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The Gut Microbiome and the Big Eight

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The Gut Microbiome and the Big Eight nutrients Review The Gut Microbiome and the Big Eight Cassandra Suther 1,2 , Matthew D. Moore 1, Avraham Beigelman 3 and Yanjiao Zhou 2,* 1 Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; [email protected] (C.S.); [email protected] (M.D.M.) 2 Department of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030, USA 3 Kipper Institute of Allergy and Immunology, Schneider Children’s Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 5891000, Israel; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-860-679-6379 Received: 28 October 2020; Accepted: 1 December 2020; Published: 3 December 2020 Abstract: Food allergies are increasing at an alarming rate, with 6.5% of the general population affected. It has been hypothesized that the increase in allergies stems from the “hygiene hypothesis”. The gut microbiome, a collection of microbiota and their genetic contents from the gastrointestinal tract, has been shown to play a part in the development of food allergies. The Food and Drug Administration requires all regulated food companies to clearly state an inclusion of the major, or “big eight” food allergens on packaging. This review is to provide information on the significant advancements related to the gut microbiome and each of the eight major food allergies individually. Establishment of causal connection between the microbiome and food allergies has uncovered novel mechanisms. New strategies are discussed to prevent future sensitization and reaction through novel treatments involving functional additives and dietary changes that target the microbiome. Keywords: food allergy; microbiome; dysbiosis; short-chain fatty acids; cow milk allergy 1. Introduction A food allergy is defined as an abnormal immune reaction to the repeated exposure of certain foods [1]. It can manifest as minor gastrointestinal distress and skin rashes, to life-threatening anaphylactic shock [1]. These adverse symptoms and the burdens associated with avoiding food products can disrupt quality of life. It is unknown why some individuals will develop an allergy to a specific antigen, while others will not [2]. Food allergies have been rising at an alarming rate, nearing 6.5% (5% of adults and 8% of children) of the general population (of developed counties) affected to date [1]. Of these food allergies, 90% are caused by “The Big Eight”, a term referring to all major Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-regulated food products. These foods include cow milk, hen’s egg, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nut, peanut, wheat, and soybean [1]. It has been hypothesized that the increase in allergies stems from the “hygiene hypothesis”, which states that early life exposure to microorganisms protect against allergic disease [1]. The gut microbiome, termed a collection of microbiota and their genetic contents in the gastrointestinal tract, has been shown to play a part in the development of asthma, atopic dermatitis, and food allergies through mucosal tolerance and possible bacterial metabolites over the past decade. Despite being a very timely and important topic, no recent reviews exist addressing the gut microbiome and its relationship with allergens specific to each of The Big Eight foods. This review will present the gut microbiological and dietetic factors associated with the development and treatment of food allergies. Food antigens will be explored individually for their connection to the gut microbiome (Figure1). Nutrients 2020, 12, 3728; doi:10.3390/nu12123728 www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients Nutrients 2020, 12, 3728 2 of 19 Nutrients 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 Figure 1. SummarySummary of of bacterial bacterial and and dietary dietary ch changesanges involved involved in food allergy. 2. We We Are What We Eat: Diet and the Microbiome Trillions of gut microbes from thousands of difffferenterent species make up the highest density of microbes withinwithin thethe humanhuman body body [ 3[3].]. Diet Diet shapes shapes the the configuration configuration of of the the gut gut microbiome microbiome at early at early life. Thelife. The gut microbiomegut microbiome of infants of infants that werethat were breastfed breastfed have have a unique a unique and beneficial and beneficial composition composition that is that not isobserved not observed in those ingiven those formulagiven formula when compared when compared later in lifelater [4 in]. Gutlife [4]. microbiome Gut microbiome dysbiosis dysbiosis in early life in earlyis thought life is to thought be related to be to related development to development of allergies of laterallergies in life. later When in life. children When startchildren a solid start food a solid diet (atfood approximately diet (at approximately 6 months), 6 themonths), gut microbiome the gut microbiome shifts significantly shifts significantly for a second for time. a second The time. adult The gut adultmicrobiome gut microbiome generally cangenerally be classified can be into classified three distinct into three enterotypes distinct thatenterotypes are dominated that are by dominatedBacteroides, Prevotellaby Bacteroides,, or Ruminococcus, Prevotella, or Ruminococcus,respectively [ 4respectively]. The diet of[4]. the The individual diet of the influences individual the influences enterotypes, the withenterotypes,Bacteroides withbeing Bacteroides associated being with associated a Western-type with a dietWestern-type high in proteins diet high and in fat, proteins and Prevotella and fat,being and Prevotellaassociated being with associated plant fiber with consumption. plant fiber As consumption. a modifiable As target, a modifiable modulation target, of the modulation gut microbiome of the gutthrough microbiome dietary interventionthrough dietary (high intervention fiber-related (high diet), fiber-related prebiotics or diet), probiotics prebiotics have seenor probiotics an increase have in seenboth researchan increase interest in both and research product developmentinterest and inproduct recent development years. However, in therecent magnitude years. However, and duration the magnitudeof microbiome and changes duration by dietaryof microbiome intervention changes have beenby largelydietary inconsistent.intervention have been largely inconsistent.High levels of fiber can increase the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) from specific bacteriaHigh in levels Firmicutes, of fiber suchcan increase as Bacteroidetes, the production Clostridia of short-chain (Ruminococcus fatty acidsenterotype) (SCFAs) and from Bacilli specific [5]. bacteriaSCFAs are in bacterialFirmicutes, fermentation such as Bacteroidetes, products and areClostridia profoundly (Ruminococcus affected by enterotype) food intake. and There Bacilli are three [5]. SCFAscommon are short-chain bacterial fattyfermentation acids that products tend to be and produced are profoundly by bacteria: affected acetate, by propionate, food intake. and There butyrate. are Acetatethree common is theacid short-chain produced fatty in theacids highest that tend quantity, to be produced but butyrate by bacteria: is thought acetate, to be thepropionate, main energy and butyrate.source for Acetate colonocytes. is the Theseacid produced acids are in absorbed the highes intot quantity, the portal but vein butyrate during is lipid thought digestion, to be andthe main have energybeen associated source for with colonocytes. major health These benefits, acids including are absorb a reduceded into the risk portal of inflammatory vein during diseases lipid digestion, and Treg andfunction have [6 been,7]. A associated decrease in with SCFAs major may health lead to anbene increasefits, including in pathogenic a reduced bacteria risk due of to inflammatory a decrease in diseasesgut pH [ 8and]. Pathogenic Treg function bacteria [6,7]. can A decrease cause epithelial in SCFAs damage may lead to the to colon an increase walls, andin pathogenic many believe bacteria food dueallergies to a decrease are an epithelial in gut pH barrier [8]. Pathogenic disease [9]. bacteria can cause epithelial damage to the colon walls, and manyOther believe metabolites food allergies derived are from an commensalepithelial barrier bacteria disease include [9]. long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs), glycolipid,Other histamines,metabolites vitaminderived B2 from/B9 byproducts commensal and bacteria amino include acids [10 long-chain,11]. LCFAs fatty are majoracids nutrients,(LCFAs), glycolipid,including thehistamines, clinically importantvitamin B2/B9!3 and byproducts!6 FAs, withand !amino3 FAs acids known [10,11]. to have LCFAs anti-allergic are major and nutrients, including the clinically important ω3 and ω6 FAs, with ω3 FAs known to have anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory properties [10]. Pro-inflammatory LCFA metabolites, including stigma- and Nutrients 2020, 12, 3728 3 of 19 anti-inflammatory properties [10]. Pro-inflammatory LCFA metabolites, including stigma- and sitosterols and 8-hydoxyoctanoate, are associated with lower risk of allergy development [10]. These metabolites are thought to decrease IL-4 produced Th2 cells. The current dietary interventions for those with food allergies include tolerance or simply avoidance. The enrichment of SCFA-producing bacteria in the body has been investigated as a potential treatment, as stated above, using the enrichment of the Firmicutes phylum. One may naturally increase these bacteria by introducing higher levels of fiber, or prebiotics, into their diet. High-fiber diets used in mice were found to decrease allergic sensitization [12]. Other
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