, and longitude to differences in time/date.

(c) Crossing the IDL puts you one calendar day forward (going west) or behind (going east).

(d) The IDL is 'kinked' to allow whole countries or island groups to maintain the same date.

(e) GMT is the time at the Prime Meridian, from which all other time zones are measured.

(f) A solstice is the date at which the sun is at its highest and days are longest (summer solstice) and at which the sun is at its lowest and days are shortest (winter solstice).

4 (a) The largest rainforest is the Amazon basin (mainly in Brazil and Peru, in South America).

(b) Deserts are dry (low precipitation) and sparsely vegetated: they can be hot or cold.

(c) The Andes run down the west coast of South America, through Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

(d) Active volcanoes include: Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Etna (Sicily), Unzen (Japan), Mount St Helens (USA) and Cumbre Vieja (Canary Islands).

(e) The Rhine is in Europe (Germany), the Nile in Asia (Egypt) and the Yangtze in Asia (China)

(f) The world's tallest waterfall is Angel Falls, Venezuela.

(g) Forest is thickly wooded, while savannah is more sparsely wooded grassland.

5 Your own research.

6 (a) Indian Ocean islands include the Seychelles, Maldives and Sri Lanka. Pacific Islands include Japan, Hawaii, Polynesia, Australia and New Zealand.

(b) Shetland is in the North Sea, north-east of Scotland; Corsica is in t he Mediterranean, west of Italy; Crete is the largest of the Greek Islands, south of Greece in the Mediterranean.

(c) Your own research – but to give you a hint: Hawaii has beaches (eg Waikiki), live volcanoes, indigenous culture and American shopping; th e Galapagos Islands have unique wildlife and history; the Greek Islands have history, culture, cuisine and coastlines.

30

CHAPTER 2 PATTERNS OF WORLD TOURISM

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ Various definitions of travel, tourism and tourist ƒ Different types of tourist, and motivations for travel and tourism ƒ The four directional flows of domestic and international tourism, and the push and pull factors which encourage them ƒ The four main regions of international tourism and patterns of tourism within and between them ƒ The inter-relationships between 'core' and 'p eripheral' destinations in patterns of tourism ƒ The economics of world tourism generation ƒ The impact of the global distribution of affluence on tourism patterns (and vice versa)

Topic list Travel, tourism and tourists The tourist system and tourist flows World economic tourist generation Regions and patterns of world tourism

31 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

1 Travel, tourism and tourists

We saw in Chapter 1 that this module is, broadly, about two things: the geographical or 'spatial' patterns of tourist activity (where tourists are from and where they go); and the nature and location of geographical resources for tourism, and how they are used, managed and developed for tourism. In our introductory chapter, we focused on the definitions and concepts surrounding 'geography'. In this chapter, we will focus on the definitions and concepts of 'tourism'.

1.1 Travel, tourism and tourists

Travel may be defined simply as 'the movement of people from one place to another, using a variety of modes of transport.' (Youell, 2003)

Travel may be undertaken for a wide variety of purposes, including, on a local scale, commuting and shopping; and on an international scale, migration (travel with a commitment to live and work long-term or permanently in another country or region) and diplomatic or military service overseas.

The purposes of travel classified as 'tourism', however, are more generally:

ƒ Leisure, recreation and holidays, health and fitness (including receiving medical treatment), sport, education, and cultural, social or spiritual pursuits (including religious pilgrimages, say)

ƒ Attendance at business meetings, exhibitions and trade fairs, conferences and conventions etc (in other words, temporary business visits, rather than long-term plans to work in other countries)

ƒ Visiting friends and relatives.

Tourism is defined by the World Tourism Organisation as 'the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.' ( ibid). This definition has now been accepted by the UN Statistical Commission for the purposes of measuring tourist numbers and patterns.

Tourism therefore focuses specifically on the movement and activities of people who:

ƒ Travel to a location that is not their normal place of work and residence

ƒ On a temporary or short-term visit

ƒ For a variety of purposes.

If we think about 'holidays', we might think that tourism is synonymous with leisure and recreation. However, this is not the case.

ƒ Leisure is a measure of time: the 'free time' people have left over after their work and other commitments are met.

ƒ Recreation is the variety of activities undertaken during leisure time.

ƒ Tourism is a distinctive type of recreational activity, specifically focused on travel, mobility or change of location (further afield and for longer duration than 'everyday' recreation). It also embraces non-leisure and non-recreational activity, most obviously in the form of business travel.

32 2: PATTERNS OF WORLD TOURISM

1.2 Different types of tourist and tourism

There are several different ways of categorising tourists and tourism.

1.2.1 Destination and origin Using this classification, there are four basic types of tourism.

Domestic tourism International tourism People taking holidays and trips People travelling to a country other than the one in which they within the country in which they currently live and work normally live and work (eg in Inbound tourism Outbound tourism different regions or cities of their People entering a country other People leaving their own own country) than their own to take holidays countries to take holidays and and trips trips abroad

International tourism may be much more complex to manage than domestic tourism, in terms of travel logistics, border controls, differences between generating and destination countries (language, geography, culture etc) and so on. However, international tourism is also a major growth area, thanks to factors such as global media (raising awareness of remote and exotic destinations), the development of air travel, and the development of cheaper packaged tourism products. It is also supported by the convenience of intra-continental travel (eg in Europe, where a different country may be only a few minutes' drive away…).

On the other hand, domestic tourism may be attractive in terms of time/cost of travel and travel risk – and in very large countries (like the USA and Australia), there is a wide variety of landscapes, resorts and attractions to keep domestic tourists busy!

A sub-classification of tourism can be added on the basis of distance travelled:

Long-haul travel/tourism Medium-haul travel/tourism Short-haul travel/tourism

Journeys of Journeys of Journeys of over 3,000 kilometres 1,000-3,000 kilometres under 1,000 kilometres

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes The pattern of tourism in recent years shows substantial growth in international long-haul travel. From your own experience, and your studies so far, what do you think are some of the causes of this growth?

1.2.2 Purpose of visit Using this method, tourism is often classified as:

ƒ Holiday or leisure tourism, where the purpose of the visit is recreation and exploration. Holiday tourism is often subdivided into categories such as:

– Sun, sea and sand – or 3S – tourism (seeking beach-type weather, facilities and activities)

– Touring, sightseeing and culture tourism (seeking different landscapes and lifestyles)

– Activity and special interest tourism (seeking specific outdoor, sporting or cultural activities).

ƒ Business and professional tourism, where the purpose of the visit is to participate in exhibitions, trade fairs, conferences, business meetings and incentive travel schemes. (This gives rise to the term 'MICE tourism': Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions!) Business

33 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

travellers tend not to have a choice of where to travel, and typically seek and use different types of facilities and services than leisure tourists (valuing efficiency, communication services, work spaces and so on).

ƒ Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism. VFR tourists may make little no demand upon accommodation and other tourist facilities at the destination – and little or no economic contribution.

FOR DISCUSSION If you have travelled – whether within your own country or overseas - how would you define your own purpose for travel, or motivations to travel? What factors made you want to leave the place where you usually live and work – and what factors attracted you to the destination you visited?

1.2.3 The tourism product and tourist interests The attractions, facilities and services of a destination can be 'packaged' (developed and marketed) in different ways, to correspond to the interests of different target customer/tourist groups. This creates a distinctive ' tourism product ' for a given destination, to a given type of tourist.

So, for example, a countryside area may seek to develop and market itself as a 'rural tourism destination', deliberately targeting tourists who are attracted by rural landscapes, farm stay accommodation, rural activities (such as horse riding or fishing) and so on. Similarly, destinations may develop their resources, attractions, facilities and reputation/image to attract:

ƒ Urban tourism (focusing on the attributes and activities of city life) ƒ Cultural tourism (focusing on the experience of other cultures) ƒ Historical tourism (focusing on historical attractions) ƒ Sport tourism (focusing on sporting events and facilities) ƒ Health or spa tourism (focusing on health and fitness facilities) ƒ Adventure tourism (focusing on opportunities for outdoor adventure activities) ƒ Ecotourism (focusing on the sustainable and environmentally-friendly consumption of nature- based destinations and activities).

We will look at this process of focusing the tourist product to establish destinations for particular types of holiday, in Chapter 6.

1.2.4 Tourist characteristics It is useful for tourist industry to be able to divide its market into different segments, on the basis of key characteristics of the tourists themselves. This allows travel itineraries, services and marketing to be developed according to the distinctive needs and motivations of different groups. Some of the most obvious examples include:

ƒ Youth tourism, tailored to the needs of young people

ƒ Grey (or 'third age') tourism, tailored to the needs of older travellers

ƒ Family tourism, tailored to the needs of families with children and

ƒ 'Pink' tourism, tailored to the needs of ga y and lesbian travellers.

34 2: PATTERNS OF WORLD TOURISM

More sophisticated segmentation may be based around characteristics like travel preferences: whether travellers are 'explorers' or 'sight-seers'; luxury-seeker s or no-frills travellers; preferring large or small groups; adventure-seeking or safety-seeking; and so on.

The ' new tourist ' is a term used to identify an emerging type of tourist who displays: more travel experience; greater independence and flexibility in travel choices and arrangements (supported by computer/Internet literacy); more environmental/et hical awareness and health consciousness; and higher quality expectations. This is a growing niche market for tourism.

2 The tourist system and tourist flows

2.1 The tourist system

' The tourist system' is a term used to describe the overall tourism process and its component parts. A commonly used version of the model (Leiper, 1979) consists of three basic geographical or 'spatial' components (tourist-generating areas, tourist-receiving areas and transit routes between them) within the specific context of the tourist industry (which enables the process) and a broader environment (consisting of geographical, socio-cultural, economic, political and technological factors).

The tourist system can be illustrated diagrammatically as follows: Figure 2.1.

The tourist industry

Tourist Departing Outward transit Tourists generating Tourists arriving Tourist

regions and destination Returning staying regions Tourists Return transit

Figure 2.1: The tourist system

The system consists of three basic geographic or spatial elements (that is, elements having to do with space or location).

35 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Element Explanation Key issues for travel Key role of the tourist geography industry

Tourist The places tourists call Features that stimulate Reinforcing 'push' factors, generating 'home', where their demand for tourism ('push' through marketing regions journeys begin and end. factors)

Key sources of tourists and Location, characteristics of key markets for tourism. such regions

Tourist The places tourists travel Features that attract Reinforcing 'pull' factors, destination to, stay in and explore. tourists ('pull' factors) through marketing regions (or Location, characteristics of Providing accommodation, tourist such regions attractions, activities, receiving services for tourists at the regions) Impact of tourism on such destination regions

Transit Link generating regions Effectiveness and Providing suitable transport routes with destination regions, characteristics (shaping routes and services enabling tourists to 'get volume and direction of there' (and back). tourist flows)

ACTIVITY 2 20 minutes See if you can explain the tourist system in your own words, either in brief notes, or in a verbal explanation to a friend or fellow student.

2.2 Tourist flows

The term ' tourist flows ' is given to the direction, volume and patterns of movement of tourist traffic between generating areas and destination areas, via transit routes. This concept emphasises the interconnectedness of the whole tourist system. Tourism flows happen when a generating region faces a deficit of (or demand for) a commodity (eg tourist attractions and resources) which a destination region is able to supply (having a surplus, over and above what is needed to meet the needs of its own population).

Tourist flows are therefore not random. They are influenced by the push factors which create demand (and therefore tourism generating regions) and the pull factors which create attraction (and therefore tourism destination regions).

If an area of strong tourist demand (due to push factors such as an affluent population, leisure time and a cold climate) is linked by accessible transport networks to an attractive tourist destination (due to factors such as scenic beauty, historical/cultural interest, beaches or ski fields, or a warm, sunny climate), there will be a flow of tourists from the one to the other. There will be a strong flow towards the most attractive and accessible (and therefore popular) destinations.

Boniface & Cooper (2005 (a)) argue that: 'An understanding of t ourist flows is critical for managing the environmental and social impacts of tourism, securing the commercial viability of the tourism industry and planning new developments'.

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2.3 Push factors for travel and tourism

' Push factors ' are the factors in tourists, and tourist generating regions, that make people want to travel: the personal and environmental (economic, social, geographical) factors which motivate tourism demand. The presence of push factors effectively 'creates' tourism-generating areas.

As we have already seen, different people may travel for all sorts of reasons, seeking different things. These motivating factors for travel may be expressed broadly as 'purpose of visit', but may also include a range of psychological needs. So, for example, motivations for travel may include: business, holiday/leisure, cultural or educational interest, social and romantic needs, religion and spirituality, sport and adventure interests, health/fitness needs, the desire to 'escape' or have a change of scene, and the unpleasantness of the local climate (and the desire to experience a warmer/sunnier climate). In addition to these individual motivating factors, there are enabling factors which make it possible for people to travel if they have the motivation to do so. Some key enabling factors are: ƒ Time: freedom from work and other commitments, in sufficiently long 'blocks', and at suitable times of the year, to allow travel to the intended destination ƒ Money (or affluence): sufficient disposable income or resources (a) to be able to take time off from work and (b) to afford the costs of travel ƒ Transport: the availability of accessible and affordable transport links between the point of departure and the intended destination ƒ Freedom of movement: the ability to travel out of, or into, a given country. For various political and economic reasons, governments may constrain individuals' freedom of mov ement by denying travel permits or visas, imposing quotas on inbound tourism, or placing restrictions on the amount of currency that can be taken out of the country. A country will only be able to generate mass tourism if these four factors are present – together with the motivation to travel – for a significant proportion of the population. Burton (ibid, p 149) notes that: 'If these [motivating and enabling] factors are important, one would expect to see different patterns of tourist generation in countries with different levels of economic development and affluence, and also in countries of different political, religious and social organisation.' Le t's examine this idea further. In Section 3 of this chapter, we will look in detail at a major push factor for global tourism, in the form of economic affluence, and how it is distributed in the world.

2.4 Pull factors for travel and tourism

' Pull factors' are the factors in tourist destination areas, that attract people to particular places: the personal and environmental factors which motivate destination choice. The presence of pull factors effectively establishes tourism-destination areas.

Pull factors include: ƒ All the tourism resources that a destination area may possess, which may attract tourists from areas where they are not so readily available. We devote Chapter 3 of this Study Guide to discussing such resources in detail, including: scenic and natural resources (landscapes, coasts, mountains, beaches and so on), wildlife resources, cultural and historical resources, sporting and entertainment resources and so on. In Chapter 7, we focus on climate, since sunshine and warmth are a key pull factor for tourists from less reliable or temperature climates.

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ƒ The way in which tourist resources are developed and packaged to appeal to particular tourist motivations: how destinations develop and promote clusters of resources to appeal to particular tourist groups or types. So, for example, a rural area may be rich in scenic, natural and wildlife resources, and experiences (such as farm stays) unique to rural areas: it may therefore deliberately develop and promote itself as a destination for rural tourism, to appeal to those looking for that cluster of attractions. We devote Chapter 6 to detailed consideration of these issues: how destinations are developed to gain mass or niche market appeal.

ACTIVITY 3 30 minutes From what you have read so far, and your own research (including to talking to other people), brainstorm a list of possible push (motivating and enabling) and pull factors, under the headings 'Geographical', 'Economic', 'Political', 'Socio-cultural ' , 'Technologic al', 'Personal' and 'Tourist Industry'.

2.5 Dampening or restraining factors

'Push' and 'pull' factors are all positive influences on tourism flows: creating positive demand – and matching supply. However, the external environment may also present negative factors which depress tourism demand and/or which make particular destinations less attractive. We have called these 'dampening' or 'restraining' factors, because they may limit or neutralise the effect of push and pull factors. They may include factors such as: ƒ Time/cost/risk considerations of travelling to long-haul destinations ƒ Risk of, or damage from, natural and weather events: such as floods, storms, earthquakes, droughts or fires, and outbreaks of disease (such as SARS or Swine flu) in destination areas ƒ Global economic recession, dampening travel spending ƒ The threat of social/political unrest, war or terrorism in destination areas (exacerbated by actual risk events, such as the bombing of the World Trade Centre in 2001 or Bali nightclubs in 2002) ƒ Sustainability issues (eg worries about the carbon footprint of international air travel, and its contribution to climate change) ƒ Lack of information (and supporting information technology) for destination choice and bookings ƒ Lack of accessible transport networks linking the points of departure and destination ƒ Personal factors such as: limited budget; lack of time; physical limitations (such as ill health, disability or limited mobility due to age); fa mily circumstances and responsibilities; attitudes (eg xenophobia or dislike of foreigners and foreign places); lack of interest. People may be 'put off' (or unable to access) touris m due to such factors. Alternatively, tourism flows and patterns may be altered, as people defer their travel (booking later), or change the nature of their trip (travelling to 'safer' destinations closer to home, av oiding air travel, taking shorter trips, switching to budget packages and so on).

EXAMPLE September 11 2001 saw horrific terrorist attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York, which have come to be known as '9/11'. Among other effects of the tragedy was a dramatic impact on the volume and patterns of international travel. 'Many countries saw their tourist activity drop very quickly after the attack... In the six-month period immediately following September 11, the British Tourist Authority estimates that overseas visitors to Britain fell by 12%, which equated to 1.3 million vi sits. Spending also fell by some 19% in the same period.' (Youell, 2003, p 212). September 11 came as a severe blow to an industry that already severely affected by the outbreak of foot and mouth disease earlier in the same year.

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2.6 Four directional flows of domestic tourism

The direction of domestic tourism flows within a country will depend on (a) where its population is concentrated and (b) where its tourism resources are. Burton (ibid, p 175) identifies the following directional flows: (1) Outward from cities to COASTS. Often to the nearest or most accessible coast, although there may also be a bias towards the best combination of climate and beaches. In Britain, for example, the flow to the coast would be multi-directional, but with a bias southward. (2) Outwards from cities to COUNTRYSIDE. Often towards natural resources such as forests, lakes or mountains. In Britain, this would be multi-directional, but with a bias towards the west (Devon and Cornwall) and northwest (Lake District). (3) From rural/provincial areas to CITIES. Rural/provincial populations seeking the 'bright lights', cultural and commercial attractions of urban areas. (4) From CITY TO CITY. Business/commercial travel, urban/cultural tourism and people visiting friends and relatives. In general, the direction of domestic (and international) tourism tends to be biased towards warmer, sunnier or drier climates – especially in the cooler seasons of the year. In Northern Hemisphere countries, this generally means southward (eg Parisians heading towards the South of France), while in Southern Hemisphere countries, it generally means northward (eg inhabitants of Sydney or Melbourne heading for the tropical beaches of Queensland). Other attractions – whether landscape, history, culture or cities – have to be of compelling quality to draw tourists against this prevailing bias.

2.7 Factors influencing international tourist flows

There are various models attempting to explain the strength of flows between different regions. Williams & Zelin sky (1970) identified some basic factors that appeared to contribute to major tourist flows: ƒ The distance between countries: the flow lessened, the further away the destination was from the generating area (a relationship known as the 'distance-decay' factor). ƒ International connectivity: the flow was greater if there were shared business, language or cultural ties between the countries ƒ General attractiveness of the destination country to the generating country ('pull factors'). Burton (1995, p 176) argues that the key factors influencing patterns of international travel include: ƒ Distance between countries: the volume of tourist flows are bigger between adjacent countries (those sharing common boarders) or nearby countries. As distance increases, so do time, cost and risk (a factor known as the 'friction of distance'). ƒ Communication and transport infrastructures: travel flows strongly between countries linked by good transport routes and services (eg scheduled air services). This is particularly true where travel involves a minimum of changes between modes of transport: eg where you can get to the destination wholly by car. (A high percentage of world international arrivals is by road, where available, as in Europe and North America.)

ƒ Contrasts in climate: the main tourism generating areas are located in the northerly or mid latitudes with cool and variable climates. The main tourist flows in Europe and North America are southwards (to warmer climates: the Mediterranean and Caribbean respectively). In the Southern Hemisphere, the parallel trend is northwards.

39 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

ƒ Natural and man-made tourism resources of the destination, which the generating country lacks. So, for example, mountainous regions (such as the Alps) are a key destination for tourists from 'flat/low' lands (like the Netherlands). The Mediterranean is a key destination for tourists from countries with limited and/or northern coastlines (like Germany). Britain attracts tourists from countries lacking in historical traditions, pageantry, monarchies and so on.

ƒ Relative costs in the generating and destination area (including cost of living and currency exchange rate). Tourism tends to flow from more expensive countries to the less expensive (representing greater affordability and value for money). Exchange rates and inflation rates will vary the relative purchasing power of different currencies over time.

ƒ Cultural links. All other factors being equal, tourism flows are more likely to occur between countries which some common cultural link: a shared cultural background (eg the various Scandinavian countries); patterns of immigratio n into a country (creating links between the receiving country and country of origin: eg between Ireland and the USA); and past colonial links (eg between France and its ex-colonies in North Africa and the South Pacific). Cultural links facilitate travel through shared language, values and so on.

ƒ Political factors. The long-term stability of a country will make it a more attractive destination for tourism investors/developers and for tourists. Political hostility (eg between Greece and Turkey, India and Pakistan, the Arab nations and Israel) and co-operation will inhibit or encourage tourism flows. Governments may put up – or (as within the European Union) break down – financial and legal barriers to travel (eg visa requirements, customs duties, foreign currency Civil unrest, Bangkok, 2010 allowances). Source: www.thedailystar.net

2.8 Measuring tourist flows

Both international and domestic tourist flows are now statistically measured by national governments and tourism organisations. Evaluating the volume of tourist flows, and monitoring any changes, allows trends to be identified. This in turn helps tourism planners, developers, marketers and operators to make plans on the basis of realistic forecasts of future flows.

ƒ Statistics on tourist volume focus on the number of tourists leaving a generating area, or visiting a destination area, in a given period of time, and the length of their stay at destination. Such statistics can be gathered by immigration control (for some international tourism) and travel or destination surveys (for domestic tourism).

ƒ Statistics on tourist characteristics focus on types and characteristics of tourists (eg by gender, age and socio-economic group) and their choices and behaviours (eg reason for travel, attitudes to the destination, trip structure, activities undertaken). Such statistics are generally gathered by traveller surveys.

Statistics on tourist expenditure focus on how much tourists spend during their holiday (usually expressed in US dollars) This is important in evaluating the economic viability of the tourist system, and the impact of tourism on destination economies. Such statistics can be obtained by tourist (or tourist service provider) surveys.

FOR DISCUSSION If you were designing a form for tourists leaving your country, seeking information about their travel choices and habits in order to compile useful statistics for tourism planning – what questions would you ask?

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3 World economic tourist generation

3.1 Economic development and tourist generation

We saw in Section 1.3 of this chapter that time and money are key enabling factors for tourism. And time and money become more available to the general population as a country's economy develops and grows.

One of the most significant factors in the nature and volume of tourism in a given country is therefore its overall economic development.

ƒ In a subsistence economy, the vast majority of people are agricultural workers with no leisure time: only the very small wealthy elite is able to participate in any form of tourism.

ƒ As the economy becomes more industrialised and urbanised, economic wealth is spread more widely in the population, and leisure time becomes institutionalised as work holidays. This supports the development of mass domestic tourism, while international tourism remains the preserve of the small – but growing – affluent elite.

ƒ Further economic and technology development (eg in brings increasing affluence and leisure time throughout the population, supporting not only mass domestic tourism but also mass international tourism (primarily to nearby countries). The elite maintain exclusivity by seeking more exotic long-haul destinations. This is the situation in most developed economies in Europe.

ƒ Once high levels of affluence are attained by the majority of the population (as in the USA, Japan, Australia and Western Europe), mass international tourism spreads to more diverse and longer- haul destinations, and supplants domestic tourism.

From this brief survey, we can see that two main factors are responsible for the nature and volume of tourist generation: the extent to which a given country's economic systems generate high levels of wealth or affluence – and the extent to which its social and political systems distribute that wealth among its population.

3.2 World distribution of affluence

The overall affluence of a country is generally expressed in terms of its Gross National Product (GNP) per capita (that is, per head of population).

Gross National Product (GNP) measures the economic strength and 'wealth' of a country, by calculating its total annual income (income generated by economic activity), output (value added by economic activity) or expenditure (value of products and services consumed). Year on year changes are interpreted as a measure of economic growth or decline.

GNP per capita varies widely across the world. The variations can be plotted as follows (using International Monetary Fund data for 2008): Figure 2.2.

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Figure 2.2: Global variations in GNP per capita (economic affluence)

This distribution of affluence thus divides the world into two broad zones.

ƒ The (affluent) economic core: countries which play an active and dominant role in world trade. This 'zone' is generally associated with 'the North', although from the above map, you can see that it also includes Japan and Australia. This core/affluent area also encompasses the three 'core' tourist generating regions of the world: North America, Europe and East Asia and Pacific account for some 90 per cent of global tourism expenditure, as well as supporting significant domestic tourism. At high levels of GNP, the majority of a population tends to take a holiday, and international tourism tends to overtake domestic tourism.

ƒ The (poor) economic periphery: countries whose economies are largely dependent on the core countries, which supply their imported goods, and buy their exported goods. This poor/peripheral area also encompasses the 'periphe ral' tourist generating regions of the world: Africa, Central and South America, the Middle East and South Asia together account for only about 10 per cent of global tourism expenditure – and struggle to support domestic leisure travel, other than the visiting of relatives.

Source: people.hofstra.edu

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Detailed statistics – as well as common sense – suggest that there is a close relationship between GNP and the proportion of the population who take a holiday ('departure rates') and the proportion of those who take a holiday abroad rather than domestically.

ACTIVITY 4 5 minutes On the map in Figure 2.2 above, draw a line across the bottom of the dark purple regions of North America, through the Mediterranean (south of the dark purple areas of Western Europe), along the lower border of the dark blue area (Russia), down to the left of the small dark purple island chain (Japan) and then round to the right of pale green areas of the Pacific, then sharply left to draw a loop round the top and left of Australia.

Everything 'above' this line is the Core, and everythi ng in the lower area enclosed by it is Periphery.

3.3 Inter-relationships of core and periphery

Dividing the world into 'core' and 'peripheral' zones may appear straightforward, but in fact the countries of the world are economically interlinked and interdependent.

Core countries are dependent on peripheral countries for imports (eg of raw materials or foodstuffs) and as markets for their exports – and vice versa. Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for investment, technology transfer and opportunities to participate in international trade, all of which support economic development. Meanwhile, fluctuations in currency exchange rates can make certain destination countries more or less affordable to travellers from other countries at different times.

So the economic performance of any given country, and therefore its ability to maintain tourism generation, is linked to the performance of other economies and global economic systems: as it is sometimes said, 'If the US economy sneezes, everyone catches a cold'!

EXAMPLE There were significant 'slow downs' in tourism in the 1970s and early 1980s, for example, due to crisis- level increases in global oil prices. Other drops in demand have coincided with periods of economic recession, most recently in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008-9: outbound travel from Japan and North America were among the hardest hit, and tourism destinations relying on them suffered accordingly – while other destinations benefited from the growth of increased domestic tourism.

Burton (op cit) notes that tourism is highly sensitive to economic change. 'On a personal level, it is likely to be one of the first items of expenditure to be cut down in times of economic hardship, and will expand very rapidly (both in terms of numbers of people travelling and in terms of the amount of money they spend) when economic conditions improve' (p 157).

Meanwhile, core generating countries are economically interlinked with peripheral destination countries, because tourism brings in foreign income. Changes in tourist flows between countries – whether positive or negative – may have significant economic consequences for destination countries. And tourism income may be particularly important to peripheral countries, which have few other economic resources, and less so for core economies.

4 Regions and patterns of world tourism

The major economic push factors for tourist generation, combined with the concentration of key tourism resources and attractions in certain regions and countries of the world, seem to produce more or less stable rhythms and patterns of world tourism: dominant flows from some regions to others.

Let's have a look at some of these patterns. Ma ny textbooks give the detailed statistical data demonstrating them (such as numbers of tourist arrivals by country on a year-by-year basis), but that

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kind of analysis is beyond the scope of this Study Guide. We will summarise the patterns revealed by the statistical data – and you can do some supplementary reading if you are interested in the numbers…

Four major tourism regions are generally identified from tourism statistics, of which the first three represent the 'core' of world tourism, and the fourth represents the 'tourist periphery':

(1) Europe (2) North America (3) East Asia and Pacific (EAP) (4) Southern Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Central and South America

The general patterns of tourism within these regions can be summarised as follows: Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Four main tourist regions of the world

Source: adapted from Burton (op cit, p 180)

4.1 Europe

Europe is a significant focus of international tourism generation, with high concentration of large, affluent and mobile populations in cold-climate areas. It is also still the world's primary destination region, with the largest volume of international arrivals, and a rich concentration of historical, cultural, climatic, scenic and coastal resources, particularly around the Mediterranean basin.

As a culturally and scenically diverse multi-nation continent, Europe encourages significant intra-regional tourism. Major tourism generators in the north west (such as England, Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands) create predominant southward flows towards warmer, more relaxed destinations on the Mediterranean basin: Spain, the south of France, Italy, Cyprus, Greece and Turkey. The north coast of Africa also used to be a major destination for European tourism, with resorts in Tunisia and Algeria competing with other Mediterranean coastal resorts, but this has declined dramatically in recent decades.

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Seasonality is a major feature of European tourism, because of climate and tradition (with work holidays taken at set times).

Source: graphics8.nytimes.com

Boniface & Cooper (2005(a)) suggest that Europe dominates world tourism patterns because of a number of supporting features: ƒ A high proportion of the world's leading tourism generating countries. ƒ A high number of small, adjacent, culturally diverse countries with strong economic links (via the European Union) and a pan-European currency (the euro), generating and enabling high-volume intra-regional travel for both leisure and business. (Europe accounts for some 85 per cent of world domestic tourism arrivals.) ƒ A mature travel and transport industry and infrastructure, with a long history of development and staff training, and generally well-funded, competent governmental tourist authorities with marketing and development powers. ƒ Wide climatic differences between north and south, creating a strong flow of intra-regional tourism. ƒ Attractive capital cities; world class natural, cult ural and historic attractions; and a diversity of tourism products (from beach holidays and cruises to ski resorts and Disneyland Paris). ƒ Capacity for continuing growth, with newly opened destinations in eastern Europe.

EXAMPLE Boniface & Cooper ( ibid, p 96) identify the following specific trends in European tourism: ƒ Europeans continue to take more, but shorter tourism trips: short-break city and cultural tourism is growing rapidly. ƒ Traditional north-south (beach) holidays are still significant, but east-west and west-east travel is growing rapidly. ƒ Intra-regional flows of tourism continue to dominate Europe's international tourism, but the popularity of the car for leisure trips is decreasing, encouraged by the growth of budget airlines. ƒ Demand for business tourism in Europe will continue to be strong, despite the growth of communication technologies. ƒ Tourism is a vital ingredient in Mediterranean economies (such as Spain, Portugal and Greece), and the fall in arrivals is a major problem for these countries, demanding imaginative solutions.

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4.2 North America

North America has a significant share of international tourist volume. While it is far behind Europe in terms of international arrivals, the volume of tourist movement is in fact on a par. Intra-continental travel of any distance in Europe represents international travel (involving different countries), but since the USA is a vast federation of 51 large and geographically diverse states, many holidays and trips represent domestic tourism.

Domestic tourism is also boosted by the extent of domestic (interstate) business activity, creating the need for business travel. The domestic market has also been strengthened by the fall in outbound travel resulting Source: www.eurekaretro.com from the threat of terrorism (following the 9/11 terrorist attack on New York, and the US-led wars in Iraq and Afghanistan) and economic recession.

As in Europe, the main intra-regional flows tend to be from major generating regions in the north (particularly the north-east region, including New York, and major west-coast cities such as San Francisco and Seattle), southward to major destination regions with attractive climatic and coastal resources: the US states of Florida, Texas and Southern California, and nearby areas (which are included in the region) such as Mexico and the islands of the Caribbean.

4.3 East Asia and Pacific

One of the most notable shifts in world tourism patterns is the spectacular growth of the East Asia and Pacific region, both as generator and as destination.

The most significant tourist generators in the region are the established economic 'core' nations of Japan, Australia and New Zealand, wi th a growing contribution from the rapidly developing Pacific Rim economies such as South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and China.

The main intra-regional flows tend to be:

ƒ Between the countries on the Pacific Rim, with a bias northwards or southwards towards the Tropics, to key destinations such as the South China Sea, Thailand, Singapore and Bali

ƒ Within Australia, from the densely-populated south-eastern corner (including the major cities of Melbourne and Sydney) northwards to the tropical north-east coast of Queensland

ƒ From the countries on the Pacific Rim to towards the centre of the Pacific Ocean, to island destinations such as Tonga, Fiji, Polynesia and (predominantly) Hawaii.

There is also a steady increase in international arrivals from further afield, following the general growth in long-haul travel and focusing on world-class attractions such as the tropical islands, the Great Barrier Reef, and vibrant cultural and commercial cities such as Hong Kong, Singapore and Sydney. With on-going political and economic developments, new destinations are also opening up in countries such as mainland China and Vietnam, with their unique cultural, historical and scenic attractions.

The region benefits from a range of enabling factors for tourism, including: ƒ Population growth

ƒ Accelerating economic development Source: www.aodn.org

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ƒ Exotic cultures (as perceived by the West) – generally welcoming and positive attitudes to tourism (as in the emerging destinations of Vietnam and China) ƒ World class natural and scenic attractions ƒ Good quality tourism infrastructure and services (eg good airports and quality airlines such as Cathay Pacific, Singapore Air and Qantas) ƒ Cost-effectiveness, with competitively priced package tours and favourable exchange rates.

FOR DISCUSSION The Asia Pacific region has suffered a number of incidents such as the SARS virus outbreak, the Bali terrorist bombings, the Boxing Day Tsunami, military coups in some island nations, and civil unrest in Thailand. What do you think would be the effects on tourism of such events? You might like to research one of these events in more detail, for presentation to your study group – or for your own learning file.

4.4 The periphery

Southern Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Central and South America are broadly regarded as 'peripheral', in terms of their economic relationships with the developed world and their tourist linkages with the major Western tourist generating regions. Together, they account for not much over 10 per cent of all international tourist arrivals.

Both domestic and international tourist activity is low in these regions, due to a range of factors including: general poverty, political instability (with civil wars and unrest), relative inaccessibility to key generating areas, perceptions that they are prone to natural disasters (such as droughts, floods and famine), perceptions that they may be unsafe for travellers – and generally poor tourist infrastructure.

ƒ Sub-Saharan Africa is relatively stagnant, in terms of tourist growth, due to political instability, high crime rates, the AIDS epidemic, poor infrastructure and little scope for investment. The majority of inbound tourism is to North Africa (which is classed as part of the Mediterranean for winter travel) and to the more stable areas of Southern Africa (including South Africa and Botswana), with their unique scenic, wildlife and adventure-based tourist products.

ƒ The Middle East continues to be a perceived risk, due to on-going political tensions and outbreaks of terrorism and military activity. However, there are world class attractions in areas such as Egypt (ancient Egyptian sites and the Nile River), Israel (sites of religious significance), and Jordan (the ancient city of Petra, famed as the location of an Indiana Jones movie) which focus inbound tourism.

ƒ South Asia also suffers from lack of development, poor infrastructure and political instability: most inbound tourism is focused on India.

As we will see in Chapter 5, however, the increasing affordability of long-haul travel and the emergence of the more adventurous 'new traveller' have su pported tourist development in some areas of the periphery. This is generally focused on strongly competitive tourism resources such as: the historical sites of Egypt and the Holy Land; the game reserves of southern Africa; the adventure travel potential of the Peruvian Andes, the Amazon and the Himalayas; the cultural riches of India; tropical islands such as the Seychelles, the Maldives and Mauritius; and the ur ban cultural assets of cities such as Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).

As new destinations emerge and economic and tourism linkages strengthen over time, some areas of the 'periphery' may transi tion to established tourist destination areas.

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4.5 The general pattern

Despite this blurring of the boundaries, Burton (op cit, p 183) argues that the four functional tourist regions constitute relatively clear and separate tourist systems.

ƒ Much international travel is still intra-regional within the core regions, with a dominant flow of tourists north or south towards the Equator in each region.

ƒ The (fast-growing) remainder is long-haul inter-regional travel, with a dominant flow of tourists east or west between the three main generating regions.

Boniface & Cooper (2005(a), p 26) suggest that for any particular destination country, a typical list of the top generating markets would contain neighbouring states (which account for significant tourist flows) – plus at least one country from a list containing Germany, the UK, Japan and the USA. However, they also note that China is likely to join the list of major generating countries, because of its large population, accelerating economic development and increasing engagement with the world.

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SUMMARY

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SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 What are the four different types of tourism?

2 There are 2,389 km between London and Athens. Is this an example of long-haul, medium-haul or short- haul travel?

3 What are the three spatial components in the tourist system?

4 Distinguish between push factors and pull factors.

5 List six dampening or restraining factors which may reduce tourist demand?

6 How did Burton describe the four directional flows of domestic tourism?

7 What does GNP stand for, and what is it used to measure?

8 Identify whether the following countries are part of the world’s economic 'core' or economic 'periphery'.

Brazil Hong Kong New Zealand Belgium Turkey Jordan

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Domestic, international, inbound, outbound.

2 Medium haul. The journey must be over 3,000 km to be classified as long-haul.

3 The three components are:

Tourist generating regions Tourist destination regions (or tourist receiving regions) Transit routes.

Makes sure you understand what is meant by each of the terms.

4 'Push factors ' are the factors in tourists, and tourist generating regions, that make people want to travel: the personal and environmental (economic, social, geographical) factors which motivate tourism demand.

' Pull factors' are the factors in tourist destination areas, that attract people to particular places: the personal and environmental factors which motivate destination choice. The presence of pull factors effectively establishes tourism-destination areas.

5 Your answer may include six of the following: time, cost, risk; risk of, or damage from, serious weather event, economic recession, threat of social or political unrest, sustainability issues, lack of information about the destination, lack of accessible transport networks, personal factors.

6 Outward from cities to coast Outward from cities to countryside From rural/provincial areas to cities From city to city

7 Gross National Product (GNP) measures the economic strength and 'wealth' of a country, by calculating its total annual income (income generated by economic activity), output (value added by economic activity) or expenditure (value of products and services consumed). Year on year changes are interpreted as a measure of economic growth or decline.

8

Country Core/periphery

Brazil Periphery

New Zealand Core

Hong Kong Periphery, at the moment, but showing strong growth along with many other nations in the Pacific Rim.

Belgium Core

Turkey Istanbul spans two continents: Asia and Europe. From the definition do you think Turkey is an economically core or peripheral nation?

Jordan Periphery, although the ancient city of Petva is a strong cultural attraction.

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 Factors encouraging increasing long-haul travel include: global media raising awareness of remote destinations; rising consumer demand for new, more exotic destinations; developments in transport supporting faster, lower-cost journeys; and the development of packaged (cheaper, more accessible) travel to long-haul destination.

2 This activity has no answer, as it requires you to use your own words: points for discussion are clearly set out in the chapter text. (Note that this is a great technique for study and revision!)

3 The following are just some suggestions.

PUSH FACTORS in tourism demand

Geographical Poor climate (insufficient sunshine, excessive rain, cold/dark winters); lack of natural attractions (eg beaches, lakes or mountains which appeal to tourists)

Economic Economic development, employment and prosperity (time and money for travel); economic activity (more business travel); exchange rates favourable to foreign travel

Political State sponsorship of travel and tourism (especially by more socialist regimes); political groupings (such as the EU) facilitating travel between member states

Socio-cultural Values supportive of foreign travel; gene rous holiday entitlements; educational standards (stimulating curiosity, language learning); urbanised population

Technological Access to Internet technology (for destination and travel information search and bookings); transport technology (availabilit y of transit routes)

Personal Income; holiday entitlement; interests and activities; personality and atti tudes (eg curiosity, flexibility); age, marital status, number and age of children etc

Tourist industry Effectively highlighting 'push' factors in tourism marketing

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PULL FACTORS in the appeal of destinations

Geographical Congenial climate; geographical resources and attractions valued by tourists (ski fields, beaches, scenic beauty etc); a ccessibility by available transport routes

Economic Sufficient economic development and investment to support tourism development; favourable currency exchange rates and currency availability

Political Political stability; government policies supporting tourism development; political groupings (eg the EU) waiving customs/immigration formalities; deregulation encouraging private sector participation and investment

Socio-cultural Varied cultural, historical and social attractions; interesting food and wine; arts and sporting events; social/cultural values welcoming to tourists; low c rime rate; resident population supportive of tourism

Technological Internet presence (supporting destination evaluation); communication infrastructure (especially for business travellers); transport infrastructure

Personal Individual needs/interests, influenced by personality, lifestyle, age and family stage, attitudes; religion (motivating pilgr image travel) etc

Tourist industry Effectively highlighting 'pull' factors in de stination marketing; providing attractive accommodation, transport and other facilities and services for tourists.

4 You were just required to draw the line in on the map, to help you identify the Core and Periphery areas. (The exercise would also help you to identify the countries and regions mentioned in the instructions, as practice in using maps!)

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54

CHAPTER 3 GEOGRAPHICAL RESOURCES FOR INTERNATIONAL TOURISM

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ The resource requirements for international tourism destinations ƒ The resources represented by landscapes, coasts and beaches, wildlife, national parks and protected landscapes, and the location of some key examples ƒ The resources represented by historical and cultural features, man-made and entertainment venues, and the location of some key examples ƒ How natural and man-made geographical resources are managed, protected and developed, in order to stimulate tourism demand and maintain sustainable tourism activity

Topic list What are tourism resources? Landscape and wildlife resources Coasts Historical and cultural resources Man-made and entertainment resources Managing, protecting and developing tourism resources

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1 What are tourism resources?

Tourism resources are tangible objects which are of potential economic value to the tourism sector. By extension, the phrase refers to the natural and man-made features of an area which become attractions for tourism.

Any place or landscape, geographical or man-made feature may become a resource for tourism if it is recognised as having economic value in attracting tourism to an area.

Tourism resources can therefore broadly be identified with tourist attractions: the natural and man- made features which motivate visitors to visit a particular area.

Swarbrooke (2001) has classified attractions into four main categories:

Category Examples

Natural attractions Landforms and geographical features (beaches and coastlines, mountains and valleys, deserts, forests and rainforests, rivers, caves, lakes and waterfalls), landscapes and wildlife.

Man-made attractions Historical and archaeological sites; famous bridges and buildings, (not originally designed to dams and canals; stately homes; castles; cathedrals; and historic

Site attract tourism) and culturally vibrant cities.

attractions attractions Man-made attractions Museums and art galleries; exhibition/conference centres; theme (purpose-built to attract parks and water parks; zoos and wildlife parks; purpose-built leisure and tourism) beach and ski resorts; sporting venues (stadiums etc); and entertainment venues (concert halls, theatre districts).

Special events (one-off Sporting events (which may change venues like the Football World or periodically occurring) Cup or Olympic games, or be associated with a particular destination, like the Wimbledon Tennis Championship); major Event music/arts festivals and business/trade conferences; markets; attractions attractions religious or cultural festivals; historic 'pageantry' and so on.

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes Brainstorm a list of some major natural and man-made tourist attractions that you are aware of, worldwide, using the above categories as a guide.

You might like to take this activity further, and focus on one particular destination with which you are familiar: list some of its major attractions, using the above categories as a guide.

Boniface & Cooper (2005 (a), p 40) no te that: 'Quite clearly, different forms of tourism are based upon different types of attractions. The younger tourist, for example, is more likely to be attracted to theme parks with their emphasis on exciting rides and entertainment, than to most heritage attraction, such as 'stately homes', museums and cathedrals. Business travellers will also have different needs. They gravitate toward major commercial centres which are highly accessible, and offer facilities for conferences and trade exhibitions, as well as a range of complementary attractions and services.'

We will discuss how different tourism resources appeal to different tourist groups – and how clusters of tourism resources can be used to define and promote different tourism products – in Chapter 6. In this chapter, we will look at the features and attractions of some of the major resources, and how tourist consumption of those resources can be managed.

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As with other issues in travel geography, you might also note that the tourism resource base can be viewed at a global, domestic and local scale.

ƒ Some resources may represent 'must see' attractions of an international or 'world c lass' standard, attracting tourism from worldwide (potentially despite inaccessibility, distance and other restraining factors) as a destination in themselves.

ƒ Every country will have a range of its own more local attractions which would mostly attract domestic or short-haul visitors from the immediate region, or international visitors who are on a circuit tour of attractions within a destination region.

EXAMPLE The ' Seven Wonders of the World ' were works of art and architecture regarded by Ancient Greek and Roman observers as worthy of exceptional note. They included the Pyramids at Giza, Egypt, which are still a major tourist international attraction in modern Egypt.

Later lists of ' must-see' – now icon ic – man-made wonders, which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites – include:

ƒ Stonehenge (a prehistoric site in Wiltshire, England)

ƒ The Colosseum (ancient amphitheatre) in Rome

ƒ The Great Wall of China

ƒ The Hagia Sophia (a Byzantine basilica, later mosque, The Colosseum, Rome Source: Wikipedia Commons now museum in Istanbul, Turkey)

ƒ The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy)

ƒ The Taj Mahal (a mausoleum in Agra, India).

In 2001, a telephone and on-line poll was launched to nominate the most admired sites and monuments among modern travellers. The 2007 Seven New Wonders of the World included the Great Wall of China, the Taj Mahal, the Colosseum and the Great Pyramid at Giza, but added:

ƒ The statue of Christ the Redeemer (overlooking Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)

ƒ Macchu Picchu (the ruins of a city built by the Incas in the Peruvian Andes in the 15th century, re-discovered in 1911 as 'the Lost City of the Incas')

ƒ Chichen Itza (the ruins of a city built by the Maya in the 7th century, in what is now modern-day Mexico)

ƒ Petra ('the Rose City': the remains of a city carved into rock cliffs by the Nabateans in the 6th century BC, in Macchu Picchu, Peru what is now Jordan). Source: Wikipedia Commons

You might like to follow up with your own research into some of these man-made tourist attractions, if they aren't familiar. A good place to start is:

Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonders_of_t he_World

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ACTIVITY 2 30 minutes If you have acces to the Internet, log on to the site:

Link: http://www. hillmanwonders.com

Browse through some of the sites covered by travel authority Harry Hillman – or follow the link to his 'Top Ten' lists (including the Top Ten Natural Wonder s). Familiarise yourself with the resource provided by this website – and bookmark any pages that might be helpful as you proceed with your studies.

Let's now look in a little more detail at some major categories of tourism resources.

2 Landscape and wildlife resources

2.1 Features and attractions of landscape

As we saw in Chapter 1, three basic geographical elements make up a landscape: ƒ The topography which determine the contours and relief of the area (eg hills, mountains and valleys) – and also the various geographical features which offer scenic attractions (eg lakes and waterfalls) and resources for activity-based rural tourism (eg canyons and caves for exploration, cliffs and rock walls for climbing, hills for hill-walking, snow slopes for skiing, rivers for boating/rafting and so on). ƒ The flora (vegetation or plant life) and fauna (animal life) of the area, and the unique ecosystems created by them within a given environment and climate. Some examples we examined briefly include tropical rainforest, grassy plains and savannah, desert or arctic tundra. ƒ Land use within a landscape: human modification of natural landscapes, through agricultural and forestry practices; the construction of dams, ca nals and artificial lakes; roads, buildings and settlements. This is an important part of the landscape, as well as expressing the culture of an area.

Hillside 'terracin g', Peru English rural landscape Urban landscape, Chicago Source: www.interamericaninstitute.org Source: www.fibowman.com Source: www.windycityart.com

Burton (1995, p 30) notes the 'the way in which the el ements combine to create particularly attractive landscapes is hard to define. Attempts have been made to assess the appeal of landscapes for recreation and tourism, but it is a difficult task since 'beauty is in th e eye of the beholder'.

Nevertheless, research suggests that people of westernised cultural backgrounds (from major tourist generating areas) have a preference for certain types of landscapes: ƒ High relative relief: that is, a wide difference between the base level of the landscape and its highest point. Landscapes featuring hills, peaks and cliffs, with deep valleys, canyons or gorges, are popular with tourists for their visual 'drama'. ƒ Water (in the form of rives and lakes) adds an extra element of drama to such a scene: hence the popularity of landscapes such as the Norwegian fjords, the Alpine lakes, the English Lake District, the Scottish Highlands and Islands, and the Grand Canyon. ƒ Forest and wild landscapes are also generally preferred to urban landscapes and unvaried, treeless farm land.

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Unusual landscapes, however, may appeal to particular tastes. Some visitors love urban landscapes or cityscapes, for their cultural, industrial and architectural interest. Desert landscapes may also represent interesting and challenging environments for more exploratory nature and adventure tourism. The most significant deserts for tourism include: the Sahara (accessible in Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco), the Kalahari Desert (in Botswana and Namibia), the Atacama Desert (Peru), and various desert areas in the 'outback' inte rior of Australia, south-western USA (eg Arizona and Nevada), and the Middle East (with famous desert sites in Jordan, Israel and Egypt).

Yosemite National Park, California Uluru, central Australia Alpine lake Source: www.7usa8.com Source: img4.sunset.com

2.2 Mountain resources

Hills are an important element in scenery, providing visual interest (in the form of attractive contours or 'rolling countryside') and scenic views from elevated positions or lookouts. They also offer recreational interest, in the form of hill walking (popular in areas such as the Scottish Highlands and the English Peak District), which is more accessible to adventure travellers than the more difficult 'mountaineering'.

Hills may also be the location for historic sites, since early settlements, castles, forts, churches and religious sites were often built on slight elevations, in order to avoid flooding, facilitate defence, attract attention or signify status.

Mountain areas in the middle latitudes are particularly attractive as resources for tourism, because of their crisp, clear air, and variety of scenic features: snow-capped peaks, glaciers, lakes and waterfalls. There may be spectacular views from the summits of peaks, depending on accessibility: roads, lifts, cable cars, tramways and other forms of access are The Dolomites (Italy) increasingly being developed to enable tourist access to Source: www.nature.wallpaperme.com popular peaks (such as Mont Blanc or the Eiger in the Alps).

Winter sports, such as downhill and cross-country skiing and snowboarding, have now attracted a mass following, generated mostly from densely populated countries in which suitable mountain/snow resources are in short supply.

Accessible mountain regions that support heavy recreational use for winter sports (including the Alps and Dolomites in Europe, the Argentine Andes and the Australian Snowy Mountains) have therefore developed as ski resorts, whether based on existing rural communities, or purpose-built for skiers and snowboarders (usually at higher altitudes). In order to extend the tourist season, many mountain resort areas promote alternative use of their resources in summer time: for Verbier, in the Swiss Alps hiking, sightseeing and recreational 'lake and mountain' holidays. Source: www.skitracer.com Mountains offer stunning landscapes and views, as well as distinctive mountain communities (with picturesque alpine architecture) and commanding sites for castles, monasteries and forts.

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ACTIVITY 3 20 minutes Use your research skills to make a list of the top 5-10 ski resorts in the world. Note the locations where they are clustered – and make any other notes that you find interesting on their facilities, seasons and alternative/summer uses.

In lower latitudes of southern Asia, the Middle East, Africa and South America, where the summer heat is oppressive in the lowlands, mountain resorts are more usually developed for health tourism, providing cooler, less humid conditions and better air quality.

Mountain resources can easily be over-consumed and damaged by construction (eg of roads and cableways), and many authorities are now seeking to limit ski resort expansion in favour of alternative – less impactful – forms of tourism which are more in harmony with the natural environment, such as hiking. In the Austrian and Swiss Alps, for example, alternative tourism is promoted through an international system of hiking trails highlighting the natural and cultural attractions of the region (the Via Alpina or Alpine Way).

The sparse residential population of mountain areas has also made it easier for governments to designate some mountainous areas as National Parks, protected for their natural beauty, unique geological features, flora or fauna: we will discuss this further a bit later.

Canyons and gorges can be particularly scenically spectacular, as well as supporting adventure activities such as hiking, rock climbing, river rafting, caving and canyoning. There may also be important archeological and historical sites, in the form of ancient cliff and cave dwellings.

Famous examples include the Grand Canyon (Colorado, USA), Katherine Gorge (Northern Territory, Australia) and Cheddar Gorge (Somerset, England). Grand Canyon, Colorado, USA Source: www.twu.ca EXAMPLE Cheddar Gorge is located in the Mendip Hills, near the village of Cheddar, in Somerset, England. The Gorge features a network of lime-stone caves, created by an underground river, featuring classic stalagmite and stalactite formations. It is also the site of the discovery of Britain's oldest complete human skeleton (Cheddar Man). The Gorge attracts about 500,000 tourist visitors per year (including sightseers, walkers and climbers) and is regarded as one of Britain's 'Seven Natural Wonders'. It is part of a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest, called the Cheddar Complex, jointly administered by Longleat Estate and The National Trust.

2.3 Inland water resources

Major inland water resources for tourism may represent recreational resources (lakes, reservoirs, rapids), transport/cruising routes (rivers, canals) or landscape features (lakes and waterfalls).

Lakes occur worldwide, but are particularly numerous in 'recently' glaciated areas such as the Alps, Scandinavia and North America, where there are suitable depressions or basins in the earth's surface.

Major clusters of lakes may represent an international tourist destination for their scenic beauty, especially since they are often developed for scenic touring. Some well-known clusters include: the Great Lakes (USA), the Lake District (north west England), and Finland ('Land of the Thousand Lakes': actually, some 60,000 large lakes…). Other famous lakes include Lake Titicaca (Peru/Bolivia), Lake Louise (in the Canadian Rockies) and Lake Como (Italy).

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Individual lakes often represent domestic tourist attractions, for scenic tourism and recreational activities such as camping, boating, fishing and water sports.

They offer a wide range of recreational activities, including swimming, water sports, boating and fishing, and often attract domestic tourism from urban areas. Spatial zoning (designation of specific areas for specific activities) may be necessary to control English Lake District environmental impacts. Source: www.trevorhopkins.org.uk Water pollution is a key issue for lakes, since – unlike tidal coastal waters – they do not have a natural mechanisms for water renewal.

Rivers are widely available worldwide. In most cases, they attracted urban settlement, industry, commerce and agriculture long before the age of tourism development, and are therefore multiple-use resources. However, this also means that they are often the site of important cities and historical sites – as well as cruising routes (the waterway equivalent of a 'sceni c drive').

Boating holidays on the inland waterways of Europe (both rivers and canals) are steadily growing in popularity, as are river cruises on the Nile (in Egypt) and Yangtze (in China): River Avon, Bath, England these will be discussed in Chapter 4. The Amazon (South Source. www.freefoto.com America) has only recently been opened up for cruising and adventure tourism: it offers one of the few access points to the unique experience of the Amazon rainforest, and encounters with indigenous groups. Meanwhile, generally non-navigable rivers are being accessed by adventure tourism for white- water rafting, kayaking and canoeing, canyoning and wild river fishing.

Canals and dams built for commercial and land management purposes may also offer aesthetic and recreational amenities to local communities and tourists: fishing, boating, scenic touring and so on. Some canals and dams are also of historic and industrial interest to international and domestic tourists: examples include the canals built during the Industrial Revolution (such as Britain's Great Northern Canal), and major hydro-electric projects (such as the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China). Canals: Bruges (Belgium) Waterfalls are often promoted as scenic attractions. Some Source: www.hotels-belgium.com waterfalls significant enough to be promoted for international tourism include: the Niagara Falls (USA/Canada), the Iguacu Falls (Argentina), Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe) and Angel Falls (Venezuela), the tallest falls in the world.

Even small waterfalls can be a domestic or local tourist attraction, however, because of their scenic beauty: they are frequently the focus of scenic drives and walks, lookouts or viewing platforms and picnic areas. Iguacu Falls, Argentina Source: i.telegraph.co.uk FOR DISCUSSION What types of natural and landscape attractions would motivate you to travel to an international destination – and why?

If you have travelled to international destinations, what natural/landscape attractions did they offer? How well were they promoted to visitors? How well were they managed to give visitors a positive experience, and to conserve the value of the attraction?

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2.4 Forest resources

In many developed countries, forests and woodlands are now valued for recreation (and wildlife protection), alongside commercial uses such as the growth of timber for construction, furniture and paper. In developing countries (notably in South America) areas of forest are being purchased by conservation organisations and reserved for recreational use, to encourage more sustainable forms of commercial exploitation.

Forest parks and recreational forests are areas of forest which are designated and developed for public recreational use. They often provide visitor facilities such as car parks and picnic sites, walking or cycling tracks, 'hides' for bird watching, and signposted nature trails. With increases in leisure time (and increasing pressure to find an economic rationale for preserving forests), some woodland areas may become more important for recreation Source: 4.bp.blogspot.com than for timber supply (Skinner et al, 2009, p 104).

2.5 Wilderness areas

Wilderness or wildland is the term used to describe a wild landscape which represents a substantially 'unspoilt' natural environment, with natural vege tation and ecosystems largely untouched by human influence.

The majority of the significant wilderness areas remaining in the world are open treeless tundra (northern Canada, Greenland, northern Russian), hot desert areas (the Sahara and outback Australia), mountainous areas (the Himalayas and high Andes) or tropical rainforest (Amazon basin), which are inhospitable to human habitation.

However, smaller designated wilderness areas can be found in conservation preserves, National Forests and National Parks, large landholdings (such as farms, ranches or cattle stations), and even in undeveloped pockets of urban areas. These areas are considered important in the conservation of habitats and biodiversity, as well as for unique opportunities for recreation, exploration and solitude (through wilderness tourism).

In some industrialised countries, (including Australia and New Zealand, the USA and Canada, and South Africa), designated Wilderness Areas may be protected by law from development or commercial exploitation. Typically, only scientific study and non-mechanised recreational use (ie walking and horse- riding, but not cars or bicycles) are permitted.

At an international level of recognition, the Wilderness Task Force (within the umbrella of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature) defines legal and management guidelines for protecting wilderness – as well as acting as a hub for information on wilderness issues.

Link: http://www.wildernesstaskforce.org.

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EXAMPLE The Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (Tasmania, Australia) covers approximately 1.38 million hectares (about 3.46 million acres), protecting vast tracts of high quality wildland, with a wealth of outstanding natural and cultural heritage.

'The region provides pristine habitats for a range of plants and animals that are found nowhere else in the world, including many rare and endangered species. For a number of animals which have Source: www.parks.tas.gov.au become extinct on mainland Australia in recent times, the area offers a last refuge.

The WHA is the Australian stronghold of temperate rainforest and alpine vegetation. Its landforms are of immense beauty and reveal a rich and complex geology. Aboriginal occupation extending back beyond 36 000 years, combined with nearly two centuries of European settlement, have created a legacy of humanity's interaction with the wilderness.'

Recreational uses for the area include bush-walking, wild river rafting and fishing.

For a user-friendly insight into World Heritage listing, wilderness areas and conservation issues, see:

Link: http://www.parks.tas.gov.au (Click on 'parks and reserves' for information on the WHA.)

2.6 National Parks

A National Park is a reserve of natural landscape, declared or owned by a national government, which is set aside for environmental and wildlife protection, with restrictions on all forms of exploitation and development other than for recreation and enjoyment.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed a number of internationally recognised National Parks and equivalent reserves. In order to be included on this list, a National Park must be protected by law from the commercial exploitation of its natural resources (for agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining) and from residential, commercial or industrial development.

Tourism is one of the main raisons d'être of the parks, so the construction of roads, hotels/lodges, camp sites, interpretation/education centres and other tourism services and infrastructure is permitted. However, there would typically be 'zoning' for differ ent levels of tourist and vehicular access, and for different types of recreational activity.

Major National Park resources for tourism are concentrated in the USA, the wildlife rich areas of East Africa and Australia.

The USA designated the first National Park (Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming) in 1872. The US National Parks system is now very wide, covering a range of landscape types and natural features – from the active volcanoes of the Hawaiian National Park (Big Island) and Haleakala (Maui) to the wetlands of the Florida Everglades and the mountains of Yosemite (California) and Rocky Mountain (Colorado); from the remaining stands of giant trees at Sequoia (California) to the twisted rock formations of the Arches National Park (Utah) or the abandoned cliff dwellings of Arches NP, Utah the Mesa Verde (Colorado); from the Grand Canyon (Arizona) and Source: Wikipedia Commons Bryce Canyon (Utah) to Glacier Bay (Alaska).

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The US National Parks system is extensively used for tourism, although tourist development is zoned and access to designated Wilderness Areas is strictly controlled. Given the financial and space resources of the USA, there is little pressure for economic use of the land – but tourism itself is becoming a source of stress for popular national park environments.

Link: http://www.nps.gov/findapark/index.htm

ACTIVITY 4 30 minutes Use your research skills to follow up with some research into Australian national parks, focusing on those which you identify as major tourist attractions.

2.6.1 Wildlife reserves The African National Parks cover vast areas of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and South Africa. The main reason for their designation – and their popularity as a tourist attraction – is the abundant and relatively accessible wildlife of the open African savannah grasslands. Major wildlife reserves offer dependable sightings of large animals such as wildebeest, zebra, antelope, elephant, giraffe, buffalo, lion, cheetah and even endangered species such as the black rhinoceros. Some of the major national parks include: the Serengeti and Kilimanjaro National Parks and the Ngoro Ngoro Crater Conservation Area (Tanzania); the Masai Mara Game Reserve (Kenya); the Bwindi Impenetrable NP (Uganda), home of the mountain gorillas; and the Kruger National Park (South Africa).

Unlike the USA, the main pressures on national park resources in Africa are less from tourism than from (a) the complexity of the ecosystem (with the challenge of maintaining animal Kruger National Park, South Africa numbers) and (b) the poverty of local Source: www.kruger-national-park.com populations, creating pressures for economic exploitation of land. Surrounding agricultural development disrupts the migration routes of animals seeking grazing outside park areas in dry seasons, leading to the overgrazing of park ranges. The economic benefits from wildlife-based tourism may not be sufficient to contain the pressure for economic development (eg for farming and water gathering).

Meanwhile, illegal poaching is a major problem, as local populations seek to source a range of animal products sought-after by global black markets: elephant tusk ivory, rhino horn and exotic animal skins. This is a constant battle for national park authorities.

Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks – a good starting point for your own follow-up research (with links to the national park services of individual countries).

FOR DISCUSSION What value would you put on natural and wildlife resources? Why is it 'necessary' or desirable for them to be protected and conserved? Do you think conservation should take precedence over (a) demand for tourist access and (b) demand for economic development? How can these various needs be balanced?

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2.6.2 Marine parks and reserves In addition to land-based wildlife resources, it should be noted that marine reserves offer similar protections to conserve – and promote sustainable tourist enjoyment of – marine wildlife and ecosystems.

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, in Australia, protects the world's largest remaining coral reef, and allows tourist enjoyment of its unique marine resources: clear waters, colourful colonies of coral, abundant tropical fish and other marine life. It is the world's largest marine park, covering an area of around 350,000 km2.

Other Marine World Heritage sites include the Galapagos Islands, the Belize Barrier Reef (on the Caribbean coast of Central America), and Shark Bay in Western Australia.

2.7 Protected landscapes

The IUCN has also emphasised the need to protect, manage and maintain 'nationa lly significant, natural landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land, while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism, within the normal lifestyle and economic activity of those areas' (www.iuc n.org). In other words, the primary purpose of landscape protection is to conserve the natural beauty of landscapes, while (a) enabling quiet enjoyment of the countryside and (b) respecting the interests of communities who live and work in the area.

A protected landscape or protected area is thus not necessarily the same as a National Park, Nature Reserve or designated Wilderness Area, since it may include land-use landscapes or 'cultural landscapes' that have developed over time as a result of human activity.

EXAMPLE In England and Wales, a wide range of landscape areas have been classified as protected landscapes, including:

ƒ National Parks and equivalent areas of England (Northumberland, the Lake District, Yorkshire Dales, Peak District, Exmoor, Dartmoor, the New Forest, the Norfolk Broads and South Downs) and Wales (Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and the Pembrokeshire Coast). Unlike national parks in countries with significant wilderness areas, such as the USA or Australia, the UK's national parks are located in areas which have been exploited for settlement, industry and agriculture for centuries: they are therefore not legally protected from economic exploitation, so are not internationally recognised as National Parks.

ƒ National Nature Reserves (NNRs), designated by Natural England (formerly the Countryside Agency) to represent the best examples, from Sites of Special Scientific Interest, of different kinds of countryside, unusual ecosystems, or important natural features such as rock exposures or gorges. They are managed specifically for nature conservation.

ƒ Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), also designated by Natural England. AONBs include popular destinations for tourism, such as the North Pennines, the Cotswolds (the largest AONB), South Devon, the South Downs, Chichester Harbour, the Malvern Hills and the Tamar Valley.

ƒ Heritage Coasts, designated by Natural England as having special natural beauty or scientific significance, and managed with a programme of conservation work including footpath creation and Beachy Head, Sussex repair, beach clean-up and sand dune Source: www.findon.info/sussex_sights stabilisation. Heritage costs include: Beachy Head (with the famous White Cliffs), the Sussex

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Downs and the Hartland Peninsula (Devon and Cornwall). A strip of the south west coast, featuring ancient cliffs and fossils, called the Jurassic Coast, has been designated a World Heritage Site.

If you'd like to follow up on these designations, an d how the different areas are managed, the best place to start is:

Link: http://www.naturalengland.org.uk

3 Coasts

3.1 Features and attractions of coastal areas

Coastal resources often form a region's major attraction for both domestic and international tourism – especially those with attractive beaches, warm waters and temperate climates, which are the most popular attraction worldwide.

Destinations with such facilities are often developed as coastal or beach resorts, building on existing fishing and farming settlements, but evolving a distinctive layout and style intended to support tourist access to beach amenities – and tourist industry exploitation of their value. (We discuss the beach resort development model in Chapter 8.)

Coasts offer a range of 'sun, sand and water' ac tivities such as sunbathing, swimming, fishing, snorkelling and diving, surfing, windsurfing and sailing, as well as scenic beauty and interest, and health and psychological benefits such as sea air and a general 'air' of relaxation.

FOR DISCUSSION For each of the 'sun, sand and water' acti vities we have just mentioned, what kinds of beach and water conditions and/or facilities would be required? Think about the nature and size of waves and currents; cleanliness; land contours; equipment and facilities…

If you want to follow up with some reading in this area, you might like to start with: Burton Travel Geography, Chapter 3 (Coastal resources and the sea).

Coastal resources – based on the full range of coastlines and coastal landforms outlined in Chapter 1 – are quite various.

ƒ The prime coastline type for tourism development is sandy or shingle beaches, especially in sheltered bays and coves (providing safe bathing and beginners' water sports), with relatively low-contoured shore line (sand dunes, low cliffs or coastal plains) for settlement and beach access. Many Mediterranean and tropical coastlines, and islands, support coastal and/or beach resorts. Some of the most famous are: Surfer's Paradise (Queensland, Australia); the French Riviera and Côte d'Azur; the Amalfi Coast of It aly; Marbella, Ibiza and other resorts on the Spanish 'Costas' (Costa Brava, Costa del Sol); the Caribbean islands; and Pacific Islands such as Fiji, Bora Bora (French Polynesia) and Hawaii.

ƒ More exposed ocean coastlines may attract surfers, because of the strength of ocean swells, and more adventurous tourists seeking 'wild' or 'undiscovered' beaches, but are less lik ely to be developed as resorts, which appeal to more general water sports enthusiasts and families. Surfing beaches are found along the Eastern Coast of Australia (including the famous Bells Beach in Victoria), around Hawaii, on the coast of Peru and Chile, and in Cornwall.

ƒ Steep, rocky coasts may be built on, but this requires expensive engineering: such coastlines are often populated by existing fishing communities and historic towns, which may be an attraction for scenic tourism and more exclusive coastal resorts. Some popular examples include

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Portofino and other towns on the Amalfi Coast in Italy; and Villefranche-sur-mer and other port towns in the South of France.

ƒ Coastlines can attract scenic tourism, where they feature 'rugged' or intricate contour lines and erosion land forms – and more particularly, where they support coastal roads or the cruising of bays and inlets. Some key examples include the potential for cruising in the Norwegian fjords, and famous coastal scenic drives such as the Great Ocean Road (Victoria, Australia).

ƒ Harbours and ports also represent a distinctive coastal resource, with attractions such as yacht marinas and warehouse/dock areas (often developed as waterfront shopping and dining precincts), piers and promenades, lighthouses, and historic town centres (where original settlements developed around the harbour) such as Honfleur in Brittany (France).

ƒ Small islands and coral reefs, along tropical coastlines, are highly attractive resources for beach and nature tourism, with warm shallow waters for snorkelling and diving: we will discuss them separately below.

ƒ Coastal plains are supportive of major resort development, being spacious, relatively flat and close to the amenities of the shore. For the same reasons, however, they are also ideal for the siting of major cities and industries (such as oil refineries): there is often strong competition to develop these resources!

ƒ Coastal wetlands, including salt marshes, estuaries and mangrove swamps, are important wildlife habitats. Although they are increasingly being dredged to provide harbourage, or drained for land reclamation (eg for airports and industry), they can also represent a recreational resource for boating, fishing and birdwatching – and this is one argument used for their conservation and management.

3.2 Sustainable coastal development

Beaches have a relatively high carrying capacity compared to most natural environments: they are relatively simple ecosystems, and tourists generally have a high tolerance for sharing a beach with other people! However, they are vulnerable to human impact from over-use and development, especially pollution, from user litter and sewage effluent from settlements, as well as from shipping wastes and agricultural run-off.

In some key beach areas (including Europe, South Africa, Oceania, South America and the Caribbean), the eco-label of Blue Flag Beach is awarded by the Foundation for Environmental Education to the best recreational beaches. The criteria for winning a Blue Flag include excellent water quality, safety standards (including lifeguards and patrols), environmental information, provision of services and general environmental management (including litter/waste management).

Coastal landforms are particularly prone to damage by erosion, flooding and cliff falls, and coastal management strategies are often put in place to combat this kind of damage. Piers, breakwaters and sea walls, for example, may be constructed to protect a coastal area from flooding, wave erosion or the shifting of sand and shingle. Beaches can be replenished by sand brought in from other parts of the cost, or stabilised by replanting (to minimise wind erosion).

Small islands, coastal wetlands and coral reefs are even more sensitive eco-systems, and are extremely prone to damage by excessive numbers of tourists and their activity.

We discuss beach and coastal resort development in more detail in Chapter 8.

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3.3 Tropical islands and coral reefs

International tourism is significantly developed on many such islands, since they offer a highly attractive package of tropical (warm) and coastal (sea breezes) climate, beaches and warm waters, marine life, exotic cultures and small size for ease of exploration. In some cases, such as Madagascar and the Galapagos Islands, they offer unique ecosystems and wildlife for more adventurous nature travellers, with strict controls on tourism development and conduct.

EXAMPLE The best known example of a major coral reef is the Great Barrier Reef, in the Coral Sea off the coast of north-eastern Australia. This is the largest coral reef in the world, with a complex of coral reefs, shals and islets extending for over 2,000 km. It is rich in diverse species of fish, crustaceans, birds, exotic plants and colourful corals, making it a 'honey pot' for tourists, especially for viewing the under-water display via snorkelling, diving and glass-bottomed boats.

If you'd like to do some further reading on beach, island and coastal tourism, some interesting and varied case studies are available in:

ƒ Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook): Cases 13 (the Isle of Man), 19 (the French Riveria), 20 (the Balearic Islands), 28 (the Maldives), or 34 (Hawaii).

As we saw in Chapter 1, coral reefs are among the most rare, diverse and sensitive eco-systems in the world. They are under significant threat from climate change (changes in water temperature), the use of explosives and trawling in fishing, pollution from agricultural and urban wastes, over-exploitation (including the 'mining' of coral for jewellery and souvenirs and the removal of fish for aquaria) and damage caused by boating, snorkelling and other tourist activity.

4 Historical and cultural resources

4.1 What are historical resources?

Historical resources may broadly be defined as the surviving physical remnants of past eras of history, or even of past civilisations. They include landscape features (such as ancient terracing or mounds), archaeological sites (where remnants of the past have been unearthed) and architectural features (homes, castles, forts and so on). They also include the presence, often in museums, of artefacts and objects from the past. And they may also include symbolic associations with significant historical, religious or mythical events, even thought there is little visible evidence of them on the landscape.

The Taj Mahal, Agra, India The Parthenon, Athens, Greece Sphinx and pyramids, Giza, Egypt Burton (1995, p 42) suggests that tourists find historical resources attractive for several reasons.

ƒ They may be attracted by the sheer age of the artefacts of past civilisations – particularly if they come from tourist generating areas (such as Australia and North America) with relatively 'new' cultures. The technological achievements of past ages attract worldwide interest in sites such as Stonehenge; the Great Wall of China; the Egyptian pyramids and temples; the rock-

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carved and irrigated city of Petra in Jordan; an d Incan stonework in cities like Cuzco and Macchu Picchu in Peru.

ƒ They may be attracted by the beauty of the art and architecture of past eras. Examples include castles, palaces, churches, cathedrals, ancient university towns and stately homes throughout Britain and mainland Europe; the temp les of ancient Greece; the temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia; and the Taj Mahal at Agra, India.

ƒ They may be attracted by the historical significance and interest of places. Examples include archaeological insights into earlier civilisations (such as Pompeii in Italy, or Viking and Roman sites in Britain); sites of significant battles (s uch as Mycenae in Greece, Culloden in Scotland, Gettysburg in the USA, or the beaches of Normandy and fields of Flanders in France) and other events (such as the signing of the Magna Carta at Runnymede); landmarks of technol ogical the Industrial Revolution (eg Ironbridge in Shropshire); or association with historical and mythical figures (Tintagel in Cornwall with King Arthur; the Holy Land with the events of the Bible; Stratford-upon-Avon with Shakespeare).

EXAMPLE Stately homes are an important resource for UK tourism, enjoyed by domestic and international visitors. Many are owned by the National Trust, although some are still in private hands. The high costs of maintaining large heritage homes and estates has led many owners to open their properties to visitors: examples include Beaulieu, Longleat and Chatsworth House (which was used as the location for the 2005 film of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, as Mr D'Arcy's home of Pemberley). Chatsworth House, Derbyshire Castles (in French, chateau; in German, schloss) are a Source: www.workingtitlefilms.com tourist attraction on an even larger scale, because of their architectural and historical interest. There is a strong concentration of castles and palaces in Europe, because of its political history of monarchies and duchies. A number of famous castles can be viewed as part of circuit tours of the Loire Valley (France); many areas of Italy and Spain; the middle Rhine Valley (Germany, between Frankfurt and Cologne); and Bavaria (including the famous Schloss Neuchwanstein, the Castle of Ludwig II, location for films such as Chitty Chitty Bang Bang – and inspiration for Walt Chateau de Chambord, Loire, France Disney's Sleeping Beauty Castle).

Famous castles and palaces are also tourism assets for cities such as London (Buckingham Palace), Paris (Versailles), Budapest (Buda Castle) and Moscow (the Kremlin).

4.2 Spatial distribution of major historic sites

Several major destination areas can be identified as hotspots for historical tourism (Burton, 1995).

The greatest concentration of historic resources exists in Europe, particularly around the Mediterranean from Italy, through the Aegean to the Middle East. This reflects ancient cradles of civilisation at Mycenae, Crete and the Nile Valley; the flowering of the Greek and Roman Empires in the classical period (1000 to 500 AD); the spread of Ch ristianity, Islam and religious architecture; the re-establishment of urban civilisation in Europe during the The Great Wall of China Source: www.destination360.com

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middle ages (11th-13th centuries); the flowering of art and architecture during the Renaissance (14 th-16th centuries); on-going architectural and social developm ents (including the emergence of spa and seaside tourist resorts); and the influence of the Industrial Revolution on architecture, technology and landscape to the present day.

China can also boast a wealth of historic resources, as an early cradle of civilisation, and the site of successive great kingdoms and empires, such as the Han dynasty which built the Great Wall of China (around 220 AD).

In Central America, the ancient Mayan culture (250 AD – 900 AD) left major urban and religious centres such as Chichen Itza (Mexico) and Tikal (Guatemala). Later centuries saw the Aztec empire (Mexico) and the Inca empire (Andean countries of South America), leaving similarly spectacular stonework and artefacts.

Burton (op cit) notes that: 'some of these regions have the wealth and political stability to both protect and develop their historic resources for the benefit of the tourist. In other areas, however, political instability not only inhibits the development of tourism, but may threaten the very survival of the historic features themselves'. A key present example is Iraq, site of Mayan temples at Tikal Source: www.wildland.com ancient Mesopotamia and the Persian empire.

4.3 Protection of historic resources

During the last century, there has been a growing realisation of the value of historic features, for their inherent and educational value (as expressions of human culture and development), their aesthetic value (as a contribution to the attractiveness of the environment) and their economic value (as resources for tourism). Many destinations now place an emphasis on the protection and conservation of buildings and features of historic importance.

Threats to historical features include:

ƒ Atmospheric weathering (eg of stonework and rock features)

ƒ Air pollution, which accelerates weathering and deterioration

ƒ Settlement, development and change of function – which has been responsible for the loss of many historic villages, city centres and sites. As rivers silt up, or industrial change impacts an area, original townscapes and features may be abandoned to decay, or replaced by more modern development

ƒ War and destruction (eg the Spanish Conquistadors destroying the architecture and artefacts of the Incas – and more modern equivalents such as the destruction of sites in Lebanon and Iraq).

Sites which have retained their original use (like the ancient university towns of Oxford and Cambridge) or which have been by- passed by industrial development (like the medieval market town of Bruges in Belgium) may remain little modified over time, retaining their historic features – while still functioning sufficiently to justify investment in their maintenance.

However, well-preserved historic city centres in Britain and Europe (many of which date back to the middle ages) face major challenges:

ƒ Of finding new economic uses for old buildings, in order to generate funds for their upkeep: small buildings and narrow, winding streets (which give them their attractive character) are unsuitable for modern commercial and residential use St Paul de Vence, France Source: www.discoverfrance.com

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ƒ Of developing and exploiting their historic resources for tourism – without threatening their character and value. Increasing tourism activity creates problems of pollution, erosion, traffic congestion and visual intrusion, which threatens physical features, as well as the perceived attraction of the historical ambience. The city of Venice, for example, is said to be literally sinking under the weight of visitor traffic…

FOR DISCUSSION What can be done to protect historic sites and historic city centres from damage and intrusion arising from their popularity with tourists?

If you would like to follow this up with some further reading, see: Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations Casebook) Cases 21 (Venice: heritage in danger) and 16 (Bruges: the impact of tourism in the historic city).

4.4 What are cultural resources?

The ' culture' of a nation or ethnic group can be defined as their distinctive values, norms and way of life. This suggests a wide range of cultural attractions for tourism: from the appreciation of different cultures to enjoyment of a culture's artefacts, artistic expressions and entertainments.

One of the push factors for tourism (discussed in Chapter 2) is the interest many people have in the differences between the country where they live and other parts of the world: the people and their history; cuisine (food and drink); arts, crafts, music an d dance; folklore and festivals; architecture – and general 'way of life'. Some tourists may have more specific interests in different languages, religions, agricultural systems or industrial heritage.

The term ' cultural tourists' is usually given to visitors who are attracted to destinations which are noted for such cultural resources. Cultural tourism essentially seeks out the experience of different cultures or ways of life.

EXAMPLE The European Capital of Culture Initiative was launched in 1985 (then under the name European City of Culture), as a way of promoting European cultures within member states, and stimulating intra- regional cultural tourism. The accolade is awarded to a different city or cities every year.

Some recent examples include:

2005: Cork (Ireland) 2006: Patras (Greece) 2007: Sibiu (Romania) and Luxembourg 2008: Liverpool (England) and Stavangar (Norway) 2009: Vilnius (Lithuania) and Linz (Austria) 2010: Essen (Germany), Istanbul (Turkey) and Pécs (Hungary)

You might like to do some research into some of these cities, to get the flavour of what cultural tourism resources look like. For the full list (and Pécs: European Capital of Culture 2010 related links) see: Source: Wikipedia Commons

Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Capital_of_Culture

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Boniface & Cooper (2005(a), p 38) argue that on a world scale, it is possible to identify certain 'cultural regions' which share a general similar ity in lifestyles, architecture, historical background and religion: for example, Africa, South East Asia, Latin America or the Middle East.

However, on a more localised scale, it is possible to identify considerable cultural divergence and differences between individual countries – or even regions within countries (such as the Basque country of Spain, the South of France, or Sicily in Italy) – supporting intra-regional and domestic travel. Cuisines, customs, architecture and language vary widely within continental areas such as Europe and Asia, which consist of many different nation states.

'These variations in language and dialect, in cuisin e, dress and customs and traditional events, have led in recent years to a much greater consciousness of regional, ethnic and provisional identity… These regional variations are of great significance for tourism. Travellers within Europe find such variations attractive in that they are novel and interestingly different from their own regional culture, but also reassuringly similar.' (Burton, op cit, p 52).

4.5 Religious and spiritual resources

Sites connected with religion or spirituality are also an important cultural resource. In addition to experiencing different religious expressions (including temples, shrines, cathedrals and religious festivals), a shared religion can encourage travel between countries, as people visit their own holy places or undertake pilgrimages (journeys with a religious motivation).

Major religious sites – including Lourdes, Rome, Jerusalem and Mecca – attract millions of international visitors. Historic pilgrimage routes still attract foot travellers: perhaps the most famous example is the Camino (Pilgrimage Route) of St Iago de Pilgrims at the shrine of Lourdes Source: www.ampleforthlourdes.co.uk Compostela, in Spain.

Other major religious sites include the great medieval cathedrals of Europe (including York, Salisbury and Canterbury within England; and Nôtre Dame and Char tres in France) and the shrines of famous saints like St Francis of Assisi.

4.6 Ethnic tourism resources

In addition to 'mainstream' resources for cultural tourism, some regions of the world are home to indigenous ethnic groups which have maintained their own distinctive cultures and traditional ways of life – usually protected from modernisation and westernisation by remoteness or inaccessibility.

There are fears that tourism development could threaten such precarious cultures: exposing them to modernisation and mainstream culture, and 'commodifyin g' their own culture (simplifying and exaggerating its expressions so that it appeals to tourists). However, tour operators see traditional cultures of this kind as a unique tourism resource for a specialised form of cultural tourism known as ethnic tourism.

Ethnic tourism gives tourists the opportunity to encounter and learn about unique traditional cultures: to witness or participate in their daily life, religious rituals, meals, customs, music and dancing and so on. In remote areas, it often requires an element of adventure travel (to access jungle, mountain or desert communities) and the mediation of tour guides and Koi San of the Kalahari interpreters to facilitate the encounter between the Source: www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com tourists and the ethnic group.

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Examples of ethnic tourism experiences include encounters with the Koi San (Kalahari Bushmen) of southern Africa, Indian tribes of the Amazon, Berber nomads in the Middle East, and hill tribes of northern Thailand. They also include deliberately preserved expressions, within Westernised mainstream societies, of cultures such as the Maori in New Zea land, various Aboriginal peoples in Australia, Native Americans (in North America) and Inuit (Eskimos of Canada and Alaska).

FOR DISCUSSION What do you know about the cultures of one or more of the indigenous groups mentioned in the above paragraph? What would you expect to see or experience if you visited a traditional settlement, or attended an educational/entertainment site or event? What level of 'authenticity' would you want or expect? What drawbacks can you see for the indigenous culture of this kind of tourism?

5 Man-made and entertainment resources

As we have seen, some types of tourist will want to access cultural resources because they want to learn about, encounter or experience the unique and different cultures (ways of life) of other peoples and parts of the world. Gray (1970) called this ' wanderlust': travel undertaken for the 'desire to learn'.

Other types of tourists, however, are primarily attracted to the recreation, relaxation and entertainment potential of a destination (such as a city, beach or ski resort) – to which the culture of the host community is more or less irrelevant, or a picturesque 'add on'. Gray called this ' sunlust': travel undertaken purely for 'rest and relaxation'.

Sunlust tourists tend to seek culturally neutral, familiar or international facilities and recreation which offer:

ƒ Entertainment and relaxation (eg concerts, theatre, film, festivals and carnivals, restaurants and bars and nightclubs)

ƒ 'Thrills ' of various kinds, as a break from monotony and stress (eg theme park rides, spectator sports events, gambling and sex tourism)

ƒ Recreational shopping facilities, for the purchase of souvenirs, non-essential and luxury goods.

Man-made attractions or built attractions are purpose-built facilities designed to give enjoyment, education and entertainment to tourists.

In order to be economically viable, such facilities are generally located in major urban regions (with a year-round mass market of both tourists and residents) or in mass tourism hotspots such as Florida. We will look briefly at some of the possibilities.

5.1 Theme parks

Theme parks are large amusement or leisure parks aimed at families and young people. They are purpose- built attractions offering a wide range of facilities, including 'white-knuckle' (thrill) rides, live entertainment and 'spectaculars', catering, shops and amusements.

Theme parks require large-scale parkland environments outside towns (though accessible to them), close to tourist generating regions and in generally good climates (being mostly outdoors).

Source: www.disneylandparis.direct.com

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The world's most popular theme parks are part of th e Disney franchise: the original Disneyland (Los Angeles), Disney World (Orlando, Florida) and Disneyland Paris. The bigger UK theme parks – like Alton Towers and Chessington World of Adventures – have been modelled on US examples. Other European theme parks include: Parc Asterix and Futuroscope (France); Warner Bros Studios and Port Aventura (Spain); and Legoland (England).

Australia has a major cluster of family adventure theme parks (Warner Brothers Movie World, Sea World, Dreamworld and Wet'n'Wild Water World) on the Gold C oast of Queensland, providing a honey pot destination for families also enjoying the beach resorts.

5.2 Entertainment, shopping and sporting venues

Some of the entertainment resources of tourist destinations would clearly be classed as expressions of the culture of the host community: folk, music and arts festivals; museums, art galleries and opera houses; restaurants, cafés and bars. Thus Vienna, Salzburg, London and New York, for example, are well-known cultural destinations, because they offer strong resources for arts, entertainment and cultural education.

However many tourists – especially in younger age groups – are drawn by more directly contemporary expressions of culture such as fashion, sport and entertainment.

' Entertainment facilities' is a wide-ranging term used to describe a variety of products and services designed to satisfy cultural interests. They include cinemas, art galleries, museums, concert halls, amusement arcades, theatres, nightclubs, bars, cafés and restaurants and sporting venues.

Any city or town will have its own entertainment facilities and districts, but some tourist destinations are sought after specifically for their entertainment resources. International destination examples might include London and New York (with their theatre districts and concert venues – among a wealth of other entertainment facilities); Las Vegas (with its casinos an d 'spectaculars'); and Nashville or New Orleans in the USA (for their famous music 'scenes'). Famous opera house (such as Covent Garden or La Scala Milan) may be the focus of special interest tourism – as may major sporting venues (whether or not major sporting events are on at the time), such as famous football stadia, cricket grounds or golf courses.

Surveys of tourist behaviour show that visitors spend significant time shopping (whether buying or browsing) especially at urban destinations. Tourism planners support this behaviour – and the income it generates – by developing attractive shopping environments, using pedestrian precincts, street entertainment, attractive lighting and displays, food courts or on-street eateries, user-friendly signage, weekend street markets and so on. In some city centres, such tourist shopping areas evolve Shopping: Covent Garden, London from existing shopping precincts, but purpose-built Source: goingtolondon.wikispaces.com shopping and tourism attractions can be created, often involving the regeneration of docks and warehouse areas, and redundant buildings.

FOR DISCUSSION What kinds of man-made attractions would be important to attract international business tourism to a destination? Think about the facilities required by major conferences and exhibitions, and the people who attend them.

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5.3 Special events

Tourists may (depending on their interests) be attracted to a destination by major folk, arts, film, food or wine festivals; fairs and 'expos'; conferences and exhi bitions; sporting events; or other cultural events.

Some destinations are firmly associated with signature events held there annually or periodically, which are therefore long-term tourism resources for the location. Examples include the World Travel Market, in London; the Edinburgh Festival, Salzburg Festival or Cannes Film Festival; the summer 'Proms' concerts at the Albert Hall, London; the Wagner festival at Bayreuth, Germany; the once-per-decade Passion Play at Oberammergau, Bavaria; Carnival at Rio, Brazil (and Venice, Italy); the Wimbledon Tennis Championships; and the FA Cup at Wembley.

Some periodic major events move destinations – and are hotly bid for by would-be hosts, because of the boost to tourism produced by hosting the event, through direct Carnival parade, Rio (Brazil) visitors and media/television exposure. Examples include Source: southamericanexperts.files.wordpress.com the Rugby and Football World Cups, the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games.

Special events may thus be held to boost or maintain tourism to existing established destinations – or to draw tourism (and attention) to new destinations seeking development. At a domestic tourism scale, special events can be on a much smaller scale, including local folk and arts festivals. However, their aim is still to attract tourism to the host area, and to promote its tourist image to attendees, the media and the tourist industry.

6 Managing, protecting and developing tourism resources

We will discuss tourism and destination development, and the issues of 'sustainable tourism' in detail in Chapter 8. We will just round up this chapter by mentioning some key bodies in the management, protection, development and promotion of tourism resources worldwide.

6.1 World heritage

The World Heritage Convention was set up in 1972 by UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) to protect outstanding examples of the world's culture and nature, which are regarded as the 'heritage' (or birthright) of all people. Signatories to the convention have agreed to identify, conserve and protect such sites in the interests of future generations, as well as supporting poorer nations of the world in protecting their own world heritage sites.

Nationally and internationally designated world heritage properties include:

Natural heritage Cultural heritage The Galapagos Islands, Ecuador The Taj Mahal, Agra, India The Ngoro Ngoro Conservation Area, Tanzania The Pyramids at Giza, Egypt The Kakadu National Park (wetlands), Australia The Acropolis, Athens The Grand Canyon, Colorado USA Machu Picchu, Peru The Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe Chartres Cathedral, France The Great Barrier Reef, Australia The Sydney Opera House, Australia (Italy, Spain and China currently have the highest The historic centre of Florence, Italy number of World Heritage Sites, mostly cultural) Auschwitz Concentration Camp, Poland

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Sydney Opera House Auschwitz, Poland Galapagos Islands Source: www.destination360.com Source: www.prontohotel.com

ACTIVITY 5 20 minutes You might like to spend some time researching some of these World Heritage Sites (or others that interest you) if they are not familiar. Appraise their value as international tourist destinations, and consider whether the promotion of tourism is likely to work for their conservation or against it. An excellent place to start is UNESCO's own World Heritage Centre website:

Link: http://whc.unesco.org/en

You should be able to find most sites in regional tourist brochures and guide books as well.

6.2 The tourism industry

It is beyond the scope of this syllabus to discuss the tourism industry in detail. However, you should be aware of the role of organisations such as:

ƒ The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO): the specialised United Nations inter-governmental agency for tourism policies worldwide, representing public sector tourism bodies from most countries. Linked to the United Nations, the UNWTO aims to promote and support global tourism development in all sectors. It is key source of information on tourism developments and movements worldwide, and a key influence in the move towards socially and environmentally sustainable tourism practices in the global tourism industry.

Link: http://www.unwto.org

ƒ The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC): an industry-sponsored pressure group representing the interest of the world's leading airlines and tourist organisations, and lobbying governments as to the economic, social and cultural importance of tourism (and tourism resources) to the world economy. Through its research and information arm, the World Travel and Tourism Environment Research Centre (WTTERC), the WTTC also carries out environmental impact assessments and promotes environmentally sustainable management in the tourism industry.

Link: http://www.wttc.org

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SUMMARY

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SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 According to Swarbrooke what are four categories into which tourist attractions may be classified?

2 In 2007 a poll added new wonders to the ‘Seven Wonders of the World’? What were they?

3 Name some of the most noted National Parks in the following areas:

United States Africa America The United Kingdom

4 Name the regions of the world most noted for their concentration of important historical and cultural sites.

5 What are the major threats to historical and cultural sites?

6 What is (a) wanderlust? (b) sunlust?

7 Name two organisations with responsibilities for the development of sustainable development in the tourist industry worldwide.

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Natural; man-made (historical, archaeological, not intended to attract tourism); man-made (with leisure and tourism intended); special events (sporting, mu sical, arts).

2 The Statute of Christ the Redeemer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Machu Picchu, Peru Chichen Itza, Mexico Petra, Jordan

3 Here are some of the most noted:

US: Arches National Park; Bryce Canyon; Hawaiian Nati onal Park; Florida Everglades; Glacier Bay; Grand Canyon; Mesa Verde; Rocky Mountain; Yellowstone; Yosemite.

Africa: Serengeti; Kilimanjaro; Ngoro Ngoro Crater Cons ervation Area; the Masai Mara Game Reserve; the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park; the Kruger National Park.

Australia: your answers to the activity may have researched the Great Barrier Reef; the Blue Mountains and Royal National Parks; the Kakadu National Pa rk; the Tasmanian Wilderness; the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park; Pernalulu National Park.

UK: Be careful!: the areas of the UK that most people think of as national parks are not internationally recognised as such: they are protected areas (sometimes called special protected areas). In the UK these areas are usually subject to some economic development although it is strictly controlled, and they usually remain under private, rather than government ownership.

4 Your answer may have included parts of Europe, the Middle East, China and Central America.

5 Threats to historical features include: ƒ Atmospheric weathering (eg of stonework and rock features) ƒ Air pollution, which accelerates weathering and deterioration ƒ Settlement, development and change of function ƒ War and destruction

6 These terms were coined by Gray and he used them to describe motivation for travel:

' Wanderlust': travel undertaken to satisfy the 'desire to learn'.

' Sunlust': travel undertaken purely for 'rest and relaxation'.

7 The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) http://www.unwto.org

The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) http://www.wttc.org

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 You will have come up with your own list, but some diverse suggestions include:

ƒ Natural: the Himalayas, Alps, Andes and Rocky Mountains; the Sahara Desert; Ayers Rock (Uluru) in Australia; the Amazon rainforest; Victor ia Falls (Zimba bwe), Angel Falls (Venezuela) or Iguacu Falls (Argentina); the Scottish Highland s and Islands; African game reserves (eg the Serengeti and Ngoro Ngoro Crater); the Galapagos Isla nds; the Grand Canyon (Colorado, USA); Cheddar Gorge (England); famous beaches (from Bo ndi and Waikiki to Blackpool Pleasure Beach); tropical islands (eg Bora Bora, Hawaii); the Yangtze river gorges

ƒ Man-made: castles on the Rhine and Loire rivers; stately homes in Britain; Stonehenge; the Pyramids at Giza (Cairo) and the ancient Egyptian sites on the Nile; the archaeological sites of Petra (Jordan) or Machu Picchu (Peru); the leanin g tower of Pisa; the Taj Mahal; the Great Wall of China; cultural ly vibrant cities like New York, London, Paris, Venice, Bangkok and Rio

ƒ Man-made purpose-built: the London Eye; the Louvre Arts Museum (Paris) or the Uffizi Art Gallery (Florence); Alpine ski resorts; Disneyland Paris; London Zoo; the Royal Albert Hall or the Sydney Opera House; Wembley Stadium

ƒ Special events: the Football World Cup; the Commonwealth or Olympic Games; the FA Cup; Wimbledon tennis; Open Golf tournaments; the Bregenz or Salzburg (music/opera) Festivals; the Crufts Dog Show; the Frankf urt Book Fair; the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace (as an example of 'pageantry'); the 'running of the bulls' at Pamplona (Spain) – and so on.

If some of these don't 'ring a bell', you might like to follow them up with some Internet or travel brochure research…

2 This activity does not have an answer, as it requires you to do your own research.

3 Some top ski resorts include: Vail (Colorado, USA); Aspen (Colorado, USA); Mont-Tremblant (Quebec, Canada); Banff/Lake Louise (Alberta, Canada); Cort ina (Italy); Chamonix-Mont Blanc (France); Zermatt (Switzerland); Kitzbuhl (Austria); Verbie r (Switzerland); Gstaad (Switzerland).

4 Your research might focus on national parks, reserves and world heritage sites including: the Great Barrier Reef; the Blue Mountains and Royal National Parks (near Sydney); the Kakadu National Park (tropical wetlands in the Northern Territory); the Tasmanian Wilderness; the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (which includes Uluru or Ayers Rock, in central Australia); and Pernalulu National Park (in Western Australia, featuring the 'Bungle Bungles' geological formations and river gorges).

5 This activity does not have an answer, as it requires you to do your own research.

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CHAPTER 4 INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT MODES AND NETWORKS

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ The importance of transport infrastructure and services for travel and tourism ƒ The nature of the transport system, transport modes and networks ƒ The distinctive features, advantages and disadvantages of different transport modes for travel and tourism, including: air, road and rail travel, sea travel and cruising ƒ How to assess the suitability of transport modes for different geographical regions and customer groups

Topic list The importance of transport The transport system Air travel Road travel Rail travel Sea travel and cruising

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1 The importance of transport

1.1 Getting from A to B

It may seem an obvious point, but tourists cannot take advantage of all the tourism resources discussed in the previous chapter unless there is a way for them to get to them! In order for a tourist destination to become established, there must be some kind of transport link from the tourist's home area to the target destination area (and back again).

The transport system is term given to the overall system of transport links, including:

ƒ Means of transport: the vehicles and vessels which transport people, like planes, trains and automobiles. These are often classified as different modes of transport: surface, air and water.

ƒ Transport networks: the routes along which the vehicles and vessels travel (including separate networks of roads, railway tracks, shipping lanes and air routes). Each transport network is made up of a series of links (along which flows take place) and nodes (terminals and interchanges), enabling travellers to enter and exit the network, or change over from one means or mode of transport to another.

The growth of travel and tourism on a global scale has always depended on developments in transportation, such as the development of faster, higher-capacity means of transport and the extension of transport networks to cover more destinations. It could also be argued that the converse is true: as tourism increases, pressure is placed on existing transport arrangements (eg by traffic congestion), and strong demand attracts investment, leading to infrastructure and service development.

Meanwhile, accessibility via available transport networks will be an important decision factor in the appeal of destinations to tourists. Factors such as the convenience, cost, distance and duration (length in time) of the journey will also be important to the many travellers who seek simply to get to the destination which is the focus of their holiday plans.

Boniface & Cooper (2005(a)) note that transport sy stems – like tourism flows – can be viewed at different scales. 'At the world scale, there is a network of inter-continental air routes and those countries with a coastline are also linked by the long-haul sea routes… At the regional scale, many countries have nationwide bus, coach and rail services. At the local scale, there are excursion circuits based on a particular city or resort.'

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes From your own experience of travel (or everyday transport), suggest FIVE factors which affect the length of time a journey might take.

1.2 The journey itself

It is also important, however, to remember that: 'Transp ortation is often an integral and pleasurable part of a total travel experience and not merely a means of getting from home to a holiday destination. The excitement felt by young children on a charter flight to a summer sun holiday destination or the pleasure given to senior citizens on a coach tour serve to illustrate this point well.' (Youell, ibid).

Cruising is one key example of transportation, rather than a particular destination, becoming the focus of the holiday. Other examples include special train journeys, where the focus is on the train travel experience itself; 'air cruises' (touring by small pl ane); canal or house-boat holidays; bicycle tours; and so on.

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1.3 Travel at destination

In addition to transport networks designed to get tourists to destination areas, there will need to be similar networks to get them around destination areas. This may include:

ƒ Transfers: transport from the airport or port to their accommodation

ƒ Touring and exploration: transport to and from attractions and events, or just giving tourists (including domestic tourists) mobility around the destination area.

Road and rail networks are particularly popular for transfers, but a wide range of means of transport are used for touring and exploration, as we will see later in this chapter.

2 The transport system

You may have covered the economics and logistics of transportation in your studies for the Tourism Industry module: transportation is one of the three main elements of the travel and tourism industry, along with accommodation and attractions/entertainment. In this Study Guide, however, we will focus mainly on the geographical aspects of transport systems, and their suitability for different regions and customer groups.

Let's get a brief overview of transport networks and how they develop.

2.1 Elements of transport

Faulks (1992) identifies four basic physical elements of any transport system, whether land, air or sea based:

ƒ The way (or transport network): the medium of travel used – including roads and tracks, railways and tramways, airways, the sea, rivers and canals.

ƒ The terminal (or transport nodes): a point at which users can access or enter the way, or transfer from one mode of travel to another (interchanges) – including airports, ports, train stations and coach terminals.

ƒ The carrying unit: a vehicle suitable for carrying passengers on a given way – including aircraft, ships and boats, cars, buses and coaches, trains and trams.

ƒ Motive power: fuels and other energy sources which enable a carrying unit to move along the way – including petrol, electricity and bio-fuels. This is important because it helps to determine the speed, range, capacity and cost of transport modes, and also their sustainability (in terms of non-renewable fuel use and environmental impact).

FOR DISCUSSION Describe the transport system in any tourist area you are familiar with from your own travels. Or research the transport system of any tourist area you are interested in, so that you can describe it to your study group (or in your own study notes). Focus on transport enabling tourists to get to the destination, and around it. What modes of transport are used? How user-friendly is the system for tourists? What interests, attractions or advantages does it offer? How well does it fit or express the character of the destination? How well placed are the transport nodes (terminals and interchanges)?

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2.2 Land-based transport networks

Most tourism areas will have some form of road and/or rail network, although their scope and quality depend to a large extent on factors such as: economic development (available finance), government transport policies and geographical factors (such as size/distance and the barriers presented by mountain ranges). The key point about land-based routes is that they have to be constructed – as opposed to sea and air routes, which merely have to be selected and agreed upon.

The transport planning policies of governments will generally be the major factor in the development of transport infrastructure – although the scale of investment required has increasingly prompted partnership between the public sector (central and local government authorities) and the private sector (companies, which may finance, build and/or operate transport networks).

Transport planning decisions will inevitably mainly be targeted at the needs of an area's commercial, industrial, commuter and residential/leisure traffic – although if tourism makes a significant contribution to the regional or national economy, networks may be more specifically tailored to the needs of holiday makers. Planning may also take into consideration environmental impacts (eg pollution and damage to ecologically sensitive areas) and community impacts (eg reduction of commercial activity in small towns 'bypassed' by motorways) of network development.

'Thus the nature and geographical patterns of routes between tourist generating and destination areas depend not only on tourists' preferences and desires, but also on the perceived balance of national costs and benefits, and on the other political factors that influence governments' transport planning' (Burton, 1995, p 162).

Geographical factors also have a major impact on the development of land-based networks. Boniface & Cooper note that: 'Transport routes do not occur in isolation from the physical and economic conditions prevailing in different parts of the world. Mountain ranges, extensive hilly terrain, deep river valleys, waterlogged ground and climatic factors influence their direction, as do the locations of major cities and political boundaries' (2005 (a), p 73).

EXAMPLE Mountain ranges have traditionally been barriers to road and rail routes – and engineering solutions tend to be expensive and difficult to maintain. The north-south flow of land-based tourism within Europe, for example, is obstructed by the Alps and Pyrenees, necessitating the channeling of traffic through a small number of accessible mountain passes (such as the Great St Bernard and Simplon passes between Switzerland and Italy), with major investment in viaducts, bridges and – where passes would otherwise be closed by winter conditions – tunnels (such as the Mont Blanc Tunnel between France and Italy). Railways are even more limited in their choice of routes, as trains can only climb very gradually – and without the sharp 'zigzags' possible by road.

Short stretches of water, and marshy areas, are generally crossable by bridges, causeways or tunnels for both road and rail transport. One major example is the Channel Tunnel, which opened in 1994 to link Great Britain to mainland Europe by land transport for the first time.

2.3 Sea and air routes

There are relatively few constraints on the movement of ships and aircraft. No construction of routes is required, and the sea and air cost nothing to 'use'. Ho wever, ships and aircraft are generally required to follow specified air corridors and sea lanes:

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ƒ For safety reasons: to manage flows and avoid collisions ƒ For environmental reasons: to contain environmental impacts such as noise and pollution ƒ For political reasons: to avoid entering high-risk airspace or territorial waters ƒ For logistical reasons: to link available transport interchanges (sea ports and airports) ƒ For economic reasons: to minimise operating costs. The most economical route for air and sea craft is generally a ' great circle route': the shortest route between two places on the earth's surface, fo llowing an imaginary line (a 'great circle') that cuts the sphere of the earth into two equal halves or hemispheres. (Note that this is not the same as drawing a straight line between the two locations on a map: you need to look at a three- dimensional globe…) The most economical route for airplanes may also take advantage of favourable jet streams, where available. Jet streams are very high velocity winds at high altitudes: they can reduce fuel consumption, and reduce journey time, if they are in the same direction as the aircraft (a tail wind). The equatorial jet stream, for example, blows east-to-west across Southern Asia at some times of year.

2.4 Transport nodes and hubs

Transport nodes – the points at which people get 'on and off' transport networks and interchange between them – are crucial in the effectiveness and efficiency of the transport system.

Some airports, in particular, act as major 'hubs' for international transport, because: ƒ They are strategically located, offering an accessible point from which passengers can connect to other routes and destinations on the network. Most countries have at least one major international airport, and some of these have developed into major interchanges, where multiple long-haul routes intersect: key examples include London Heathrow, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Singapore and New York. ƒ They have a wide selection of on-bound transport options (including inter-modal options: eg proximity of the air-port to sea ports, rail heads, motorway networks etc) and can therefore act as transport nodes, enabling passengers to interchange from one network to another ƒ They have large-scale, highly-developed facilities for transport, luggage, passenger and information handling, enabling mass through-put of craft and travellers. 'As demand for travel has grown, many transport terminals have developed into large, integrated complexes offering a range of catering, currency exchange, business, retail and entertainment facilities' (Youell, ibid).

EXAMPLE We will identify some major airports and sea ports when we examine particular tourist regions and destinations in Chapter 5. But some of the world's busiest airports include the following:

Europe Asia North America Heathrow: London, England Beijing Capital, China O'Hare: Chicago, Illinois Charles de Gaulle: Paris, France Tokyo International, Japan LAX: Los Angeles, California Schiphol: Amsterdam, Netherlands Hong Kong International, Hong Kong Dallas-Fort Worth: Dallas, Texas Frankfurt, Germany Singapore Changi, Singapore John F Kennedy: New York For more information see: Link: www.heathrowairport.com If you click on 'Plan and Book Your Trip', you ca n access a menu of Airport Guides, Country Guides and City Guides: a great resource for your Travel Geography studies in general!

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Smaller regional airports (the runways and facilities of which may not be big enough to handle intercontinental aircraft like the Boeing 747) specialise in regional, domestic and holiday charter flights. They may also offer services to and from international airport hubs, creating what is sometimes called a ' hub and spoke ' network of airports. Secondary or regional airports include: in the UK, Manchester, Birmingham and Glasgow; in France, Marseille, Nice and Lyon; in Italy, Naples and Venice; in Spain, Tenerife, Barcelona and Ibiza; and in Germany, Hamburg, Stuttg art and Cologne. The term ' shuttle services' is often used to describe frequent transport links carrying passengers on popular routes with a minimum of check-in procedures and formalities. Examples include airline shuttle services between London and Manchester in the UK, and bus shuttle services between airports and city centres, or between out-lying hotels to city centres.

ACTIVITY 2 10 minutes Where would you put your major transport nodes or terminals? See if you can come up with FOUR factors that would be important when finding a site for an airport for a destination city.

2.5 Transport modes

With the infrastructure of the transport network in place, the next requirement is to provide transport services: ways for people to get around the network. There are many options for methods or 'modes' of transport between and around holiday destinations – from boats, planes, trains and automobiles – to rickshaws, bicycles and camels! They can broadly be classified as follows.

Independent transport Mass transport

Surface Bicycle Bus or coach transport Car Train Novelty (eg horse-drawn carriage, Tram rickshaw) Novelty (eg monorail, cable car)

Air transport Private small plane (subject to Passenger airliner affordability of private charter)

Water transport Canoe or kayak Passenger ship or cruise liner Canal or sail boat (subject to affordability Canal, cruise or sail boat of private charter) Ferry Hovercraft or hydrofoil

Travel by air dominates the international tourism scene, whereas travel by private car is the most popular form of transportation for domestic tourists (Youell, ibid). The vast majority of travel at destination also takes place by surface transport, predominantly by car, but also by coach or bus (Boniface & Cooper, 2005). Mass transport dominates international travel, because of its cost effectiveness for tourists (sharing common facilities and routes), but the convenience, flexibility and controllability of independent travel makes it attractive for more affluent travelers, and (in the popular form of car transport) for travel at destination.

Some of the general factors dictating the choice of transport mode include:

ƒ Cost (or cost-effectiveness)

ƒ Speed (or journey duration)

ƒ Safety

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ƒ Availability (frequency of departures, routes to the desired destination)

ƒ Convenience, reliability, flexibility, comfort or utility (various ways of meeting the traveller's needs).

FOR DISCUSSION On a lengthy journey, what might be the special transport requirements of a business person; an elderly traveller; a student; a woman travel ling alone; and a family with young children?

What kinds of transport do you think would best meet these needs?

We will now look at each of the major travel modes in turn, and discuss these issues in more detail.

3 Air travel

'Air transport has revolutionised the geographical pattern of world travel since 1960. Tourism has changed from a local to an intercontinental activity. It has created tourist industries in countries hitherto untouched by the physical, social or economic impacts of tourism' (Burton, op cit, p 168).

3.1 Types of air travel

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) classifies air travel services into one of three categories:

ƒ Domestic: air travel within a country.

ƒ International scheduled: travel between different countries, with licensed airlines offering flights to published timetables on defined routes. Flights are committed to operating even with low passenger numbers (or 'load factor'), so they may be comparatively expensive: business travellers are often prepared to pay this premium for the extra convenience and flexibility.

ƒ International chartered: travel between different countries, with aircraft commissioned by an operator for a set period of time, and flying to a particular destination. Charter flights will generally only operate with a profitable number (a high 'load factor') of passengers, allowing them Source: www.yourguidetogetaway.com to offer reduced fares. Most package holidays that include air travel will use charter flights (an arrangement known as 'inclusive tour by charter' or ITC).

3.2 Air travel regions

Due to their economic activity, affluence and strategic location, most of the world's air traffic is concentrated in three main regions: the eastern part of the USA, Western Europe and East Asia. The 'air bridge' between Europe and North America (cross the North Atlantic Ocean) is the busiest intercontinental route, linking the greatest concentrations of wealth and economic activity (Boniface & Cooper, op cit, p 79).

For the purposes of fare structure, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) classifies the world into three 'Traffic Conference Areas' (Figure 4.1)

ƒ Area 1: North, Central and South America; Hawaii; Greenland; the Caribbean ƒ Area 2: Europe (west of the Urals mountain range); Iceland; the Middle East and Africa ƒ Area 3: Asia (east of the Urals) and Oceania (Australia, New Zea land and South Pacific Islands)

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Figure 4.1: IATA Traffic Conference Areas

Source: http://www.travel-agency-commissioner.aero

3.3 Features of air travel

Some of the unique features of air travel for tourists include the following.

ƒ Enclosed space, immobility and an artificial, pressurised environment. This can create particular health hazards on long-haul flights, including: dehydration (travellers are advised to drink plenty of water); indigestion (travellers ar e advised to eat lightly); and a potentially life- threatening condition called ' deep vein thrombosis ' or DVT (travellers are advised to stretch and move their legs as far as possible during a long-haul flight).

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is the formation of a blood clot, usually in the legs, due in part to prolonged immobility. The main danger is that the clot could dislodge and travel to the lungs, creating a serious medical emergency. The prevalence of CVT among long-haul travellers with a pre-disposition to the condition has given rise to the term 'Economy Class Syndrome' to describe it!

ƒ Crossing time zones. The range and speed of air travel may take tourists into different time and even date zones (discussed in Chapter 1). Time differences can cause a range of physical effects, generally summed up in the term ' jet lag'. There are lots of travellers' tips on minimising jet lag – but none of them seem to be universally effective or accepted. Another issue in crossing time zones is the need for travellers to adjust their watches: one hour forward when they travel west, and one hour backward when they travel east. (This may be particularly important if catching connecting flights!)

Jet lag is a term given to the fatigue experienced when a person is transported to a new time zone too swiftly to allow the body to adjust: the body's biorhy thms (patterns of sleeping, waking, eating and peak activity) are 'out of sync' with the new time, and take several days to adjust.

ƒ Crossing the International Date Line. Being in a different time zone may well mean that you are in a different day from your country of origin: after midnight, when it is before midnight, or vice versa. As we saw in Chapter 1, however, crossing the International Date Line (180º, with a few 'kinks' to keep some clusters of Pacific Islands together in the same zone) instantly takes you from one date to another. Going east to west, you skip ahead into the next day; going west to east, you skip back to the day before. So Asia is always one day earlier, in calendar terms, than America. The Date Line can cause confusion for air travellers who arrive a day later or earlier than they left for a two hour flight… Care should be taken to confirm correct arrival dates when booking hotels and flight connections, which will refer to local dates.

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ACTIVITY 3 20 minutes If you are interested in the health issues of air travel, you might like to browse:

Link: http://hcd2.bupa.co.uk/fact_sheet s/html/Deep_Vein_Thrombosis.html

Link: http://www.nojetlag.com.

3.4 Suitability of air travel

Air transport is suitable for just about any geographical region – because it enables transport to bypass major surface barriers (like mountains and oceans) and does not depend on waterways or constructed road/rail networks. It may be essential for intercontinental travel (within a short time-frame), and for access to remote and wilderness areas not well served by surface networks. (Tourism in Central and Northern Australia, for example, depends substantially on access by air.)

Nevertheless, there are constraints on:

ƒ The development and use of air routes, as discussed in Section 3.2 above

ƒ The location and development of major airport facilities, for which a certain density of population is required (although very basic airfields and airstrips can be used for small-plane and helicopter access to remote rural and wilderness areas).

Air travel may not be cost-effective for short-hop travel (where surface transport is available), and may also have an unacceptably high carbon footprint for such journeys.

Air travel is broadly suitable for all client groups, although each may have specific needs, which airlines attempt to meet through different service schedules and 'classes' of amenities. For example:

ƒ Business travellers, for example, may value the speed of air travel and the convenience of scheduled services, and the increasing ability to work in airport terminals and on flights, with wireless Internet access and so on: they are often willing to pay a premium for such attributes.

ƒ The elderly, and families with small children, may find air travel (particularly in economy class) less comfortable and congenial on long-haul flights – but there may be few practical options for many popular tourist destinations.

ƒ Affordability is becoming less and less of an issue, with high-capacity aircraft and competitive airline pricing (with 'low cost' and 'no fri lls' airlines challenging for market share).

Advantages of air travel Disadvantages of air travel

ƒ No geographical barriers to travel ƒ Airport formalities (check-in, baggage handling, ƒ Speed: reduced travel time, enhanced range passport and customs control, security, delays…) ƒ High carrying capacity, enabling lower cost ƒ Distance from terminals to destinations ƒ Extensive air network ƒ Environmental impacts: high carbon footprint, pollution and fuel use ƒ Connections to regional (and some remote) 'spoke' destinations ƒ Cost (over less competitive routes) ƒ In-flight catering, entertainment, shopping ƒ Physical discomfort/risk (on long-haul flights) and other amenities ƒ Not available to all destinations

ƒ No 'scenery' on the way from A to B

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4 Road travel

Road transport includes travel by private car, bus and coach, taxi and hired car. The private car is the world's most popular form of travel for tourist purp oses, especially for domestic and intra-continental travel (where destinations and attractions are accessible by land and linked by extensive road networks), and for travel in and around a destination.

4.1 Travel by car

Road networks are extensive in all but the most remote rural, wilderness or undeveloped areas, and it is often possible to complete an intra-regional journey 'door to door' by car. Meanwhile, whether travelling from A to B or exploring a destination, the driver is able to choose the route, the pace of travel, and the frequency, duration and location of stops to suit his or her plans (or changes of plan). A ' fly-drive ' holiday arrangement combines a chartered or scheduled flight with care hire, enabling tourists to get quickly to an international destination (by air) and then to indulge in more leisurely touring and exploration by car. Car travel is generally suitable for most geographical regions, but there may be localised economic, political and geographical constraints on development of road networks in some areas, as discussed in Section 2.1 above. Regions of high mountains, marshes, dense jungle/forest, flooding rivers and other geographical features may be inhospitable to road network development. Some geographical regions – such as large tracts of desert – may have insufficient population to sustain roads (or tourism). Some areas may require specialist driving skills (eg off-road driving or driving in poor weather conditions), and may be perceived as unsafe – or just too onerous – for self-drive tourists. Some national borders may represent barriers or constraints on road travel. On the other hand, some areas will positively lend themselves to 'driving holidays' or private car touri sm, with good quality roads passing through areas of scenic beauty, linking tourist attractions, and offering tourist accommodation (eg motels) and facilities (rest/picnic areas, information boards/centres, viewing lookout stops and so on). Car travel is also generally suitable for most client groups – subject to issues such as driving ability and confidence (especially in unfamiliar or difficult driving conditions) and cost. Leisure travellers and tourists may appreciate its flexibility and comfort; business trav ellers, its convenience for at-destination travel to meetings; families, its controllabilit y and luggage capacity; and so on.

Advantages of car travel at destination Disadvantages of car travel at destination

ƒ Door to door flexibility and freedom ƒ Environmental impacts: air/noise pollution, ƒ Privacy (compared to public transport) carbon emissions loss of land (for roads, car- ƒ Comfort (especially with air conditioning or parks etc) heating, adjustable seats, music and so on) ƒ Limited carrying capacity ƒ Good passenger and luggage capacity ƒ Low average speed of travel (and speed limits) ƒ The ability to tow caravans, trailers, boats ƒ Road safety risks (especially if unfamiliar with etc foreign road rules, or fatigued by driving) ƒ Enhanced accessibility to tourist ƒ Visual intrusion: cars (and related facilities such destinations for elderly and disabled as highways and parking lots) can create passengers eyesores near natural or historic attractions ƒ Perceived value for money (especially for ƒ Traffic congestion: on approach routes and family trips) within destinations ƒ Less subject to terrorism concerns

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4.2 Managing tourist traffic impacts

'High levels of car ownership have resulted in sharp increases in the use of cars for long holidays, short breaks and recreational day trips. This has led to problems of pollution, physical erosion, loss of land to car parks and congestion in many popular tourist destinations, especially historic cities, coastal resorts and national parks, where vehicles often spoil the very ambience that attracted the tourists in the first place' (Youell, ibid p 33).

Governments and tourist bodies are attempting to minimise the impact of leisure vehicles, particularly in historic cities, and where the needs of local community traffic must also be met. Boniface & Cooper (2005, p 50) suggest that there are two main approaches to managing the impact of leisure traffic.

ƒ Separate visitors from their cars: for example, via ' park and ride ' schemes (discussed below); pedestrianisation (areas designated for no vehicular access); and/or by the provision of attractive alternative forms of transport such as 'hop-on-hop off' sight-seeing buses or tram routes, boat tours (and more 'novelty' examples such as monorail circuits or horse-and-carriage rides) – as well as helpfully planned, mapped and signposted public transport systems, located and scheduled to meet tourist pick-up and drop-off needs near attractions and accommodation centres.

ƒ Separate visitor traffic from local traffic (since tourist traffic drives more slowly and can cause congestion on local routes): for example, by creating well-marked and marketed ' scenic drives ' and ' tourist routes'. These are destined to provide a distinctive driving experience for pleasure travel – with routes that link points of scenic beauty and interest, and offer interpretative information signage, frequent stopping places for views and refreshments, and access to motels, shops and cafés, and so on.

EXAMPLE Park and ride schemes invite tourists to park their car at an outlying facility offering connections via bus or train to the city centre or tourist attraction. Such a scheme requires:

ƒ A secure parking area, with weatherproof waiting areas or bus stops

ƒ Regular shuttle services to the attraction (which is convenient for tourists, but also allows visitor numbers to be monitored and controlled)

ƒ Effective marketing, signposting and information, to encourage use

ƒ Visitors who are prepared to utilise the service, giving up the freedom and privacy of car access

ƒ Co-operative local residents and authorities, since park-and-ride influences visiting patterns and may be perceived as disadvantageous to some residents.

'Park and ride schemes are well suited to destinatio ns such as historic towns and villages where the streets are narrow and access is difficult; natural at tractions where the presence of traffic is intrusive; and family-based attractions or destinations where children's safety needs to be given special consideration. [We might add major sporting and en tertainment events, where venue approach road and parking capacity is limited.] Park and ride is a flexible management option, as it can be used only at peak times if necessary – weekends and busy holiday periods, for example.' (Boniface & Cooper, op cit)

In the UK, major tourist cities of historical interest – including Cambridge, York and Oxford – operate park-and-ride schemes to provide a more pleasant experience for visitors, and minimise traffic impacts.

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4.3 Travel by coach

Buses or coaches are often used to transport large numbers of tourists:

ƒ On scheduled services (such as National Express in the UK, or Greyhound in the USA)

ƒ On circuit tours of cities and attractions (eg sightseeing buses/coaches)

ƒ On transfer journeys (eg from airports to hotels or city centres, and vice versa)

ƒ On coach tours, where the coach is the main transport element of an inclusive tour. Coach tours are popular across the UK and Europe, in the USA, Australia and New Zealand. They cater for both 'budget' and 'luxury' markets, in the st andard of vehicles and accommodation. A luxury coach, for example, may have reclining seats, air conditioning, blankets/pillows, on-board toilets and refreshments, large viewing windows, and on-board entertainment and information (eg sound system and movie screens).

Coach services and tours can generally offer an extensive range of routes and destinations, as they have access to the same road networks as cars. However, the route and schedule are inevitably less flexible than independent travel. Moreover, the size and weight of coaches may make some routes and destinations inaccessible, including: narrow country lanes; the centre of historic towns (where streets may be narrow and winding); historic bridges (which may not bear the weight); and poor roads (eg in some mountainous or rural areas).

In most cities, scheduled local bus (and/or tram) services are available for residents and commuters, but can also offer a cheap and convenient way for tourists to get around the urban area. Some, like London's red double-decker buses, may be tourist experiences and cultural icons in themselves. Some bus routes may be developed more specifically for tourist needs, such as shuttle or tourist circuit services.

In geographical regions which are less developed for tourism (such as the Andes in South America, and parts of Asia), local bus services may be the only way to get around quite large regions. These can be fascinating opportunities for cultural encounters – but they may also pose comfort, security, road safety and schedule reliability issues…

Coach travel is well suited for some particular purposes and customer groups.

ƒ It is ideal for circuit tours of destinations and attractions, and for mass transfers.

ƒ For scheduled services, its cost effectiveness best suits young, budget travellers (who may be more resilient in regard to discomfort).

ƒ For scenic tourism, it suits older and less active travellers, or those who wish to avoid the fatigue and uncertainty of driving themselves.

Advantages of travelling by coach Disadvantages of travelling by coach

ƒ More environmentally friendly than car ƒ Less privacy and flexibility than independent (greater carrying capacity, limited routes) travel (eg by car) ƒ Reduced road safety risk (professional ƒ Due to size/weight, may be unable to access driver, relief drivers, generally highly some routes/destinations regulated) ƒ Slower for long-distance transport (than air) ƒ Potential for added tourist commentary ƒ Environmental impacts (eg use of land for coach ƒ Potential to drive overnight to reduce parks; larger tourist load) overall journey time (compared to private ƒ Often, not very comfortable! car) ƒ Generally the cheapest mode for long- distance mass travel

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4.4 Other road (and off road) options

It is worth noting that we have not yet exhausted the options for road travel. More active and adventurous travellers may seek self-drive routes or tours incorporating: ƒ Bicycle or motorbike (eg off- or on-road bicycle treks or motorbike circuit tours – perhaps on a Harley Davidson, for enthusiasts) ƒ Four-wheel drive (4WD) off-road adventure (popular in the USA and Australia, for example) Alternative transport in central Vienna: the ' fiaker ' Source: www.phototravels.net ƒ Horse, camel or elephant rides and safaris!

FOR DISCUSSION What 'novelty' or 'adventure' forms of surface tran sport are you aware of, that are in use at various tourist destinations? What are their advantages or attractions for tourists? What are their drawbacks or limitations as a means of transport at the destination?

5 Rail travel

Railways were the dominant form of mass transportation in much of the world, until the rise in car ownership in the early 20th century, and the subsequent development of air travel services. Despite a decline in their general use, rail services retain a certain 'romance' for some tourists – and more especially for rail enthusiasts. Rail is still the main method of long-distance travel in many developing nations (such as India and parts of Africa), providing infrastructure for intra-regional and intra- continental rail tourism: several 'great train journe ys' are offered in different parts of the world.

For mass movement of tourists to holiday destinations, however, rail has generally lost out in competition with faster and further-reaching air travel, and more flexible road travel options.

Regional train networks usually form a radical pattern from major urban and industrial areas, as they were designed originally for freight, commercial and commuter traffic. Urban rail services (such as the famous London Underground, Paris Metro or New York Subway) are developed primarily for commuter traffic, but can be made user-friendly for tourists. Venice-Simplon Orient Express Source: www.orient-express.com 5.1 Types of rail travel and tourism

There are various forms of rail travel and tourism. ƒ Scheduled services. The attraction of this for tourism depends largely on the quality of the services. Some nations have invested in the development of fast, modern rail services: examples include the French high-speed trains (TGVs) and 'bullet trains' in Japan, linking major centres of population. Some fast, cost-effective trans-continental services are also available, such as the Eurostar service (linking London with Paris, Brussels and other major European cities via the Channel Tunnel).

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ƒ Luxury train journeys, picking up on a niche market for luxury and nostalgia for the great era of rail travel. 'Great Train Journeys of the Wo rld' include the Venice-Simplon Orient Express (offering various routes from London, Paris via Vienna or Venice to Istanbul) and the Trans- Siberian Express (across Russia from Moscow to the Pacific port of Vladivostok); the Trans- Canada and Rocky Mountaineer (Canada); and tran s-continental services across Australia (the Indian Pacific east-west between Perth and Sydney, and The Ghan north-south between Adelaide and Darwin). Most of these trains offer scheduled services, but also luxury, tourism-focused services (with packaged stopovers and tours, luxury sleeping berths, restaurant facilities, viewing cars and so on). There are also a number of 'pri vate' (chartered) train tours running in Africa, India and Vietnam, taking advantage of colonial infrastructure (and in some cases, historic private trains).

ƒ Local 'special interest' trains, offering short trips mainly for novelty, or for railway enthusiasts. Examples include the steep train journey from Cuzco to Aguas Calientes (with access to Macchu Picchu) in Peru; and the 'Gulflander' and 'Savan nahlander' historic train lines in Northern Queensland, Australia.

ACTIVITY 4 30 minutes Do some research into one of the fast train services and/or one of the luxury rail journeys, and make some notes on the routes they serve, and the attractions they offer.

If you have acces to the Internet, you could start at:

Link: www.eurostar.com

Link: www.orient-express.com

Or Google 'great train journeys of the world'. Or ask your nearest travel agent for a brochure.

5.2 Suitability of rail travel

Train services are limited to the available network of tracks – and as we mentioned in Section 2.2, the development and maintenance of rail networks has always been constrained by geographic factors such as mountain ranges and marshes. Given the declining use of rail, it is difficult to justify investment in converting or developing long-distance routes for high-speed travel.

Rail is now perhaps most suitable for two main 'niche' client gr oups:

ƒ Pensioners and young people travelling on cheap discounted tickets or rail passes

ƒ Older people and rail enthusiasts, who can afford the luxury of nostalgic rail tours on the great railways of the world.

Advantages of travelling by train Disadvantages of travelling by train

ƒ Faster average speed than the passenger ƒ Limited network and range of routes: generally car requires inter-modal transfers ƒ Greater carrying capacity than car or bus ƒ Slow for long-distance travel compared to air ƒ Cost-competitive over short journeys ƒ Expensive (compared to air and coach) over ƒ Convenient inter-city and urban travel long distances ƒ Avoids traffic congestions, driver fatigue ƒ Few start/end-point formalities and waiting time (compared to air travel) ƒ Combines accommodation/restaurant facilities, scenic touring and transport (especially over long journeys)

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6 Sea travel and cruising

6.1 Sea travel

Sea travel includes transport by diverse sea-going vessels, such as ferries (and their higher-speed equivalents, hovercrafts and hydrofoils); oc ean-going ships (or liners); and yachts, canal boats and other smaller craft (which are generally used more for leisure and tourism than for transport).

Before the popularisation of air travel (in the mid 20th century), passenger shipping was the dominant mode of transport for intercontinental travel, linking Europe, the Americas, Africa, the Far East and Australasia. Competition from cheaper, faster air travel has caused a major decline in direct passenger shipping (ocean-going liners).

The only significant roles for sea travel in passenger transit, nowadays, may be:

ƒ Short sea crossings by ferry between island groups (such as the Greek Islands, the Philippines) or between islands and mainland (such as the Scottish Highlands and Islands, or the English Channel). Public scheduled ferry services offer inexpensive and reliable services for short sea crossings, for everyday travel and tourism: some offer 'roll-on, roll-o ff' facilities for cars. Popular ferry services in the UK including the Dover-Calais English Channel route, and services linking the UK with Ireland, Scandinavia and Spain.

ƒ Urban commuter and tourist ferry services in canal-, island- or harbour-based cities (such as Venice in Italy, Sydney in Australia, or Rio de Janeiro in Brazil).

The decline of passenger shipping has, however, prompted shipping lines to diversify into cruise shipping.

6.2 Cruising

Cruising is one key example of tourism in which the journey and mode of transportation, rather than a particular destination, is the focus of the holiday. The cruise ship offers accommodation, restaurant and bar, entertainment and sports facilities – all of which can be enjoyed while travelling between ports of call.

Cruising used to be targeted at an exclusive (and predominantly 'grey' or mature-aged) niche market, but it is currently experiencing a revival, thanks to:

ƒ New-generation ships: both large-capacity 'floating hotels' (or 'floating entertai nment complexes') and smaller, more specialised vessels for cultural, adventure and expeditionary cruising (eg arctic expedition vessels, feluccas on the Nile, restored 'tall ships' and so on)

ƒ Mass-market tour operators offering cruise holidays at affordable prices to a new group of customers Source: www.elitechoice.org ƒ Themed and special-interest cruises to attract niche markets

ƒ 'Fly-cruise' holiday arrangements, enabling tourists to fly to and/or from the start- or end-point ports of their cruise. It is possible, for example, to fly from London to New York and cruise back on a luxury cruise liner such as the Queen Elizabeth II (QE2) – or to fly to any port of call, join a segment of a cruise, and then fly back.

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Most larger cruise ships now offer a wide range of facilities and activities: gym, spa, swimming pool and sun decks, library, guest lecturers and port talks, movies and live entertainment, restaurants, buffets and bars, and so on.

ACTIVITY 5 30 minutes Do some research into the various types of cruises available, and where they go. You will see many press advertisements for cruising at peak seasons: keep cuttings of any articles, reviews or advertisements that interest you. Gather some varied cruise brochures from your local travel agent and browse.

6.3 Major cruising areas

Apart from 'round-the-world' cruises, the most popular cruising areas are the Caribbean, the Mediterranean and the South China Sea/Pacific Ocean. Each of these offers:

ƒ Frequent, varied opportunities for shore excursions and scenic and cultural tourism, including coast lines and islands

ƒ Sheltered, relatively calm waters, being largely enclosed by sheltering land mass

ƒ Sub-tropical or Mediterranean climates (which will be discussed in Chapter 7, but basically offer fairly dependably warm, dry, sunny cruising seasons)

ƒ Accessibility to major tourist generation areas (the American, European and Australasian/Japanese markets respectively).

Spectacular northern coastlines (eg Alaska, British Columbia and the Norwegian fjords) and enclosed seas (eg the Baltic) may be attractive in the summer months. New cruising routes are also being pioneered around the coast of South America (including special attractions such as the Galapagos Islands), and the Southern Ocean (Antarctica).

Let's look at each of the major cruising areas in a little more detail.

6.3.1 The Caribbean The Caribbean has been the most important cruising region since the late 1950s, particularly for the American tourist market.

Tropical cyclones and hurricanes periodically devastate islands such as Jamaica – and, most recently, the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti has ruled Labadee out as a viable port of call for some time. Nevertheless, Caribbean cruising is seen as dependable and safe, and the island economies depend significantly on tourism revenue for continued development. Source: http://floridatravelandtourismbureau.com The region also features the Panama Canal, which enables international shipping (including cruise liners) to cross Central America's narrowest point, from the Atlantic Ocean (and Caribbean cruising region) to the Pacific Ocean (and its cruising areas) and vice versa.

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Typical ports of call Attractions Activities

Main point of departure: Miami, Warm, sunny climate during Shore excursions: island history Florida cruising season and culture Bridgetown, Barbados Beaches On-shore adventure activities, Nassau, Bahamas Historic towns and plantations such as snorkelling, scuba Hamilton, Bermuda diving Kingston or Ocho Rios, Jamaica Scenic attractions (highlands, George Town, Gran Cayman waterfalls, rainforest) St John's, Antigua Havana, Cuba Cartagena, Colombia Cozumel, Mexico

6.3.2 The Mediterranean The Mediterranean cruise industry has suffered several setbacks in its long history, including: the threat of war (eg the Suez Crisis in 1956-7), the Second World War (1939-45), and modern terrorism (including the hijacking of the cruise ship Achille Lauro in 1985-6). Nevertheless, an increasing variety of short and long cruise circuits continues to be popular, offering a taste of different landscapes, national cultures, languages and cuisines.

The main Mediterranean cruise circuits include:

ƒ The Western Mediterranean: southern France (with ports of call such as Marseilles, Nice, Canne, St Tropez and Villefranche); Spain and its islands (Barcelona, Ibiza, Majorca); Portugal (Lisbon); Monaco (Montecarlo); western Italy and its islands (Sorrento, Portofino, Naples, Capri, Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia); and the islands of Malta and Gibraltar.

ƒ The Eastern Mediterranean: often starting from the major ports of Venice or Genoa (Italy) or Piraeus (Greece) and taking in eastern Italy, Croatia (Dubrovnik); Turkey (Izmir, Kusadasi and Istanbul on the Black Sea); the coast and islands of Greece in the Aegean Sea (Athens, Mykonos, Rhodes, Santorini); the islands of Corfu, Crete and Cyprus; and possibly gateways to the Holy Land (via Israeli ports of Haifa and Jerusalem) and Egypt (via Alexandria, and the Suez Canal connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea).

ƒ North Africa – including Egypt (Alexandria), Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Casablanca) – and the Canary Islands just off the north-west coast of Africa (including Gran Canaria, Tenerife, Lanzarote, La Palma and Fuerteventura). This circuit is most popular in winter, as the summer heat can be oppressive.

Obviously, the attractions and activities offered by cruising in such large – and varied – areas will be too numerous to discuss here. We strongly advise you to have fun looking at travel and cruise brochures and websites for more information, if you are interested! Broadly, however, the Mediterranean offers strong

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historical, cultural and scenic attractions; a rich diversity of languages and cuisines; and a warm, temperate climate for sun and sand activities. Shore excursions offer a variety of cultural and leisure activities – and the potential for connections or tours to major inland tourist sites in Europe and North Africa. 6.3.3 South China Sea and Pacific The South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean, touching the coastlines of China (including the major ports of Macau and Hong Kong), Taiwan, the Philippines (Manila), Malaysia, The Sultanate of Brunei, Borneo, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. Cruises of the area usually start in either Hong Kong or Singapore. Cruises in this area offer fascinating cultural and culinary experiences, but there has also been an escalating threat of piracy in some areas.

The wider Pacific cruise business is largely geared to the Australasian and Japanese market. Pacific cruises usually embark from Australian or New Zealand Ports, and take in areas such as New Zealand, the eastern

coast of Australia (including the major cities of A South China Sea Cruise: Hong Kong to Singapore Melbourne and Sydney, and the resorts of the Gold Source: http://www.swanhellenic.com Coast, Great Barrier Reef, and Cairns and Port Douglas in the Tropical North), and the Pacific Islands or Oceania.

The Pacific Islands is a collective term for the regions of: Melanesia (including New Guinea, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Fiji and the Solomon Islands); Micronesia (including Guam, Palau, Kiribati and Nauru); and Polynesia (including New Zealand, the Ha waiian Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, the Cook Islands, Tahiti and Easter Island). These islands are geographically very various: some (like New Guinea, New Zealand and Hawaii) with spectacular highlands and volcanoes; some are lush and tropical, and others (coral atolls) relatively infertile. Many offer accessible beaches, warm waters (ocean and lagoon), tropical vegetation and friendly and colourful indigenous and colonial (French or British) cultures. However, some areas (such as Fiji) suffer recurring political unrest, and may be the subject of travel advisories from time to time.

One additional feature of Pacific Ocean cruising that we should mention is the possibility of crossing the International Date Line. Tonga and Samoa have the same time, for example, but are a day apart. Travelling east from Tonga to Samoa, you have to subtract a day from the date. Travelling west from Samoa to Tonga, you have to add a day to the date. (A cruise from Fiji to Kiribati, however, would not involve a date change, because of the 'kink' in the Date Line.)

Cruises usually mark the crossing of the Source: www.worldatlas.com Data Line with a special ceremony. There is also traditionally a 'Line Crossing Celebration' on crossing the Equator, echoing historic initiation rituals on naval ships.

As you can also see from this map, Pacific Cruises can involve large periods of 'blue water cruising' in open ocean, without many opportunities for shore excursions, and this should be taken into account when clients select cruises.

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6.4 Types of cruising

There are various types of cruising and cruises.

ƒ Luxury cruise. Luxury cruise ships tend to be smaller in size than package cruise ships, with a higher ratio of crew/staff to guests (for added service quality), fine dining restaurants, and a high standard of amenities.

ƒ Family cruise. Daytime activity programmes and facilities are specially designed for children of different ages.

ƒ Expeditionary cruising: In areas such as Antarctica or Patagonia (southern South America), the Galapagos Islands, the Amazon River or Northern Australia. Expeditions are typically run on small, specialist vessels, enabling them to access remote, shallow and inhospitable waters. They may carry transport for shore excursions (such as helicopters or inflatable Zodiac craft) and specialist gear for wildlife viewing and other educational, scientific and adventure pursuits. Expeditionary cruises are typically 'escorted' by local or subject specialists Source: www.articlesbase.com (geologists, naturalists and so on) to maximise learning and exploration opportunities for passengers.

ƒ River and canal cruising: eg on the Rhine, Danube or Nile; the Canal du Midi or Panama Canal. We discuss these further below. Essentially the concept is the same as an ocean cruise, but with smaller boats for river/canal navigation, and more opportunities for continuous scenic tourism.

ƒ Themed and special interest cruising: eg art, history and culture cruises; study, learning or enrichment cruises; food and wine cruises; danc e cruises; golf cruises; health and wellbeing cruises; and 'romance' cruises.

FOR DISCUSSION What do you think are the attractions of cruising for different types of tourist?

If you are interested in following up with some research, you might see:

Link: http://www.iglucruise.com/guides-and-faqs

Link: http://www.cruisecritic.com

6.5 Suitability of cruising

As we have seen, cruising is only really suitable for geographic areas which offer a cluster of attributes: attractive climate (in dependable seasons of the year), sheltered waters, and access to varied on-shore attractions and excursions.

Many ocean areas of the world are thus ruled out by hostile climate or stormy seas, or other hazards to shipping (such as ice and icebergs, in polar regions, and piracy in some areas eg off the Sudanese coast and in the South China Sea).

In terms of suitability for different client groups, cruising used to be the preserve of wealthy (usually mature-aged) tourists and honeymooners. However, new-generation vessels and mass-market tour operators have widened its appeal to client groups of all budgets, ages and interests.

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Advantages of cruising Disadvantages of cruising

ƒ All accommodation, dining and ƒ No flexibility of route or schedule, once on entertainment facilities in one place board ƒ Enjoyment of facilities while travelling from ƒ Limited experience of cultures and locations via A to B (varied locations and experiences) brief shore excursions

ƒ 'Home base' for excursions, tours and ƒ Cabins may be small and lacking outside view exploration (no need to change hotels) ƒ May cater for a large number of people: not ƒ Often on an all-inclusive price basis congenial to all travellers ƒ Potential for no-fly holidays (with a circuit cruise)

ƒ Very large carrying capacity of large ships ƒ Comparatively low environmental impact

6.6 River and canal cruising

A river cruise industry has been developed in several areas, where rivers are accessible and navigable, and run through areas of scenic, historic and cultural interest. Cruises may be of short duration (day or half day) for local sightseeing – or a longer tour of exploration lasting many days in river cruise liners, boats or barges, small or large.

EXAMPLE Several major world rivers support a major river cruising industry, including:

ƒ The Rhine: flowing from Switzerland, via Germany to the North Sea in the Netherlands. The middle part of the river, in Germany, with its famous castles and prehistoric fortifications and vineyards, is known as the 'Romantic Rhine', and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river also passes through major towns such as Basel (Switzerland); Strasb ourg (France); Wiesba den, Koblenz, Bonn, Cologne and Dusseldorf (Germany); A rnhem and Rotterdam (Netherlands)

ƒ The Danube, from Germany via Austria (including the capital, Vienna), Slovakia (including the capital, Bratislava), Hungary (including the capital, Budapest), Serbia (including the capital, Belgrade), Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine and the Black Sea.

ƒ The Nile, in Northern Africa. The northern section of the river flows from Sudan into Egypt and the Mediterranean, creating a fertile valley through the middle of desert land. Most of the cities of Egypt, and nearly all the major sites of Ancient Egypt, lie along the river north of the major tourist city of Aswan. Luxor, the ancient city of Thebes, also sits on the Nile, with the famous temple ruins (Karnak and Luxor) on one bank, and the monuments, temples and tombs of the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens on the other. Cruising is a comfortable way to appreciate the extraordinary scenic, historic and cultural resources of the area.

ƒ The Yangtze, flowing 6,300 km eastwards across China to Shanghai. The Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world. The section of the river flowing through deep gorges in Yunnan province boasts spectacular scenery and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river also flows through important cultural centres like Nanjing (or Nanking), one of the ancient capital cities of China. With China and its scenic and cultural riches only just opening up to mass tourism, Yangtze cruising is a growth area (Link: http://www.chinahighlights.com/yangtzecruise).

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Rhine River cruise boat Yangtze River cruise boat Source: www.photography-edu.com Source: www.cruises.about.com

Canal holidays have also been developed in areas with existing waterway infrastructure, offering small boat or barge hire (for self-managed touring) as well as larger vessel experiences.

ƒ The Panama Canal: connecting the Atlantic Ocean/Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean/Gulf of Panama, across the narrow land bridge of Panama (between Costa Rica and Columbia in Central America)

ƒ The Suez Canal: connecting the Mediterranean Sea (at Port Said) and the Gulf of Suez (at Suez), the Red Sea, and eventually the Indian Ocean. This has long fascinated tourists with the sight of large ships appearing to sail across the Egyptian desert.

ƒ The Canal du Midi, in southern France, from the city of Toulouse to the Mediterranean at the port of Sète, via fields and vineyards, Mediterra nean landscapes and historic towns (including Carcassonne, with its massive medieval castle, often used as a film location for King Arthur's Camelot). The Canal has 91 locks (enabling it to climb and descend), bridges, aqueducts and tunnels. In addition to scenic, cultural and gastronomic tourist, if offers self-drive cruising (as well as luxury hotel barges), rowing, canoeing, fishing and cycling (on the tow-path).

Canal du Midi, France Felucca on the Nile River, Egypt Source: www.frenchhotelbarge.com Source: www.leafpile.com

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SUMMARY

Importance of travel infrastructure and services

Transport Networks system Modes

Modes of travel

Air Road Rail Sea CruisingCruisig

102 4: INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT MODES AND NETWORKS

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 According to Faulkes, what are the four main elements of a transportation system?

2 What factors affect governments’ transport planning policies?

3 What is meant by the term 'transport mode'?

4 What factors are characteristic of airports which serve as major international transport hubs?

5 Give two examples of international airports and three examples of regional airports in the UK.

6 Which factors influence the choice of transport?

7 What is (a) a domestic flight, (b) an international scheduled flight and (c) an international chartered flight?

8 Give four examples of the ways coach travel may help serve the tourist industry.

9 Name some of the world’s most famous train journeys.

10 Give four factors which have helped revive cruising as a popular holiday choice.

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 The way, the terminal, the carrying unit and motive power.

2 The needs of an area’s industrial, commuter, residential and leisure traffic. Where tourism is a major part of the area’s economy, this may be a significant factor. Environmental and geographical impacts are also important.

3 The points at which people get on and off transport networks and interchange between them.

4 They are strategically located, ie they are an accessible point from which passengers can connect to other routes and destinations on the network.

They have a wide selection of on-bound transport options. They have large-scale, highly developed facilities.

5 International: London Heathrow and London Gatwick are the most major airports in the UK. Regional: for example, Stansted, Manchester and Glasgow. There are others.

6 Cost (relative to effectiveness ie it may be worth paying more if a journey is more convenient). Speed (duration) Safety Availability Convenience, reliability, flexibility, comfort, utility. The degree to which these are important will vary from traveller to traveller.

7 A domestic flight is air travel within a country. An international scheduled flight is air travel between countries according to a published timetable which does not vary with traveller demand. An international chartered flight is air travel between countries where the aircraft is especially commissioned because there is a known demand.

8 Scheduled services (between cities) Circuit tours of cities and attractions Transfers (eg airports and city centres) Tours, where the journey is part of the holiday, usually on especially equipped, luxury vehicles

9 Venice Simplon Orient Express Trans Siberian Express Trans Canada and Rocky Mountaineer The Indian Pacific East-West route in Australia

10 New generation ships Mass market cruise operators offering cruise holidays at affordable prices Themed and special interest cruises Fly-cruise holiday packages

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 A number of factors affect the length of time a journey might take.

ƒ The length of the journey: that is, the distance covered

ƒ The speed of travel of the chosen means and modes of transport along the transport network (so, for example, a plane will be quicker than a ship over the same journey)

ƒ The number of stops along the way (eg for bus and train services)

ƒ The directness or indirectness of the route: the number of 'legs' or journey components required; the number of different modes and interchanges required; and the availabilit y of transport nodes to accommodate those interchanges

ƒ The time taken to change modes at the transport nodes, and therefore the capacity and efficiency of interchange facilities.

2 In siting an airport, you might look for:

ƒ Sufficient flat land for long runways, hangars, terminals, parking etc

ƒ No tall buildings or high land obstructing the angle of approach

ƒ Supportive climate (steady prevailing winds, infrequent fogs)

ƒ Convenient accessibility to the areas served – but also distance from them, to reduce the impact of noise, pollution, traffic etc. (This is a difficult dilemma for airport development! One solution is to improve transport links to outlying airports. Another is the creation of specialist small-craft airports or heliports in inner-city locations.)

3 There is no answer to this activity, as it is merely a suggestion for your own research.

4 Again, there is no answer to this activity, as it is a suggestion for your own research.

5 Again, there is no answer to this activity, as it is suggestion for your own research. We do recommend that you carry out these activities, though: they are great practice for your research skills – and will provide you with extra material for use in your exams.

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106

CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL DESTINATIONS

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ Sources of information for destination location and appraisal, and advice to clients ƒ The locations of major tourism destinations (including significant tourist attractions, resorts, cities, countryside areas, beach resorts, purpose built resorts, and historical and cultural destinations) ƒ The key tourism features and resources of each of the world's major tourism regions: Europe, Africa, The Middle East, The Americas, Asia and Australasia

Topic list Destination information Europe Africa and the Middle East The Americas Asia The Pacific

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1 Destination information

In this chapter, we give you a 'whistle stop tour' of the main tourist regions of the world, on a continent- by-continent basis. Our focus here is on:

ƒ Some basic geographical data on each country: its currency, language, main exports, capital city and major airports.

ƒ Some basic tourism data on each country: its major cities, historical/cultural destinations, rural/natural attractions and major purpose-built resorts (if any).

Obviously, in a Study Guide of this size, it is impossible even to mention all the countries in the world – let alone all the potential tourist destinations and attractions within each country – let alone cover them in detail. You should be prepared to use this chapter as:

ƒ A reference resource for some basic facts, such as might come up in the short-question section of your exam

ƒ A template for your own research, which you might use to compile similar notes on countries or destinations which interest you but which are not included in our coverage

ƒ A skeleton or framework for your own deeper research, reading and exploration, which you should use to 'flesh out' your knowledge about some of the places and resources mentioned here, focusing on destinations which interest you (or are suggested by your tutor's guidance).

The longer Travel Geography exam questions often ask you to discuss topics 'with reference to a destination with which you are familiar'. R ather than cover destinations in depth here, so that every student is likely to select the same topics for discussion, we have given you some starting points from which to develop familiarity with destinations that interest you, or on which you have found good sources of information.

We have also taken this approach because, for a career in the travel industry, it is often less important that you know Source: resources2.news.com.au something about a destination than that you know how to find out about it. The ability to look up information (and know where to look) is an important skill, and we encourage you to develop it as you work through this chapter and chapter activities.

As a starting point for your targeted research, we have replaced our usual chapter features with:

ƒ Links: starting point reading and websites for various countries

ƒ 'Where to next?' features, suggesting nearby or related destination countries you might research (if you haven't got ideas of your own)…

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes From your studies so far (including our early recommendations back in Chapter 1), suggest three other sources of information that you might use to deepen your knowledge about the travel geography of a particular country or destination that interests you. How would you go about accessing and using each source?

As a follow-up activity, we recommend that you actually go ahead and access some of these resources, for future reference, if you haven't al ready done so!

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2 Europe

2.1 Geography and tourism of Europe

As we saw in Chapter 2, Europe still dominates world tourism, due to a range of geographical, social, economic and political factors.

General information

Physical ƒ The Mediterranean basin: the focal point of southward flow of summer resources tourists. The Mediterranean climate is ideal for most tourism activities. Its coastal resources draw beach and cruising tourism. Due to the enclosed nature of the sea, however, pollution (from urban and industrial waste and oil spillage) is a major issue which may eventually inhibit water activities. ƒ Mountains in central and southern Europe, including the Alps, Pyrénées, Carpathians and the Balkan Peninsula. These ranges offer dramatic landscapes of high relative relief, as well as summer activities (lake swimming, hiking, climbing) and winter sports (major resorts for which are concentrated in the Alps). ƒ Lowlands of the north/west margins. Despite extremely variable and unreliable climate, some tourism is attracted by the major cultural, historic and urban centres that flourish in lowland regions.

Historical/ ƒ Cultural diversity between: individual countries; northern and 'Latin' south- cultural west Europe; western and eastern Europe resources ƒ Surviving monuments, architecture and art treasures from major eras of cultural development: prehistoric (eg Stonehenge); Greco-Roman; Byzantine; Gothic (eg cathedrals); Renaissance-Baro que; Industrial Revolution; and Post- Modern (eg Bilbao's Guggenheim museum).

Transport ƒ Development of regional airports and airlines, taking pressure from busiest routes between major cities and to major southern destinations ƒ The European rail network is investing in high-speed routes, which may see a resurgence in rail transport ƒ On-going removal of border controls (with growth of the EU) facilitates road transport via a network of continental highways or 'E' routes.

Major ƒ Coastal and climatic resources around the Mediterranean basin (increasingly attractions damaged by over-exploitation, pollution and low-cost development) ƒ Cultural and heritage attractions of Mediterranean countries (eg Italy and Greece) and major cities ƒ Mountain areas for winter sports and summer 'lake and mountain' tourism ƒ Major cities for business and urban tourism (and theme parks and other market-based attractions within the urban catchment areas).

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 18 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 6

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2.2 Great Britain (or the United Kingdom)

Great Britain includes England, Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland, plus the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. (The Republic of Ireland, or Eire, is a separate state.)

The main early infrastructure for domestic tourism (eg seafronts, piers, hotels and road/rail networks) was concentrated on the south cost and southwest peninsula (Devon and Cornwall), where the climate was most temperate. Other coastal holiday developments focus on the holiday and day trip needs of densely populated northern regions (eg Blackpool for the northwest and Scarborough for the northeast). This domestic tourism industry has suffered significantly from competition with Mediterranean and emerging long-haul destinations. Source: ww.eye2eyesoftware.co.uk International tourism to Britain is focused on urban areas of London, Stratford-on-Avon (in the Heart of England), Windsor (castle), Oxford and Cambridge (universities) and other historic towns.

General information

Capital city London (England), also Europe's foremost financial city

Language English (with minority speakers of Welsh and the Scottish form of Gaelic)

Currency Pound sterling £ (Brit ain is currently not part of the European Monetary Union)

Main exports Manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals, food and beverages, tobacco

Major airport(s) London Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted, Luton, Manchester, Glasgow

Major cities Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Manchester, Bradford (England); Glasgow and Edinburgh (Scotland); Card iff (Wales); and Belfast (Northern Ireland)

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ London: historic buildings (eg Tower of London, Houses of Parliament, cultural Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace); pageantry (eg changing of the destinations guard); shopping, restaurants, entertainments (eg West End theatre district); London Zoo; museums (eg British Museum, Victoria & Albert); Roman and medieval remains ƒ Castles (eg Windsor, Caernarfon [Wales]), stately homes, historic churches and cathedrals (Ely, Salisbury, Canterbury)

ƒ Oxford and Cambridge: preserved ancient University towns ƒ Stratford-upon-Avon: birthplace of Shakespeare ƒ Edinburgh Festival: summer arts festival

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Tourist attractions and resources

Landscape/ ƒ National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in highland natural zones (eg Snowdonia [Wales], the Peak District, Lake District [Cumbria] and attractions the Highlands and Islands of Scotland) and upland zones (Exmoor, Dartmoor, the Brecon Beacons [Wales], Pennines and Yorkshire Dales); hiking trails ƒ Coastlines: rugged western coasts; smooth south/eastern coasts with long beaches, chalk cliffs and dunes; Heritage Coasts; piers, promenades and boardwalks of seaside resort towns

ƒ Scenic lakes and reservoirs: Lake District, Norfolk Broads, Scottish lochs ƒ Literary landscapes: eg 'Dylan Thomas Country' (Carmarthenshire, Wales)

Resorts ƒ Seaside Resorts: Brighton, Blackpool, Torquay, Scarborough ƒ Theme parks: Alton Towers, Chessington World of Adventure, Centre Parcs

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 27

Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapters 8 and 9

Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 11: London Docklands; Case 12: New Forest; Case 13: Isle of Man

http://uk.franceguide.com

http://www.francetourism.com

Where to next?

You might research Ireland and/or the Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland).

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapters 27 and 28 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapters 10 and 11 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 14: Dublin; Case 15: Arctic http://www.discoverireland.com http://www.visitsweden.com http://www.visitdenmark.com http://www.visitnorway.com http://www.visitfinland.com

2.3 France

Due to its size, France has a variety of tourist resources: different types of coastline and climate; relatively unspoilt rural areas; mountains (the Central Massif, western Alps and northern Pyrénées); historical and architectural sites (including notable castles and cathedrals); and cultural attractions including regional cuisine. Domestic tourism mainly flows from the densely populated industrialised lowlands of the north to the uplands and Mediterranean coast of the south.

The most popular destinations for international visitors are: Paris, the Côte d'Azur (or French Riviera) and the Alps. Paris: Arc de Triomphe Source: virtualtourist.com

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General information

Capital city Paris

Language French (with rapidly declining regional dialects and languages)

Currency Euro € (part of the European Monetary Union: formerly the French franc)

Main exports Machinery and transportation equipment, aircraft, plastics, chemicals, pharmaceutical products, iron and steel, beverages

Major airport(s) Paris: Charles de Gaulle, Orly

Major cities Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Nice, Nantes, Strasbourg, Bordeaux

Tourist attractions and resources Historical/ ƒ The city of Paris, with its major historic and cultural attractions clustered cultural along the banks of the Seine in a small central area: the cathedral of Nôtre destinations Dame; art galleries and museums (the Musée d'Orsay, the Louvre, the Pompidou Centre); the Eiffel Tower; monuments such as the Arc de Triomphe; shops and cafes on grand boulevards such as the Champs Elysées; the Tuileries Gardens; Versaille s; nearby Chartres (with its famous Cathedral) and Champagne region (caves and vineyards) ƒ The Loire Valley: 120 castles (some now hotels) and vineyards ƒ The South of France: Roman sites (eg the theatre at Orange and Temple of Diana at Nîmes); medieval villages (e g St Paul de Vence, Villefranche); walled cities (eg Carcassonne, Cordes); the papal palace of Avignon; cathedrals (eg Aix-en-Provence); museums and homes of famous artists (Matisse, Renoir, Picasso, Cezanne); folklore, carnivals and festiv als

Landscape/ ƒ Coasts: the Channel Coast; the rugged Br ittany Peninsula; the Atlantic natural Coast of Aquitaine; and Mediterranean co ast of Languedoc and Côte d'Azur attractions (French Riviera) ƒ Mountains: the Pyrénées on the French-Spanish border (landscape, ski and spa tourism); Massif Central (mouth of the Rhone valley, gorges, volcanoes of the Auvergne); French Alps (including Mont Blanc, Europe's highest mountain). ƒ Rivers and canals: Rhône, Canal du Midi (South of France) for cruise holidays

Resorts ƒ Beach resorts: Arcachon and Biarritz on the Aquitaine Coast; Nice, Cannes and St Tropez on the Côte d'Azur. (Channel resorts such as Dunkerque, Calais, Boulogne and le Touquet cater for local tourism and day-trippers from England.) ƒ Ski resorts: Bagnères (Pyrénées); Chamonix, Megeve, St Gervais, Méribel (Alps)

ƒ Theme parks: Parc Asterix and the Disneyland Paris resort

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Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 19 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 14 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 19: The French Riviera http://uk.franceguide.com http://www.francetourism.com

Where to next?

You might like to research the 'Benelux' countries: the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, including major destinations such as Amsterdam and the medieval/cultural centre of Bruges.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 25 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 12 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 16: Bruges http://www.holland.com http://www.visitbelgium.com

2.4 Spain

Spain has been the focus of mass coastal tourism ('s un, sand and sangria' tourism) since the Second World War, and is still one of the world's leading destinations. Tourist development is focused on the Mediterranean coast (the notorious 'Costas': the Costa Brava, Cost Blanca and Costa del Sol) and Spain's island possessions, including the Balearic islands (in the Mediterranean) and Canary Islands (off the coast of North Africa).

By the 1990s, the older resorts were showing signs of decline: congestion, pollution, low-cost development and bad publicity due to the predominance of rowdy budget travellers (mostly from the UK). There are on-going attempts to rejuvenate major resorts such as Benidorm, Palma de Majorca, Ibiza and Torremolinos. Meanwhile, Spain began to promote its other historic and cultural attractions, mainly in the interior, to different class of independent tourist.

General information

Capital city Madrid

Language Castilian Spanish (with minority speakers of Catalan, Galician and Basque)

Currency Euro € (part of the European Monetary Union: formerly the Spanish peseta)

Main exports Machinery, motor vehicles, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and other consumer goods

Major airport(s) Barcelona; Madrid-Barajas; Palma-Mallorca (Balearics); Malaga (Costa del Sol)

Major cities Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Cadiz, Malaga, Bilbao, Zaragoza

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Interior regions (Madrid, Toledo, Seville), featuring castles, churches and cultural cathedrals; Moorish in fluences; ancient university towns (eg Salamanca) destinations ƒ Major cities of Andalucia and the south Coast: Seville, Cordoba, Granada (the Alhambra palace), Barcelona (post-modern architecture by Gaudi)

ƒ The Camino (pilgrimage route) to the shrine of St Iago de Compostela ƒ Cultural expressions (bull-fighting, flamenco dance/music); regional cultures, customs and cuisines (Galicia, Basque Country, Catalonia, Andalucia, Valencia); fiestas and ferias (fairs)

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Tourist attractions and resources

Landscape/ ƒ Mountainous regions: Cantabrian and Iberian mountains (north and natural central), Sierra Nevada (south) and Spanish Pyrenees (north east) attractions ƒ Mediterranean coasts: Costa Brava (rugged coastline), Costa Dorada (sandy beaches), Costa Blanca (sandy beaches, entertainment), Costa Cálida (golf and water sports), Costa Del Sol (outdoor activities, access to cultural attractions)

ƒ The Balearic Islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza) ƒ The Canary Islands (Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura)

Resorts ƒ Beach resorts: Benidorm (Costa Blanca); Torremolinos, Marbella, Malaga (Costa del Sol); La Manga (Coast Calida); Ibiza (Balearics)

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 21 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 15 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 20: Balearic Islands http://www.spain.info http://www.tourspain.org

Where to next?

You might research Portugal and/or the island of Gibraltar (which belongs to Spain).

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 21 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 15 http://www.visitportugal.com http://www.gibraltar.gi/tourism

FOR DISCUSSION A British family has been going to the Costa del Sol for many years on their annual summer holiday, but they no longer like it, as the resort is overcrowded and a bit 'tacky'. As the kids are getting older, the parents would like them to have a more genuinely 'foreign' experience.

What sorts of destinations might you suggest as an alternative? What similarities and differences will there be in climate, resources, accessibility and intensity of tourist development?

Costa Brava Benidorm, Costa Blanca Barcelona Source: www.holidays-uncovered.co.uk Source: www.flickr.com Source: www.uah.edu

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2.5 Italy

Tourism has been a major industry in Italy – arguably, since the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages, with cultural tourists drawn to the flowering of art, music and architecture from the Renaissance onwards. Even today, most tourism to Italy may be described broadly as 'cultural', and it is among the world's top five tourism destinations.

It offers a huge diversity of natural tourist attractions (mountains, lakes, coast and climate) and historical/cultural attractions (ancient Roman, medieval and Renaissance cities, art, music and regional cuisines and cultures); seaside, su mmer lake-and-mountain and winter skiing holidays; heath tourism (based on geothermal spas); religious pilgr image sites (Rome, Assisi, Loreto, Padua); sport tourism (football and motor racing); music and opera festivals; rural tourism (farm and villa stays); adventure tourism (eg hiking and climbing in the Dolomites); and trade fairs and exhibitions (hosted in Milan, Genoa, Bologna and Turin).

General information

Capital city Rome

Language Italian (official), German (in the South Tyrol or Alto Adige) and regional dialects

Currency Euro € (part of the European Monetary Union: formerly the Italian lira)

Main exports Engineering products, textiles/clothing, cars, chemical, food/beverage, tourism

Major airport(s) Rome: Fiumicino, Ciampino; Milan: Linate/ Malapensa

Major cities Milan, Naples, Turin, Palermo, Genoa, Bologna, Florence, Bari, Catania, Venice

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Major cultural centres on the north Italian plain (Po Valley), including cultural Milan, Turin, Venice, Verona, Padua, Ravenna and Bologna destinations ƒ Major cultural centres in the Apennines or peninsular Italy, including Pisa (Leaning Tower), Siena (Piazza del Camp, annual Palio horse race festival, medieval cathedral and city hall), Perugia (medieval university), Assisi (Basilica of San Francesco), Florence (Ponte Vecchio, Cathedral/Duomo, Uffizi Gallery, fashion/leather shopping) ƒ Rome (ancient Roman remains including the Colosseum, forum, Baths of Caracalla and Pantheon temple; the Spanish Steps; Trevi Fountain; art galleries and art-filled churches; St Peter's Square and the Sistine Chapel) ƒ Sicily: historical sites including Roman ruins at Syracuse, Greek temples at Agrigento, medieval castle at Catania ƒ General cultural heritage: architecture, art, Roman and Etruscan history, vibrant modern cities (shopping, sport, food and wine, entertainment)

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Tourist attractions and resources

Landscape/ ƒ Northern Italy: the Italian Alps, Dolomites and lake district (Como, natural Maggiore, Garda), with its mountain and ski resorts

attractions ƒ Landscape and rural tourism regions such as Umbria and Tuscany ƒ Coastal regions: the Ligurian coast (Italian Riviera), Portofino, the Tuscan and Roman Coasts, the Amalfi coast (including Naples), and the North Adriatic coast

ƒ Islands: Sardinia (relatively undeveloped) and Sicily (Mount Etna)

Resorts ƒ Coastal resorts: San Remo, Portofino (Riviera); Capri, Sorrento, Positano and Ravello (Amalfi); Lido di Jesolo (Venice); Palermo, Taormina (Sicily) ƒ Ski resorts: Val Gardena, Courmeyeur, Cortina, Cervinia, Sestriere, Madonna di Campiglio

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 20 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 16 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 21: Venice http://www.italiantourism.com http://www.lifeinitaly.com/tourism

2.6 Germany

Germany is one of the major tourist generating regions of the world, especially the highly prosperous industrialised western provinces. International tourism has mainly focused on the Rhineland, the Black Forest and the Bavarian Alps – and major industrial and commercial centres (Hamburg, Bremen, Hanover, Leipzig) for business tourism.

General information

Capital city Berlin

Language German

Currency Euro € (part of the European Monetary Union: formerly the Deutsche mark)

Main exports Machinery, vehicles, chemicals, metals, foodstuffs, textiles and consumer goods

Major airport(s) Frankfurt/Rhein-Main; Dusseldorf-Lohausen; Munich-Reim

Major cities Hamburg, Munich, Cologne (Koln), Frankfurt, Essen, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Hanover, Leipzig, Bremen, Stuttgart, Dresden

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Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Central uplands: medieval towns (Regensburg, Rothenburg: the cultural 'Romantic Road'), cathedrals and universities (Freiburg, Heidelburg), Munich destinations (centre of Bavarian culture, art and music, beer gardens and Oktoberfest Beer Festival) ƒ Major cultural events: Wager Festival (Bayreuth), Passion Play (Oberammergau)

ƒ Rhineland: medieval castles and towns (eg Koblenz, Koln), carnivals ƒ Neuschwanstein castle (built by Ludwig II of Bavaria) ƒ Berlin: Cold War history, the Berlin Wall, night life, former royal palaces

Landscape/ ƒ Major rivers: cruising and scenic drives along the Danube and Rhine natural (scenically dramatic in some regions, and with major historic/cultural attractions resources) ƒ Mountains: central uplands (including the Elbe Gorge, Black Forest and Bavarian Forest), the Bavarian Alps (winter ski resorts) and Zugspitze Mountains

Resorts ƒ Black Forest resorts (eg the spa resort of Baden-Baden and lake resort of Titisee)

ƒ Ski resorts (eg Garmisch-Partenkirchen in Bavaria) ƒ Rhine cruise resorts: Boppard, Rudesheim ƒ Purpose-built resorts/theme parks: Bremen Space Centre

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 25

Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 13

Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 18: Berlin

http://www.germany-tourism.de

http://www.cometogermany.com

Where to next?

You might also research the Czech Republic, the Baltic States (Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania) and/or Eastern European countries (eg Poland, Hungary and/or Russia)

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 26 Source: travelover.files.wordpress.com Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 18 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Case Book) Case 23: Eastern Europe http://www.czechtourism.com http://www.balticsea.com http://www.poland.travel http://www.hungarytourism.hu http://www.russia-tourism.ru

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2.7 Switzerland

Switzerland has arguably some of the most visually spectacular landscape resources in Europe, and a highly professional tourism industry. The high mountain regions account for a major share of Switzerland's tourism: the popularity of landscape tourism creates a summer peak season, with a second (lesser) season for winter sports. We include the country here, as a representative of Alpine tourism. Source: www.zastavki.com

General information

Capital city Bern

Language German, French and Italian (depending on province or 'canton')

Currency Swiss franc, franken or franco

Main exports Machinery, chemicals, metals, watches, precision instruments, agricultural products

Major airport(s) Zurich, Geneva, Basel International

Major cities Zürich, Geneva, Basel, Lausanne

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Sophisticated commercial/diplomatic/conference cities: Geneva, Bern, cultural Lausanne

destinations ƒ Montreux Jazz Festival (Lake Geneva) ƒ Traditional mountain cultures, crafts (eg watchmaking), picturesque old towns (Berne, Basle)

Landscape/ ƒ The Alps, including famous peaks such as the Eiger and Jungfrau (Bernese natural Oberland) and Matterhorn (Valais); major ski resorts

attractions ƒ Large lakes: Geneva, Constance, Maggiore, Neuchatel, Lucerne ƒ Mountain passes: Great St Bernard Tunnel, Simplon Pass and St Gotthard Pass

Resorts ƒ Ski resorts: Davos, St Moritz, Klosters (Grisons); Zermatt (Valais); Gstaad, Wengen, Grindelwald (Bernese Oberland)

ƒ Spa resorts: eg St Moritz Bad and Arosa ƒ Lake resorts: Locarno, Lugano, Ascona (Lake Lugarno)

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 24 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 13 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 17: Austrian/Swiss Alps http://www.myswitzerland.com Where to next? You might also research Austria, with its Alpine resources – and distinctive historic and cultural resources, including the great European cultural cities of Vienna and Salzburg. Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 24 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 13 http://www.austria.info http://www.austriatourism.com

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2.8 Greece

Greece, like Italy, has been a destination for small-scale historical and cultural tourism for many centuries, as one of the birth-places of European civilisation (Crete and Mycenae); the epicentre of Classical Greek culture (the Golden Age of Athens); the founder of Orthodox religion, art and architecture; and a culture strongly influen ced by the Middle East. However, organised tourism only developed after the Second World War, especially in the 1970s, when tourists 'discovered' the Greek islands as a less spoilt, and competitively priced, alternative to the congested and degraded Spanish resorts. 'The majority of tourists to Greece nowadays are visiting for recreational rather than cultural reasons – in search of sun, sand, sea, nightlife and for a substantial number of visitors – the so-called 'Shirley Valentines' – romance.' (Boniface & Cooper, 2005(a) p 251).

Tourism in Greece faces a number of significant challenges including: seasonality (summer sun tourism); geographical concentration (Athens, coastal resorts and islands); negative social impacts (including crime, alcohol and drug abuse); and negative environmental impacts (unplanned development, pressure on water supplies and marine pollution).

General information

Capital city Athens

Language Greek (official), with English and/or French widely spoken; Cyrillic alphabet

Religion Orthodox Christianity

Currency Euro € (part of the European Monetary Union: formerly the Greek drachma)

Main exports Food/beverage, manufactured goods, petroleum product, chemical, textile, tourism

Major airport(s) Athens-Hellenikon; Salonica-Micra

Major cities Thessaloniki, Piraeus, Patras

Athens Santorini Mykonos Source: www.iho-ohi.org Source: www.thegreektravel.com

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Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Ancient Greek states: Corinth, Sparta, Crete, Thessaloniki cultural ƒ Monuments and sites of Classical Greece: temples (eg the Parthenon in destinations Athens); theatres (eg Epidauros); Olympi a (the site of the original Olympic Games); Mycenae (legends of the Trojan War); Delphi (ancient religious site of the Oracle); Marathon (site of the Greek victory over the Persians) ƒ Athens: The Acropolis (fortified hill); the Parthenon (temple); the Agora (market place); Beach resorts (Apollo Coast) ƒ Distinctive architecture (eg the blue and white of Santorini); culture (cuisine, music, costume, dancing); churches and monasteries

ƒ Crete: historical sites eg Knossos, Akrotiri, ancient Minoan cities

Landscape/ ƒ The Aegean Sea: a major cruising area, with access to island/shore natural excursions attractions ƒ Halkidiki Peninsula (north): beaches, yacht marinas, golf courses, holiday villages, national parks (Vikos gorge) ƒ Greek Islands: Lesbos, Samos, Chios (North-East Aegean); Naxos, Mykonos, Paros, Santorini (Cyclades); Kos, Rhodes (Dodecanese); Corfu (Ionian); Crete

Resorts Major resort development on most islands, especially Mykonos, Corfu, Santorini

Issues ƒ Economic and political instability following the global financial crisis ƒ On-going political tensions with Turkey (eg over territorial possession of Cyprus)

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 22 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 17 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 22: Greece http://www.greeka.com http://www.visitgreece.gr

Where to next?

You might also research Turkey and/or the islands of Cyprus and Malta.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 23 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 17 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations Case Book) Case 23: Eastern Europe http://www.tourismturkey.org http://www.visitcyprus.com http://www.visitmalta.com

3 Africa and The Middle East

3.1 North Africa and the Middle East

This region forms the heart of the Islamic world (with the exception of Lebanon and Israel), and religious sensitivities – together with persistent political and military unrest in the region – have imposed some constraints on the development of Western-style tourism, and discouraged investment in infrastructure and hotels. Attitudes towards the status of women, the consumption of alcohol and other matters range from the Strict (eg Saudi Arabia) to the relatively liberal (Egypt).

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Nevertheless, tourism has been developed to a greater or lesser degree in the countries making up the southern shores of the Mediterranean (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt) and the eastern shores (Lebanon, Syria and Israel), with the more recent addition of Jordan (thanks to the world-class heritage attraction of the Rose City of Petra, and Red Sea beach resorts like Aqaba). Further afield, on the Arabian Peninsula, the United Arab Emirates has created a major international destination in Dubai: a vibrant city with state-of-the-art facilities and man-made attractions for the recreational tourist.

We will look briefly at one Middle Eastern and one North African destination, as representative samples.

3.2 Egypt Petra, Jordan

Egypt has a primary place in North African tourism, mainly due to the spectacular cluster of heritage sites of the Nile Valley, which make an ideal circuit tour.

General information

Capital city Cairo

Language Arabic (with English and French widely understood by the educated classes)

Religion Muslim, with a minority of Coptic Christians

Currency Egyptian pound

Main exports Oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals, tourism

Major airport(s) Cairo

Major cities Alexandria, Port Said, Suez, Giza, Luxor, Aswan

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Cairo: major mosques and Coptic churches; Citadel of Saladin; Cairo cultural Museum (housing relics of ancient Egypt, including the Sarcophagus of destinations Tutankhamen); shopping bazaars; nearby Giza (Great Pyramids, Sphinx) and temples at Memphis ƒ Luxor, upper Egypt: Valley of the Kings tombs, the temples of Karnak (Thebes) ƒ Aswan, lower Egypt: Elephantine Island, temple of Abu Simbel, Aswan High Dam ƒ Sinai Peninsula: Mt Catherine monastery (associations with Moses); ethnic tourism (Berbers) ƒ Alexandria: cosmopolitan port city; archaeology (palace of Cleopatra, lighthouse)

Landscape/ ƒ Nile river and valley: major river cruise product (cruise ship or native natural felucca) attractions ƒ Eastern Sahara and Sinai Peninsula: access to desert and oases experiences for adventure travellers

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Tourist attractions and resources

Resorts Beach resorts: Safaga, Nuweiba, Sharm al Sheikh (Red Sea)

Issues ƒ Threat of religious unrest and attacks on tourist attractions ƒ Conservation measures to protect sites from pollution, erosion and tourism pressures

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 29

Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 19

Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 25: Nile cruise tourism

http://www.touregypt.net The Nile Valley, Egypt http://www.egypt.travel Source: www.smh.com.au Where to next?

You might also research Israel (with its major sites, including East Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Jericho, the Dead Sea and Red Sea beach resorts like Eilat), Jordan (with the ancient city of Petra, Roman city of Jerash and Red Sea resort of Aqaba) and/or the United Arab Emirates (with Dubai as a major urban 'playground' for sport, shopping and recreation, artificial island/ski and theme park resorts).

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 29 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 19 http://www.goisrael.com http://www.visitjordan.com http://www.dubaitourism.ae

3.3 Morocco

Morocco has extensive Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, of which the Atlantic is better developed for tourism, with luxury beach resorts such as Agadir: with a hot climate, it is suited to winter tourism. Morocco is also the oldest Muslim kingdom in the world, and has strong cultural assets from ancient times, as well as from its more recent Spanish and French colonial history. The main problem facing Morocco – as with Tunisia and Algeria – is an expanding population, putting pressure on economic and environmental resources.

General information

Capital city Rabat

Language Arabic (official), French (commerce and diplomacy), Berber dialects

Religion Muslim

Currency Moroccan dirham

Main exports Clothing, minerals, chemicals, transistors, petroleum products, food, tourism

Major airport(s) Casablanca-Mohammed V International, Marrakech-Menara

Major cities Fez, Casablanca, Marrakech

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Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Casablanca: financial and commercial centre for business tourism cultural ƒ Marrakech: major souk (markets), gardens (Mamounia Hotel) and palaces, destinations the Djmaa el Fna (main market square)

ƒ Imperial cities circuit: Fez, Meknes, Rabat, Marrakech ƒ Ouarzazate: fortress oasis town on the edge of the Sahara desert ƒ Cultural expressions: Islamic and French colonial architecture, cuisine (spicy stews in clay tajine pots), arts and crafts, leather work

Landscape/ ƒ High Atlas mountains: skiing, trekking, Berber villages natural ƒ Atlantic coast: surfing beaches (largely undeveloped) attractions ƒ Sahara Desert: ethnic and adventure experiences

Resorts ƒ Beach resorts: Tangier (gateway for ferry and cruise ships), Al Hoceima, Nador, Saidia (Mediterranean); Agadir (Atlantic) ƒ Ski resorts: Ifrane (near Fez); Oukäimeden (near Marrakesh) – mostly domestic

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 29 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 20 http://www.visitmorocco.com

Where to next?

You might also research Tunisia.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 29 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 20 http://www.tourismtunisia.com

Djmaa el Fna, Marrakesh Ouarzazate Agadir Source: cheaplatedealholidays.com Source: www.airportdirecttravel.co.uk

3.4 Sub-Saharan Africa

East Africa includes destinations such as Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, popular mainly for safari tourism, due to their variety of habitats for wildlife, from the semi-desert of Kenya (antelope, gazelle) to dense rain forest of Uganda (chimpanzee and gorilla), and vast savannah plains (grazing animals and predators). The main tourist seasons for East Africa's 'big game' areas are Dece mber-March and July- October: dry seasons when animals are concentrated around water holes, the grass is short enough for clear visibility, and the roads are passable.

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Southern Africa includes destinations such as South Africa; Botswana (featuring the wetland wildlife habitat of the Okovango Delta, but now also associated with Alexander McCall Smith's best selling series of novels 'The Ladies Number 1 Detective Agency'); Namibia (game reserves, rock art, Namib Desert); and Zimbabwe (Victoria Falls, River Zambezi canoeing/rafting, National Parks and colonial history). Unfortunately, Zimbabwe tourism ha s large collapsed in the last few years due to HIV/AIDS, crime, political unrest, human rights abuses and the collapse of the economy.

There are also a number of major islands off the coast of South-eastern Africa, including Madagascar (wildlife tourism) and the more developed beach/reef destinations of Réunion, Mauritius and the Seychelles, which represent luxury winter sun destinations for the European market.

We will look briefly at South Africa, as a representative sample.

Kruger National Park 3.5 South Africa (Photo source unknown)

South Africa was politically isolated during the era of apartheid (racial segregation), but has now had a resurgence of tourism, due to its well-developed infrastructure, natural tourism resources and widely spoken English.

General information

Capital city Pretoria (administrative capital: Cape Town is legislative capital and largest city)

Language Afrikaans, English and nine African languages (Ndebele, Swazi, Xhosa, Zulu etc)

Currency Rand

Main exports Gold, diamonds, platinum, other metals/minerals, machinery and equipment

Major airport(s) OR Tambo International (Johannesburg), Cape Town, Durban

Major cities Johannesburg, Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Urban tourist centres: Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban cultural ƒ Ethnic tourism: Zulu communities of Transkei destinations ƒ Robben Island: former prison of Nelson Mandela, now a museum

Landscape/ ƒ The Kruger National Park (Africa's most intensively used wildlife park) natural and other wildlife reserves (eg Kalahari Gemsbok NP, Hluhluwe and attractions Umfolozi reserves) ƒ Coastal beaches (eg Camps Bay, Cape Town; Durban and 'Hibiscus Coast; Plettenberg Bay)

Resorts ƒ Purpose built: Sun City Resort ('golf, game and gambling', four hotels, water park, theme park, entertainment 'superbowl') and Gold Reef City theme park (gold mining) near Johannesburg

ƒ Private game reserves (eg Sabi-Sabi)

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Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 30 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 20 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 26: Safari tourism http://www.southafrica.net http://www.southafrica.info

Where to next?

You might also research Kenya, Botswana and/or Tanzania.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 30 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 20 http://www.tourism.go.ke http:// www.magicalkenya.com http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw http:// tanzaniatouristboard.com

4 The Americas

4.1 The USA

The United States boasts a wealth of natural resources, landforms and ecosystems, spread over a vast geographical area. The western part of the continent is dominated by high mountain chains, including the Rockies and Sierra Nevada. The eastern seaboard has the much lower, forested Appalachian mountains. Vast interior plains lie between these two mountain systems, with great rivers such as the Mississippi. Both seaboards have attractive coastal resources, with warm temperate climates and beaches in the south (California in the west, Florida in the east) and cooler, more rugged coastlines in the north (Oregon and Washington State in the west, and major cities of Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Washington DC in the east).

The United States was the first country in the world to establish National Parks, and this system is still a major resource for tourism. There is a range of opportunities to participate in outdoor activities: hiking, fishing, golf, sailing, skiing and camping.

North America is also rich in man-made attractions, including colonial heritage attractions, major theme parks (including Disneyworld), health spa resorts – and large, vibrant cities with significant museums, art galleries, theatres, shopping amenities, sporting venues (basketball, baseball, American football and athletics), and conference facilities.

Compared to Europe, the annual sun and sand holiday is not a dominant motivator for leisure travel – although the coasts of California, Mexico, Florida and the Caribbean are still major destinations.

General information

Capital city Washington, DC

Language English, and a significant minority speaking Spanish

Currency US dollar

Main exports Highly diversified (depending on region), including: agricultural products, industrial supplies, capital goods (including aircraft, motor vehicle parts, IT and computer equipment) and consumer goods (cars, medicines)

Major airport(s) LAX (Los Angeles); O'Hare (Chicago); Dallas-Fort Worth (Dallas); JFK (New York)

Major cities New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Boston, Philadelphia, Atlanta, New Orleans, Dallas, Houston, Chicago, Detroit, Phoenix, Denver, Seattle, Miami, Honolulu

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Here is just a very small sampling of major destinations.

Tourism area

Hawaii Major cities Capital: Honolulu (Oahu) Lahaina (Maui), Hilo (Big Island), Lihue (Kauai)

Key tourist ƒ Native Hawaiian cultural expressions (eg luau feasts, dancing, attractions crafts)

ƒ Beaches and beach resorts (eg Kanaapali or Napili on Maui) ƒ Coral reefs, snorkelling, diving and marine wildlife (eg sea turtles) ƒ Dormant volcanoes and adventure activities (eg Haleakala NP, Maui)

ƒ Live volcanoes (eg Mauna Loa, Hawaii Volcanoes NP, Big Island) ƒ Pearl Harbour (site of Japanese air strike on US in World War Two) ƒ Vibrant shopping, entertainment and beach life at Waikiki (Honolulu)

New York Key tourist ƒ Urban lifestyle, culture, entertainment and architecture: attractions cosmopolitan neighbourhoods (Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens)

ƒ Metropolitan Opera House, Carnegie Hall, Broadway theatres ƒ Times Square, the Empire State Building, Central Park, Statue of Liberty, Ground Zero (site of the World Trade Centre) ƒ Fifth Avenue shops, Chinatown, Greenwich Village (artistic quarter) ƒ Manhattan Island: Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum, South Street Seaport ƒ Madison Square Garden, Shea Stadium, Flushing Meadows (sports)

Florida Major cities Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Tampa, Orlando

Key tourist ƒ Walt Disney World theme park resort, Orlando attractions ƒ Cape Canaveral (NASA Space Centre) and the Epcot Centre (technology)

ƒ Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park ƒ High-rise beach resorts (eg Palm Beach, Miami Beach) and less developed self-catering beaches around the Gulf Coast ƒ Florida Keys (eg Key West with its Hemmingway associations): swimming, sailing and diving

ƒ Year-round sub-tropical climate

ƒ Miami: gateway port for Caribbean cruises

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Tourism area

California Major cities Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Diego

Key tourist ƒ Redwood, Sequoia, Kings Canyon, Death Valley and Yosemite attractions NPs ƒ Coastal Ranges and Sierra Nevada mountains: vineyards (Napa Valley) and ski resorts (eg Lake Tahoe) ƒ Los Angeles: Hollywood Boulevard, Sunset Boulevard, shopping on Rodeo drive, tours of stars' homes, Disneyland, beach resorts (Santa Monica, Venice Beach) ƒ San Francisco: 'European' culture, the Golden Gate Bridge, Fisherman's Wharf, steep streets and cable cars (trams), Chinatown; nearby beach res orts (Carmel, Monterey), vineyards (Napa Valley)

Waikiki Beach, Hawaii Walt Disney World, Mt Rushmore, S. Dakota Statue of Liberty Florida

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 31

Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 24

Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 32: tourism in New York City; Case 34: Tourism in Hawaii

http://www.usatourist.com

http://www.usatourism.com

Where to next?

You might research other famous American destinations that interest you (Las Vegas, the Grand Canyon, Niagara Falls, the Great Lakes, the Rocky Mountains or Alaska), using the links given above.

You might also research Mexico and/or the Caribbean and/or Canada.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 32 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 25 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations Case Book) Case 33: The Canadian Arctic http://www.visitmexico.com http://www.caribbeantravel.com http://www.canada.travel

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4.2 Latin America and the Caribbean

Latin America is a broad cultural entity, consisting of a number of Spanish-speaking former colonies (including Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Columbia and Venezuela in central America; the Andean countries of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador; and Chile, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay in the South) and Portuguese-speaking Brazil. Most of the Caribbean islands, along with Belize on the central American mainland, were colonised later by the British Dutch or French. For tourism purposes, however, the countries south of the US border may be considered a single region, as they share many cultural and economic features.

The region covers a vast area,

however, with a wide variety of Bermuda geographies, landforms and Source: www.cruisebrothers.com climates, including beach coasts, tropical rainforest, deserts and high mountains (the Andes). Tourism products therefore include beach tourism (Caribbean and Mexico); adventure, ethnic and eco-tourism (rainforest, desert and mountains); cultural tourism The High Andes, Chile (indigenous culture and pre- Buenos Aires Columbian and colonial history); and urban tourism (in cosmopolit an Source: bbytheworld. wordpress.com cities such as Rio and Buenos Aires).

Since we have discussed some of the resources of the Caribbean in Chapter 4 (in connection with cruising), we will select Peru as a rather different sample destination.

4.3 Peru

Peru has the most developed tourism industry of the Andean republics, based on major attractions which are accessible from South American coastal cruises, and which attract independent adventure travellers (both budget and luxury) from around the world. With greater economic and political stability (and, in particularly, the disappearance of the Shining Path terrorist movement), tourism has grown rapidly in

the last two decades. Source: 4.bp.blogspot.com

General information

Capital city Lima

Language Spanish, Quechua (the official indigenous language), Aymara

Currency Nuevo sol

Main exports Copper, gold, zinc, petroleum products, coffee

Major airport(s) Arequipa, Callao, Cuzco

Major cities Trujillo, Arequipa, Cuzco, Chiclayo, Callao

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Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ The City of Cuzco, and nearby monuments of Inca civilisation, including the cultural city of Machu Picchu (accessed via train from Cuzco or the famous destinations walking track 'The Inca Trail'); fo rtress of Sacsahuamán; Sacred Valley ƒ Monuments and sites of pre-Columbian civilisations: Nazca, Chimu, Wari, Inca

ƒ The Nazca Lines (giant figures drawn in the sand of the Nazca Desert) ƒ Native Amazon Indian and Andean indigenous cultures: music, textiles, crafts

ƒ Craft markets and religious festivals ƒ Spanish colonial cities and history (eg the university town of Arequipa) ƒ The Pre-Columbian and Gold museums of Lima

Landscape/ ƒ The Peruvian Amazon rainforest (accessed via Iquitos) natural ƒ The Atacama and Nazca deserts attractions ƒ The High Andes mountains and the Inca Trail trek ƒ Lake Titicaca (the highest lake in the world) ƒ Colca Canyon (the deepest canyon in the world), near Arequipa

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 33 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 25 http://www.peru.info http://www.visitperu.com

Where to next?

You might also research Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and/or Brazil.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 33

Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 25

Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Case Book) Case 35: Rio de Janeiro or Case 26: Ecotourism in Ecuador

http://www.ecuadortouristboard.com http://www.boliviacontact.com http://www.tourismchile.com http://www.turismo.gov.ar http://www.embratur.gov.br or http://www.braziltravelinformation.com

5 Asia

Asia is a vast continent (the world's largest), so it is usually divided into different regions, according to broad cultural similarities, when discussing tourism. The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) divides Asia into the Indian sub-continent and the East Asia-Pacific region (including South-East Asia and the Far East). Many Asian countries have joined together to form the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) to promote tourism in the wider region.

This region offers tourists wide variety in landscapes and cultures (and very good value, due to generally low costs of living) – but also variable provision of tourist infrastructures outside the main destination areas. Meanwhile, few Asian nations are major tourist generators, although this situation is changing, as the economies of the Pacific Rim, India and China show explosive growth.

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5.1 South Asia

Although structurally part of Asia, India is functionally separate from the Asian and Pacific regions: (a) because of its distinctive culture and (b) because it is on the political, economic and tourist 'periphery' of world tourism (while the Asia-Pacific region in general, as we saw in Chapter 2, is one of the 'core' regions).

The Indian subcontinent includes: India; Pakistan; the mountainous kingdoms of Nepal (featuring some of the major Himalayan destinations such as Kathmandu) and Bhutan; and Myanmar (Burma).

The defining geographical features of South Asia include: a monsoonal climate (with heavy rains in summer and clear, dry weather in winter); the band of high mountains which separates the subcontinent from the bulk of Asia (including the Karakoram mountains, Himalayas and Hindu Kush); the Kathmandu northern plains, with major rivers such as the Indus Source: nepal-kathmandu.com (Pakistan), Ganges (India) and Brahmaputra (north-east India); peninsular India (including t he coastal beach resources of Goa) and the tropical island states of Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. There are also pockets of wildlife interest in national parks and reserves, and potential for adventure tourism, especially in Himalayan trekking.

The area also offers distinctive cultural resources including palaces, religious temples and sites (Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic and Sikh), the sites and artefacts of colonial history (the British Raj) and exotic living cultures.

Over half of all tourist arrivals are accounted for by the Republic of India. Elsewhere in the region, tourism has been hampered by strict controls on visitor numbers (Bhutan), political/religious unrest (Pakistan), war (Afghanistan) and extreme poverty (Bangladesh.)

We will look at India as the most popular sample of South Asian tourism.

5.1.1 India 'In extent and cultural variety [India] is the equivalent of Europe, but with a much older civilisation' (Boniface & Cooper, op cit, p 348). It combines world-class resources for cultural tourism with well- developed transport infrastructure (thanks to colonial development) Palace of the Winds, Jaipur compared to most developing countries. Source: www.spiritualjourneys.net

General information

Capital city New Delhi

Language Hindi, official regional languages, English (commerce/diplomacy)

Religion Secular state, majority Hindu population, substantial Islamic, Buddhist minorities

Currency Rupee

Main exports Textile goods, gems and jewellery, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures, tourism, information technology services

Major airport(s) Delhi, Mumbai (Bombay)

Major cities Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata (Calcutta), Chennai (Madras), Bangalore, Delhi, Hyderabad

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Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Religious sites for domestic tourism: Varanasi (Benares) on Ganges for cultural Hindus; Bodhgaya for Buddhists; Golden Temple at Amritsar for Sikhs destinations ƒ Delhi-Agra-Jaipur in the north: Red Fort (Delhi); Taj Mahal (Agra); Palace of the Winds (Jaipur); Rajasthan citi es (Jodhpur, Udaipur, Jaisalmer) ƒ Eastern coast/Bengal: Calcutta, mountain/tea plantation resorts (Darjeeling) ƒ Southern India: Coromandel Coast, Kerala/Kovalam beach resorts, Madras ƒ Western India: Malabar coast, Goa, Mumbai (Gandhi Memorial, Bollywood) ƒ Buddhist and Hindu temples and shrines, British Colonial history and architecture, cultural expressions (customs, cuisine, religious festivals) ƒ Unusual accommodation types: houseboats (Lake Dal, Kashmir), former places of Indian maharajas (eg Lake Palace Hotel, Udaipur, Rajasthan) ƒ Darjeeling-Himalaya railway, luxury rail tours (eg Royal Orient, Palace on Wheels)

ƒ Circuit/regional tours: northern region (Delhi; Agra; Jaipur)

Landscape/ ƒ Coastal beaches (only developed in a few areas such as Goa) natural ƒ Himalayan region in the north: trekking, mountain climbing and river attractions running ƒ Wildlife resources and ecotourism: national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (eg Kanha National Park, setting for Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book)

Resorts ƒ Beach resorts: Malabar Coast/Goa, Kerala, Kovalam, Tamil Nadu

ƒ Mountain resorts: Darjeeling

Issues ƒ Political unrest in some areas (eg Kashmir), due to separatist movements, border disputes (with China, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh) and religious insurgency ƒ Inadequate infrastructure (water/power supplies, medium-priced accommodation)

ƒ Air pollution, noise, poor hygiene, harassment by beggars/street vendors

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 38 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 21 http://www.incredibleindia.org http://www.tourismindia.com

Where to next?

You might also research Nepal, Sri Lanka and/or the Maldives.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 38

Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 21

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Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations Case Book) Case 27: Nepal adventure tourism; Case 28: Maldives island tourism

http://www.welcomenepal.com or http://www.nepaltourism.info

http://www.srilankatourism.org or http://www.tourism-srilank.com

http://www.visitmaldives.com or http://www.maldivestourism.net

5.2 East Asia

East Asia (sometimes also called the 'Far East') includes China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. Explosive economic growth in the region has supported the demand for business travel, and also encouraged a growing volume of outbound leisure tourism: China, in particular, is expected to become a dominant force in global outbound tourism.

This is also a growing region for inbound tourism, despite major setbacks from events like the financial crisis of 1997/1998 and the outbreak of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) in 2003. The area offers a wide variety of landscapes and cultural attractions.

We will consider China and Hong Kong as a representative sample.

5.2.1 China The People's Republic of China has only been opened to tourism in the last few decades, and therefore represents an emerging destination with major growth potential, boosted by the hosting of the Olympic Games (Beijing, 2008). Presently, the most important sources of inbound tourism are Japan, Russia, South-East Asia and the USA, with a significant proportion of business travel to commercial capitals such as Beijing, Shanghai and Gwangzhou.

At the same time, explosive economic growth and liberalisation has catapulted China into the list of the fastest- Terracotta Warriors, Xian growing tourist-generating countries. Source: www.cs.adelaide.edu.au

General information

Capital city Beijing

Language Standard Chinese (Mandarin), Cantonese and other regional languages/dialects

Religion Officially atheist

Currency Yuan (in Hong Kong, HK dollar)

Main exports Chep Lap Kok (Hong Kong)

Major airport(s) Beijing Capital; Hong Kong Internat ional; Shanghai-HongQiao and Pudong; Shenzhen-Baoan; Guangzhou-Baiyun; Kunming-Qujiaba

Major cities Hong Kong, Guanzhou, Shanghai, Tianjin, Wuhan, Chongqing, Chengdu, Harbin

132 5: INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL DESTINATIONS

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Northern China: city of Beijing (Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Ming cultural Tombs, Tiananmen Square, Olympic sites, urban attractions); Terracotta destinations Warriors (Xian); Great Wall of China; Chengde (ga rdens, palaces, pagodas); ƒ East-central China and Szechwan: River Yangtze (cruises, Three Gorges Dam); city of Shanghai (business centre, restored waterfront Bund); historic cities (Nanjing, Wuxi, Suzhou) ƒ Western China: train journeys of the Silk Road; Tibet (Buddhist monasteries, city of Lhasa) ƒ Diverse Chinese cultural expressions: traditional architecture, ancient craft industries, distinctive landscapes, music, dance, theatre, cuisine ƒ Hong Kong: urban attractions, commercial centre, shopping, man-made attractions (eg Sung Dynasty Village, Middle Kingdom, Ocean Park, Space Museum)

Landscape/ ƒ Yangtze, Xi and Yellow River cruises

natural ƒ Himalayas of Tibet attractions ƒ South China: Li River mountain scenery (inspiration for Chinese painting); Kunming (trekking/adventure/eco-tourism tours into the hill country of Yunnan); tropical island of Hainan (winter sun destination)

Issues ƒ Air and water pollution (eastern China) ƒ Poor record of environmental protection and human rights (eg in Tibet)

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 36 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 22 http://www.cnto.org

Where to next?

You might also research Japan.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 36 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 22 http://www.jnto.go.jp http://www.japantravelinfo.com

5.3 South East Asia

The South-East Asian region includes a wide range of continental and island states from Burma to the Philippines, including:

ƒ Singapore: one of the most prosperous and stable countries in Asia, with strong wildlife, cultural and conference/business resources

ƒ Malaysia: the beaches of Penang, diving in the Langkawi Islands, spa tourism in Pangkor, mountain and rainforest reserves

ƒ Indonesia: Java, Sumatra, Lombok and the honey pot beach and entertainment resorts of Bali Singapore

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ƒ The Philippines: the urban centre of Manila, rice terraces of Banaue, diving at Palawan, ecotourism of Mindanao

ƒ Cambodia: a world-class heritage attraction in the temple city of Angkor Wat (Khmer empire, 9th-13th century)

ƒ Vietnam: sites of the Vietnam War, spectacular coastline, forested mountains, Mekong and Red River deltas, rich cultural heritage focused on the cities of Hanoi, Hue and Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City)

ƒ Thailand: considered further below, as a representative sample of the region.

Most of South-East Asia lies within the tropics, with warm to hot weather Vietnam throughout the year, and variable rainy seasons and monsoon winds (which impact on beach tourism seasons). Mountain resorts, established to provide relief from the oppressive heat and humidity during the colonial era, are mainly important for domestic tourism. Major coastal beach resorts are more important for the international tourist market.

The region also features a number of remaining traditional tribal societies, including the hill tribes of northern Thailand, the forest-dwellers of Malaysia and the indigenous peoples of Western Papua. These cultures provide a rich – but fragile – resource for ethnic tourism.

5.4 Thailand

Thailand (formerly Siam) is the only South-East Asian country not to have been a western colony – but it has also been most developed for, and affected by, Western-style tourism (Boniface & Cooper, op cit). The majority of international tourists arrive by air on inclusive tours (from generating areas such as Western Europe, North America, Japan and Australia), with a substantial proportion of business travellers to the city of Bangkok. Phuket

General information

Capital city Bangkok

Language Thai, Chinese, English (second language of elite), regional dialects

Religion Predominantly Buddhist

Currency Baht

Main exports Textiles, footwear, fishery products, rice, rubber, jewellery, cars, computers and electrical appliances

Major airport(s) Bankgok-Don Muang; Chiangmai; Phuket

Major cities Nonthanburi, Chiangmai

134 5: INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL DESTINATIONS

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Bangkok and central lowlands: western-style hotels, floating markets, cultural Buddhist temples/monasteries (wats) and shrines, shopping (silk and destinations handicrafts), Grand Palace, Pattaya beach, Rose Garden Country Resort; 'Bridge over the River Kwai' war site to the west ƒ Chiangmai and northern mountain region: centre for Thai culture, gateway for ethnic tourism to the hill tribes

Landscape/ ƒ Beach resources, eg Phuket, Koh Samui, Pattaya natural ƒ Phi-Phi Islands marine reserve (location for film The Beach) attractions ƒ Northern mountains: trekking and adventure tourism

Resorts ƒ Beach resorts: eg Phuket Island, Pattaya Beach ƒ Rose Garden Country Resort (near Bangkok): cultural shows (dances, ceremonies, Thai boxing etc)

Issues Periodic political turmoil and violent protest

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 37 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 17

Where to next?

You might also research destinations such as Indonesia (Bali), Singapore, Malaysia and/or Vietnam.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 37 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 22 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations Case Book) Case 29: Bali tourism in crisis http://www.tourismindonesia.com or http://www.balitourismboard.org http://www.newasia-singapore.com or http://www.stb.gov.sg http://www.tourism.gov.my http://www.vietnamtourism.com

6 The Pacific

6.1 The Pacific region

As we saw in Chapter 1, the Pacific Ocean covers about a quarter of the Earth's surface. This creates a vast and various tourism region, including:

ƒ The ' Pacific Rim': east and south east Asia to the west; the coasts of North, Central and South America on the east; and Australasia (Australia and New Zealand) to the south west.

ƒ The Pacific Islands: island states and groups scattered across the vast expanse of the ocean. Most of these islands are tiny, with small populations that generate little travel. However, as destinations, they represent stopover or transit destinations for cross-Pacific passengers, cruise destinations, and tropical beach/island holiday destinations. Tongariro NP, New Zealand Source: www.nationalgeographic.com

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ƒ Antarctica, with its unique wildlife, rugged glacial scenery and explorer heritage (Amundsen, Scott and Shackleton). This is a fundamentally hostile and inaccessible region, exploited mainly through expeditionary cruising and flight-seeing (fly-over sightseeing) tours from New Zealand and Melbourne, Australia.

The Pacific Islands include the Hawaiian Islands (one of the states of the USA, and the main Pacific island destination); Micronesia (between Japan and the Philippines, including Kiribati, Palau and Guam); Melanesia (north-east of Australia, including Papua, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Fiji); Polynesia (central South Pacific, including Tuval u, Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tonga, Easter Island and the Galapagos Islands off Ecuador).

This region has significant climatic and natural resources. 'The South Sea Islands image of blue lagoons, palm-fringed coral beaches, lush scenery and hospitable islanders has a powerful

appeal to would-be escapists from the industrialised societies of Easter Island (Rapa Nui) the West. So far, the great distances separating the Pacific Islands from the tourist-generating countries has prevented the development of mass tourism, based on sun, sand and sea [other than Hawaii].

However, we will look at Australia as our sample of a major international destination in the area.

6.2 Australia

Australia has been a major destination for migration for over a century, but – due to its distance from other tourism generating areas – has only become important as a holiday destination in recent decades.

Like the USA, Australia is a federation of states covering a vast area, so its resources for international and domestic tourism are very various. Inbound tourism is still focused on relatively few destinations, including the major cities of Sydney and Melbourne, the Great Barrier Reef and the beaches of the Gold Coast, and the major natural heritage site of Uluru (Ayers Rock) in central Australia.

However, the country also has industrial heritage (gold rush and mining towns), unique flora and fauna (including famous species such as the kangaroo, koala, wombat and platypus), extensive coastlines, world-class wine regions, rural ('Outback') culture and varied landscapes (deserts, mountains, wetlands, rainforests and coral reefs). It also boasts a number UNESCO World Heritage sites, including Kakadu National Park, Uluru, The Great Barrier Reef, the Blue Mountains and the Tasmanian Wilderness.

General information

Capital city Canberra, Australian Capital Territory (Note: not Sydney!)

Language English

Currency Australian dollar

Main exports Coal, gold, meat, wool, alumina, iron ore, wheat, machinery, transport equipment

Major airport(s) Sydney International; Melbourne International

Major cities State capitals: Sydney (New South Wales); Melbourne (Victoria); Brisba ne (Queensland); Adelaide (South Australia); Perth (Western Australia); Darwin (Northern Territory); Hobart (Tasmania).

136 5: INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL DESTINATIONS

Tourist attractions and resources

Historical/ ƒ Sites, monuments and architecture of penal colony and colonial history cultural (eg Port Arthur penal settlement, gold rush towns) destinations ƒ Hunter Valley wine region ƒ Ethnic tourism: opportunities to encounter indigenous Aboriginal culture and art

ƒ Vibrant urban culture, shopping and entertainment of major cities

Landscape/ ƒ Sydney Harbour (Manly and Bondi beaches, Harbour Bridge, Sydney natural Opera House) attractions ƒ Recreational/surfing beaches (most developed along the east coast) 'Outback' Australia: arid and desert regions and unique rural communities ƒ Uluru, Kata Tjuta, Katherine Gorge and Kakadu NP in the Northern Territory

ƒ The Great Barrier Reef, and island resorts (Qld) ƒ The Blue Mountains National Park and mountain towns (NSW)

ƒ World Heritage Wilderness, Cradle Mountain (Tasmania) ƒ Adventure: horse riding, hiking, white water rafting, ballooning, outback cycling etc

Resorts ƒ Surfers Paradise and theme parks on the 'Gold Coast' (Queensland) ƒ Ski resorts (eg Thredbo, Perisher in the Snowy Mountains) ƒ Barrier Reef Resorts (eg Hayman Island)

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 34 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 23 Boniface & Cooper ( Worldwide Destinations Casebook), Case 30: Kangaroo Island; Case 31: The Gold Coast http://www.australia.com http://www.tourism.australia.com

Blue Mountains, NSW Great Barrier Reef Uluru Sydney Harbour Where to next?

You might also research New Zealand and/or some of the Pacific Island groups that interest you, such as Micronesia, Melanesia or Polynesia.

Links: Burton (Travel Geography), Chapter 35 Boniface & Cooper (Worldwide Destinations), Chapter 23 http://www.newzealand.com http://www.south-pacific.travel or http://www.pacific-travel-guides.com

137 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

SUMMARY

138 5: INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL DESTINATIONS

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 Which of the world’s regions continues to dominate tourism, and why?

2 Give three countries in Europe it would be possible to visit without changing currency.

3 Of the European countries listed in this chapter, which four offered ski resorts?

4 What factors may have hindered the development of Africa and the Middle East as major tourist centres?

5 What is the most popular tourist destination in Northern Africa, and why?

6 What are the most popular tourist draws in Sub-Saharan Africa?

7 List some of the outdoor activities available in North America’s National Parks?

8 Latin America is comprised of which countries?

9 What are the defining geographical features of South Asia?

10 What is the main religion in Thailand?

11 Where in the world would you go if your holiday dream was sleepy blue lagoons, palm fringed beaches, lush scenery and friendly islanders?

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Europe. Remember (from Chapter 1) this is one of the world’s core economic regions, with a highly developed infrastructure to support tourist activity. It is also rich in historical and cultural attractions and has a range of physical resources to support sightseeing and recreation.

2 France, Spain and Italy are among the countries you may have chosen or any others in the eurozone.

3 France, Switzerland, Germany and Italy.

4 Religious sensitivities, little investment in infrastructure, attitudes towards women/alcohol.

5 Egypt, from the cultural heritage sites dating back to the ancient civilisation.

6 The game reserves in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.

7 Hiking, fishing, golf, sailing, skiing and camping.

8 Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil.

9 Monsoonal climate. Band of high mountains dividing subcontinent from the main part of Asia The northern plains The rivers such as the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra Peninsular India, including the coastal resort of Goa Tropical island states such as Sri Lanka and The Maldives

10 Buddhism. The temples, monasteries and shrines are among the main cultural attractions.

11 The Pacific Islands – some examples are Hawaii, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Easter Island and the Galapagos Islands.

140 5: INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL DESTINATIONS

ANSWER TO ACTIVITY

1 You might also gather travel brochures (usually obtainable free of charge from travel agents and their websites) and travel guides to different tourist regions. These offer a range of data relevant to tourism, focused on major destinations and attractions – and since they address particular regions, they are easy to identify as a source of information for particular destinations or countries you are interested in.

Most countries and regions have a tourist information bureau or other organisation promoting tourism. There may be an office near you where you can gather information – but most organisations will also have a website. Simply Google 'Tourism [c ountry/destination]' and see what you find.

Travel journalism (in the travel sections of quality newspapers) are also a source of good information on destinations, but they are more random in their coverage. You will have to look out for features or articles on areas that interest you, and take 'cuttings' or copies for your study file.

Almanacs, atlases and encyclopedias are also useful, particularly in free-access on-line versions such as www.infoplease.com or http://go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm.

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142

CHAPTER 6 THE RANGE AND APPEAL OF TOURISM DESTINATIONS

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ The nature of 'destinations' and the 'attractions' that influence destination choice ƒ The factors that lead to particular places becoming established as tourist destinations (including historical and cultural factors, urban facilities, sporting events, and potential for special interest, rural and nature-based tourism) ƒ The types of destinations and facilities that appeal to different types of tourists ƒ The nature of cultural, historic, urban, rural, nature-based and special interest tourism ƒ The drawbacks and risks of international tourism (or particular destinations), and the issues to be taken into account when appraising destinations and advising clients

Topic list Factors in destination appeal Cultural and historic tourism Urban tourism Rural and nature-based tourism Special interest tourism Destination downsides

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1 Factors in destination appeal

We will look in detail at how tourist destinations develop and become established in Chapter 8 (on tourism and destination development). Broadly speaking, however, tourism is most likely to develop in:

ƒ Places with strong potential resources or attractions for tourism

ƒ The sorts of places that tourists want to go to (depending on their tastes and motivations for travel)

ƒ Places which the tourist industry sees as having potential for profitable development and promotion

ƒ Places where the host community supports (or does not resist) tourism development.

The coming together of all four of these factors creates strong potential to establish an area as a popular tourist destination. We will look at the second two of these factors in Chapter 8. In this chapter, we focus on the coming together of the first two factors: what an area offers – and what tourists want. We look at how the resources of an area can be 'packaged' and promoted as a tourism product which is targeted to the motivations and interests of particular types of tourists.

1.1 Tourism resources

As we saw in Chapter 3, tourism resources are tangible objects and attributes which are of potential economic value to the tourism sector: the natural and man-made features of an area which attract visitors – and, once there is sufficient visitor demand, tourism development.

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes To recap your knowledge from Chapter 3, identify some of the resource factors that are most likely to attract tourists to an area, turning it into a 'destination'.

In this chapter, we will add some depth to the list of tourism resources and attractions, as we consider the kinds of features and experiences that different types of tourists might seek out.

As an example, consider the landscape and natural resources of an area. Some tourists may want a combination of scenery and activity, such as a mountain-and-lake holiday, or a river cruise. Others, however, may want to experience rural life (if they are normally city-dwellers, say): the 'everyday' attributes of a rural area may then become tourism resources, as these visitors seek out farm-stay accommodation, horse riding, milking, fruit-picking and other rural activities.

Similarly, if a particular spectator sport becomes nationally or internationally popular, the sporting facilities provided for residents of an urban area may become resources for tourism, with sports enthusiasts attracted by major sporting events, or by the opportunity to tour a famous sporting venue (such as Wembley Stadium, Lords Cricket Ground, Manchester United Football Club or the Wimbledon Tennis Club) or sports museum.

In other words, resources 'make' a destination when they are matched with the motivations of tourists, or particular types of tourists.

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1.2 Tourist motivations and types

Motivation is 'a state of need, a condition that exerts a push on the individual towards certain types of action that are seen as likely to bring satisfaction' (Moutinho, 1987).

As we saw in Chapter 2, tourists may have different 'purposes for visit' (broadly, holiday, business or visiting friends and relatives [VFR]) – and within the ca tegory of 'holiday', they may have widely different reasons or motivations for travelling. Different needs and expectations will lead them to seek different things from travel, and to look for different sorts of satisfactions from the menu of tourism resources available in the world.

'Tourists seek and obtain enjoyable experiences from the world's natural and cultural resources: for example, physical comfort from being in a suitable climate, aesthetic pleasure from viewing a beautiful landscape or building, excitement from theme park rides or gambling. Each individual tourist may be seeking a range of these different pleasures in the course of their [sic] travel, depending on their psychological needs.' (Burton, 1995, p 62).

Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954) suggested that all human beings have five basic, innate needs, which can be ranked in order of priority: physiological needs (for food, water, shelter, warmth and sleep); safety needs (to feel secure and not threaten ed); social needs (for belonging and relationships); esteem needs (for status and respect); and self-a ctualisation (for intellectual stimulation and self- improvement).

FOR DISCUSSION What kinds of holidays and destinations might satify each of Maslow's c ategories of need? If a tourist is primarily motivated by each of these categories, what might be the most important thing a holiday or destination can offer (or not offer) to satisfy that need?

Adapting Maslow's 'hierarchy of needs' model to to urist motivations, we might suggest the following types of tourism to satisfy broad categories of need.

Need Example Tourist activities that might satisfy

Physiological Food, warmth, shelter Adequate standard of accommodation/catering Relaxation: physical rest Sunbathing, reading Activity and exercise Hiking, water sports, horse riding, skiing etc. Health and fitness Spa treatments, 'health resort' activities

Safety Safe, non-threatening environment Familiar destinations, established resorts Relaxation from mental stress/tension Organised inclusive tour, passive entertainment

Social Strengthening social relationships Family holidays, honeymoon holidays, VFR Making friends, finding romance 18-30/adventure group holidays, singles cruise Escaping from social responsibilities Solo holidays, retreats, remote places

Esteem Conforming to custom, fashion Popular/traditional seaside resort Status and prestige Exclusive resorts or activities, shopping Self-respect or the respect of others Eco or ethnic tourism, voluntary service tours

Self- Intellectual stimulation/improvement Heritage, cultural, educational or ethnic tourism actualisation Challenge (risky/cathartic experience) Adventure tourism, thrill rides, extreme sports Spiritual/moral growth Voluntary service, pilgrimage, retreat

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As we saw in Chapter 3, tourists can also be categorised (Gray, 1970) according to whether the types of satisfactions they seek are mainly rest and recreation (Sunlusters) or self actualisation and the desire to learn (Wanderlusters).

ƒ Sunlusters tend to choose a single destination with different or better amenities for their rest and recreation purposes (whether it be sun or snow, landscape, wildlife or shopping), and are quite happy to stay within a familiar social group and culture. Domestic or short-haul tourism, or westernised/globalised destinations are likely to be their preference.

ƒ Wanderlusters tend to choose multiple destinations which allow them to leave familiar surroundings and experience different, more exotic cultures and places. They are likely to be the market for multi-destination tours, cultural and ethnic tourism, long-haul and adventure travel.

Plog (1973) proposed another influential categorisation of tourists on a continuum between an inward focus on oneself and one's own immediate needs (ps ychocentric) and an outward focus on a variety of interests and activities (allocentric).

ƒ Allocentrics are outward-focused, independent, curious and adventurous. They like experimenting, experiencing and exploring new places, cultures and activities They are most likely to seek out new, long-haul destinations, and new experiences through educational, ethnic and adventure tourism. In tourism development, as we will see in Chapter 8, they are most likely to be the 'explorers' or 'pioneers' who 'discover' new, exotic and remote locations and types of tourism first – and Source: www.rainforestecotourism.com who move elsewhere once they become developed for the mainstream.

ƒ Psychocentrics are inward-focused, unadventurous and safety-seeking, preferring domestic tourism and well-known, culturally familiar destinations (such as popular resorts and theme parks). In tourism development, they are most likely to be repeat customers of tourist resorts which have already become well established and developed.

ƒ Mid-centrics are the majority of the population who fall somewhere between these two extremes, and are motivated by a range of tourism motivations to experience the vast range of holiday experiences and destinations which fall somewhere between 'new/special' and 'mass/established'.

ACTIVITY 2 20 minutes For each of these UK travellers, match a suitable holiday, and a likely primary motivating factor.

Travellers Holidays Motivations

1 James and Alison are celebrating (a) A few days in Brighton, staying at Education their wedding anniversary. James a 5-star seafront hotel with spa wants to surprise Alison with a facilities weekend away.

2 Jonathan, a tourism lecturer, wants (b) A weekend 'city break' in Relaxation to take his tourism class on a 'field Barcelona trip'.

3 A group of friends wants to go away (c) Five days on the Costa Brava, to Romance together for two weeks on a 'lads' include hotel visits and talks from holiday'. a holiday rep

146 6: THE RANGE AND APPEAL OF TOURISM DESTINATIONS

Travellers Holidays Motivations

4 Joanne is exhausted. Her mother can (d) Flight only to Delhi Culture look after the baby so she can 'get away' f or a few days with her husband.

5 Vikas and Raj have been studying in (e) A weekend in Paris, including a Social London and have not seen their boat trip on the River Seine parents in India for two years.

6 Robert has a year's long service (f) Two week half-board package Wanderlust leave and wants to 'escape' the 'rat holiday to Ibiza, with lots of bars race'. and clubs

7 John and Rachel are keen to visit (g) A round-the-world ticket and a Duty (VFR) some art galleries and museums backpack

1.3 The destination product

As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, certain factors must come together if an area is to become a viable tourist destination. Boniface & Cooper (2005(a) p 41) a rgue that, in addition to ' tourism potential ' (favourable climate, attractive scenery, hospitable people, tourism resources) an area must have: ƒ At least one attraction that could be promoted as a ' unique selling proposition ' or USP: something which visitors will value, and which no (or few) other areas can offer ƒ Support facilities (such as transport and accommodation) ƒ Accessibility to major tourist-generating countries (via proximity and/or available transport links) ƒ Favourable pre-conditions for development (such as basic infrastructure, a tourist organisation and a measure of political stability). These elements together constitute the tourism product of a destination: the total package that the destination has to offer visitors. Destination tourism products are a complex package of tangible and intangible components which are developed, managed and promoted in relation to a particular activity at a destination.

Destination tourism products are therefore more than just the physical tourism resources of an area: a ski Core product: slope, beach, landscape or indigenous culture. They

the main benefit represent a whole package or bundle of attributes,

consumers are services and benefits, clustered around an activity at buying the destination: how the physical resources of an area are developed, managed and promoted to create Actual product: the various an attractive total environment for skiing, sun-sand- features and components of the and-sea activities, sightseeing or cultural encounter –

product which consumers get for and so on. their money Marketing guru Philip Kotler (Kotler et al, 1999) emphasised the nature of products as ' bundles of Augmented product: additional services and benefits which enhance or 'add value' to the benefits ' which satisfy consumers' needs, and product in the eyes of consumers argued that products consist of three levels of attributes.

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Let's take a beach res ort as an example.

ƒ The core product would be the sun-sand-and-sea experience

ƒ The actual product would be the beach, hotels, shops, restaurants, entertainments, climate and other resources of the destination. Boniface & Cooper distinguish between the facilitating product (which make the core experience possible), such as transportation and hotels, and supporting product (which adds to the core experience) such as shops and restaurants.

ƒ The augmented product might be standards of service, the overall ambience of the resort, its 'exclusivity' or fashionability and so on.

ACTIVITY 3 20 minutes Consider what would be the core, actual (facilitating, supporting) and augmented destination product of:

(a) A ski resort in an old Alpine village and (b) An African wildlife reserve. (c) Identify the unique selling proposition of a destination or destinations with which you are familiar.

So how can tourism resources be identified, developed and promoted to create attractive and viable destinations for particular types of tourist activities or 'core destination products'?

In earlier chapters, we have alluded to the fact that an area with varied or outstanding historical and cultural resources might become a destination for historical or cultural tourism; that an area with landscape or wildlife resources might become a destination for sightseeing or nature/safari tourism; that an area with a major sporting venue might become a destination for sports tourism – and so on. Let's now look in more detail at some of these major 'typ es of tourism', where tourist motivations/interests and destination resources meet – creating the potential for a distinctive destination product.

2 Cultural and historic tourism

2.1 The nature of cultural and ethnic tourism

Cultural tourism is 'travel with a purpose', whereby visitors primarily seek to experience and learn about a culture (or way of life) different from their own, as well as appreciation of artistic expressions of culture (such as architecture, art and craft, music or theatre).

A cultural destination is a tourist destination specifically known for its rich historical, architectural, literary, linguistic, artistic or musical resources and associations. Popular cultural destinations, in this sense, include London, Rome, Venice, Vienna, Paris and Prague.

In Chapter 3, we looked at a range of attractions usually identified as 'cultural' resources, including:

ƒ Distinctive or different cultures or ways of life, as expressed in the language, architecture, arts and crafts, music and dance, cuisine (food and drink), dress, religion, festivals and social customs of a region, nation or ethnic group. Visits primarily motivated by these 'local colour' attractions may be called cultural tourism.

ƒ The unique values and cultural practices of exotic, traditional, indigenous, non-Westernised cultures. Visits primarily motivated by encountering and experiencing such living cultures, first hand, may be called ethnic tourism.

148 6: THE RANGE AND APPEAL OF TOURISM DESTINATIONS

ƒ Art and entertainment facilities (such as museums, art galleries, concert halls, theatres and opera houses), festivals (music, art, literary, film, opera and so on) and other special events. Visits primarily motivated by these attractions may be called ' special interest tourism', or – if they are part of the broader experience of a major city – as ' urban tourism'. We cover these separately, later in the chapter.

FOR DISCUSSION How keen would you be to have an 'authentic' experi ence of a living indigenous culture, in a remote village or nomadic camp? What attractions would this offer? What might be its drawbacks? (Think about what 'undeveloped' and 'sharing the authentic lifestyle' might mean…)

2.2 Impacts of cultural and ethnic tourism

Societies and cultures are constantly undergoing change, due to economic, political and social factors – most of which are not directly related to tourism. Urbanisation and mining can change rural cultures, for example, while exposure to global media (like the TV and the Internet) can cause westernisation or cultural convergence.

However, tourism may be implicated in a number of potentially negative changes to the cultures of destinations and their host communities.

ƒ Changes in social, political and economic structures to support tourism development (such as the formation of co-operatives and tourist boards, or the involvement of national or international companies)

ƒ Changes in local values and behaviours, as a result of exposure to western culture through tourism (particularly among younger members of the host community).

ƒ Changes in artistic, religious and traditional artefacts and practices, because of commercialisation or ' commodification': that is, turning a cultural expr ession into a commodity, or item for sale.

Artefacts once made for religious or practical use are now made for sale to tourists and wider consumers (as in the case of Global culture reaches rural Peru Australian Aboriginal art and digeridoos). They may be altered to appeal to tourist tastes, or standardised and mass-produced to meet demand.

Performance arts, ceremonies, rituals and festivals may similarly be simplified, exaggerated or changed to appeal to tourists: this is sometimes called the 'Disneyfication' of culture, because it creates a 'cartoon version' of cultural expressions which were once subtle, complex and full of meaning. Examples include bull-fighting and flamenco in Spain, hula in Hawaii, or fire-walking ceremonies in Fiji.

On the other hand, tourism may be positive where its affect is to create interest in cultures, fostering cultural identity and pride, and encouraging research and investment supporting the preservation of dying cultures.

One of the key challenges of cultural and ethnic tourism is to balance the need to protect cultures against negative impacts with the need for economic development, to which tourism contributes through tourist spending, employment and investment. As we will see in Chapter 8, 'sustainable tourism' takes into account the primary goal of improving the welfare of people in rural communities and developing nations, as well as protecting cultural and environmental resources for the future.

149 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Another challenge is to determine who should have a say in the decision-making about tourism development, and how it should be managed. Ethnic groups and host communities should arguably have a voice in decisions about how their cultural resources are protected or exploited.

EXAMPLES In Australia, various Aboriginal peoples have been granted legal rights to their ancestral lands. Among other provisions, this allows the traditional owners to decide whether tourism (and other forms of exploitation such as mining) will be promoted or constrained on their land. They also have the opportunity to control the nature of cultural tourism through Aboriginal-owned tour operations and commercial ventures.

The Tiwi Islands, north of Darwin in the Northern Territory, is one example of an autonomous self-managed area, with unspoilt natural resources, and a distinctive indigenous culture, including unique artistic expressions (woodwork and textile design). Access to the islands is available to tourists through a single Aboriginal- Tiwi Arts, Melville Island Source: en.travelnt.com owned-and-managed tour operator, limiting tourist numbers, offering authentic cultural experiences, and ensuring that the benefits of tourism remain within the community.

A more general challenge of cultural and ethnic tourism is the need for sensitivity on the part of tourists to the cultural and religious values and norms of any destination area. There is significant potential for misunderstanding, offence – and in extreme cases, hostile reaction – due to tourists' failure to understand or observe:

ƒ Local customs and norms of social behaviour, such as the importance of giving and receiving gifts or hospitality

ƒ Local styles of communication, such as the preference for politeness and respect in Japanese society

ƒ Religious values and customs, such as modest behaviour and dress (especially by women, in strongly Catholic and Islamic cultures)

ƒ Religious prohibitions or taboos, such as dietary laws or the consumption of alcohol.

FOR DISCUSSION What other examples can you think of to illustrate the need for visitors to be sensitive to the cultural norms and values of host communities? Why is this important?

2.3 Historic tourism

As we saw in Chapter 3, historic resources for tourism include visible archaeological sites, buildings or ruins of buildings, monuments, fortifications and collections of artefacts from a country's past (eg in science, industrial, craft, transport, military and historical museums) – and also places associated with significant historical, religious or mythical figures and events (battles, massacres, birthplaces and so on).

A historic destination may therefore be a single attraction: a battlefield, museum, stately home, castle or church, say. These

Stonehenge 150 Source: img.dailymail.co.uk 6: THE RANGE AND APPEAL OF TOURISM DESTINATIONS

may be located in remote places, away from modern settlement and transport networks: their quality will have to be high to motivate tourists to make the journey to such sites. (Stonehenge within the UK, or Petra in Jordan are just two examples: you might think of others.)

Alternatively, a destination may encompass the cluster of attractions within a historic town or city (such as Oxford, Cambridge or York in the UK; Bruges in Belgium; or Carcassonne The walled city of Carcassonne in the south of France). Source: www.wayfarer.com Some settlements may have a substantially preserved or restored old town centre or port area, the historical character of which is relatively untouched by modern development in surrounding areas: in such cases, outstanding buildings and attractions will form the main focus for visits – but the 'augmented product' will include the overall ambience and historic character of the townscape.

Conservation policies now often seek to preserve clusters of historic attractions in 'conservation areas': whole streets, districts or townscapes (like Florence, Italy, or Cuzco, Peru, which have strict development regulations to preserve the character and appearance of the cities).

Historic attractions are likely to be important to 'wanderlusters' and more allocentric, educated tourists. Within these segments, however, there may be variation in the tourists' needs and The city of Florence expectations in regard to the 'authenticity' of the destination product.

ƒ 'Special interest ' historical tourists may want to view or experience the resource in its original (or sensitively restored) state. This desire is often supported by owners/managers whose priority is preservation and conservation, such as the National Trust.

ƒ Mass tourists tend to prefer history to be packaged and interpreted for easier and more entertaining consumption, in the form of living museums, historical theme parks, re- enactments, sound-and-light shows and so on. Not-quite-authentic medieval Brittany… Source: www.thetravelmagazine.net 2.4 Issues in historic tourism

As we saw in Chapter 3, historical tourism can have an environmental impact on historic towns and cities, which must be carefully managed by public authorities.

Problem Example solutions

Damage to the physical fabric of buildings ƒ Limiting tourist numbers (by pricing, access quotas or and monuments, through wear and tear limited opening hours) (walking and touching) and other forms of ƒ Physically protecting resources (by fencing, barriers, activity (eg flash photography fading the protective coverings, zoning) colours of paintings or tapestries) ƒ Education and rules for tourist behaviour ƒ Displaying replicas (rather than originals: eg Michelangelo's David in Florence)

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Problem Example solutions

Traffic congestion (especially in the ƒ Park and ride schemes (discussed in Chapter 4) and narrow, winding, sometimes cobbled coach drop-off points (with peripheral coach parks) streets of historic town centres), and ƒ Traffic management measures (one way systems, resulting disruption to local traffic, and traffic lights, parking and access restrictions) air/visual/noise pollution ƒ User-friendly public and tourist transport networks (eg hop-on-hop-off bus/tram circuits)

Crowding and queuing (especially ƒ Pedestrianised precincts around and inside sites, buildings and ƒ Control of queues and pedestrian flows by museums, and in narrow streets) information, signage, ticketed visit times ƒ Self-guided walking trails around attractions, spreading tourism more evenly through the cluster of attractions

3 Urban tourism

3.1 The nature of urban tourism

Urban tourism is tourism that takes place in urban areas (towns and cities), based on facilities and activities provided for local residents and tourists alike. It is distiguished from historic tourism by the fact that historical heritage is not the main motivation for the visit – even if the city has historic features.

Urban tourism includes a wide variety of facilities, activities and experiences: urban sightseeing; cultural attractions (such as art galleries and museums); en tertainments (such as theatre, cinema, concerts, opera, nightclubs); business conferences and trade fair s; special events (festivals, carnivals, sporting events); recreational shopping; restaurants, bars and cafés – and so on, depending on the tastes and interests of the individual tourist.

The urban tourist is usually someone who lives outside a city, and travels to it for recreational or business purposes, or to visit friends and relatives, for visits lasting at least one night.

Some of the resources which make up the total 'bundle of benefits' of the urban destination product include:

ƒ Environmental attractions in the urban context. These will include a pleasant or interesting urban environment or cityscape: architecture, skyline, street layout, open spaces (squares, plazas, pedestrian precincts), public art objects (statues, fountains), industrial and historical heritage, and landscape features (rivers, canals, lake, harbour, lawns, parks). The culture and ambience (language, customs, lifestyles and general 'livelin ess') of the city will also be important. New York City

ƒ Facilities and attractions for tourist activity: theatres, museums, galleries, cinemas, concert/opera halls, casinos, parks, sporting venues, conference venues and so on. These may be clustered in or near the city centre or Central Business District (CBD).

ƒ Enabling facilities for tourism: tourist infrastructure such as accommodation, transport services, parking, signage, tourist information services and so on.

152 6: THE RANGE AND APPEAL OF TOURISM DESTINATIONS

ƒ Supporting facilities for tourism: restaurants, cafés and bars; shopping facilities (malls, markets, souvenir shops) and so on.

EXAMPLE Architecture may be a resource for urban tourism even if it isn't 'historical'. The world's tallest structure is the 828 m (2,717 ft) tall Burj Khalifa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The building gained the official title of Tallest Building in the World at its opening on 4 January 2010. Dubai boasts a number of other architectural marvels. (Try a search of 'Dubai' on Google Images – and be amazed!)

3.2 Issues in urban tourism

Youell (2003, p 252) notes that the development of tourism is often deliberately planned as part of the urban regeneration of declining inner city areas, bringing investment and an employment-and-income- generating use for underutilised buildings and derelict open spaces.

Inner city areas often decline due to factors such as:

ƒ The closure of old industrial manufacturing, warehouse and transport businesses which originally occupied old city centres and port areas: businesses may close down, or move to cheaper sites

ƒ Increasing dereliction, unemployment and social problems in inner city areas

ƒ Migration of residents away from inner cities to The regenerated Manchester Quays suburbs. Source: i.dailymail.co.uk Tourism can provide opportunities and investment for commercial activity, job opportunities, rejuvenation and re-use of buildings (such as old warehouses), and redevelopment of derelict sites (such as harbour docks). Improvement in the area's image and reputation will ideally have a positive 'knock-on' effe ct in attracting further activity and investment.

4 Rural and nature-based tourism

4.1 Rural tourism

Rural (countryside) areas are often used for forestry or agriculture, and although by definition they do not include large urban developments, they contain low-density settlements such as small towns, villages and farms. Tourism may be attracted to rural areas by their climate, natural features, landscapes and/or the rural way of life.

Rural tourism is any type of tourist activity that takes place in the countryside, including farm tourism, countryside events, nature trails and rural attractions (Youell, 2003). 'It is seen as a way of maintaining the social, cultural and economic viability of country areas, by creating employment, generating income and giving farmers the opportunity to diversify into different leisure and tourism enterprises' ( ibid, p 205).

Note that rural tourism is differentiated from tourism in wilderness areas, where wildlife and unspoilt nature are the main attraction: this is more properly called 'nature tourism' (and may also include 'eco tourism') – which we will discuss a bit later.

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Rural tourism may be classified (Burton, 1995, p 88) in various ways, according to:

ƒ Type of activity:

– Sports (skiing, caving/canyoning, watersports)

– Adventure (white water rafting, bungee jumping, hang-gliding or ballooning)

– Health/spa

– Travelling through Source: www.sunsetviewlodge.co.nz the landscape (car/motorcycle touring, cycling, cruising, walking, horse-riding)

– Participating in rural activities and way of life (farm based activities, cattle drives, holiday homes) Source: www.devon-farm-cottage.co.uk ƒ Type of rural resource utilised: eg general landscape, a particular geographical feature for activities (mountain, cliff, cave, lake/river/canal, paths/tracks), mineral or hot-spring spa, farm

ƒ Type and location of accommodation: sports resort, spa/health resort, towns/villages, camp sites, farms

ƒ Tourist industry involvement: low-intensity independent travel; small-gr oup special interest and adventure packages; or mass tourism (generally confined to winter sports, health tourism, coach touring, river cruising).

4.2 Issues in rural tourism

Many rural regions are undergoing massive economic and social changes, which are independent of any changes initiated by tourism activity and development.

Remote rural economies often suffer from low incomes (especially in times of drought), high unemployment, population migration to the cities, declining and ageing populations, lack of infrastructure and services, and lack of stimulation for young people. In such contexts, the development of tourism may make a positive contribution as an alternative or extra source of income and employment, and a focus for infrastructure and service development. However, it may also be seen as a cause of some problems, such as the replacement of permanent residents by temporary seasonal visitors, the degradation of rural landscapes, or the commercialisation of rural cultures.

Rural regions closer to major urban areas, on the other hand, may come under pressure from spreading demand for commuter housing (raising prices and encouraging urbanisation) and from adaption to day-trip recreational use (changing the rural nature of the landscape eg with man-made attractions, traffic, trampled vegetation, pollution and so on).

154 6: THE RANGE AND APPEAL OF TOURISM DESTINATIONS

Key issues in the development of rural tourism are therefore:

ƒ The need to maintain agriculture, forestry and other primary industries based on rural resources

ƒ The conservation and protection of the rural landscape (consistent with the needs of local communities and landowners to exploit rural resources for their livelihoods)

ƒ The social welfare of the rural community (including the preservation of services and amenities)

ƒ The conservation and protection of wildlife, habitats and ecosystems (like woods and wetlands)

ƒ The development of tourism to share rural resources in a supportive and sustainable way.

As we saw in Chapter 3, conservation policies increasingly take precedence over tourism development, especially in areas which are most popular (and therefore most under pressure), like National Parks, Heritage Coasts and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the UK. 'Policies for such areas seek to control the volume, location and impacts of new tourism developments, in an attempt to maintain the quality of the main resource that attracts tourism it he first place: the landscape' (Burton, op cit, p 97).

4.3 Nature-based tourism

Nature-based tourism is the term used for tourism which is focused solely on the enjoyment of natural resources in their wild, undisturbed or undeveloped form.

There are four basic types of nature based tourists (Lindberg, 1991, cited by Burton).

ƒ Hard core nature tourists or 'scientific tourists': participants in educational tours or conservational projects

ƒ Dedicated nature tourist: people who travel specifically to see exotic, endangered or protected areas (such as tropical rainforests, wetlands and wilderness areas), seeking to learn about local natural and cultural history

ƒ Mainstream nature tourists: people who visit wilderness or wildlife destinations mainly because it represents an 'unusual' or adventurous trip

ƒ Casual nature tourists: people who enjoy nature when it happens to be part of a trip with a broader purpose.

ACTIVITY 4 5 minutes Which group or 'type' of nature tourists would you expect to be most tolerant of:

(a) Relatively simple or undeveloped accommodation and other tourist amenities? (b) Larger numbers of visitors at a destination?

Destinations for nature-based tourism will largely be confined to remaining wilderness areas (deserts, rainforest, polar and alpine tundra), National Parks and pockets of protected habitats within more developed regions. National Parks are generally the most accessible areas, with tourist infrastructure enabling access (eg with roads, parking and walking/riding tracks), supporting exploration (eg with interpretive/educational centres and signage) and ensuring safety (eg with Ranger stations and patrols).

Examples of the most visited natural areas include the mountains of the Yellowstone and Yosemite National Parks in the USA; the Great Barrier Reef Mari ne Park in Australia; the savannah wildlife reserves of Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa; the wetlands national parks of Kakadu (Northern Territory, Australia) and the Everglades (Florida, USA).

155 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Growing nature-based destinations (which support smaller volumes of tourists) include: the Amazon rainforest (accessible from Peru, Brazil and Costa Rica); the Gal apagos Islands (off Ecuador, with their unique evolutionary time capsule of rare species) ; and the Antarctic (via expeditionary cruises).

4.4 Wildlife tourism

In the days when long-haul travel was unavailable or expensive, people were content to see wild animals in zoos or safari parks (wildlife theme parks). In recent decades, however, there has been rapid growth in tourism to remote locations (such as Latin America and Galapagos Islands, south and east Africa and Australia) to observe wild animals and birds in their natural habitats.

Swarbrooke et al (2003) outline the range of wildlife tourism attractions as follows: Figure 6.1.

Modern zoos and safari parks Aquaria and marine Traditional zoos attractions (focus on entertainment)

Hunting and fishing vacations Attractions focusing on one type of wildlife (eg bird Wildlife sanctuaries, butterfly farms) Tourism Wildlife-themed holiday packages, safaris Nature reserves with

facilities for visitors

Special-event wildlife tourism (eg seasonal migration of birds Watching wildlife at sea or salmon, turtle hatching) (eg whale- or dolphin- Trekking, walking, riding watching cruises) and cycling holidays in natural settings

Figure 6.1 Attractions for wildlife tourism

EXAMPLE Safari tourism in Africa takes in a wide range of tourism products: budget-priced mini-bus tours of accessible national parks (Amboseli and Masai Mara out of Nairobi, Kenya); luxury stays in government-run national park lodges (eg Treetops in the Aberdare Mountains and Seronera in the Serengeti); and more adventurous camping safaris (eg in the Tsavo National Park).

The negative environmental and social impacts of safari tourism can be minimised by techniques such as: visitor management (seeking lower-volume, higher-spending 'ecotourism' rather than mass tourism); and the involvement of the local Source: www.top-things-to-do.com/africa community (such as the Masai) so that they can drive benefits from tourism (eg selling traditional crafts or giving educational/interpretative tours).

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4.5 Wilderness tourism

By definition, nature tourism seeks out relatively undisturbed natural environments, such as wilderness or wildland areas. However, a distinctive 'wilderness experience' (Hall, 1991) may include: spirit ual experience (eg desert retreats); a sense of escapism; the challenge of overcoming harsh or dangerous conditions; the opportunity to imagine or empathise with the experiences of wilderness pioneers or indigenous people; disc overy and learning; aesthetic appreciation of wild landscape; and also solitude

and isolation, and the sense of awe that that can bring. Antarctica Source: aletorro.files.wordpress.com 4.6 Eco-tourism

Eco-tourism is 'a sustainable form of natural resourc e-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed to be of low impact, non- consumptive and locally oriented (control, benefits and scale). It typically occurs in natural areas and should contribute to the conservation or preservation of such areas' (Fennell, 1999).

The key features of the eco-tourism experience (and destination product) are thus:

ƒ Travel to natural, unspoilt environments (mainly wilderness areas and national parks)

ƒ A focus on experiencing and learning about nature (rather than any adventure activities that may be included in the package: eg low-impact touring methods such as hiking, horse-riding or kayaking)

ƒ An environmentally sensitive and sustainable approach to travel: non-damaging, non- Ecotourism, Laos, South East Asia degrading and where possible a direct contributor Source: www.ecotravel-asia.com to the on-going conservation of the natural areas used

ƒ An ethical and socially sustainable approach to travel: ensuring that local cultures are respected, and that communities control and benefit economically from tourism activity.

We will look further at eco-tourism and the sustainability of tourism in general, in Chapter 8.

4.7 Issues in nature-based tourism

By definition, nature-based tourism focuses on destination areas which are least modified by human settlement and activity. This gives rise to two main issues:

ƒ Tourism may be the only form of economic activity in the region (and therefore the only source of income to support local communities) or it may be the most sustainable and least damaging way in which natural resources can be profitably exploited (compared to logging, clearing for agriculture, mining and so on).

ƒ Tourism may degrade or damage the very resources it is interested in, through construction of tourist facilities and infrastructure, and the impacts of tourist presence and activity: pollution, introduction of non-native plants and animals, fire, disturbance of wildlife, foot/vehicle trampling and erosion, and the consumption or removal of timber, flowers, shells, coral, fossil specimens and so on). The severity of the impacts will depend on the numbers of tourists, their behaviour, the management of the area and the sensitivity of the ecosystem.

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FOR DISCUSSION Most of the ecosystems most valued for ecotourism are, almost by definition, rare, endangered or highly 'fragile' and sensitive to human intervention. Consider four different stakeholders in a significant natural resource: the host community (including traditional owners), the managing authorities (eg National Park manager), tour operators and tourists. What might be their attitudes to nature tourism?

You may like to try conducting this as a debate between four people, representing each of these groups.

The managing authorities of wilderness areas and national parks often seek to control the impacts of tourism on the natural environment. This may be achieved in a number of ways, including:

ƒ Educating tourists to behave in sustainable and environmentally sensitive ways (with rules and fines to reinforce this behaviour, where necessary)

ƒ Controlling the type of tourist visiting the destination (deterring casual nature tourists by keeping the destination hard to get to, or with limited amenities)

ƒ Limiting total visitor numbers (eg with visitor access permits, tour operator licences, or high entrance fees)

ƒ Confining tourist access to limited and less sensitive areas by zoning

ƒ Protecting sensitive areas from direct impacts (eg using Rainforest in Costa Rica railings, enclosures, boardwalks, viewing platforms and so on) Source: www.wildnatureimages.com – which protects the environment physically, but also changes its 'natural' character and its appeal to more serious wilderness tourists.

5 Special interest tourism

Special interest tourism is the umbrella term for tourism which is primarily motivated by a particular special interest (Hall & Weiler, 1992), usually with an experiential element. The tourist is in some way 'committed to' or involved with the object of the vi sit – distinguishing special interest tourism from general relaxation tourim. It includes a variety of tourist activities including cultural and ethnic tourism, nature-based trips, arts and heritage tourism, sports tourism and educational tourism.

'Special interest tourism is defined, not so much by type of activity, as by interest, motivation and involvement' (Hughes, 2000). Many kinds of touris m resources and destinations can therefore be packaged and promoted for special interest tourism, offering visitors learning experiences, encounters or involvement in an area about which they have a special curiosity, or to which they have a particular commitment.

We have already looked at eco-tourism, wildlife tourism, cultural and ethnic tourism, and heritage and historic tourism – all of which may be identified as 'special interest tourism', where the tourist is motivated specifically by interest in these areas, and is seeking educational and experiential engagement with them.

The following are some further examples, which should suggest how resources need to be packaged as part of a destination tourism product for special interest activities.

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Interest Resources Example destinations

Industrial Significant sites, buildings and ƒ Cadbury World, Birmingham (heritage heritage artefacts of the Industrial business and factory – and special interest in Revolution chocolate!)

Industrial and technological ƒ Ironbridge, UK (Industrial revolution museums engineering)

ƒ Broken Hill, Australia (mining heritage)

Art and Art galleries and museums ƒ Louvre Museum, Paris; Uffizi Gallery, culture Florence; British Museum or Victoria and Concert halls, theatres, opera appreciation Albert Museum, London (arts and artefacts) houses ƒ Broadway, New York; the West End, London Arts festivals: music, opera, (theatre) literary, dance ƒ Sydney Opera House; Covent Garden, Cultural special events London; La Scala, Milan; Arena di Verona; Bayreuth Wagner Festival; Bregenz Festival (opera)

ƒ Salzburg Festival (music); Adelaide Festival (arts); Glastonbury Festival (folk, rock); Montreux Jazz Festival

ƒ Oberammergau Passion Play; Carnival, Rio (cultural events)

Educational Universities at which visitors can Various, worldwide enrol for short/summer courses

Language schools (or opportunities to learn language by immersion)

Writing, painting, photography teachers (and landscape/cultural 'subjects') for educati onal tours and courses

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5.1 Sports tourism

Sports tourism is a form of special interest tourism that has participation in, or spectating of, sport as its major component, theme or motivation for travel.

Sports tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the travel industry.

Sports participation is an important recreational activity, and some tourism may be motivated by participation in sporting tournaments and events (eg rugby or cricket tours), or by the availability of facilities and favourable climate in which to learn or participate in sports (eg snow or watersports).

Sports spectating is another important recreational and tourism activity, with sizeable audiences for national and global sports such as: football/soccer, rugby, hockey, cricket, golf, tennis and motorsports. As we mentioned in Chapter 3, the presence of major sporting venues, and the hosting of major national and international sporting events, can represent a major resource for tourism.

Examples of major sporting events, and their venues, include:

ƒ The Monaco Formula 1 Grand Prix (Monte Carlo) or the 24 Hour Race (Le Mans, France) – and other major motorsport events associated with specific cities or raceways ƒ Royal Ascot (England) or the Melbourne Cup (Australia) and other major horse racing carnivals and famous race courses ƒ The FIFA World Cup Finals (different venues), UEFA Champions League (different venues), FA Cup Final (Wembley, London), and other football matches (especially in iconic stadiums like the Estádio do Maracanã in Rio or Wembley in London, or featuring iconic teams like AC Milan or Man United) ƒ Host venues for international cricket or rugby tournaments, or the open golf and tennis 'Grand Slam' circuits.

EXAMPLE The Olympic Games (Summer and Winter), Asian Games and Commonwealth Games are major multi-national multi-sport events, which attract sports enthusiasts and tourists from all over the world.

The tournaments are held every four years, and are hosted by different nations for each event. Members of the sporting federations which manage the games bid competitively for the privilege of hosting the games, because of the potential tourist revenue during the games period – and the long-term boost to tourism arising from the events' high international profile. The celebration of t he Olympic Games, for example, encompasses rituals and symbols (such as the Olympic flag, the torch relay, and massive opening and closing ceremonies) which attract worldwide media coverage for the event and for the host nation, which has many opportunities to showcases its sporting facilities, tourism infrastructure and cultural heritage (eg during the opening ceremony).

The host city for an Olympic Games is usually chosen seven years before the event, and is often committed to major infrastructure and venue development, in order to cope with the scale of the sporting event – and the influx of athletes, spectators and tourists.

Recent and upcoming host nations for the Summer Olympics include: Barcelona, Spain (1992); Atlanta, USA (1996); Sydney, Australia (2000); Athens, Greece (2004); The Sydney Olympics (2000) Beijing, China (2008); London, UK (2012); and Rio, Brazil Source: Wikipedia Commons (2016).

Recent and upcoming host nations for the Winter Olympics include: Lillehammer, Norway (1994); Nagano, Japan (1998); Salt Lake City, USA (2002); Turin, Italy (2006); Vancouver, Canada (2010); Sochi, Russia (2014).

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FOR DISCUSSION What natural and man-made resources do you think would be required to host (a) a summer and (b) a winter Olympic Games? You might like start by considering what the lists of host cities, given in the Example above, have in common, in terms of climate and geographical resources…

You might also like to do some research into another major sporting event, and its host venue(s), that is of particular interest to you.

5.2 Location and popular culture tourism

A growing tourism niche has been created by the connection of destinations with popular works of literature and cinema. Tourists may seek to visit the places described as the settings of their favourite novels (or the home of the author), or the places seen on the cinema screen as the location for a film or TV show, or the homes of major figures in popular culture (such as Elvis Presley's home, Graceland, in Tennessee, USA).

Some destinations actively promote themselves as locations for the film industry (offering grants, tax breaks and other incentives, in addition to the natural attractions of their sites and landscapes), because their being seen on screen in a successful film or TV show will promote tourism to the area. The tourism industry has also 'caught on' to this phenomenon, offering 'location tours' and publishing tourist guidebooks to film, TV and book locations.

Some examples include:

ƒ The use of a range of mountain, river and valley locations in New Zealand for th e major film series Lord of the Rings, now strongly promoted for New Zealand tourism

Link: http://www.tourism.net.nz/lord-of-the-rings.html

ƒ The use of locations in Paris and London in the best-selling novel (and subsequent film) The Da Vinci Code, by Dan Brown, including: Kings College, the Ritz Hotel, Westminster Abbey and Temple Church in London; and Saint-Sulpice Chur ch, the Louvre Museum and Chateau Villette in Paris.

Link: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/sacred-sites/da-vinci-code.htm

ƒ Kualoa Ranch in Hawaii, the location of TV series Lost, the films Jurassic Park and many other films with 'jungle' settings – and now a tourist facility offering location tours.

Link: http://www.kualoa.com

ACTIVITY 5 30 minutes Use your research skills to follow up with some research into destinations linked to any book or cinema film of your choice. What is the relationship between the destination (the real place) and the place in the book or film? How (if at all) has the relationship been promoted to encourage tourism to the area? To what sorts of tourists might the destination appeal, and why?

If you are interested in cinema, a great starting place is:

Link: http://www.movie-locations.com

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6 Destination downsides

So far, we have talked about the positive resources and attributes of destination products: the bundles of benefits that attract tourists. However, it is worth noting that the destination products, and their images in the eyes of tourists, may also have negative elements, which detract from the value and attractiveness of the product for particular tourist activities – or for tourism in general.

6.1 Negative aspects of the destination product

A destination product may suffer from real or perceived negatives, in relation to a particular tourist activity, or in relation to tourism and travel in general, from a number of sources. The following are just some examples, and you should be able to think of others.

ƒ Risks arising from political and civil unrest, riots, war, violence and terrorist activity

ƒ Problems arising from poverty in the host community, exacerbated by the comparative wealth and vulnerability of tourists, including crime (kidnapping for ransom, robbery and assault), 'scams' and exploitation of tourists by unlicensed guides, touts and vendors

ƒ Risks arising from health scares, outbreaks and epidemics (such as SARS, avian flu, swine flu and endemic HIV/AIDs)

ƒ Health risks of travel in tropical, rural and undeveloped areas (such as malaria or dengue fever, ticks and other parasites, snake/spider/scorpion bites, or the effects of consuming unfamiliar or contaminated foods and water)

ƒ Health risks of activity in potentially hostile environments (such as heat stroke, hypothermia, altitude sickness) and lack of medical facilities in remote and undeveloped regions

ƒ Risk of (or destination damage by) natural disasters such as cyclones, hurricanes, tsunami, flooding, earthquake or famine Least desirable feature of that desert ƒ Unpredictable, unpleasant or extreme climate adventure trek…

ƒ Host cultures and communities which are not tolerant of cultural diversity, particular groups or tourist behaviours (often for religious reasons) or which are effectively 'closed' to tourism

ƒ Destinations which lack transport links and tourist facilities. ('Roughing it ' may attract the more adventurous and explorative tourists – but not all!)

ƒ Degradation of the destination's attractions thro ugh resort ageing and dilapidation, overcrowding, over-commercialisation, commodification of culture, poor value for money and so on. (We will look at this in detail in Chapter 8.)

FOR DISCUSSION See if you can come up with some examples of world destinations suffering from these negative aspects or perceptions.

6.2 Advising clients on travel safety

One of the most important uses of travel geography information is giving would-be tourists advice about the health and safety risks of travelling to a particular destination to pursue particular activities at a particular time of year. Obviously, the risks – and appropriate tactics to minimise them – will depend on

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the specific destination and season of travel. But some generic travel safety tips might be a good starting point.

The following are some points of advice for tourists travelling to international destinations, especially those identified as high-risk.

(1) Check available travel advice for your destination. Most western governments issue 'travel advisories' on the risk status of particular destinations.

(2) Purchase appropriate travel insurance to cover theft, loss of luggage, hospital treatment, emergency evacuation and any activities you plan to participate in, including adventure sports.

(3) Let people know where you are. You can register your details online or in person at your country's embassy or consulate. You should also leave a copy of your travel itinerary with someone at home and keep in regular contact with friends or relatives while overseas.

(4) Make sure your travel documents are in order. Ensure that you have a valid passport and visas for the destinations you are visiting.

(5) Take precautions against theft and assault. Be aware of potential risks; avoid going into identified high risk areas, especially alone or at night; avoid carrying or displaying large amounts of cash and valuables; use money belts (or similar) to carry valuables and documents; keep an eye on your belongings at all times in public places; and use hotel safes or safe deposit boxes where available.

(6) Make provisions in case of theft. Take copies of your passport details, insurance policy, travellers cheques, visas Source: journals.worldnomads.com and credit card numbers. Carry one copy in a separate place to the originals and leave a copy with someone at home.

(7) Make provisions to protect your health. Check with relevant health professionals or travel advisory services for information on the risks of the destination, climate and activity – and recommended precautions (including vaccinations, remedies and risk-minimising behaviours).

(8) In remote areas, take food and water precautions, in line with travel advice. You may need to drink only bottled water, or avoid eating uncooked foods or foods washed in untreated water.

(9) Obey the law and observe cultural sensitivities while travelling, even where local laws or customs appear harsh or unjust by your standards.

(10) Minimise the risks associated with the activities you participate in. Observe road safety, water safety and sun/heat safety advice, and all safety instructions given by tour/activity operators and locals.

ACTIVITY 6 30 minutes Follow up with some research into travel safety issues and advisories for various destinations that interest you. Some starting points:

Link: http://www.smartraveller.gov.au http://www.healthinsite.gov.au/topics/Travel_Health_and_Safety http://www.intrepidtravel.com/ourtrips/safety http://www.safetravel.co.uk http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad (Travel Advice by Country, Travel News, Staying Safe and Healthy, Be a Responsible Tourist)

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SUMMARY

Destination appeal

Rest + Fun and Knowledge relaxation activity

Destination Man-made National/historical development infrastructure factors

Urban Sporting Special Historical Rural, nature facilities events interest culture -based climate

Tourism must be sensitively - handled not to detract from the destination’s appeal

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SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 Define the following:

(a) Allocentrics (b) Psychocentrics (c) Midcentrics

2 What makes a tourist destination viable?

3 What are the negative impacts of cultural and ethnic tourism?

4 What are the positive impacts of urban tourism?

5 Describe the following terms (making sure you understand the differences between them).

Rural tourism Nature tourism Wilderness tourism Ecotourism

6 With what events do you associate the following destinations?

Monaco Venice Calgary Henley-on-Thames Hay-on-Wye Rio de Janeiro

7 Write a checklist to travellers on how to stay safe. Try and include all ten points that we included in the chapter.

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Allocentrics – tourists with an outward focus on a variety of interests and activities. Psychocentrics – tourists with an inward focus on oneself – perhaps with the need for rest and relaxation. Midcentrics – most of the population, who fall somewhere between the two.

2 You may have listed a favourable climate, attractive scenery, hospitable people, tourism resources, a distinctive attraction (USP), accessibility, appropriate infrastructure, and political stability.

3 Changes in social, political and economic structures to support changes in tourism development. Changes in local behaviour and values as a result of exposure to western culture. Changes in artistic, religious, traditional artefacts and practices because of commercialisation and commodification. At worst, the destination may lose the very qualities and characteristics that made it compelling in the first place.

4 Prime among them is urban regeneration, including the use of derelict buildings such as warehouses for new business ventures / artistic centres boosting the local economy, creating jobs and wealth and a virtuous circle where the improved image creates further investment and growth. If this is an area that interests you set aside some time for research on the renaissance that the city of Liverpool in the UK is currently experiencing.

5 Rural tourism: any type of tourist activity that takes place in the countryside. Nature tourism: travel to remote locations to enjoy wild animals and birds in their natural habitat. Wilderness tourism: seeks out largely undisturbed natural environments, such as wilderness and wildland areas to experience nature first-hand, often without a high degree of comfort. Ecotourism: a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature.

6 Monaco – famous for hosting one of the highlights of the Formula One Grand Prix year. Calgary – hosts the world renowned Stampede every July Hay on Wye – home to the famous literary festival every May-June Venice – for centuries a carnival famous for the costumes and masks worn has gripped Venice once a year, culminating on the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday (dates depend on the Christian calendar) Henley-on-Thames – famous for the rowing regatta in July which attracts sportsmen from all over the world Rio de Janeiro – in February the city erupts in the Carnaval which culminates in the Samba Parade

7 Check travel advice to your destination. Purchase appropriate travel insurance. Let people know where you are. Make sure your documents are in order. Take precautions against theft and assault. Take copies of important documents in case they are lost / stolen. Make provisions to protect your health. In remote areas, take food and water precautions. Obey the law and observe cultural sensitivities. Minimise the risks of the activities you participate in.

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 You may have come up with your own list, but it may include: coastal resources (coastlines, beaches), landscape resources (mountains, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, national parks), natural and wildlife resources (ecosystems, wildlife), historical sites and associations, cultural assets (art, architecture, museums, entertainments, opportunities for encounters with other cultures), ethnic assets (traditional cultures, indigenous groups), urban assets (vibrant cultural/entertainment centres in cities), purpose-built entertainment facilities (eg theme parks) and sporting venues and events.

2 1(e) Romance 2(c) Education 3(f) Social 4(a) Relaxation 5(d) Duty (VFR) 6(g) Wanderlust 7(b) Culture

3 Some suggestions would be as follows.

(a) Ski resort. Core product: winter sports experience. Facilitating product: snow, transport, ski hire, hotels/chalets. Supporting product: shopping, restaurants, après-ski entertainment. Augmented product: scenery, ambience, conservation of old town features, 'chic'/fashionable (or unspoilt, traditional) resort

(b) An African wildlife reserve. Core product: wildlife viewing. Facilitating product: wildlife resources, transport, lodges/tents. Supporting product: catering, scenery, friendly guides. Augmented product: perception of adventure/risk, exotic ambience, experience of luxury (or 'roughing it')

(c) Your answer depends on the destinations you selected. As an example, the USP of Sydney would be its harbour. The USP of the Caribbean would be its beaches and island ambience. The USP of Switzerland would be its mountainous landscapes. And so on.

4 Some writers on this topic suggest that, as you might expect, more 'serious' nature tourists are least interested in nightlife, shopping and resorts (and more interested in exploring local culture) and are therefore less demanding in their requirements for tourist amenities. On the other hand, the less 'serious' nature tourists would be more tolerant of visitors and even crowding at the destination: the dedicated nature tourists are seeking less commodified and populous exposure to unspoilt nature.

5 This activity does not have an answer, as it requires you to do your own research.

6 This activity does not have an answer, as it requires you to do your own research.

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168

CHAPTER 7 THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ The geographic and natural factors that shape climate ƒ Different temperature zones and climatic regions, and the characteristics of climate in each zone ƒ The importance of climatic, seasonal and weather factors for tourism development and decision-making ƒ The suitability of different climates for different types of tourism and the appeal of different climatic conditions for different travellers ƒ The nature of weather events and other natural disasters, and their effect on travel and tourism

Topic list What is climate? Climatic elements relevant to tourism Climate zones Weather events and natural disasters

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1 What is climate?

1.1 Climate, weather and season

Weather is the state of conditions in the atmosphere (the thin 'envelope' of a ir surrounding the Earth) at a particular place at a specific time. It is usually described in terms of temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, sunshine hours, rainfall and other forms of precipitation (such as snow, sleet and hail).

Climate is the term given to the average atmospheric conditions of an area, measured over a long period of time. While weather can vary locally and on a day to day basis, different parts of the world have recognisable, relatively stable climatic characteristics.

Seasons are times of the year which can be viewed as having distinctive climatic characteristics. Although you might be most familiar with the cycle of Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter, seasonal cycles and characteristics vary around the world.

It is notoriously difficult to tell what the weather is going to be in a given place at a given time (and the further ahead you try to forecast, the more difficult it is) – but it should certainly be possible:

ƒ To identify climatic conditions and seasons which are most suited to tourism of different kinds, and to appraise tourism regions and destinations according to their climatic reliability and suitability at different times of year

ƒ To advise clients of the likely climatic conditions they will face when visiting a particular destination at a particular season of the year, and/or to select destinations which suit their climatic needs and preferences.

1.2 The importance of climatic factors in tourism

There are a number of reasons why climatic factors are important in destination development and tourism flows.

ƒ Physical comfort and ease are important requirements for most tourists, and climatic conditions (whether in transit or at the main holiday destination) can affect the degree of comfort they experience, in terms of factors such as heat or cold, humidity, wind strength and climate-related risks (such as storm, earthquake, heat stress, or disease).

ƒ Climatic factors can determine the availability of Photo: http://i.telegraph.co.uk tourist activities and amenities at a given destination. Many types of recreation are weather-dependent. Think about the different climates (and more localised weather attributes) required for a beach-going holiday, for example; or for skiing and ice skating; sailing and windsurfing; or hot air ballooning. Think about the kind of weather predictability required to schedule major outdoor sporting and cultural events to attract tourism.

ƒ Climatic factors help to determine the attractiveness (or unattractiveness) of destinations. People generally prefer warm, sunny, clear climates, both because they enable a range of outdoor activities and because they help to create a relaxed and cheerful holiday mood. However, tourism is, for some people, also about experiencing different conditions

Photo: http://www.easytravelcentral.com 170 7: THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

than they are used to at home: some people will tolerate or even seek out less comfortable climatic conditions, in order to experience a different location, lifestyle or physical challenge.

ƒ Climatic factors help to determine the attractiveness (or unattractiveness) of travel at particular times of year, in order to take advantage of positive climate patterns in some seasons – and avoid less pleasant, less reliable, or more dangerous climate patterns (such as tropical cyclones and tornadoes) in other seasons.

ƒ Climate often helps to determine the timing and length of the holiday season (alongside factors such as school holidays and work patterns), and its profitability for a given destination in a given year: tourism demand, profits and employment can be hard hit by a bad-weather season. The season for some activities (eg water sports in a cool climate region, or skiing) may be quite short, and a destination may have to work to extend the season with other attractions.

ƒ Climate information will be important in providing advice for travellers' packing decisions: what clothing and other items (such as sun block or umbrellas) will they need in order to fit in, and feel comfortable, in the prevailing climate?

ƒ 'On a world scale, the importance of climate is shown in the broad pattern of movement from the colder, cloudier tourist-generating countries to warmer, sunnier destination countries; on a local scale, it is seen in the Photo: http://wordpress.com decision of urban families to visit a nearby beach on a hot summer's day' (Boniface & Cooper, 2005, p 47).

FOR DISCUSSION What do you consider the 'ideal climate' for your own preferences, and the kinds of activities you are interested in when on holiday? What kinds of climate factors would you (a) actively seek out when planning a holiday – and (b) actively avoid?

Positive climate factors can be seen as a tourism resource, which some regions and destinations have (and promote) more than others, just like the geographical resources discussed in other chapters. On the other hand, negative climate factors (such as excessive heat and humidity, unpredictable rainfall, or the likelihood of cyclones) can be seen as a constraint, limiting the appeal of a destination during affected seasons.

From the point of view of the tourist, the most important factor will generally be the prevailing climate and weather at the time when they are planning to travel. What is the climate likely to be during the month of their holiday, so that they can pack suitable clothing and plan for climate-specific activities? Or what time of year will be the best time to visit a given destination, in order to take best advantage of the climatic resources and activities on offer?

From the point of view of the tourist industry, it will be more important to know about the patterns of climate all year round. What climatic attractions can be offered to tourists, how reliably – and when? Is there potential to develop infrastructure and amenities to create an attractive all-season destination? In New England (in the USA), and Switzerland, for example, destinations are able to offer touring to view autumn colours, summer hiking and sports, and winter snow (as well as a range of year-round cultural attractions).

'Thus, it is the reliability and seasonal distribution of sunshine, cloud cover and rainfall rather than the total amounts of each that are crucial for tourist development' (Burton, 1995, p 8) – but travel consultants also need to be able to inform clients about the likely climate of particular destinations at particular times of year.

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1.3 Factors influencing climate and weather patterns

A number of factors 'shape' the prevailing at mospheric conditions in a given location.

1.3.1 Latitude As we saw in Chapter 1, this effectively means 'dista nce from the Equator'. Because of the Earth's tilt and rotation, latitude determines the angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth in a given region at a given time of year. The sun's warming power is greatest when it is high in the sky, and less when it is slanted or oblique.

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes Review our coverage of climate and season in Chapter 1, and select THREE key points that you would need to remember if advising someone (or answering an exam question) on the climate in different areas of the world.

1.3.2 Land mass (the distribution of land and sea areas) The effect of latitude on temperature is complicated by land mass. Large areas of water retain heat more effectively than large land surfaces, which heat up and cool down more rapidly in response to variations in atmospheric temperature. This means that:

ƒ Ocean-facing coasts and islands experience a maritime climate, which tends to be more stable and temperate – while the large landmasses of North America and Eurasia, isolated from the effects of sea temperature, experience a continental climate, which tends to mean more extreme variations in temperature from season to season.

ƒ Major ocean currents can carry warm water from tropical seas to higher latitudes. The Gulf Stream, for example, runs from the Caribbean across the Atlantic Ocean to the west coast of the UK, creating a milder climate in Britain and Ireland than their relatively high latitude would suggest. Conversely, ocean currents can also carry cold water into lower latitudes, creating a chilling effect. The Labrador Current, for example, brings icy water from the Arctic down the east coast of Canada.

ƒ The Pacific Ocean, as the world's largest body of water, has a major Figure 7.1: Land mass influence on climate. El Niňo, for Source: http://www.geomorphology.org.uk example, is a warm ocean current that periodically (at intervals of 2-7 years) replaces the normally cold Peruvian Current off the Pacific coast of Peru, in South America. This change (an 'el Ni ňo oscillation event' or ENOE) warms the coastal waters by 6-10º, lowerin g atmospheric pressure – and creating unusual local weather events, such as heavy rainfall and flooding on a coastline that is usually extremely arid. At the same time, el Niňo changes can effect the route of the jet stream (winds in the upper atmosphere), which may have wide-ranging effects, including increased snow and flooding in North America, and reduced hurricane events in the Caribbean.

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1.3.3 Winds Wind circulation also 'carries' warm or cold water from one region to another. For example, strong tropical easterly winds (called trade winds) blow between South American and Australasia, carrying warm water westward to the Coral Sea (between Australia and Indonesia), and allowing cold currents to move north along the Pacific cost of South America.

Unusually strong easterlies can result in cool water moving northwards across the central Pacific, creating higher rainfall and cyclone intensities (known as a ' La Niňa event') from Australia to Bangladesh. Unusually weak easterlies, however, can result in warm water moving in from the west to cut off the Peruvian current – resulting in an el Niňo Figure 7.2: Winds event. Source: http://www.newmediastudio.org Globally, prevailing wind patterns are affected by areas of high and low atmospheric pressure ('winds do blow from high to low [pressure]'), the Earth's rotation and topography/relief (eg mountainous areas).

Trade winds are tropical easterly winds which blow from subtropical areas of high atmospheric pressure on either side of the equator towards the equatorial region where, because of the higher temperatures, low pressure systems dominate.

1.3.4 Relief (or altitude) As you might expect from the mountainous locations of most ski resorts, air temperature tends to be cooler at higher altitudes: upland areas are cooler than surrounding lowlands. Significant variations in temperature, sunshine and moisture can therefore be experienced within relatively small mountainous areas, providing a range of tourism experiences, vegetation and wildlife.

Mountain ranges also affect climate by acting as barriers to air flow eg cooling warm, moist air flows to create cloud mass and rainfall. They also present different 'face s', towards or away from the sun, and this can significantly affect land use and landscape according to differing temperatures, rainfall and sunlight exposure. In the Alps, for example, resort development and agricultural activity are strongly focused on slopes or in valleys with access to the most hours of direct sunlight. Source: http://www.newmediastudio.org

EXAMPLE In mountainous and volcanic areas of Hawaii and the Andes (South America) for example, one can ascend swiftly from tropical rainforest to cool rainforest to snow-capped alpine regions within a short drive or hike.

Mount Kilimanjaro, in Tanzania, offers a similar transition from savannah plains to a snow-capped peak.

Even relatively small variations in altitude, combined with other factors (like the orientation of slopes to the sun) can create shifts in local climate, weather conditions and Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania vegetation. The Blue Mountains, west of Sydney (Australia) Source: www.commondreams.com

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is an example of relatively low altitude nevertheless offering significantly cooler temperatures, lower humidity and localised rainfall, compared to the coastal plains.

1.4 Climate variation

A combination of all these factors creates what we call 'climate'. Even within a fairly small area – lik e the UK – they can create local variations in climate from area to area, with different sunshine hours, rainfall, temperatures and wind exposure. However, on a larger scale, it is possible to identify common features between the climates in different world regions, and to group them together into 'climate zones'. We'll look at these zones, and their im plications for tourism, in the next section.

2 Climatic elements relevant to tourism

As we noted above, some holiday activities are weather-specific (such as sunbathing or skiing), while others may be essentially weather-neutral (such as indoor cultural pursuits). The attractions of some destinations may be powerful enough to overcome the drawbacks of poor climatic conditions: hence cruises to the hostile climes of Antarctica – or urban, cultural and historic tourism in the cities of Northern Europe in winter. In general, however, it is recognised that any holiday experience is enhanced by 'fine weather', regardless of the particular type of activity undertaken.

So what are the basic elements of 'fine weather' that meet the general needs of tourism? The basic ones put forward in the Travel Geography literature are:

ƒ Temperature and relative humidity ƒ Precipitation ƒ Sunshine ƒ Wind conditions

Let's look at each of these briefly in turn.

2.1 Temperature and relative humidity

Temperature is a crucial factor in human comfort and health, and is thus one of the main influences on:

ƒ Tourist activity: the types of activity that can be undertaken on holiday, and the level of activity that can be undertaken without discomfort or risk to health.

Temperature may specifically contribute to tourism resources such as winter snow (for ski resorts), cool air (for hot-season health tourism), or the potential for beach activities and water sports.

Outdoor activity, in particular, depends on temperatures being warm enough to avoid chill or hypothermia during prolonged exposure – but cool enough (especially in the case of more strenuous activity) to avoid heat stress, dehydration or Source: http://symptomsofheatstroke.com exhaustion.

ƒ The amount and type of clothing worn: the number of 'layers' of clothing typically worn, and the 'therm al resistance' required of their materials.

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EXAMPLE In the tropics, clients will need to be advised to pack and wear minimal, light-weight clothing (eg cotton); in cold climates, they may need three laye rs of heavy weight, heat-preserving clothing (eg wool or thermal fleece). In climates with a high range of daily temperatures, plans will need to be made for both possibilities! Similarly, specialist 'gear' may be required for activi ties exposing people to cold (eg wet suits for cold- water water sports; thermal clothing for skiing and wint er trekking) or heat (eg hats, sun glasses, long- sleeved shirts in breathable materials, water bottles).

The temperature of the human body rises with exposure to heat, and also with physical exertion. Depending on the amount of relative humidity, exertion and acclimatisation (what we are used to), we tend to find temperatures over about 30º C 'oppressive' – and over about 38º C, we are at risk of bodily stress from overheating.

Relative humidity is the term given to the amount of moisture in the air, expressed as a percentage of the maximum possible at a given temperature.

If relative humidity is very high (over about 70 per cent), it nears 'saturation' point, at which the air is unable to take up more moisture. The human body regulates its temperature by the cooling effect of moisture (sweat) evaporating from the skin into the air – and high humidity does not allow this to happen effectively. So a combination of heat and high humidity can cause the body to overheat, resulting in heat stress and (in extreme conditions) heat stroke. We can plot the relationship between air temperature and relative humidity as follows: Figure 4.3. The general range for human comfort lies between the two dotted lines.

Relative humidity % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 50 50 Stifling Severe heat stress risk Sweltering [DRY HEAT] [DAMP HEAT] 40 Beach recreation, 40 swimming

Less strenuous Sultry 30 sports Moderate heat 30 stress risk Oppressive Too dry OPTIMUM for

20 general activity Suitable for Muggy 20 e most activities Too cool without sun Unsuitable for swimming, Cool Dank Centigrad º 10 passive recreation 10 e Keen Cold Raw Unsuitable for golf, tennis, water sports Temperatur 0 0

[DRY COLD] Severe cold stress risk [ DAMP COLD]

-10 Conditions for -10 winter sports Frostbite/hypothermia risk -20 Limit for skiing -20 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Figure 7.3: Air temperature and relative humidity, and their implications for tourism Source: Adapted from Terjung (1966); Boniface & Cooper (2005); Burton (1995)

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Meteorologists also measure a value called ' effective temperature', which takes into account air temperature and humidity and air movement (such as the effect of 'wind chill'): this gives a measure of how hot the weather 'feels' to people.

The following points are perhaps most relevant to tourism:

ƒ The ' damp heat' of high temperatures and high relative humidity (eg in equatorial regions) are generally unfavourable to tourist development, since people can't be confined t o air-conditioned environments all the time…

ƒ Dry heat (with relative humidity less than about 30 per cent) is more tolerable at the same temperatures. Hot desert regions are therefore a possibility for adventure, scenic and cultural tourism, although significant risks of sun exposure, heat stress and dehydration must be dealt with.

ACTIVITY 2 10 minutes What would you advise a traveller who said that they specifically wanted to play beach volleyball while on holiday, but that they were worried that the typically high termperatures of summer at their chosen seaside resort might be 'too much for them'?

2.2 Precipitation

Precipitation is the term given to the forms in which water falls from the sky, as rain, hail, sleet and snow.

In general, tourism thrives on dependable periods of low rainfall, which implies that the weather will generally be sunny and dry, permitting a range of outdoor activities and sporting events. High rainfall therefore generally acts as a constraint on tourism – although periodic, short downpours alternating with sunny periods (as in tropical climates) are often perceived as less of a problem than constant grey skies and light rain.

Some regions (such as Northern Europe) have more rain, and greater likelihood of rain, than others. Some regions (such as Northern Europe again) have year- round rainfall, while others (such as the tropics) have more or less dependable 'wet' and 'dry' seasons – and others (such as Northern Africa or Central Australia) have constant 'drought', with little or no rainfall. In general, sub-tropical and Mediterranean climates offer long, reliable summer dry seasons, while tropical climates tend to have rainy, storm-prone summers and warm, dry winters. We will discuss these patterns when we look at 'climate zones', in the next section of this Sightseeing in London… chapter. Source: http://strictlyforpleasure.files.wordpress.com

Snow may be regarded as a constraint on tourism, where its effect (as in urban areas of Northern Europe and North America) is to disrupt transport and curtail activity. On the other hand, it is potentially a valuable resource for recreational purposes, and ski resorts are often developed in accessible mid-latitude mountain regions, with adequate snow cover (of the right type) for at least three months of the year.

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2.3 Sunshine

The amount and intensity of sunshine is important for tourism, in two main ways.

First of all, sunshine is highly prized: as a ' feel good factor' for holidays; as the main ingredient in 'sun and sand' tourism; and as a facilitator of holi day activity (by providing daylight and warmth). The dependability of sunshine (which varies with cloud cover and air pollution) and the number of sunshine hours per day (which vary with latitude and season) are therefore important assets for tourist destinations. Despite its long summer days, for example, Britain experiences less sunshine (due to its cloudy climate) than southern Spain or Portugal, where the sun shines for up to 80 per cent of daylight hours. There is a significant flow of tourism is from sun-deprived tourist-generating regions to sunshine- rich destinations.

Second, however, sunshine contributes to heat, glare and ultraviolet radiation – and there is a significant risk of heat stress, eye strain and sunburn from over-exposure.

ACTIVITY 3 10 minutes Do some research, if you need to, and list FOUR factors which will determine the length of time for which a person can safely expose their skin to direct sun while on holiday.

2.4 Wind conditions

We saw briefly, earlier, that the prevailing winds are influenced by high and low pressure areas, as well as the Earth's rotatio n and topography (eg flat and mountainous areas). However, there are considerable variations, particularly on the local scale.

It is important for coastal and mountain resorts, for example, to anticipate shifts in the direction and temperature of breezes, and the onset of stronger winds (such as the Mistral in Southern France) at certain seasons or times of day. Such shifts can impact on tourist comfort and safety (eg if winds are strong or dust- or sand-laden, or cause strong beachside currents or waves), as well as popular activities such as sailing, wind-surfing, surfing, hang- gliding and hot air ballooning.

Winds can have a significantly cooling effect on air temperature. In the tropics, this may be very welcome, with sea breezes making the effective (felt) temperature more comfortable. In colder climates, altitudes and seasons, however, the 'wind chill factor' (which markedly lowers the temperature felt on exposed skin) can be a constraint on outdoor recreation – and, in extreme cases, a hazard (with the risk of hypothermia and frostbite).

2.5 Predictability

It is worth adding 'predictability' as a climatic fact or important to tourism, because none of the above information is useful unless you can predict, with relative confidence, which set of conditions will prevail in a given place at a given season. Travellers want to know that there is a reasonable chance of their getting the sunshine, or the snow, that has mainly motivated their holiday plan. Similarly, destination planners need to know that there will be sufficient snow cover, or sunshine hours, to attract tourists and justify the investment in resort development.

Therefore, regions with dependable patterns of climate and climate variation are more attractive than those which pose higher risk of being disappointed by unpredictable bad weather, regardless of season.

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3 Climate zones

There are various ways of classifying climatic conditions, and identifying the regions or zones where they are located. Some are very generalised and simplified:

ƒ Frigid: frozen climates

ƒ Temperate: mild climates, with temperatures not varying over an extreme range Figure 7.4: Climate zones ƒ Torrid: hot climates

Others models are more sophisticated, drawing out variations in climate and within regions. One of the most commonly used is the ' Köppen climate classification', named after the German climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940). This model divides the world into five major climate regions, based on average annual and monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature: Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: the Kö ppen climate classification

Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia

FOR DISCUSSION What do you notice about the above climate map, in terms of the climate classification of some of the major tourist generating regions and destination regions of the world (discussed in Chapter 2). Use an atlas – or discussion with others – to identify any countries or areas of the map that look interesting (such as isolated pockets of arid, tropical or highland climates). What might be the implications for tourism of such variations?

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Burton (1995) puts forward an alternative model of five temperature zones, helpfully focusing on features most relevant to tourism, as follows: Figure 4.6.

Figure 7.6: Five climate zones, based on temperature

Source: adapted from Burton (1995, p 9)

Let's look at each of these zones in more detail, together with their implications for tourism.

3.1 Hot climates

Source: www.beach-backgrounds.com Source: www.africatravelpictures.com Source: www.mobot.org

Hot climates can be classified into sub-zones, mainly according to their rainfall patterns.

Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism Equatorial ƒ Typically within 10º north or ƒ Singapore ƒ Enervating heat and climate south of the Equator ƒ Kuala Lumpur, humidity: exhausting ƒ Very hot (26-33º C) Malaysia for outdoor activity ƒ Very humid (over 75% ƒ Amazonia ƒ Specialised adventure relative humidity) tourism and/or ƒ Extensive cloud cover and business tourism/stop- heavy year-round rainfall overs where in strategic location (eg Singapore) ƒ Pack for minimal clothing

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Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism Tropical ƒ Typically within 10-25º north ƒ East and ƒ Generally popular for climate or south of the Equator South Asia (eg beach tourism ƒ Hot (over 23º C) Goa, Bangkok) (especially for winter ƒ Trade wind type (eg ƒ The Caribbean sun) Caribbean): moderate to (eg Barbados, ƒ Risk of extreme storms heavy summer rainfall, with Jamaica) during wet season; cooler dry winter season ƒ Coast of danger of damage, ƒ Eastern margin climates: Mexico (eg floods, disruption to more rain throughout the Acapulco) communication year, with risk of seasonal ƒ Pacific and ƒ Wet season can be tropical storms in summer South Pacific unpleasant due to (eg hurricanes, cyclones or Islands (eg sweltering conditions, typhoons) Hawaii, Tahiti) transport disruption ƒ Western margin climates (eg ƒ Northern ƒ Dry season more Acapulco): pronounced Australia (eg suitable for completely dry winter period Darwin, sightseeing, adventure and heavier summer rainfall Kakadu) tourism, safaris etc (but less cyclone risk) (especially in 'cool dr y' ƒ Tropical wet dry: (eg periods) South/East Asia) have more ƒ Coastal sea breezes extreme seasonal variations, may enhance comfort, with an extreme rainy supporting seaside season ('monsoon climate') resort ƒ Oceanic tropical climates (eg ƒ Sensitive to seasonal Hawaii): variable year-round variations rain, depending on ƒ Pack for minimal topography clothing Hot deserts ƒ Very hot daytime ƒ Aswan, Egypt ƒ Limited by extreme (hot dry temperatures (over 33º C: ƒ Ouarzazate, daytime heat in type) slightly less in winter) with Morocco summer, and night- strong night-time cooling ƒ Atacama time cold in winter ƒ Persistent sunshine Desert, Peru ƒ Risks of heat stress, ƒ Little or no rainfall, and very ƒ Death Valley heat stroke, low humidity (less than National Park, dehydration (especially 30%) California/ with activity) ƒ Frequent strong, gusty winds Nevada (USA) ƒ Discomfort from ƒ Namib Desert, dryness, sand/dust Namibia storms ƒ Tourism development is possible with strong attractions and/or controlled conditions ƒ Hottest season avoided ƒ Minimal clothing consistent with sun

180 7: THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism protection Arid zones ƒ Typically on the margins of ƒ Alice Springs ƒ As for hot deserts hot deserts and the 'Red ƒ Occasional extreme ƒ Distinguished by some Centre' of rainfall may cause variable rainfall (up to Australia flooding and disrupt 250mm per annum) and tourism and travel resulting vegetation and wildlife

3.2 Warm temperate climates

Warm temperate climates occur broadly within the zone of 25-40º of latitude, both north and south of the Equator – however, their characteristics vary according to their location. With mean temperatures in the comfortable range of 10º C (in winter) to 25º C (in summer), and moderate relative humidity (typically below 70 per cent), warm temperate climates can be optimal for a range of tourist activity, potentially all-year round. Destinations such as the Mediterranean and Florida also benefit from their proximity and accessibility to tourist generating regions with significantly less appealing climates, attracting visitors from Northern Europe and North-West USA, for example.

Bondi Beach, Sydney The Greek Islands Source: Wikipedia Commons Source: www.greekislands-realestate.com

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Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism Mediterranean ƒ Warm to hot dry ƒ Mediterranean basin ƒ Optimal comfort climate summers, with low (Spain, Portugal, conditions for year- relative humidity Southern France, round tourism and little rainfall Italy, Greece) (except extreme ƒ Cool winters with ƒ Los Angeles, outdoor activity at moderate rainfall California hottest ƒ Abundant sunshine ƒ Cape Town, South temperatures) year- round ƒ Exaggerated in the Africa Mediterranean basin ƒ Perth, Australia ƒ Long summer itself, due to season for sun- surrounding land based holidays masses: hotter and (especially attracting longer summers, tourism from regions cooler winters – eg Northern Europe – with less ƒ Similar pattern in reliable warmth and narrow coastal strips sunshine hours) on western margins of continents ƒ Potential to extend holiday season to Spring/Autumn for cultural tourism ƒ Pack for one layer of clothing Eastern ƒ Similar to ƒ Florida, or New ƒ As for Mediterranean margin Mediterranean Orleans USA ƒ Possible disincentive (Warm climates, but a few ƒ Sydney, Australia of higher summer temperate degrees cooler, with ƒ Buenos Aires, rainfall, creating a humid-summer higher humidity and Argentina winter peak season type) year-round rainfall (warmth plus low distribution (due to rainfall) rain-bearing on- shore winds)

3.3 Cool temperate climates

Cool temperate climates are typified by the Western European climates. With cooler temperatures (over a mean range of 0º C in mid-winter to 16º C in mid-summer), more cloud cover, year-round rainfall and a high degree of weather variability, this zone is generally less attractive to tourism than warmer, clearer, more reliable climate zones.

182 7: THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

New England (USA) in the 'fall' (autumn) The English seaside (Brighton) Source: www.newmarketholidays.co.uk Source: www.itraveluk.co.uk

Cool temperate climates therefore represent a high proportion of the major tourism-generating regions (where they coincide with other generating factors, such as affluence). Destinations in these zones need to compete for tourists with other attractions, such as their cultural and historical resources, scenery and activity holidays. Many previously successful 'seaside' resorts in cool temperate zones (eg on Britain's south coast) have experienced a decline in tourist numbers due to the increasing accessibility of more competitive coastal climates in other parts of the world.

Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism Cool ƒ Generally cool, cloudy ƒ Western ƒ Winter unfavourable temperate summers (warmer in Europe for outdoor pursuits continental interiors) (Britain and ƒ Short season for beach ƒ Spells of settled hot weather Ireland, tourism (cool temps possible, but unpredictable Northern suitable for strenuous ƒ Mild to raw winters, with France, recreational pursuits) high rainfall levels Germany ƒ Need for all-weather (particularly on westerly etc) facilities at holiday margins) ƒ Vancouver, resorts ƒ High weather variability and Canada ƒ Perceived risks of unpredictability ƒ Wellington, holiday scheduling, due New to unpredictability Zealand ƒ Pack for two layers of clothing

3.4 Cold climates

Cold climate zones lie in the northern areas of the USA and Canada, Europe and Asia. Average temperatures fall below 6º C for at least six months of the year: in sub-arctic regions, they can fall below minus 20º C – well below freezing!

FOR DISCUSSION What can you see as the potential attractions for tourism of cold climate conditions? What would need to be done by the tourist industry in cold climate areas to attract tourists who might otherwise be put off by the climate?

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Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism Cold ƒ Continental cold winter type: ƒ Stockholm, ƒ Winters suitable for climate cold winters with extensive Sweden skiing and other snow- snow cover. Short, warm ƒ Chicago, based pursuits: less summers with moderate USA favourable in sub-arctic rainfall. Clear, rapid seasonal ƒ Montreal, conditions, which can changes. Short winter days, Canada curtail all outdoor long summer days recreation ƒ Sapporo, ƒ Sub-arctic continental: very Japan ƒ Short season for beach cold, dry winters; spectacular tourism: lakes may be ƒ Sub-arctic: spring thaws; short summers important attractions Fairbanks (Alaska); ƒ Potential for scenery, Rovaniemi activity (eg fishing) (Finland) and cultural tourism

Stockholm, Sweden in winter Sapporo Snow Festival Source: www.swedenvisitor.com Source: web-japan.org

3.5 Arctic climates

Arctic (or polar) climates are a feature – as you'd expect – of the regions closest to the Earth's north and south poles. They are always cold: despite almost continuous daylight in mid summer, air temperatures rarely rise above 10º C – and the wint er months are what can only be called 'bitterly' cold! In general: not very 'friendly' for tourism…

Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism

Arctic/polar ƒ Year-round cold, with ƒ Spitzbergen ƒ Hostile environment for extreme winter (Norway) most forms of tourism

temperatures ƒ Deception ƒ Permafrost makes ƒ Continuous daylight Island construction difficult ('midnight sun') in mid (Antarctica) ƒ Limited potential, other summer months – and than special interest (eg continuous dark in winter wildlife, photographic, ƒ Permanent snow/ice cover expeditionary cruises) (other than in tundra climates)

184 7: THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

Antarctic cruise Midnight sun, Itivdleq Fjord, Greenland Source: www. coolantarctica.com Source: Wikimedia Commons

3.5.1 Highland climates As we noted earlier, altitude modifies climate.

ƒ Mountainous areas will generally share the climatic conditions of the surrounding climate zone – but temperatures will be lower, the higher up you go. Mountain ranges in cool temperate zones (like the Alps) may have permanent snow above 2,500-3,000 metres. For ranges in warm temperate zones (like the Himalayas, or the Atlas Mountains in northern Africa), the 'snow lin e' (where the permanent snow starts) may be 4,500 – 5,000 metres.

View from Mount Haleakala, Maui, Hawaii The Matterhorn, Swiss-Italian Alps (winter) (summer)

ƒ Mountains often attract higher rainfall than surrounding areas, because of the cooling of warm air, condensing to form rain.

ƒ Altitude decreases air pressure, because there is less oxygen: the air is 'thinner' and harder to breath. Difficulties breathing, and the risk of 'a ltitude sickness' become significant over about 2,500 meters: energetic activity is difficult, and sufferers may experience headaches, vomiting and more serious effects.

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Climate Characteristics Examples Suitability for tourism Highland ƒ Tropical highlands: great ƒ Andean ƒ Cool temperature and climates temperature variations from cities (eg clear air make day/night and Quito, La attractive hot-season sunlight/shade. Intense Paz, Cuzco) destinations for active ultraviolet radiation, low ƒ Simla tourism, health tourism humidity, clear air. (Himalayas) (eg Darjeeling, India) Permanent snow line above ƒ St Moritz, ƒ Scenery, wildlife and 4,500-5,000 metres Switzerland adventure activity ƒ Mid-latitude highlands: (climbing, hiking) ƒ Chamonix, greater seasonal difference attracts tourists, France of temperate: cold snowy regardless of weather ƒ Denver, winters, warm rainy conditions Colorado summers, high variability. ƒ Potential for (USA) Varied landscape eg development of ski coniferous forest, alpine resorts (below altitude meadow. Permanent sickness level, long snowline above 2,500-3,000 winter season, good metres sunshine, little wind, good snow quality) ƒ Risk of altitude sickness restrict activity ƒ Ecosystems vulnerable to damage from tourism: some protected

EXAMPLE Tourist adventure activities such as trekking in the Andes (eg Cuzco and the Inca Trail in Peru) and the climbing of Mount Kilimanjaro (in Tanzania, Africa) must be carefully managed to minimise risks, and clients contemplating flying into high-altitude areas should be warned of the need to acclimatise before undertaking strenuous activity.

3.6 The attractions of climate for different travellers

In our analysis of climate zones, we have noted the general suitability of different climatic conditions for tourism and particular holiday types. But we also need to recognise that different climatic conditions have attractions for different types of traveller or tourist – and that conditions that would put some clients or customer groups off would actively attract (or at least, not deter) others.

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FOR DISCUSSION Climate change is not explicitly mentioned in the syllabus, but you should be aware that there will be considerable impacts on tourism if predictable climate patterns and characteristics of destinations change. There has already been an impact from measures to mitigate climate change, in the form of policies to tax, reduce or offset 'carbon footprint' or greenhouse gas emissions – notably from air and road travel.

What do you think will be the on-going impact on tourism of climate change – and/or of measures to combat it?

If you are interested in this area, and you have access to the book in your library or e-library, see Boniface & Cooper: Worldwide Destinations Casebook (2005), Case 5: The impact of climate change on tourism.

4 Weather events and natural disasters

4.1 What is a 'natural disaster'?

A natural disaster may be defined as the effect of a natural or climatic hazard (such a a storm, flood, volcanic eruption, earthquake or landslide) which affects the environment, leading to significant financial, environmental and/or human losses.

Natural disasters should be distinguished from non-natural or man-made disasters which may damage destinations and tourism, such as: ecological disasters (eg the Exxon-Valdez oil spill in 1989, or the Galapagos Oil Spill in 1991, destroying unique and sensitive environments and wildlife resources); major human-caused fires and explosions (such as the Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion or terrorist attacks such as '9/11' in New York, or the Bali or London bombings); humanitarian disasters (such as war, and unmanaged famine and disease); and other crises which may be disruptive to transport (such as prolonged transport strikes, business failures or air crashes).

Some experts argue that since the losses associated with a natural disaster often stem from poor construction, safety and Exxon-Valdez oil spill Source: Wikimedia Commons early warning systems and evacuation planning, human agency or negligence are partly responsible…

Natural disasters can pose a safety hazard to tourists, which they need to be made aware of when planning travel to high-risk geographical areas in high-risk seasons or conditions. Destination development is also likely to be constrained in areas which are heavily prone to natural disasters – although this has not noticeably hampered tourist development in destinations such as the Caribbean and Florida, which are at risk from seasonal cyclones and hurricanes. When significant disaster events occur, however, there is often a high cost to the tourist industry, since infrastructure – and tourist trust – must be rebuilt before tourism 'picks up' again (if indeed, it ever fully recovers).

Natural disasters can be classified as being of five basic types

ƒ Weather disasters, such as various forms of storms, drought and heat wave ƒ Water disasters, such as floods and tsunamis ƒ Earth movement disasters, such as avalanches, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions ƒ Fire disasters, such as bush fires or forest fires ƒ Health disasters, such as disease epidemics and famine.

Let's look at these in a little more detail.

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4.2 Weather disasters

A storm is, broadly, any disturbed state of the Earth's atmosphere, usually causing severe weather of some kind. It may feature strong wind (eg a typhoon), substances carried through the air (eg a dust, sand or snow storm), thunder and lightning (electrical storm), heavy precipitation (rain, hail or ice storms) and so on.

There are many types of storm, depending on size, duration and severity (eg a brief 'squall' or sudden onset of strong wind may be highly localised and last only a few minutes, while a hurricane may last for days and cause devastation over a wide area); season (eg winter blizzards and summer cyclones); and climate zone (eg arctic and tropical storms).

ƒ Windstorms are severe weather conditions involving high winds with little or no rain. They can cause significant damage to structures, and cause hazards of flying debris, sand or dust. A Tornado tornado is a particularly violent, destructive Source: www.fas.org wind storm occurring on land, usually with the distinctive shape of a dark, twisting funnel. The interior of the USA is the most tornado-prone area, with an area known as 'Tornad o Alley' in the centre of the continent, between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains.

ƒ Tropical cyclones, typhoons or hurricanes are seasonal tropical storm systems which circle around a centre of low pressure, deriving their energy from warm sea temperatures. Such storms typically occur in tropical regions during the summer season. Hurricane Source: www.companysj.com

EXAMPLE Tropical cyclones are dangerous because they produce destructive winds, heavy rainfall with flooding and damaging storm surges that can cause inundation of low-lying coastal areas. Hurricane Katrina, which flattened the east coast of the USA (including the city of New Orleans) in 2005, is perhaps the best known recent example. The tourist island of Jamaica, in the Caribbean, was severely damaged by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Cyclone Tracy devastated the city of Darwin, in Australia's Northern Territory, in 1974.

Drought is another form of weather-related disaster, in which abnormally low rainfall (potentially lasting over many years) causes water shortages, loss of crops and livestock, and resulting food shortages. As of 2010, for example, several states of Australia have been classified as experiencing drought conditions for several years, affecting urban area populations through water restrictions.

Heat waves can also precipitate disaster, as abnormally high temperatures put pressure on power and transport systems, and cause heat-related illness and deaths (particularly among older people). The worst heat wave in recent history was recorded in Europe in 2003. A heat wave across the state of Victoria, in Australia, in 2009 contributed to widespread catastrophic bushfires which resulted in signficant loss of life and property.

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4.3 Water disasters

Flooding of varying scope and severity is very common in areas with high rainfall, and areas whose rivers can become swiftly swollen by the flow-down of rain or snow-thaw from (potentially far-off) upland areas.

The Missouri and Mississippi Rivers in Southern USA flooded in 1993: one of the most closely floods in US history. The Yangtze River, in China, flooded in 1998, leaving 14 million people homeless. South-East Queensland, in Australia, near the prime tourist destination of the Gold Coast, has been subjected to repeated rainfall-related flooding in recent summer seasons. 1993 floods: Missouri & Mississippi Rivers, US A Tropical cyclones can also result in extensive flooding and Source: http://www.calstatela.edu storm surge, as happened in the case of Hurricane Katrina, leaving most of New Orleans under water, after the failure of the city's 'levee' (protective flood bank) system.

A tsunami is a series of wave surges caused by the displacement of large volumes of water by an undersea earthquake or volcanic eruption, or a landslide. Due to the huge volumes of water and energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions, and casualties can be high because the waves move too fast for people to escape. The Asia-Pacific area (and notably Japan) is particularly prone to tsunami events, because its geology supports undersea earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

There are now early warning systems in place (based on the monitoring of such seismic activity). However, the Boxing Day Tsunami of 2004, triggered by the Indian Ocean Earthquake, is an example of the kind of widespread devastation and loss of life caused by such an event, with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, The Boxing Day Tsunami, 2004 India, Thailand and low-lying islands (such as the Maldives) Source: http://www.boxingdaytsunami.com hardest hit.

Tourism is inevitably hard hit by such disasters, due to the devastation of buildings, infrastructure and communities – and the perceived risk of similar events in the future. However, it also has a key role to play in the rebuilding of communities, through investment and employment.

4.4 Earth movement disasters

Earthquakes are a sudden vibration or shaking of the Earth's crust, due to the discharge of accumulated energy along geological fault lines. Earthquakes can also be caused by volcanic activity, landslides – and even mine blasts. Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska in the US, as well as in Central and South America, Indonesia, Turkey, Greece and Italy, New Zealand and Japan, but they can occur almost anywhere.

90 per cent of the world's earthquakes, however (and about 80 per cent of the largest and most damaging) take Earthquake: Niigata Prefecture, Japan, 2004 place in a zone called the Pacific Ring of Fire, a Source: http://science.nationalgeographic.com horseshoe-shaped belt around the rim of the Pacific ocean, which includes major tourism regions such as coastal California and Mexico, coastal Peru and Chile, Japan and New Zealand.

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EXAMPLE High-magnitude earthquakes (measured at magnitude 7 or higher) can cause large-scale devastation and loss of life, generally by triggering secondary effects such as building collapse, fires, and tsunamis (as in the case of the Indian Ocean earthquake of 2004, triggering the Boxing Day Tsunami). The most recent examples have been a magnitude-7.3 earthquake in the Caribbean island of Haiti (January 2010), and magnitude-8.8 earthquake off the coast of Chile (February 2010) – which, although some 500 times more powerful, caused much less damage and loss of life, due to more stringent building codes and protective measures.

Landslides may also cause significant damage and loss of life, as slopes or cliff faces succumb to erosion, weakening, subsidence or earthquake and crumble or slide away. Landslides can occur anywhere. Australia's major ski resort of Thredbo, in the Snowy Mountains, suffered a major landslide in 1997.

Avalanches are a rapid flow of snow down a slope, sweeping away or burying everything in their path. They are a major hazard in snowy regions, with tourists (mainly climbers and skiers) being killed every year in the mountains around alpine resorts. In 1999, a large fatal avalanche in Montroc, France (near Chamonix) killed 12 people in their chalets. Relevant tour operators and destinations should supply tourists with information on avalanche conditions and risk factors, avalanche avoidance techniques, group management, and avalanche survival techniques: in high-risk areas, the carrying of personal locator beacons, shovels and probes is advised.

4.5 Fire disasters

Wildfires are uncontrolled fires burning in areas of forest, bush or other wilderness, with a heavy load of combustible fuel in the form of dry vegetation. They are often caused by lightning, facilitated by heat wave, drought and high winds, but they may also be started by human negligence or arson. Fires are a threat to life and property in rural areas, and can cause disruption to transport (eg where roads are closed). They also ruin landscapes and decimate wildlife across wide areas, potentially causing long- term damage to in scenic, adventure and rural tourism in an area. This has been the experience of scenic rural areas of Victoria, in Australia, for example, after catastrophic bushfires in 2009.

4.6 Health disasters

An epidemic is an outbreak of a contractible or contagious disease that spreads rapidly through the population of an area. (A 'pandemic' is an epidemic which has a global spread, like the H1N1 or 'Swine flu' pandemic outbreak in 2009, or the SARS virus pandemic of 2002-3.)

Epidemics are likely to result in health warnings and travel advisories, urging tourists not to travel to affected areas (and to take precautions if they do so). Tourism destinations linked to diseases (like Mexico, thought to be the origin of Swine flu, and the areas of Asia affected by the SARS outbreak) are bound to be damaged by public fears of contagion.

Other diseases endemic to particular areas (such as malaria in the tropics) may also act as a constraint on tourism development, despite precautions such as vaccination.

Famine-hit areas, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, are Swine flu in Mexico, 2009 generally not highly developed for tourism. Source: http://newsitemstoday.today.com

190 7: THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

ACTIVITY 4 30 minutes Do some follow up research on any ONE natural disaster that interests you. Make notes on what happened; the causes and effects of the disaster; the impact on tourism in the area; and (if information is available) how tourism has since recovered – or even been instrumental in supporting the recovery of the local area and population.

You might like to start with:

Link: http://www.calstatela.edu/dept/geology/G158.htm Link: http://en.widipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster

If you have access to the book in your library or e-library, read Boniface & Cooper: Worldwide Destinations Casebook (2005) Case 8: Crisis and risk management in tourism.

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SUMMARY

192 7: THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR TOURISM

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 Why are climate factors important in destination development and tourist flows?

2 Which factors influence climate and weather patterns?

3 What are the basic elements of fine weather that meet the general needs of tourism?

4 What are the five classifications in Burton’s system of weather zones?

5 Hot climates can be further classified into four different zones. Name them and give an example of a holiday destination in each zone.

6 What are the five different types of natural disaster?

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Climate determines all of the following: Physical comfort and ease Availability of activities and amenities – some are highly weather dependent eg sailing, outdoor sports, hang gliding, some are more pleasurable if the weather is fine – eg sightseeing Attractiveness and amenities – some resorts are seasonal and will open during periods of the year when the weather is likely to be clement; for some climate will determine the attractiveness of the scenery eg people visit Madeira for the flowers or New England for the famous colourful Fall When to travel and what to pack

2 Latitude, land mass, winds and relief (or altitude).

3 Temperature Precipitation Sunshine Wind conditions

4 Hot, warm, cool, cold and arctic.

5 The four classifications are (your examples may be different from ours): Equatorial: Example: Singapore Tropical: Example: Thailand Hot deserts: Example: Death Valley in the US Arid: Central Australia

6 Weather, water, earth movement, fire and health.

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 We think the three key points to remember are that:

ƒ The closer a region is to the Equator, the less it experiences differences in temperature and day length from season to season.

ƒ The further a region is from the Equator, the more likely it is to be generally colder, with a longer and more extreme winter.

ƒ The Southern and Northern Hemispheres have opposite seasons at a given time of year: the Southern summer being in December – February, and the Northern summer being in June to August.

2 You might bear in mind that:

ƒ Since exertion raises body temperature, more active holiday pursuits will be safer and more comfortable in lower temperature areas. However, coastal breezes and proximity to water lower temperature, so beach and water sports activities can be carried out in higher temperatures than inland activities.

ƒ Travellers will vary in their tolerance for heat and humidity, and their ability to acclimatise or adapt to different conditions – according to factors such as age, build, lifestyle and country of origin – and this will have to be taken into account in planning destinations, activities and seasons of travel.

3 The safe length of sun exposure will depend on factors such as:

ƒ The traveller's skin type (the ease with which the skin produces the protective pigment melanin)

ƒ The time of day (since radiation is higher when the sun is high in the sky)

ƒ Location (since reflection from sun and sand at the seaside can increase burning, as can the clear air and reflection from snow and rock at high altitudes)

ƒ Precautions taken (such as the use of various strengths of sunscreen, sunglasses, hat and covering clothing, beach umbrellas and so on).

4 There is no answer to this activity, as it gives you an opportunity for independent research. (Note that exam essay questions may well address areas of the Travel Geography syllabus by asking you to apply them to destinations or tourist areas with which you are familiar. It is well worth selecting some areas that are good illustrative examples of syllabus themes, or areas on which you are able to gather good information.)

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196

CHAPTER 8 TOURISM AND DESTINATION DEVELOPMENT

Chapter objectives In this chapter you will learn ƒ The nature of tourism and destination development ƒ Factors to be considered when developing destinations ƒ The processes by which tourism develops spatially and over time (including the product life cycle, resort development model and tourist resort model) ƒ The positive and negative impacts of development on a host region, and how they can be managed ƒ Policies and practices for sustainable tourism and destination development ƒ Factors likely to impact on tourism development in the future, including carrying capacity, information technology, and trends in cultural and ethnic tourism, ecotourism and sustainable tourism

Topic list Tourism and destination development Models of tourism development Impacts of development on the host region Policies and practices for sustainable development Factors impacting on future tourism development

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1 Tourism and destination development

1.1 What is 'tourism development'?

Tourism development may be defined as 'the process by whic h a destination area provides facilities and services for visitors, whether on business or at leisure, as a way of securing economic and social benefits' (Youell, 2003).

' Development ' is a shorthand term, which embraces everything from single projects such as the construction of buildings or facilities, to a broader, longer-term cluster of activities aimed at improving human and social wellbeing in a nation or region, through the creation of infrastructure and superstructure, education and employment opportunities, economic activity and technological advancement.

Infrastructure is the basic services and amenities that have to be in place before any kind of development can go ahead – such as roads, railways, airports, telecommunications links, power and water supplies, sewage services and so on. In most countries, the public sector (government and public authorities) takes responsibility for the development of infrastructure, although this is increasingly done in partnership with private sector contractors and finance.

Superstructure is the term used for the construction of facilities based on available infrastructure, including buildings such as hotels, leisure centres or resorts. In most countries, superstructure development is undertaken by private sector firms.

Economic development is the process of improving the quality of life of a nation or region through increasing economic activity (production, consumption and trade), employment and wealth creation. Tourism development is often seen as an effective way of achieving economic development for countries and areas with few other economic resources.

Economic regeneration is the process of revitalising derelict urban and rural areas. Tourism development may play a signficant part in regeneration projects, by helping to create employment, attract investment, and build both amenities and confidence.

Youell (2003) summarises some key features of tourism development as follows.

ƒ It takes may forms, including the development of a resort or leisure complex, the expansion of an airport, the building of a hotel, and the provision of tourist attractions (whether natural or man-made).

ƒ It occurs on differing scales: from a village hall committee organising an art exhibition for local day visitors to the construction of a major international attraction like a Disneyland theme park.

ƒ It occurs at different rates. Some tourism development takes place quite quickly, thanks to advances in travel and communications technology: examples include the development of

long haul destinations such as the Far East and Source: images.businessweek.com Pacific Islands. Other developments occur at a much slower rate, with more planning and a greater concern for environmental and social sustainability: eg the controlled tourism policies of countries bordering the Himalayas.

ƒ It takes place in a variety of environments, using different tourism resources (as we have seen in earlier chapters): from pristine Australian wilderness areas, South American rainforests and Antarctic waters – to vibrant cities like London, New York, Bangkok and Sydney.

ƒ It relies on pre-existing or planned infrastructure development: roads, railways, airports, telecommunications links, power and water supplies and so on.

198 8: TOURISM AND DESTINATION DEVELOPMENT

ƒ It has a number of impacts on the host region. Tourism development is pursued worldwide, due to its potentially significant contribution to the economic wellbeing of regions – but it can also have negative impacts on the people, environment and culture in destination areas, which must be carefully managed if the resources which draw tourists to a destination are to remain attractive and viable for future generations.

Destination (or resort) development may be defined as tourism development, as it is applied to a particular tourist destination: the ways in which a given area develops and promotes itself as a target destination for tourism.

FOR DISCUSSION For any destination with which you are familiar, describe the development of (a) infrastructure and (b) superstructure for tourism.

1.2 Factors to be considered when developing destinations for tourism

Boniface & Cooper (2005 (a)) suggest that while technology now allows tourists to reach most parts of the world, only a small fraction of the world's potential tourist resource base has been developed. 'None the less, with a growing demand for tourism focused on a small resource base, tourist destinations are under pressure. In part, this is because tourism does not occur evenly or randomly in space – pressure is focused seasonally and at unique places. This demands the effective planning and management of tourism resources… Different types of tourism will have di stinctive requirements for growth, and certain sites, regions or countries will be more favourable for development than others.' ( ibid, p 32).

A number of factors will impact on the nature, pace, scope and management of destination development and tourism growth. Some of the main ones, highlighted in your Travel Geography syllabus, include the following.

ƒ Where the destination is in its product life cycle: whether it is only just being discovered (with plenty of room for future development), or is a mature and established destination (with little need for further development, and perhaps the need for restrictions Beach shack, Queensland, Australia Source: www.smh.com.au on development to prevent negative impacts), or is a stagnating or declining destination (which may therefore need regeneration and the development of fresh attractions in order to recover or draw a new market).

ƒ The process of resort development, whereby existing facilities attract new and complementary facilities, as an area becomes an established focus of a certain type of tourist activity. Beaches or ski slopes

attract hotels, which attract restaurants and bars, Hotel Bali, Benalmadena, Costa del Sol entertainment venues, transport and other services, Source: www.realholidayreports.com and so on.

ƒ Impacts of development on the host region. As we have already noted, tourism has impacts – both positive and negative – on destination areas. The greater the positive impacts, the more incentive to further development there will be – but as the negative impacts begin to be felt (or anticipated in advance, eg with the growing concern for environmental and social ' sustainability') there may be a need to manage, or even limit, further development.

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Economic Environmental ƒ Creation of employment ƒ Sustainability of natural resources ƒ Inflow of foreign currency/spending ƒ Preserving habitats/ecosystems ƒ ƒ Income for tourism operators Environmental education of tourists ƒ Economic development/regeneration ƒ Environmental improvements

Key impact factors in tourism/destination development

Socio-cultural Political Tƒ WOPromoting LINES cross -cultural IF understanding ƒ Enhancing the image of an area ƒ Preserving values and amenities ƒ Creating regional/national identity NECESSARƒ Building communityY facilities: 'quality of life' ƒ Political stability/safety for tourism

ƒ Policies and practices for development, arising from proactive or reactive responses to its impacts. There may be policies to encourage tourism in an area (such as regional destination marketing or the removal of cross-border travel controls) – as well as policies to protect the environment and host communities (collectively referred to as ' sustainable tourism ' policies), and to manage the volume, timing and impacts of tourism (collectively referred to as ' visitor management' policies). ƒ Carrying capacity: the maximum number of visitors an area can take without experiencing deterioration of the tourist resource, host community satisfaction or visitor enjoyment. A destination may simply reach 'saturation point': no more growth is possible, or stakeholders resist further growth, or numbers simply fall away as the destination becomes less attractive. The pace and scope of development will depend on how close to its carrying capacity the destination is. Let's now look at some of these factors in more detail.

2 Models of tourism development

Tourism development happens both through time (leading to changes in the amount and type of tourism in a specific destination over a period of time) and in space (leading to the spatial spread of tourist development and tourist activity). Let's start by looking at the process of development over time.

2.1 The product lifecycle of destinations

The product life cycle (PLC) is a marketing model which suggests that products and services pass through certain 'stages of life' in the same way as living organisms do: from 'birth' (launch) through growth (development), to maturity and eventual decline. The destination life cycle – sometimes referred to as the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) or resort development model – is an application of the product life cycle to the way that tourism destinations grow and decline over time.

The product life cycle has four basic stages, which can be applied to the tourist or destination product as follows:

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Stage Explanation

Introduction The destination is undeveloped, and attracts only small numbers of pioneering tourists. With such a small market, providing tourist services is high-cost and high-risk, so prices are high.

Growth Effort and investment is put into destination marketing, and visitor numbers begin to increase. Services begin to improve and become standardised. Competition increases as more tourist industry players enter the market seeking potentially high profits. This brings prices down, making the product more attractive to a mass market.

Maturity The destination has reached popularity with a mass market, and gradually approaches saturation point. Tourist industry competition is at its peak, prices are low – and profits begin to decline.

Decline Sales decline, as the product goes out of fashion with the market. Tourist industry profits are low, players start to drop out of the market and go elsewhere, competition decreases – and prices start to rise, hastening the decline still further.

One key point of this model for tourism development is that it depends to a large extent on the motivations of the tourism industry: the perceived marketability and potential profitability of a location, which varies both in space (from location to location) and over time (from stage to stage of the life cycle). Another key point is the effect of the life cycle on the spatial spread of tourism (which we will discuss in Section 3): as competition intensifies, there is pressure either to add more facilities and services at the emerging destination (spatially growing the resort) or to offer facilities and services in a new or different destination, once the existing destination reaches saturation (spatially spreading tourism development to another area).

2.2 The resort development model

The resort development model or Tourism Area Life Cycle (Butler, 1980) describes the life cycle of tourist development in a given resort or destination over time: Figure 8.1.

CRITICAL RANGE OF ELEMENTS OF CAPACITY A. Rejuvenation

Stage 5. Stagnation B. Stabilisation Stage 4. Consolidation

Number of Tourists C. Decline Stage 3. Development

Stage 2. Involvement

Stage 1. Exploration

Time Figure 8.1: The Tourism Area Life Cycle (or resort development model)

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Stage Explanation

Exploration Not many people know of the destination. Visitors are adventurous explorers or pioneers, travelling independently. The destination has few facilities and only basic infrastructure: its attraction is unspoilt natural or cultural features.

Involvement There is an increase in visitor numbers, and better transport links develop in response to demand. Local people set up businesses, offering accommodation and other services. The public sector (government authorities and agencies) investigates the potential for tourism development, and starts to invest in infrastructure and facilities.

Development The initial explorers have moved on to newer destinations (starting a new life cycle at those destinations). Visitors now mainly come on organised tours, and tourist numbers increase rapidly. National or international companies move in, in response to business opportunities, and further infrastructure and superstructure develops, focused on tourist needs. Tourist seasons are established.

Consolidation The destination is an established 'mass tour ism' destination. Tourist numbers are still increasing, but at a slower rate, as the negative impacts of tourism begin to be felt.

Stagnation The area approaches its carrying capacity, with peak tourist numbers. It begins to be perceived as over-crowded and over-commercialised, and some of its natural and cultural resources have deteriorated. It becomes unfashionable.

Having reached this stage in the life cycle, there are three ways for a destination to go:

ƒ Stabilisation: the destination may continue as it is, trying to attract large numbers of (less discerning) tourists, and exploiting its existing infrastructure and superstructure. Ultimately, however, this is not sustainable, as increasing numbers of tourists will start to go elsewhere.

ƒ Decline: the destination eventually becomes unattractive: visitor numbers decrease rapidly, investment goes elsewhere, and tourist facilities begin to deteriorate and close down.

ƒ Rejuvenation and regeneration: the decision is made to re-develop the destination. Facilities are cleaned up or refurbished; new or new-styl e facilities are built; and new attractions are devised to bring tourists back again. The destination may need to be 're-packaged' for a different type of tourism, to reach new markets.

ACTIVITY 1 10 minutes Once a tiny fishing village, Faliraki is now dubbed 'lively' in brochures. Jet skiing, go-karting, even bugee-jumping are on offer. The beach-front is full of bars and nightclubs, and the noise can be heard several kilometers away. Drinks in the bars are six times the price of the supermarket.

The beach is packed with holiday-makers from morning until dusk, and they leave their mess of fast- food for the seagulls to eat after they leave the beach. The hotel complexes spread from the beach all the way inland, and still more developments are being constructed. Overhead, the next plane can be heard, delivering the next batch of package tour tourists to experience their 'home from home' in the sun.

What stage of the destination life cycle do you think this destination has reached? Explain your answer.

Boniface & Cooper (2005(b), p 203) argue that many world destinations have reached the stagnation stage of their life cycle. They give the example of several famous beach resorts, including: Waikiki (Hawaii), Pataya Beach (Thailand), Acapulco (Mexico) and the Gold

202 Surfers Paradise, Gold 8: TOURISM AND DESTINATION DEVELOPMENT

Coast (Australia). They describe the dangers of the stagnation phase for a destination as follows.

ƒ The dominance of increasingly low-price, mass-market, short-stay tourists, who make minimal economic contribution to the destination

ƒ The risk of tourism exceeding the destination's carrying capacity, damaging the environment and alienating the host community

ƒ On-going degradation of infrastructure and facilities, as low profitability prevents up-dating and maintenance

ƒ Accelerating decline, as the products become increasingly out of step with what tourists want, and newer destinations become more competitive (and more fashionable).

EXAMPLE Boniface & Cooper (2005 (b)) present the case study of Bali (Indonesia), as a destination having experienced explosive tourism growth, development and modernisation, leading to a heavy strain on limited land and water resources, as well as threatening the integrity of Balinese cultural traditions.

Some negative impacts of tourism on the island have included: loss of rice fields, coastal erosion, damage to coral reefs, marine pollution, water shortages, the commodification and distortion of Balinese cultural performances, and the rise of prostitution and drug taking.

Meanwhile, the 2002 bombings of nightclubs in Bali had a devastating effect on the island's tourism and economy. Although its strong tourism assets should help in recovery, this represents an opportunity to pause and look forward: tourism needs to be carefully managed for the greater benefit of local communities. (Much also depends on the return of political stability to the region, and the perceived effectiveness of anti-terrorism measures.)

By contrast, Kuta Lombok, just across the Lombok Strait from Bali, is at the other end of the destination development life cycle ('Gold rush at the other Kuta', The Weekend Australian, February 27- 28, 2010). 'It's hard to envisage this largely unspoiled island east of Bali – and similar in size – becoming crowded with outsiders… But the money is pouring in, despite the risks. Land in the Kuta area in southern Lombok with its beautiful beaches is being snapped up from locals by big and small investors lured by the island's beauty and relative cheapness, despite risks and hiccups in development linked to the financial crisis far away in Dubai, and inadequate infrastructure, such as roads and power.

'Local Sasak communities, most of which have had little exposure to Westerners, will be in for a shock, Kuta Bali Beach, Indonesia and there's speculation about the ability of t he people Source: travelfamilyvacation.blogspot.com and their religious culture to coexist with tourism…

'Job training in hospitality is proposed but how Sasak communities, which eke out a living from subsistence crops and fishing, will fit into the shiny new scenario is unclear. Disputes also have flared over land acquisitions around the new airport and other projects...

'Concern over development design and regulation en actment also is growing and, in a bid to avoid the blunders in Bali, revised rules stipulate low-density, environmentally friendly buildings.

' ' "Bali is our source of inspiration," says tourist boss Lalu Gita Ariadi. "There are plenty of positive and negative things we can learn from it. We will try to minimise the negatives, such as traffic and overcrowding problems. Lombok is still quiet. Hopefully the future in Lombok will not be like Bali now." '

So what can be done? Before we go on to look at spatial models of tourism development, let's briefly look at how stagnating resorts can be brought back to life.

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2.3 Resort regeneration

As we saw earlier, once a resort reaches the stagnation stage of its life cycle, it has the options of decline, stabilisation (which may not be sustainable in the long term) and rejuvenation/regeneration. Obviously, this third option is preferable, if it can be managed. So what needs to be done?

ƒ 'Re-vision' the destination: involve key stakeholders (host communities, public sector and tourist industry representatives) in a strategic planning exercise to identify issues and problems, and map out a desired and sustainable future for the destination

ƒ Destination marketing and management: renew, restore and improve existing attractions; promote them more effectively to the existing market; and/or re-package and promote them to target the needs of new markets or tourist groups (as discussed in Chapter 6). Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), for example, has developed new tourism products to attract new and existing markets, such as ecotourism (based on a local coastal rainforest park), cultural tourism (eg samba schools) and sports tourism (centred on the world's largest Estádio do Mara canã, Ri o Source: sports-venue.info football stadium, the Maracanã).

ƒ Environmental regeneration: upgrade the standard of built facilities; introduce traffic management schemes in congested RBD and CBD areas; introduce environmental management schemes (especially for natural resources like beaches); reclaim waste/derelict land and features – and so on. Several Spanish coastal resorts, for example, have sought to improve beach quality, upgrade existing hotels, and restrict new accommodation to 4-5-star grades.

ƒ Economic regeneration: promote the expansion of non-tourist economic activity, in order to provide a more diversified economic and employment base, and reduce the dependency on tourism. Some major coastal cities in the South of France and California (USA), for example, have used their climatic and coastal resources to attract more environmentally friendly industries (like computer technology).

2.4 The spatial process of global tourism development

As we have seen in earlier chapters of this Study Guide, tourism is most likely to develop in:

ƒ Places with strong potential resources for tourism

ƒ The sorts of places that tourists want to go to (depending on their tastes and motivations for travel)

ƒ Places which the tourist industry sees as having potential for development, promotion and profitability (given their life cycle stage)

ƒ Places where the host community supports (or does not resist) tourism development.

Burton (op cit, p 69) puts together a four-stage model of tourist development, based on the influence of these factors, both spatially and over time.

Stage Explanation Stage 1 A populated area with the potential to generate tourism is linked by transport networks to a potential destination area with little or no existing tourism. A few pioneering travellers (eg the 'allocentrics') explore t he destination independently, and the host community provides small scale services for them. Word of mouth spreads.

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Stage Explanation Stage 2 As push factors (including economic affluence) increase in the generating region, more people are motivated and able to travel. The tourist industry steps in to provide the services sought by this wider tourist market ('near allocentrics'), and pull factors are increased by destination marketing. Some tourism facilities are now provided. Stage 3 The tourist industry develops increasingly commercialised (non-locally provided, non- traditional) tourist accommodation and services. The pioneers/allocentrics turn to newer destinations (recommencing the cycle at Stage 1 in other destinations). Meanwhile, at the original destination, the speed and intensity of development increases due to tourist industry competition, mass marketing, services that appeal to 'average' (or 'mid centric') tourists, and increasing affor dability. Stage 4 The original resort destination is now fully developed, and appeals primarily to mass, organised and charter tourists ('psychocen trics' or 'near psychocentrics'). The average/mid-centric tourist moves on to newer destinations, pushing them from Stage 2 to Stage 3 – and pushing the pioneers/allocentrics to further undiscovered destinations, spreading tourist development progressively wider. Meanwhile, the original resort will either face stagnation and decline, or will seek rejuvenation and regeneration.

Provided that there is continued economic growth in the generating area (and therefore increasing numbers of tourists), the outcomes of this process are:

ƒ The step by step spatial spread of tourism development to more, more distant or different locations

ƒ A step by step progressive change in the type of tourism at each destination, from 'pioneering'/independent to mass organised tourism.

2.5 The spatial process of resort development

The term ' resort ' is usually used to describe a settlement which has evolved (or been purpose- developed) in response to the needs of tourists – although in the USA, the term is often used to mean any hotel/leisure complex. Resorts include spas, winter sports (ski) resorts and coastal (beach) resorts. Resorts become the focus for the development of a cluster of tourist facilities, evolving distinctive townscapes. (The term ' tourist centre' is used for historic towns and cities which retain multi- functional land use and activity, and are not adapted solely to the needs of tourism.)

Resorts are settlements which evolve – or are purpose-developed – in response to the needs of tourism, and take on a distinct layout, architectural style and 'townscape' from other urban or rural settlements.

As a resort develops, tourist-orientated uses for land and buildings are likely to cluster closest to the central tourist attraction. Let's take a beach or seaside resort as an example.

The seaside resort model (Barrett, 1958; Stansfield & Ricke rt, 1970; Lavery, 1971) suggests that beach resorts evolve three basic land-use zones:

ƒ A Recreation Business District (RBD): a distinct zone of focused tourist amenities, including food outlets, leisure/recreational shops and premier hotels, clustered closest to the key tourist attraction (the main recreational beach).

ƒ A Central Business District (CBD): the main shopping and office area of the town or city, consisting of non-recreational shops, businesses and services, often situated just inland from the RBD (but still central, to take advantage of transport access routes and networks).

ƒ Zones of tourist and residential accommodation, decreasing in price and tourism intensity the further away they are from the beach. The premium zone (high-quality, high-rise hotels and

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apartments) extends along the shorefront to either side of the RBD. Other zones, with progressively lower-priced and lower-density tourist accommodation, spread out inland, where they merge with residential accommodation.

The basic seaside resort model can be summarised as follows: Figure 8.2.

Beachfront

Hotels/apartments RBD: beachfront amenities

CBD: Cheaper, lower density commercial core tourist accommodation

Residential accommodation Accommodation zone

Figure 8.2: The seaside resort model

A slightly more complex tourist resort model (Lavery, 1974) incorporates additional elements such as:

ƒ Transport links (eg inland railway and bus stations, serving the residential zone, with links to the CBD and RBD)

ƒ Street-level shops, arcades and malls fringing high-rise hotel and office blocks in the RBD and CBD

ƒ Shorefront outdoor recreation areas, on the fringe of the main hotel area, such as golf courses, parks or reserves. (These days, such space may also be allocated to caravan/camp grounds.)

ACTIVITY 2 20 minutes If you have acces to the Internet, use Google Maps to find a local map of any beach resort with which you are familiar, or in which you are interested. 'Zoom in' on the beachfront area, and see if you can trace the elements of the beach resort and/or tourist resort models outlined above.

Although these models are quite old-fashioned (and particularly limited in the different types of tourist accommodation they envisage), many resorts still conform to this basic model. There may, however, be local variations due to factors such as:

ƒ The size and shape of the beach: a long strip of beach may have a thin strip of shorefront development, while a resort on a small headland beach may need to extend further inland

ƒ The available terrain for construction: shoreline cliffs or hillsides may be built on (as in the French and Italian Riviera), but in such a case, development tends to be low density and expensive/exclusive

ƒ Other urban functions: the town/city may have existing zones for industrial, port, fishing, residential and other uses, especially the settlement was developed for purposes other than tourism

ƒ Specific tourist elements of the resort: the location of attractions, transport networks, the location of transport hubs and so on. In a major waterfront city like Sydney or Rio, for example,

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tourist facilities will be more widely dispersed between a number of areas catering for different visitor interests: the city will be 'polycentric' or many-centred.

The resort development model is essentially 'evolution ary'. It depicts the growing of resorts over time, building on – or taking over – existing coastal settlements: often farming or fishing communities, perhaps with small clusters of holiday homes for nearby city dwellers. Development will generally follow the destination life cycle: large strips of hotels and apartments, and distinct RBDs, for example, would only emerge at the development stage.

It should also be remembered that not all resorts 'e volve' over time. They may also be planned and built as a fully-developed, self-contained resorts (or 'tou rist enclaves') which are separate from existing settlements and infrastructure: examples include resorts in Cancun, Mexico, and island resorts in the Caribbean or Great Barrier Reef.

FOR DISCUSSION What might be the focus of the 'RBD' in a historic tour ist centre, or in a ski resort? In other words, what key resource would attract the development of a convenient cluster of tourist facilities?

Try and think of some specific examples, using historic towns/cities or ski resorts with which you are familiar.

3 Impacts of development on the host region

National economies and local communities alike want a share in the benefits tourism can bring. However, as we saw in Chapter 3, the potential value of tourism resources can be eroded – or even cancelled out – by negative impacts of tourism on popular destinations.

The terms host community and host region are often used to describe destinations in the discussion about the impacts of tourism development, highlighting the fact that tourists visit places where other people live and work. There is growing acceptance that the needs of visitors must be balanced with the needs of their 'hosts' and other community stak eholders (including the natural environment).

The following discussion can be applied specifically to beach and coastal resorts (where the impacts have been most keenly felt, due to the scale and speed of development) – but may also apply to tourism development of any type and at any destination.

3.1 Economic impacts

One of the principal positive impacts of tourism – and the key objective of tourism development – is the generation of income for private individuals, local authorities, companies and national governments. Tourism brings money into a destination economy through wages and salaries, profits, rents, duties and taxes. This has a positive effect on the destination country's ' balance of payments': the amount of currency f lowing into a country (via in-bound tourism and export business), balanced against the amount of currency flowing out of it (via out-bound tourism and import business). This is particularly beneficial for countries receiving tourists from 'high value' currency countries, such as the EU, US and UK.

Tourism creates jobs. These may be technically classified as: direct employment in tourism (eg work in hotels and tourist attractions), indirect employment in tourism (eg in the tourism supply sector); and induced employed (jobs created due to increased activity in the local economy due to tourism). World Travel & Tourism Council figures suggest that some 120 million people are employed in the tourism industry worldwide: this makes it 'probably the single

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most important industry in the world' (Holloway, 2006) in terms of employment and generation of income, particularly in developing countries.

Investment in tourism development can contribute to urban and rural regeneration projects and infrastructure development, and add to regional and national prosperity.

If this all sounds like Good News, it is worth noting that there are also some negative economic effects!

ƒ Local residents have to pay part of their taxes to provide facilities for visitors, and this may be perceived as an unfair use of funds (particularly if residents' quality of life is negatively affected by tourism).

ƒ Local land, property and product prices may rise as a result of tourist activity in an area. Locals may not be able to continue to afford to live – and invest in businesses – in the area.

ƒ Tourism may divert employment and other economic resources from less lucrative, but necessary, industries such as fishing and agriculture. This is known as the displacement effect: 'developing tourism at the expense of other acti vities or areas of investment' (Page & Connell, 2006). The displacement effect may distort local economies, and make them excessively dependent on tourism. And over-dependence risks disaster if tourism falters or fails, due to recession, natural disaster, political instability – or the destination's going out of fashion.

3.2 Environmental impacts

On the positive side, initiatives aimed at enhancing tourist attractions can bring environmental benefits for both local residents and visitors.

Environments can be aesthetically and functionally enhanced. Derelict land and waterways may be cleaned up and reclaimed for tourism facilities, for example; trees can be planted to balance tourism development; or public spaces can be created. One example is the London 2012 Olympic facilities, as part of which a major public park will be created for visitors – and residents – to London Olympic regeneration (artist's impression) enjoy. Source: www.telegraph.co.uk The conservation of natural and man-made environmental resources may attract higher awareness, and become a higher priority for policy and investment, with the incentive of attracting or retaining tourism.

ƒ One example, as we saw in Chapter 3, is the creation of protected areas, such as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), and the development of ecotourism products.

ƒ Another example is awareness-raising and community involvement campaigns such as the UK Seaside Award (and equivalents in other countries, such as the Blue Flag for European resort beaches), which is awarded to beaches which meet high standards of environmental management – acting as an incentive to local authorities, community groups and resort operators to maintain the beach environment.

ƒ Ecotourism specifically encourages awareness and sustainable use of environmental resources, and may also contribute actively to their preservation through conservation and regeneration projects (eg through tourism products such as working/voluntary service holidays).

Financial contributions from tourism (such as park entrance fees, user fees, licence fees, taxes and 'eco-taxes') can provide the funds needed to manage natural resources sustainably.

However, it is the extensive – and potentially severe – negative impacts of tourism development on the natural environment that have gained a high profile in recent years. Examples of such impacts include:

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ƒ Pollution: air pollution (in the form of transport emissions); noise pollution (from traffic and entertainment); water pollution (from the run-off or emission of resort and cruise ship wastes); and visual pollution (in the form of litter and waste, and 'eyesore' constructions which do not fit the aesthetic values of the destination).

ƒ Land degradation: damage to land and landforms, as construction of tourism infrastructure and superstructure denudes forested areas, intrudes on scenic views, and Source: fladoodles.wordpress.com damages or changes vegetation (eg by importing foreign plants).

ƒ Erosion: the physical wearing away of rock or soil through excessive trampling or vehicle movement. The use of land for tourism, particularly in popular areas such as coastal resorts and National Parks, can result in surface erosion, and some adventure tourism activities – such as off- road 4WD driving and camping – can create long-term damage to landscapes.

ƒ Loss of habitats for wildlife. On land, flora and fauna can be displaced and lose their habitats due to land clearing, construction and tourist activities. Offshore, the construction of marinas and water-based activities can destroy marine habitats: coral reefs, in particular, are suffering worldwide from reef-based tourism development, increased sediments in the water, trampling by tourists and divers, boat groundings, over-fishing – and the mining of coral for resort building materials and souvenir products (www.gdrc.org.uk).

ƒ Exhaustion of natural resources. One example is the over-consumption of limited fresh water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. Other examples may include the disproportionate use of local power and food supplies by tourism.

ƒ Greenhouse gas emissions from road and air traffic, which are said to be major human contributors to global climate change. Tourism is said to account for more than 60 per cent of all air travel (www.bd-experts.com).

FOR DISCUSSION Environmental and socio-cultural impacts of tourism generally seem to be seen as negative, while economic impacts are generally seen to be positive. What do you think? Cite examples of particular tourist destinations with which you are familiar.

3.3 Socio-cultural impacts

On the positive side, the positive economic impacts of tourism can materially enhance the quality of life in host communities. Investment can help to improve local infrastructure and superstructure, which are used by residents as well as tourists. The education and training of local people, to support the tourism industry, may also have knock-on benefits for a society.

The development of cultural and ethnic tourism, in particular, can contribute to the revitalisation of neglected towns and regions; local arts and craf ts, folk music/dance and gastronomy; festivals; costumes and customs – all of which may be rediscovered and acquire a new appreciation as an attraction to cultural tourists. An increase in visitors and investment may create a sharper sense of – and pride in – the area's distinctive cultural features: in other words, a stronger cultural identity.

Tourism development also offers opportunities for cross-cultural encounter and exploration – and hence for better understanding, and perhaps even political peace, between different cultures and populations.

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However, again, tourism can have significant negative impacts on host cultures – and these may even be seen as more harmful than negative environmental impacts, since recovery may be a generations- long process. Examples of negative socio-cultural effects include:

ƒ Overcrowding. Tourism Concern, for example, notes that 'some destinations have ten times more inhabitants in the high season than in the low season'.

ƒ Crime. Tourists are often more affluent than local populations; they travel with cash and valuable belongings (such as cameras and mobile phones); and they are vulnerable as strangers in an unfamiliar environment. All these factors can make them a target for crime, which is common in many popular urban destinations.

ƒ The 'commodification' of culture by cultural and ethnic tourism: local customs, cultural performances and religious practices 'being changed to suit the needs and wishes of tourists' (Cooper et al, 2005); becoming simplified and distorted (to make them more attractive and accessible for tourist consumption); and losing their authenticity. As we saw in Chapter 6, this is sometimes referred to as the 'Disneyfication' of culture: turning cultures into 'cartoon' versions of themselves.

ƒ Cultural convergence and homogeneity through cultural and ethnic tourism: a loss of cultural identity, diversity and distinctiveness, through exposure to Source: pe.elmstreet-online.com dominant US/Anglo/European cultures, dress and behaviours – particularly among the younger population. This may also be linked to the loss of local languages and dialects, due to the need to adopt dominant tourist languages (notably English).

ƒ Loss of traditional industries and crafts, due to the displacement effect, whereby resources and employment are diverted into tourism, and away from other activities.

ƒ Geographical displacement: 'local people being moved away from t heir place of residence to make way for tourism development' (Page & Connell, 2006).

ƒ Economic inequity and pressure. The economic benefits of tourism can, as we have seen, have a down side in terms of rising prices, taxation and migration. Local labour may be exploited (with poor wages and conditions) by employers seeking to maximise their own profits from tourism.

ACTIVITY 3 30 minutes List what you think would be the main economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism on a destination at each stage of the destination life cycle.

The number, type and severity of impacts experienced by any given resort or destination will depend on factors such as the nature and scale of tourism, and the speed of development. As we saw in our example of Bali, earlier, the faster the development, the greater the impacts – and resulting stresses – may be.

The key point to take away from this section is that many of the negative impacts of tourism arise from 'uncontrolled' tourism development. Destination and development planning can help to manage the impacts of tourism: optimising the balance between its positive and negative effects. Hopefully, with the benefit of cautionary examples from history (such as Bali and the Spanish Costa del Sol), newly emerging major resort areas (such as Turkey, Mexico and Vietnam) will be able to introduce planning controls at an earlier stage of the destination life cycle.

So let's now turn to the issues of planning for sustainable tourism.

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4 Policies and practices for sustainable development

4.1 The need for destination planning

As we have seen throughout this Study Guide, tourism is inevitably attracted to unique and fragile natural, historical and cultural resources around the world – with potentially severe environmental, social and cultural consequences. With an increasing awareness of the need to consider the social and environmental impacts of tourism, it has been recognised that tourism development cannot be allowed to continue in an unplanned or uncontrolled way, because:

ƒ an uncontrolled destination lifecycle invariably leads to degradation and stagnation

ƒ uncontrolled destination development invariably leads to negative environmental and social impacts which destroy the value of the very resources that stimulated tourism in the first place.

Destination planning is the process whereby key stakeholders in a destination (the host community, tourism industry and government) get togther and determine the future direction of tourism at a destination, with a view to maximising the benfeits and minimising the costs of tourism at the destination, while at the same time ensuring the best possible experience for the visitor.

The destination planning process can be summarised as six basic questions (Boniface & Cooper, 2005(a), p 34): Figure 8.3.

What type of tourist will visit? What is the scale of tourism?

Where will development Destination What controls will be placed take place? planning on development?

How will development be financed? What will be the role of government?

Figure 8.3: Destination planning

The answer to each of these questions will depend on the government's approach to tourism, the importance of tourism to the economy, and the nature of impacts experienced by specific destinations and types of tourism.

Boniface & Cooper ( op cit) argue that tourism planning benefits a destination in a number of ways: ƒ It optimises the benefits of tourism to the destination. ƒ It minimises the negative impacts of tourism on the destination. ƒ It encourages the adoption of sustainable tourism, which ensures that the value of tourism resources is preserved for future generations. (This concept is discussed further below.) ƒ It provides a land-use-based plan for zoning areas for development, conservation and protection. ƒ It encourages design and other standards for the tourism sector to work to. ƒ It encourages intentional matching of destination development with potential tourist markets (as we saw in Chapter 6). ƒ It generally contributes to the upgrading or regeneration of the destination environment, in order to enhance resources for tourism. ƒ It encourages monitoring of impacts at the destination, to ensure that tourism plans are in fact being carried out – and that benefits of tourism are in fact outweighing the costs and negative impacts.

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To put it another way: 'If tourism planning does not succeed, then: the quality and integrity of the tourist resource are at risk; the role of tourism ma y be threatened as other land uses dominate; and tourists may suffer from poor quality experiences'. ( ibid, p 35).

4.2 What is sustainability?

We defined 'development' at the start of this chapter. So what is sustainable development?

Sustainable development is 'development that meets the need s of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs' (Brundtland Report, 1987). Perhaps the most obvious example in global terms is the need to conserve or replace non-renewable resources (such as fossil fuels). But another key example is the need to conserve natural and man-made resources for tourism, so that they give pleasure to future generations of tourists and hosts.

The concept of sustainability first emerged into mainstream discourse via the UN-appointed Brundtland Commission, which in its 1987 report (Our Common Future) recognised the three-fold need for economic development, environmental protection and social equity. In recent years, these three dimensions have formed a framework for the understanding of sustainability and sustainable tourism, variously expressed as: Profit, People and Planet – or Economics, Environment and Equity.

Sustainable development thinking has increasingly been applied specifically to tourism.

Sustainable tourism is 'an emerging concept which seeks to address the long-term environmental and socio-cultural issues surrounding uncontrolled tourism development worldwide' (Youell, 2003).

It may be defined as 'tourism which is economically viable, but does not destroy the resources on which the future of tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social fabric of the host community' (Swarbrooke, 1999).

Sustainable tourism may be called by other terms such as responsible tourism or alternative tourism, which we will discuss below.

The UNWTO describes the three-fold principles of sustainable tourism as follows:

Socio-cultural Respect authenticity of host Economic communities, conserve their built Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing Environment and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute socio-economic benefits to all Make optimal use of to inter-cultural understanding stakeholders that are fairly environmental resources, and tolerance distributed, including stable maintaining ecological employment and income-earning processes, and help conserve opportunities and social services natural heritage and to host communities, and biodiversity contributing to poverty alleviation

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

4.3 Sustainable development policies

Various bodies concerned with travel and tourism have issued policy statements and guidelines for sustainable tourism, including the World Tourism Organisation, the World Travel and Tourism Council

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and Tourism Concern. 'The challenge facing the indu stry, especially the mass market operators, is to implement these guidelines for the benefit of present and future host communities' (Youell, 2003, p 229).

ƒ Agenda 21 is an action plan for sustainable development. Established at the Rio Earth Summit (1992), this plan commits national governments to consider the impacts of tourism (among other development activities) such as accommodation, entrepreneurship, food, transport and waste management – and to involve people and organisations in sustainable development at a local/community level.

ƒ Environmental management standards have been established by the British Standards Institute (eg BS 7750) and International Standards Organisations (eg ISO 14001). Organisations are encouraged to benchmark their performance against these standards, and/or to seek accreditation under them, demonstrating a commitment to the assessment and minimisation of environmental impacts.

ƒ The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) encourages the implementation of a Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, 'with a view to ensuring that member countries, tourist destinations and businesses maximise the positive economic, social and cultural effects of tourism and fully reap its benefits, while minimising its negative social and environmental impacts'. (www.u nwto.org)

ƒ Tourist industry bodies have issued best practice guidelines for sustainable tourism policy and implementation within the tourism industry. There are a number of accreditation and recognition schemes (eg star rating systems) to support consumers in selecting sustainable tourism products. In some environmentally and culturally sensitive areas, tourism businesses must be specially licensed to operate by appropriate protection agencies.

ƒ Individual national governments and regional tourist boards will have their own policy focus, depending on the nature of the sustainability challenges faced by their tourism resources at peak destinations. In Chapters 3 and 6 of this Study Guide, for example, we have highlighted a range of policies for controlling beach erosion, congestion in historic city centres, social impacts of cultural and ethnic tourism, and environmental damage in wilderness areas.

EXAMPLES Boniface & Cooper (2005 (b)) give a number of case studies illustrating sustainable development issues and policies at different destinations. Some varied examples are given below:

ƒ The Galapagos Islands. As a major international tourism destination, this area requires strict policies to balance resource conservation (and in particular, the unique wildlife heritage of the islands, on which Charles Darwin's theory of ev olution was based) with tourism development (as an important source of income for the developing nation of Ecuador). Management strategies include National Park designation; zoning to give varying degrees of protection; and visitor management (including a National Park guide programme, strict regulations to prevent contamination and disturbance of wildlife, and strict access controls).

ƒ The New Forest in England: co-ordinated policies to manage mainly domestic tourism (arising from adjacent cities and accessibility via the national motorway network) in an environmentally sensitive area, with scenic (woodland, heath land and coastal) and historical (stately homes, preserved villages, Roman villas and heritage museums) attractions.

ƒ The Austrian and Swiss Alps, and the impact of winter sports tourism development. The Alps are among the world's most visited international destinations, because of their natural resources, central location and proximity to some of the world's most prosperous cities. Scenic and natural resources (including fragile alpine ecosystems) are threatened by large- scale tourism and road building. Winter sports cause damage via the preparation of ski runs, the construction of lift systems, the use of artificial snow-making equipment, the growth of motor

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vehicle traffic, and avalanches caused by off-piste skiing. Meanwhile, 'Many Alpine communities have gradually changed in the course of a century from small farming villages on the margins of national economies to sophisticated ski resorts attracting a wealthy international clientele' ( ibid, p 119) – creating inevitable socio-cultural change. Hiking and other 'green' activities are seen as an alternative to ski resort expansion. Alternative tourism is promoted through an international system of hiking trails highlighting the natural and cultural attractions of the region (the Via Alpina or Alpine Way). The work of pressure groups such as Alp Action is also important in educating communities to aim for more sustainable development.

4.4 Visitor management strategies

As our examples illustrate, harm minimisation policies and practices will depend on the nature of the pressures created by tourism, the vulnerability of the resources under threat, and the nature of the negative impacts experienced.

Visitor management is the term given to various measures designed to protect both the environment and visitor enjoyment.

Visitor management can be performed in relation to three main factors: ƒ Controlling volume: that is, limiting visitor numbers, encouraging people to visit at different times, or encouraging people to visit alternative locations. This approach recognises that destinations have a limited 'carrying capacity' at any given time: we discuss this concept later in this chapter, as a key constraint on future tourism development. ƒ Modifying behaviour: attempting to control potentially harmful visitor behaviours, by providing information on environmental issues and cultural sensitivities, issuing 'codes of conduct' and guidelines for tourists (and tourism operators), and providing visitor information/education centres, guided walks/tours and signage. ƒ Adapting resources: for example, building walkways to avoid soil erosion or damage to vegetation, and constructing purpose-built tourist facilities.

Grant (1994) divides visitor management measures into 'hard' measures (using physical and financial restrictions: zoning, fenced-off areas, walkways, pedestrianised areas, parking/entrance fees and so on) and 'soft' measures (using codes of conduct, education, information and appeals to tourists' ethical/'green' values).

Some other key examples of visitor management practices include: ƒ Zoning of tourism areas: restricting tourist access to designated areas of particular sensitivity, and focusing tourist activities on limited, and less vulnerable, areas. This is the approach used in wildlife 'honeypot' destinations such as the Galapagos Islands, South Africa and Botswana, and in areas of archaeological interest such as Egypt, the Holy Land and the fossil fields of North America and Australia. Munich Historic City Centre (pedestrianised) ƒ Tourist enclaves: designated (or enclosed) areas within which tourists are isolated from the host community, often for security reasons (eg in developing nations, where there is a wide gap between rich visitors and poor residents), or to prevent the uncontrolled spread of tourist activity.

ƒ Park-and-ride schemes (discussed in Chapter 4) to minimise traffic congestion and overcrowding in historic city centres and attractions.

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FOR DISCUSSION Describe the visitor management strategies used at any destination with which you are familiar. What are they aiming to do – and how effective are they in minimising the negative impacts of tourism?

4.5 Sustainable destination development

The destination life cycle model suggests that tourism development follows a set pattern. In the absence of deliberate intervention in the development cycle, destinations and their resources will – almost inevitably – become over-exploited, unattractive, dilapidated and unfashionable. Over time, they will decline in use, and visitors – and tourism investment – will move elsewhere. 'Thus, according to the theory of the destination life cycle, tourism inevitably consumes (ie changes) the resource in such a way as to make it unusable for at least certain types of tourism in the future' (Butler, op cit , p 142).

However, it may be argued that destination planning or interventions can be used to 'short circuit' or change the cycle of development:

ƒ Tourist numbers may be limited or spread out (by the promotion of alternative destinations, uses or seasons), before the growth of tourism development beings to impact negatively on the tourism resource. So, for example, tourist numbers are strictly controlled at destinations such as Bhutan, Kakadu National Park (and other Australian Aboriginal-owned sites) or the Galapagos Islands.

ƒ Destinations may be packaged and promoted for alternative types of tourists. Instead of encouraging the eventual influx of mass tourism, a destination may promote itself for smaller- scale, more sensitive, less damaging forms of tourism (variously called alternative, responsible or eco-tourism). We will look at this possibility in more detail below.

ƒ Tourist operators, governments, host populations and tourists can be educated (eg by codes of ethics or codes of conduct) to behave more sustainably: to minimise the impact of tourism on cultures and environments. (Sustainable tourism campaigns such as 'Take nothing but photos; leave nothing but footprints' take this approach.)

4.6 Alternative tourism development

A number of different types of tourism have been developed in recent decades, as more sustainable alternatives to mass tourism.

The term alternative tourism is a loose term for forms of tourism which are an alternative or opposite to mass tourism, in that they 'set out to be consis tent with natural, social and community values and… allow both hosts and guests to enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared experiences (Wearing and Neil, 1999).

The distinguishing characteristics of alternative tourism are therefore:

ƒ small scale (low numbers of tourists) ƒ remote destinations (primarily in the developing world) ƒ focus on local nature and culture ƒ control and involvement by the local host community in the tourism product.

Boniface & Cooper (2005 (a), p 480) note that resource-based destinations (attracting tourism by virtue of natural or cultural heritage) are adopting 'sophisticated planning, management and interpretive techniques to provide both a welcome and a rewarding experience for the tourist, while at the same time ensuring protection of the resource itself.'

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ACTIVITY 4 10 minutes Think through the destination life cycle, and the various tourism impacts discussed so far in this chapter, and explain why alternative tourism may not necessarily have fewer or less negative impacts on destination areas and their populations.

The following are just some of the types of alternative tourism that you might encounter.

Type of tourism Characteristics

Socially responsible Focus on minimising the social impacts of tourism.

tourism ƒ 'Appropriate tourism': concerned with preserving the host community's culture, by supporting authentic heritage expressions, and ensuring that representatives of the indigenous population have a voice in the planning of cultural encounters and interpretative programmes. ƒ 'Community-based tourism': concerned with ensuring that the local community has a say in tourist development decision-making at an early stage. ƒ 'Responsible tourism': involving tourists who seek proactively to learn about the destination, to abide by local laws and customs, to minimise impacts on the environment and host community (or actively to contribute to them), and to choose activities and tour operators that are also responsible in these ways.

Ecotourism ƒ Focus on the enjoyment of natural resources in an environmentally (or green tourism) non-degrading and non-damaging way, while also, where possible, seeking to contribute to the on-going protection and management of those resources. ƒ We saw earlier that tourism can contribute to conservation of natural resources in a variety of ways: by payment of fees for access to wildlife and wild land resources; by providing the incentive of tourist income to local people to conserve natural resources; and by educating tourists to behave in environmentally-friendly ways.

Ethical tourism ƒ Focus on 'ethics': moral evaluations of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate values and behaviours. ƒ Ethical tourism guidelines might address matters such as: appropriate and inappropriate exploitation of the natural environment; sensitivity to cultural and religious differences; minimising negative impacts of tourism; ensuring that host communities reap equitable benefits from tourism and commerce; and avoiding destinations which legitimise or benefit corrupt or abusive regimes.

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4.7 Eco-tourism

Eco-tourism may be defined as 'purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the cultural and natural history of the environment, taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, whilst producing economic opportunities that make the conservation of natural resources financially beneficial to local citizens.' ( Ecotourism Society). It is also associated with 'green tourism': an approach to sustainable tourism specifically focusing on environmental issues.

As we noted in Chapter 6, eco-tourism is differentiated from 'nature tourism' by its particular concern for environmental and ethical responsibility.

Ecotourists:

ƒ Travel to a relatively ' unspoilt' natural environment specifically to experience that environment in a way that is non-damaging, non-degrading and ecologically sustainable – and, where possible, to actively support the protection and conservation of the environment (eg through education, funding or voluntary work).

ƒ Are concerned that local communities, where relevant, reap long-term economic benefits from Whale-watching tour tourism, rather than being excluded from the Source: www.canada-photos.com rewards of development.

ƒ Are content to experience the resource in a relatively undeveloped state, understanding that this may involve limits to the volume of visits, or accessible areas, or tourist facilities that are available.

ƒ Are generally engaged in supporting and promoting ethical and social responsibility in the conduct of all those involved in tourism.

So a learning/engagement experience of wild nature is the core product of eco-tourism destinations. The 'augmented product', however, includes environmen tally friendly accommodation, transport and other services. Shopping, nightlife and recreation facilities are less likely to form a key part of the package.

Eco-tourism has shown the fastest growth of any sector of the international tourism industry over the last decade. It therefore has the potential to impact significantly on the development of destinations, providing an incentive for the tourist industry and government authorities to put in place sustainable management regimes and tourist facilities and services.

There are some concerns about eco-tourism, however:

ƒ Because of its ' exploratory' nature (the desire to experience wilderness areas and unique ecosystems), ecotourism could actually be more harmful than mass tourism, which tends to be confined to small areas of a country or destination area.

ƒ Tour operators, hotels and other facilities are quick to add the ' eco-label ' to their products to attract tourists concerned about environmental issues, but in practice they may fail to meet any recognised eco-certification standards. (The same may be said of ecotourists, who may boast 'green' credentials and motivations, but behave irresponsibly or unethically at the destination, or expect developed tourist facilities beyond what the The EU eco label destination can sustainably provide.)

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EXAMPLE The following are the Top Ten Tips for Travelling Sustainably from The International Ecotourism Society. 'By exploring alternati ve travel choices, you can have a unique trip and avoid leaving negative marks on cultures, economies, and the environment. 1 At the hotel: Ask about environmental policies and practices. Talk with staff about working conditions. Does the hotel support community projects? 2 Language: Learn a few words of the local language and use them. 3 Dress: Read up on local conventions and dress appropriately. In many countries, modest dress is important. 4 Behavior: Be respectful of local citizens' privac y. Ask permission before entering sacred places, homes, or private land. 5 Photos: Be sensitive to when and where you take photos/video of people. Always ask first. 6 Environment: Respect the natural environment. Never touch or harass animals. Always follow designated trails. Support conservation by paying entrance fees to parks and protected sites. 7 Animal products: Never buy crafts or products made from protected or endangered animals. 8 Pay the fair price: Don't engage in overly aggr essive bargaining for souvenirs. Don't short-change on tips for services. 9 Buy local: Choose locally-owned lodges, hotels, and B&Bs. Use local buses, car rental agencies, and airlines. Eat in local restaurants, shop in local markets, and attend local festivals/events. 10 Hire local guides: Enrich your experience and support the local economy. Ask guides if they are licensed and live locally. Are they recommended by tour operators? Link: http://www.ecotourism.org

5 Factors impacting on future tourism development

Here is where we effectively 'look in the crystal ball': antici pating where current factors and trends may lead tourism development in the future. We can summarise some of the key factors in future tourism development – both positive and negative – as follows.

Opportunities Threats and constraints

Improvements in transport, increasing the The limited 'carrying capacity' of dest inations: that potential to move tourists from generating is, a ceiling on the number of tourists that can be areas to destination areas more easily and cost- absorbed by a destination before its resources and effectively: eg larger aeroplane capacity, attractions start to be damaged (and tourism starts possibilities of space tourism to stagnate or decline)

Remaining undiscovered or undeveloped The limited carrying capacity of transport networks destinations with potential for growth (including and modes near and outer space)

Increasing demand for tourism, with emerging Increasing awareness of negative impacts and generating areas (eg developing nations like sustainability/environmental concerns, and policy China and Russia) and market segments (eg constraints on tourism development singles travel, health travel, spiritual retreat travel, budget cruising and 'no frills' airline travel, ecotourism and ethical tourism)

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Opportunities Threats and constraints

Developments in information technology, Widening awareness of travel risks and impacts: creating global awareness of destinations (eg terrorism, epidemics (eg HIV/AIDS or SARS), the via Internet access) and a market for 'virtual', carbon footprint of air travel (contributing to fantasy or 'armchair' tourism climate change)

Emerging alternative tourism markets: Climate change effects, potentially damaging sustainable/ecotourism, ethnic tourism, natural resources such as coastal areas (due to adventure tourism, 'grey' (mature age) tourism rising sea levels), reefs (due to warming sea – and related potential for repackaged temperatures), snow and arctic environments (due destination products to melting) and climate reliability

Let's look at some of the factors ment ioned by the syllabus in more detail.

5.1 The impact of technology

On-going and accelerating technological developments may impact on tourism development in a number of areas.

5.1.1 Virtual reality Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that allows a user to enter and interact with images generated on a computer or computerised device: special graphics, video images and stereo sound make the depiction of places and actions seem real.

Many people argue that virtual reality can never replace the real experience of travel: that 'armchair tourism' can never replace the real thing. However, some futurists anticipate the home, or local VR facilities, becoming alternative centres for ' virtual tourism' – in much the same way as Wii Fit and Wii Sport, for example, are already alternative sources of leisure activity. DVD and on-line 'virtual tours' (pre-recorded or using live web cam footage) are already used in destination marketing to give would- be tourists a 'taster' of destin ations, to view hotel facilities, and to enable them to experience a 'walk' through art galleries and historic sites. It is arguably a short step from this to totally immersive experiences which simulate 'being there', with wrap- around three-dimensional vision and sound (and one day, perhaps, aromas and sensations as well). Proponents of such technologies argue that this offers many of the advantages of tourism for the tourist – and for the destination (which might earn a royalty or fee for use of the VR disc) – without the negative aspects: no journey time, hassle or risk for the tourist, and no social or environmental impacts for the destination! It could also open up new markets for 'fantasy tourism' (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007): the opportunity for tourists to 'experien ce' life as Roman gladiators, medieval knights, Wild West gunslingers or cosmonauts… The Dresden Art Galley – and its on-line Second Life virtual version Source: www.wired.com

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The seeds of such developments can already be seen in purpose-built resorts worldwide. 'As resource- based destinations come under increased pressure, we are seen greater emphasis on purpose-built, demand-led attractions that merge tourism and entertainment. The trend to more frequent trips taken closer to home will demand "synthetic" attractions such as artificial ski slopes [and beaches, as in the resorts of Dubai] and those which combine leisure, entertainment, retailing, accommodation and quality catering in a single setting. The emergence of totally enclosed and controlled tourist environments such as theme parks, mega cruise ships and vacation islands will be promoted as a "market-oriented" alternative to the real, and increasingly fragile, resource-based, non-reproducible attractions of natural, historic or cultural destinations.' (Boniface & Cooper, op cit, p 480).

Virtual tourism in its fullest form could contribute to the sustainability of tourism development in a variety of ways (Swarbrooke, 1999):

ƒ Helping to prepare and educate tourists before they take a trip

ƒ Substituting a virtual reality experience for a visit to a destination which is currently undeveloped, vulnerable, under pressure, already beyond its carrying capacity or closed to tourism

ƒ Substituting a virtual reality experience for tourist activities which are seen to be unethical or unsustainable (such as hunting) or risky (such as off-piste skiing)

ƒ Attracting tourists to declining resorts in need of rejuvenation and regeneration.

FOR DISCUSSION For a flavour of the controversy surrounding virtual tourism, consider the following questions:

ƒ Does virtual reality represent authentic 'tourism' in any true sense? What aspects of 'live' tourism would virtual tourists miss out on? (Think through the various motivations for travel discussed in earlier chapters.)

ƒ Might virtual reality attract tourists to vulnerable destinations more effectively than conventional marketing tools like travel brochures?

ƒ What would be the drawbacks for tourism destinations if virtual tourism did succeed in reducing demand for 'real' visits and activities?

5.2 Information & communication technology (ICT)

Meanwhile, we have already seen explosive growth in the use of Information and Communication Technology (such as the Internet and the World Wide Web) to promote tourism development through:

ƒ Destination marketing (eg through the websites of national, regional and local tourist boards)

ƒ Tourism and tourist industry marketing (eg through the websites of tour operators, hotels and transport providers)

ƒ Internet price comparison, reservations and ticketing services.

Access to this kind of information and services has effectively empowered the 'new tourist': more independent travellers, seeking more remote destinations and specific activities of interest.

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5.3 Carrying capacity

Carrying capacity, in travel and tourism terms, is 'the maxi mum number of people that a resort, site or other tourist area can sustain, before there is a reduction in the quality of the visitor experience or adverse effects on either the physical enviornment or the host community' (Youell, 2003, p .37)

Four different types of carrying capacity are generally recognised:

Type Explanation

Physical The maximum number of visitors that can be capacity physically sustained by a resort, site or attraction. This includes straightforward limitations placed on visitor numbers by a finite number of aircraft seats, cruise berths, bed spaces, restaurant tables, car parking spaces, sports arena seats and so on.

Biological/ The maximum number of visitors that can be sustained before there is an adverse ecological effect, or damage, to ecosystems, flora (plant life) and fauna (animal life). This may capacity be a key factor in the carrying capacity of wilderness (eg Alpine or desert) areas, whale/dolphin watching areas, African game reserves and so on.

Social The maximum number of visitors that can be sustained before there is an adverse capacity effect or pressure on the host community, and the culture and quality of life of residents: in other words, a measure of the ability of the host community to tolerate tourism. This is the latest and fastest-growing area of concern. Techniques such as 'destination visioning' (where locals determine the future of tourism in their area) and 'limits to acceptable change' (where locals determine levels of future development) are increasingly being adopted as a form of capacity management – and constraint on future development.

Psychological/ The maximum number of visitors that can be sustained before they perceive the quality of their experience to be reduced: that is, before a place 'feels' too crowded Perceptual or too busy; or there is a perceived loss of privacy or exclusivity; or there is capacity excessive visual intrusion from tourists and their vehicles on natural or historic sights. Of course, this is highly subjective: people visiting an area because of its perceived exclusivity or remoteness will be more sensitive to numbers of fellow- visitors than mass tourists visiting a city. Open heath land can appear crowded with very few visitors present – while a forested area can absorb many more visitors before crowding becomes apparent.

This is obviously at the heart of the debate about sustainable tourism development, and a major constraint on future tourism development at any given destination.

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5.4 Socio-cultural values and market demands

As we have already seen, a number of socio-cultural and ethical trends has contributed, over recent decades, to changes in the types of tourism people are seeking. Some of the trends identified as important for the future development of global tourism include these:

ƒ Concerns about sustainability, environmental impacts, tourism ethics and ecotourism, creating a demand for alternative tourism products and destinations.

ƒ Concerns about health and fitness in western societies (where obesity, stress and related health conditions are endemic), creating a demand for health tourism products and destinations – such as spa and health resorts and fitness/activity holidays.

ƒ Rising awareness of ethnic diversity, and movements for cultural distinctiveness or divergence, creating strong cultural identities and expressions – and corresponding destinations for ethnic tourism. Several ethnic and indigenous cultures have enjoyed a renaissance in recent decades, with the recovery of dying languages, arts, crafts, folklore and traditions. Examples include Welsh and Cornish (within the UK), Basque (in Spain), Tyrolean (Austria/Italy), Maori (New Zealand), In uit (Canada, Alaska) and a range of Aboriginal people groups (Australia).

EXAMPLE 'Veteran travel writer Arthur Frommer, writing in 1 996, identified a number of types of tourism products that may grow in popularity in the future. These included:

ƒ 'Vacati on resorts that stretch the mind and change your life'

ƒ 'Political travel' which allows t ourists to visit countries which are often in the news and see for themselves

ƒ 'Volunteer vacations' where tourists pay to work on projects which represent good causes (eg conservation or housing/school construction)

ƒ Taking holidays that involve staying with an ordinary family in another country

ƒ Searching for new modes of travel, such as freighter ships and sailing vessels

ƒ 'Ethical holidays' where tourists are concerned about the impact of trips on the host community and staff

ƒ Health-enhancing holidays

ƒ 'New ways to visit old destinations': more off-bea t experiences (eg non-touristy neighbourhoods or 'fringe' arts events). (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007, p 231 )

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FOR DISCUSSION Boniface & Cooper ( op cit, p 74) note that tourism is significant and growing in the developing and least- developed nations which include some 80 per cent of the world's poorest people: China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and a number of Pacific islands. Tourism development is now seen as a tool for reducing world poverty. 'Pro poor tourism' (PPT) is an approach to tourism development which seeks increased net benefits for poor people, reducing poverty at the local level. What kind of tourism (and tourism controls) do you think are necessary for 'pro-poor tourism' to be delivered effectively?

If you would like to follow up this discussion, see Boniface & Cooper Worldwide Destinations Casebook, Case 10.

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SUMMARY

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SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1 Define the following terms: (a) infrastructure (b) superstructure.

2 With which stage of the tourism development life cycle do you associate the following characteristics? (a) Hotels have 70 per cent occupancy rate at peak season.

(b) Planning permissions sought for generation of harbour front including bars, shops, cafés and restaurants.

(c) Prices are rising.

(d) A major international hotel chain opens a flagship hotel.

3 What are the key impact factors affecting tourism destination development?

4 What are the economic upsides of tourism development for the host region? And what are the drawbacks?

5 According to Boniface and Cooper, how does tourism planning benefit a destination?

6 Give six visitor management strategies.

7 How might virtual reality impact on the tourism industry in the future?

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SELF TEST ANSWERS

1 Infrastructure is the basic services and amenities that have to be in place before any kind of development can go ahead – such as roads, railways, airports, telecommunications links, power and water supplies, sewage services and so on.

Superstructure is the term used for the construction of facilities based on available infrastructure, including buildings such as hotels, leisure centres or resorts.

2 (a) Decline/stagnation

(b) Introduction (or regeneration)

(c) Stagnation, demand drops often causing prices to rise (they usually drop after the initial introduction phase as the destination gains mass appeal)

(d) This suggests the area is growing but may soon reach maturity.

3 Political, Environmental, Economic, Socio-cultural.

4 Economic benefits: generation of income, positive effect on host country’s balance of payments, creates jobs, investment can lead to regeneration of the area. Economic drawbacks: residents’ taxes are used to create facilities for tourists, higher local property and product prices, tourism may divert employment away from area’s staple industries.

5 Tourism planning optimises the benefits of tourism to a destination. It minimises the negative impacts. It encourages the adoption of sustainable tourism. It provides a land-use plan for zoning areas of development, conservation and protection. It encourages design and other standards for the tourism sector to work to. It encourages international matching of destination development with potential tourist markets.

6 There are numerous examples given in the chapter. Your answer may have included: controlling volume, modifying behaviour, adapting resources, zoning of tourism areas, tourist enclaves and park and ride schemes. You may have thought of others.

7 We have yet to see whether armchair tourism or fantasy tourism will one day become a reality. The technology needs to mimic more closely the real life experience. However, the ecological advantages are clear.

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ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

1 The resort is described as 'lively', wit h lots of popular activities. There are lots of bars and nightclubs, with negative impacts such as noise, high prices and pollution. We might determine from this that the resort is in the 'stagnation' stage. At this point, it may require rejuvenation to avoid abandonment by all but the least discerning (and most socially and environmentally damaging) of tourists.

2 The answer to this activity depends on your own research.

3 Your answer might include some of the following points.

Life cycle stage Impacts

Exploration ƒ Economic: some new jobs, small direct income from tourism services ƒ Environmental: no special construction, little tourist activity ƒ Socio-cultural: appreciation of cultural identity, optimism about benefits

Involvement ƒ Economic: more jobs, income for local businesses, sale of land for hotels and holiday homes, injection of non-local investment ƒ Environmental: relatively small scale development, loss of agricultural land, damage to local habitats, some pollution and depletion of resources ƒ Socio-cultural: general optimism about benefits, under-estimation of costs, beginning of distinct population division between 'locals' and 'tourists'

Development ƒ Economic: land speculation; increase in tourist spending, revenue and employment; immigration of labour from outside the area to meet demand ƒ Environmental: rapid construction and land use change; displacement of original inhabitants of prime sites; escalating pollution and habitat destruction ƒ Socio-cultural: marginalisation of local people; commodification of culture; growing resistance to tourism

Consolidation ƒ Economic: peak commercialisation; exploitation of local la bour; declining revenues as prices fall ƒ Environmental: congestion, noise, pollution, land degradation, spatial spread of impacts. Government may intervene with planning policies to improve protection ƒ Socio-cultural: continuing cultural erosion through commodification and the import of tourist/immigrant culture; prostitution, crime and gambling

Stagnation/decline ƒ Economic: tourist businesses fail; revenues fall; unemployment rises ƒ Environmental: serious pollution as capacity of infrastructure is exceeded; lack of investment in superstructure; changes of land use as tourism declines

ƒ Socio-cultural: social problems made worse by economic stagnation

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4 The main point is that there is a danger that more environmentally-aware tourists might actually increase the demand for access to the currently untouched regions of the world, and so exacerbate the problems of tourism development – kicking off the development life cycle.

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PRACTICE EXAMINATION

This is a real past CTH examination. Once you have completed your studies, you should attempt this under exam conditions. That means allowing yourself the full time available of 2½ hours.

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230 PRACTICE EXAMINATION

QUESTION PRACTICE CTH Diploma courses are all assessed by examination. This method of assessment is used as it is considered to be the fairest method to ensure that students have learned the things they have been taught.

On the following pages you will find a practice exam for this subject. When you have worked through the study guide and answered the self-test questions you should make a full attempt at the practice exam, preferably under exam conditions. This will give the opportunity to practise questions in the CTH exam format.

The exam questions in this paper are examples of this subject’s questions. The mark guidelines provided are notes used by examiners when marking the exam papers. They are not complete specimen answers. We expect to see students demonstrating their knowledge and then applying that same knowledge in a given context.

The format of the examination papers will be six questions each worth 25 marks, from which candidates will choose four questions. Each question will be broken down into two or three parts with the mark allocation clearly shown for each part of the question, the number of parts and mark allocation is not fixed and will differ within and between examination papers.

Marks: 3 to 5 These questions are looking for factual information and test concise and logical thinking. As a general rule for a three, four or five mark question CTH is looking for a short answer. Therefore either text or bullet points will be accepted. If two points are asked for, marks will be allocated for each point. If only one answer is asked for, we would expect a more detailed answer. Here we are trying to assess knowledge of the subject and to identify recall of the basic principles, methods, techniques and terminology linked to the subject.

Marks 5 to 8 These questions are looking for factual information and test concise and logical thinking. As a general rule CTH is looking for short paragraphs. If two or four points are asked for, marks will be allocated for each point. If only one answer is asked for, we would expect a few short paragraphs.

Here we are trying to assess knowledge of the subject and to identify understanding of and demonstration of how principles, methods and techniques can be used.

Marks 9 + These questions are looking for factual information and how those facts can be applied to both the subject and the tourism and hospitality industry. We expect to see essay style answers to show knowledge of the subject and its application.

You need to select four questions from a choice of six. Do not answer more than four questions as only the first four answers will be marked. These are essay style questions so you should select the four that you feel you are the most prepared for. No matter how good the answer is if it does not answer the question you will not be given any marks – marks are only allocated when the answer matches the question.

If you run out of time in the exam, jot down the essential points that you intended to include, the examiner will allocate marks for any correct information given.

It is difficult to assess how much you are required to write for questions – some people can answer in a page, other people need several pages. What is important is that you answer the question asked – it is about the quality of the answer not the quantity written.

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25 mark questions The following descriptors give you information on our marking scheme and what students need to aim for.

Marks Explanation

15-25 Demonstrates knowledge of analysis and evaluation of the subject and how it applies to the tourism and hospitality industry

11-15 Demonstrates knowledge of application of the subject

6-10 Demonstrates knowledge and comprehension of the subject

1-5 Does not demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the subject

Level descriptors

The following level descriptors give you information on what you need to aim for at each grade.

Marks Explanation

Distinction Demonstrates knowledge of analysis and evaluation of the subject

Merit Demonstrates knowledge of application of the subject

Pass Demonstrates knowledge and comprehension of the subject

Fail Does not demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the subject

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PRACTICE EXAMINATION MARKING GUIDE

At the time of publication, CTH’s official examination answers were not available. You can access them by visiting the CTH website at: www.cthawards.com.

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37 Duke Street, London W1U 1LN

MARKING GUIDE

CTH Level 4 Diploma

Subject: TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Series: January 2011

Marking guidelines are used by the CTH examining team to help structure a fair and consistent marking mechanism. Markers will allocate marks in accordance with the marking guidelines. In some cases acceptable answers are included in the marking guidelines, where this is the case care is taken to provide structured answers with a range of content; however, they cannot all be interpreted as definitive answers. Markers will use professional judgment to allocate marks where candidates have given alternative, relevant and satisfactory answers or part answers. Where discretionary marks are allowed within the mark scheme, markers will apply a working professional knowledge of the industry and subject area. Markers will award marks for demonstration of the assessment criteria of the syllabus. Candidates will not be penalised or negatively marked.

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Question 1 1.1 2 Marks Define the term topography. Use an example to illustrate your answer Mark The examiner should award 1 mark for the correct definition and 1 mark for an appropriate example. Scheme Learning Outcome Reference: LO2 Assess tourism patterns and international flows of tourism Assessment Criteria Reference: 2.1 Explain the role of travel geography in tourism

1.2 In topography, explain what is meant by the terms absolute relief and relative relief.. 4 Marks

Mark 2 marks should be awarded for each definition. scheme The examiner should be looking for a clear explanation that absolute relief is referring to a feature’s height above sea level and that relative relief refers to the difference between a landscape’s lowest and highest points. Learning Outcome Reference: LO2 Assess tourism patterns and international flows of tourism Assessment Criteria Reference: 2.1 Explain the role of travel geography in tourism

1.3 Select a historical destination of your choice, and give three examples of threats to its 7 Marks conservation. Mark 1 mark for identifying a historical destination. scheme 2 marks for each example of threats to its conservation, total 6 marks. For example: • Atmospheric weathering • Air pollution • Settlement, development and change of function • War and destruction Learning Outcome Reference: LO5 Critically evaluate major travel destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 5.3 Evaluate international travel destinations

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1.4 Choose one of the following groups of tourism: 12 Marks • Business Tourism • • Youth Tourism • Grey Tourism • • Pink Tourism

Explain in detail three motivations for travel for this type of tourist. Use examples to illustrate your answer. Mark 2 marks for identifying each motivation for travel (6 marks) and 2 marks for each example (6 marks). scheme Learning Outcome Reference: LO4 Assess how the characteristics of tourism destinations affect their appeal to tourists Assessment Criteria Reference: 4.1 Explain tourist motivations for travel

Total Marks for Question 1 25

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Question 2

2.1 Name an active volcano, stating the country in which it is located and state two of its 2 Marks characteristics. Mark 1 mark for naming an active volcano and for stating the country of its location, half marks may be scheme awarded. 1/2 marks for each characteristic.

Learning Outcome Reference: LO2 Critically evaluate major travel destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 2.1 Identify major geographical and geological features, i.e. deserts, rivers, mountain ranges, lakes and coastlines and their individual characteristics

2.2 Explain and give three examples of historical resources, stating the country in which 8 Marks they are located. Mark Up to 3 marks are available for each example to be awarded as per the following guidance: scheme 1 mark for identifying an appropriate historical resource, 1 mark for an explanation of why it’s an historical resource and 1 mark for stating the country in where it is located. Learning Outcome Reference: LO3 Ascertain the resource requirements of international tourism destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 3.1 Evaluate geographical resources

2.3 Explain in detail four factors that would need to be considered when developing 14 Marks destinations. Use examples to illustrate your answer Mark Up to 3 marks are available for an explanation of each factor (total 12 marks) to be awarded as per scheme the following guidance: 1 mark for identification of a factor, 1 mark for the explanation and 1 mark for an example. Up to 2 marks may be awarded at the examiners discretion for depth of understanding. Learning Outcome Reference: LO5 Assess the factors that may impact tourism destination development now and in the future. Assessment Criteria Reference: 5.1 Determine the factors to be considered when developing destinations

Total Marks for Question 2 25

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Question 3

3.1 Give three factors that could motivate a family of two adults and two children to travel. 6 Marks Use examples to illustrate your answer. Mark 1 mark for each factor identified (3 marks) and 1 mark for each example (3 marks) Scheme Learning Outcome Reference: LO4 Assess how the characteristics of tourism destinations affect their appeal to tourists Assessment Criteria Reference: 4.1 Explain tourist motivations for travel

3.2 Give an example of the four directional flows of domestic tourism. 4 Marks Mark 1 mark for each example of a directional flow The directional flows are as follows: scheme • Outwards from cities to coasts • Outwards from cities to countryside • • From rural/provincial areas to cities

From city to city Learning Outcome Reference: LO1 Assess tourism patterns and international flows of tourism Assessment Criteria Reference: 1.2 Evaluate patterns of world tourism

3.3 Define the term spatial process of global tourism development and explain the four 15 Marks stages of the process. Use examples to illustrate your answer. Mark Learning Outcome Reference: LO5 scheme Assess the factors that may impact tourism destination development now and in the future. Assessment Criteria Reference: 5.1 Determine the factors to be considered when developing destinations Up to 3 marks are available for a definition of the spatial process of global tourism development. Up to 2 marks for an explanation of each of the four stages of the process (total 8 marks). 1 mark for each example, Total 4 marks.

Total Marks for Question 3 25

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Question 4

Choose a cultural destination of your choice and state the following: 4.1 3 Marks a) The capital city b) The main language spoken A major tourist attraction

Mark 1 mark for each for the capital city, the language spoken and a major tourist attraction. scheme Learning Outcome Reference: LO2 Critically evaluate major travel destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 2.2 Evaluate international travel destinations

4.2 State using examples four factors that could establish a location as a cultural tourism 8 Marks destination. Mark 1 mark for each factor (up to 4 marks) and 1 mark for each example (up to 4 marks). scheme Examples could include the following: Distinctive or different cultures or ways or life, as expressed in the language, architecture, arts and crafts, music and dance, food and drink, dress, religion and festivals . Learning Outcome Reference: LO4 Assess how characteristics of tourism destinations affect their appeal to tourists Assessment Criteria Reference: 4.2 Determine the factors that establish destinations

4.3 Explain, giving examples, four ways cultural tourism may impact on a destination 14 Marks Mark Up to 3 marks are available for each impact raised (total 12 marks) as follows: 2 marks for scheme identifying and explaining an appropriate impact and 1 mark for use of an example. There are 2 discretionary marks available for candidates that show depth of understanding. The explanation may include the following points: • Changes in social, political and economic structures to support tourism development i.e. formation of tourist boards • Changes in local values and behaviours as a result of exposure to other cultures • Changes in artistic, religious and traditional artefacts and practices due to commercialisation. Simplification or exaggeration of performance arts, ceremonies and rituals to appeal to tourists Learning Outcome Reference: LO5 Assess the factors that may impact tourism destination development now and in the future Assessment Criteria Reference: 5.3 Assess the impact of ethnic tourism, culture, ecotourism and sustainability on destination development

Total Marks for Question 4 25

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Question 5

5.1 4 Marks Explain your understanding of the tourist system. Use an example or a diagram to illustrate your answer. Mark The examiner should award 2 marks for an explanation and 2 marks for either an example or scheme diagram. Learning Outcome Reference: LO1 Assess tourism patterns and international flows of tourism Assessment Criteria Reference: 1.1 Explain the role of travel geography in tourism

5.2 Explain three customer benefits for each of the following modes of transport: 9 Marks • • Air • • Road (by car) • Rail Mark 1 mark for each benefit of air transport (total 3 marks), 1 mark for each benefit of road transport scheme (total 3 marks) and 1 mark for each benefit of rail transport (total 3 marks). Learning Outcome Reference: LO3 Ascertain the resource requirements of international tourism destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 3.2 Evaluate the suitability of modes of transport for different geographical regions

5.3 Explain, using examples, four different ways climate impacts on tourism 12 Marks Mark Up to 3 marks are available for an explanation of each climatic impact awarded as per the following scheme guidance: 1 mark for identifying an impact, 1 mark for an explanation and 1 mark for each example given. The explanation may include the following points:

• • Climatic factors can determine the availability of tourist activities and amenities

• • Climate may contribute towards the attractiveness (or unattractiveness) of a destination

• • Physical comfort and ease

• • Climatic factors may help to determine the attractiveness (or unattractiveness) of travel at particular times of year

• • Climate often helps to determine the timing and length of the holiday season

• Climate information is important in providing advice for traveller’s packing decisions Learning Outcome Reference: LO4 Assess how the characteristics of tourism destinations affect their appeal to tourists Assessment Criteria Reference: 4.3 Evaluate the importance of climate for tourism

Total Marks for Question 5 25

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Question 6

6.1 Explain the characteristics of two major geographical or geological features. 6 Marks Mark Up to 3 marks are available for each feature awarded as follows: 1 mark for each feature identified scheme and up to 2 marks for each explanation. For example: • • Landscapes • Mountainous landforms • • Continental plains • • Rivers and waterways Oceanic and coastal landforms Learning Outcome Reference: LO1 Compare and contrast different types of leading and developing tourism destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 1.2 Analyse the primary and secondary features of a variety of destinations (including: Primary – climate, ecology, cultural traditions, architecture, landforms. Secondary – hotels, catering, transport, activities, amusements).

6.2 Explain three factors that should be taken into consideration when looking for a site for 9 Marks a city airport. Mark The examiner should award up to three marks for each factor as per the following guidance: scheme 1 mark for identifying an appropriate factor and a further 2 marks for the explanation. For example:

• • Must be an accessible point from which passengers can connect to other routes and destinations on the network • • Should have a wide selection of on-bound transport options • Large-scale highly developed facilities for transport, luggage, passenger and information handling Learning Outcome Reference: LO3 Ascertain the resource requirements of international tourism destinations Assessment Criteria Reference: 3.2 Evaluate the suitability of modes of transport for different geographical regions

6.3 Explain, with examples, three ways technology can impact destination development 10 Marks Mark Up to 3 marks are available for each example/factor identified. scheme 1 discretionary mark to be awarded at the decision of the examiner. The explanation may include the following points: • • Destination marketing i.e. through tourist boards • Tourism and tourist industry marketing i.e. through websites of tour operators, hotels and transport providers Internet price comparison, reservation and ticketing services Learning Outcome Reference: LO5 Assess the factors that may impact tourism destination development now and in the future Assessment Criteria Reference: 5.2 Assess the impact of technology on destination development

Total Marks for Question 6 25

250

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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252 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following key textbooks have been consulted in the preparation of this Study Guide, and referred to (where relevant) in the text. The titles in bold print are recommended reading for the Travel Geography module.

Boniface, B & Cooper, C (2005 (a)) Worldwide Destinations: The geography of travel and tourism (4th edition). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann; Oxford.

Boniface, B & Cooper, C (2005 (b)) Worldwide Destinations: Casebook. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann; Oxford.

BPP (2009) CTH Diploma in Tourism/Hotel Management Study Guide The Tourism Industry. BPP Learning Media; London

Burton, R (1995) Travel Geography (2nd edition). FT Prentice Hall; Harlow, Essex

Butler, R W (1980) 'The concept of the tourist area life cy cle of evolution', in Canadian Geographer, Vol 24 (1) pp 5-12

Cooper C, Fletcher J, Fyall A, Gilbert D & Wanhill S (2005) Tourism: Principles & Practice (3rd edition). Pearson; Harlow, Essex

Faulks, R W (1992) The Geography of Transport for Tourism. Ian Allan: Shepperton, UK

Fennell, DA (1999) Ecotourism: An Introduction. London; Routledge

Gray, HP (1970) International Travel – International Trade. Heath Lexington Books; Lexington

Hall, CM (1991) Introduction to Tourism in Australia. Melbourne; Longman

Hall, CM & Weiler B (1992) 'What's so special about special interest tourism?' in Special Interest Tourism. London; Belhaven

Holloway, C (2006) The Business of Tourism (7th edition). Pearson Education; Harlow, Essex

Hughes, H (2000) Arts, Entertainment and Tourism. Butterworth-Heinemann; Oxford

Kotler P, Armstrong G, Meggs D, Bradbury E, Grech J (1999) Marketing: an Introduction. Sydney: Prentice Hall; Australia

Leiper, N (1979) The Tourist System. Massey University Press

Lonely Planet (2008) The Travel Book. Lonely Planet Publications; Melbourne, Australia

Moutinho, L (1987) ' Consumer behaviour in tourism', European Journal of Marketing, Vol 21 (1): pp 3-44

Page, S J & Connell, J (2006) Tourism: A Modern Synthesis (2nd edition). Thomson Learning; London

Page, S J & Dowling, R K (2002). Ecotourism. Pearson Education; Harlow, Essex

Petras K & Petras R (1996) World Access. Fireside; New York

Plog, S (1974) Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity', Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, February

Skinner M, Redfern D & Farmer G (2009) A-Z Handbook: Geography. Philip Allan Updates; Oxford

Standeven, J & De Knop, P (1999) Sport Tourism. Human Kinetics; Champaign IL

Swarbrooke, J (1999) Sustainable Tourism Management. CABI Publishing, Oxford

Swarbrooke, J (2001) The Development and Management of Visitor Attractions. Oxford; Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann

Swarbrooke, J & Horner, S (2007) Consumer Behaviour in Tourism (2nd edition). Butterworth- Heinemann; Oxford

Swarbrooke J, Beard C, Leckie S & Pomfret G (2003) Adventure Tourism: The new frontier. Butterworth- Heinemann; Oxford

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World Tourism Organisation (1995) Concepts, Definitions and Classifications for Tourism Statistics. WTO; Madrid

Youell, R (2003) Complete A-Z Travel & Leisure Handbook (2nd edition). Hodder & Stoughton Educational; London

Youell, R (1998) Tourism: An Introduction. Pearson Education; Harlow, Essex

Numerous websites have also been consulted, as cited in the text.

BPP gratefully acknowledges the work of Claire Louise Wright, author of this Study Guide.

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INDEX

255 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

256 INDEX

Castles, 69 ffluence, 41 A Central America, 70 Africa, 64, 123, 156 Cheddar Gorge, 60 Agenda 21, 213 Chiangmai, 135 Air corridors, 84 China, 70, 132 Air transport, 86, 87 Climate, 3, 11, 39, 170 Air travel regions, 87 Climate change, 187, 209, 219 Airports, 85 Climate zones, 178 Allocentrics, 146 Climatic factors in tourism, 170 Alps, 109, 118 Coach, 92 Alternative tourism development, 215 Coastal resources, 66 Alternative use, 59 Coastlines, 23, 67 Altitude, 13, 173 Cold climate, 183 Antarctic Circle, 9 Commodification, 149 Antarctica, 136 Commodification of culture, 210 Appropriate tourism, 216 Community-based tourism, 216 Archipelago, 25 Conservation, 70, 151, 208 Architecture, 69 Cool temperate climates, 182 Arctic (or polar) climates, 184 Coral atolls, 25 Arctic Circle, 9 Coral reefs, 68 Arctic Ocean, 22 Core area, 42 Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), Core product, 148 65 Costs, 40 Art and culture appreciation, 159 Cruising, 95 Art and entertainment, 149 Cruising areas, 96 Asia, 129 Cultural convergence, 210 Athens, 120 Cultural destination, 148 Atlantic Ocean, 22 Cultural divergence, 72 Atlas, 5 Cultural links, 40 Augmented product, 148 Cultural tourism, 71, 148 Australia, 98, 136 Cyclones, 188 Avalanches, 190

Dams, 61 ali, 203 B Danube, 100 Bangkok, 135 Dead Sea, 23 Bavaria, 117 Deep vein thrombosis, 88 Beach, 24 Desert, 59 Beach resorts, 114 Deserts, 180 Beaches, 66 Destination life cycle, 200 Blue Flag Beach, 67 Destination marketing, 204 Buses, 92 Destination planning, 211 Business and professional tourism, 33 Destination product, 3, 147, 162 Destinations, 144 Cairo, 121 Development, 198 Development of tourism, 3 California, 127 Development planning, 210 Canal du Midi, 101 Directional flows of domestic tourism, 39 Canals, 61 Displacement effect, 208 Canyons, 16, 60 Distance, 39 Car, 90 Domestic tourism, 33, 39 Caribbean, 96, 128 Driving holidays, 90 Carrying capacity, 218, 200, 221 Drought, 188

257 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Heritage Coasts, 65 arthquakes, 189 E Hierarchy of needs, 145 East Asia, 132 Highland climates, 185 East Asia and Pacific region, 46 Hills, 15, 59 Economic development, 41 Historic city centres, 70 Economic regeneration, 198, 204 Historic tourism, 150 Ecosystems, 14 Historic town, 151 Ecotourism, 157, 217 Historical resources, 68 Educational, 159 Holiday or leisure tourism, 33 Egypt, 121 Holiday season, 171 Encyclopaedias, 6 Host community, 144, 207 England, 65 Hub and spoke network, 86 Environmental management standards, 213 Environmental regeneration, 204 Epidemic, 190 Impacts of cultural and ethnic tourism, 149 Equator, 9 Impacts of development, 199, 207 Equatorial climate, 179 Impacts of tourism, 158 Erosion, 67, 209 Inbound tourism, 33 Ethnic tourism, 72, 148 India, 130 Europe, 44, 69, 109 Indian Ocean, 22 European Capital of Culture, 71 Indian subcontinent, 130 Events, 56, 75 Indigenous ethnic groups, 72 Indonesia, 133 Industrial heritage, 159 ar East, 132 F Information, 4 Ferry, 95 Information & communicati on technology (ICT), Festivals, 75 220 Flooding, 189 Information technology, 219 Fly-drive, 90 Infrastructure, 198 Forest parks, 62 International Air Transport Association (IATA), Forests, 62 87 France, 111 International Date Line, 11, 88 Future tourism development, 218 International tourism, 33 International tourist flows, 39 Galapagos Islands, 213 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 63 Geography, 2 Italy, 115 Germany, 116

Global Financial Crisis, 43 Gorges, 16, 60 Jet lag, 88 Great Barrier Reef, 65 Jet streams, 85 Great Britain, 110 Great circle route, 85 Greece, 119 Köppen climate classification, 178 Greek Islands, 120 Kruger National Park, 124 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), 10 Gross National Product, 41 a Niňa, 173 L Lakes, 60 Habitats, 209 Land mass, 172 Hawaii, 126 Land use, 58 Health disasters, 190 Land-based transport, 84 Health risks, 162 Landforms, 14 Health tourism, 60 Landscape, 58 Heat waves, 188 Landslides, 190

258 INDEX

Latin America, 128 Patterns of world tourism, 43 Latitude, 9, 172 Periphery, 42, 47 Location and popular culture tourism, 161 Peru, 128 Lombok, 203 Petra, 121 London, 110 Philippines, 134 Long-haul travel, 33 Policies and practices, 200 Longitude, 9 Political factors, 40 Los Angeles, 127 Pollution, 209 Precipitation, 176 Prevailing wind patterns, 173 Major tourism regions, 44 Prime Meridian, 9 Malaysia, 133 Pro poor tourism (PPT), 223 Man-made attractions, 56 Product life cycle, 199, 200 Map, 5 Protected landscape, 65 Marine reserves, 65 Psychocentrics, 146 Maritime climate, 172 Pull factors, 36, 37 Marrakech, 123 Push factors, 36, 37, 51 Maslow, 145 Pyrénées, 109 Mediterranean, 97, 109 Mediterranean climate, 182 Rail travel, 93 Mid-centrics, 146 Rainfall, 176 Middle East, 47, 69, 120 Rainforest, 19 Morocco, 122 Recreation Business District, 205 Mountain areas, 59 Recreational forests, 62 Mountain range, 15 Regions, 8 Mountains, 15 Rejuvenation, 202

Relative humidity, 175 National Nature Reserves (NNRs), 65 Relative relief, 58 National Parks, 60, 63, 65 Relief, 13, 173 Natural attractions, 56 Religion, 72 Natural disasters, 187 Resort, 205 Nature-based tourism, 155 Resort development, 199 New Forest, 213 Resort development model, 201 New York, 126 Resort regeneration, 204 Nile, 100 Resources for tourism, 3 Nile Valley, 121 Responsible tourism, 216 Nodes, 82 Restraining factors, 38 North Africa, 120 Rhine, 100 North America, 46 Rhineland, 117 Risks, 162 River cruise, 100 Ocean currents, 172 River valleys, 16 Olympic Games, 160 Rivers, 61 Outbound tourism, 33 Road transport, 90 Outdoor activity, 174 Rome, 115 Rural tourism, 153

Pacific Islands, 135 Pacific Ocean, 22, 98 Safari tourism, 156 Pacific Rim, 135 San Francisco, 127 Pacific Ring of Fire, 189 Savannah, 18 Panama Canal, 23, 101 Sea lanes, 84 Paris, 112 Sea travel, 95 Park and ride, 91 Seaside resort model, 205

259 TRAVEL GEOGRAPHY

Season, 11 Tourist enclaves, 214 Seasons, 170 Tourist generating regions, 2, 4, 36 Seven Wonders of the World, 57 Tourist industry, 2, 144, 171 Singapore, 133 Tourist motivations, 2, 145 Ski resorts, 59, 118 Tourist regions, 3, 108 Snow, 176 Tourist resort model, 206 South Africa, 124 Tourist system, 3, 35 South Asia, 47, 130 Trade winds, 173 South China Sea, 98 Trains, 93 South East Asia, 133 Transit routes, 36 South of France, 112 Transport, 3, 39, 82, 218 Southern Ocean, 23 Transport modes, 86 Spain, 113 Transport nodes, 85 Spatial spread of tourism development, 205 Transport planning, 84 Special interest tourism, 158 Transport systems, 83 Sport, 144 Travel, 32 Sporting events, 56, 75, 160 Travel brochures, 6 Sporting venues, 74, 160 Travel geography, 2 Sports tourism, 160 Travel safety, 162 Stately homes, 69 Tropic, 9 Statistics, 40 Tropical climate, 180 Storm, 188 Tropical islands, 68 Sub-Saharan Africa, 47, 123 Tsunami, 189 Suez Canal, 23, 101 Tundra, 18 Sunlusters, 146 Sunshine, 177 UNESCO, 75 Superstructure, 198 United Kingdom, 110 Surface transport, 86 United States, 63, 125 Sustainability, 4, 199, 218 Urban regeneration, 153 Sustainable destination development, 215 Urban tourism, 152 Sustainable development, 212

Sustainable tourism, 200, 212 Swiss Alps, 213 Valleys, 16 Switzerland, 118 Vietnam, 134 Virtual reality (VR), 219 Technology, 219 Virtual tourism, 220 Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism, 34 Temperature, 174 Visitor management, 200, 214 Temperature zones, 178

Thailand, 134 Theft, 163 Wanderlusters, 146, 151 Time zones, 10, 88 Warm temperate climates, 181 Topography, 58 Water transport, 86 Tornado, 188 Waterfalls, 61 Touring, 83 Weather, 170 Tourism, 32 Weather patterns, 172 Tourism Area Life Cycle, 201 Wetlands, 67 Tourism development, 198, 204 Wilderness tourism, 157 Tourism markets, 219 Wildfires, 190 Tourism product, 34, 144, 147 Wildlife tourism, 156 Tourism resources, 37, 40, 144, 171 Wind, 173 Tourist attractions, 56 Winds, 177 Tourist centre, 205 Winter sports, 59 Tourist demand, 36 World distribution of affluence, 41 Tourist destination regions, 2, 4, 36, 51 World economic tourist generation, 41

260 INDEX

World Heritage, 75 World Heritage Area, 63 Yangtse, 100 World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), 76, 213 oning, 214 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 76 Z

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