Forensic Science International 151 (2005) 259–265 www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

Social isolation and delayed discovery of bodies in houses: The value of forensic pathology, anthropology, odontology and entomology in the medico-legal investigation M.S. Archer a,b,*, R.B. Bassed a, C.A. Briggs a,c, M.J. Lynch a

a Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, 57-83 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, Vic. 3006, Australia b Department of Zoology, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia c Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia

Received 11 May 2004; accepted 2 February 2005 Available online 23 March 2005

Abstract

The bodies of socially isolated people may remain undiscovered in their own houses for prolonged periods. Occasionally the body is in situ for sufficient time to become skeletonised, or partially so. Medico-legal investigation of these cases is complicated by degradation and contamination of evidence. Thus, a multidisciplinary forensic investigation is recommended. The potential contributions of forensic pathology, anthropology, odontology and entomology are outlined here with reference to two cases that occurred in Victoria, Australia, in 2003. Forensic pathologists are often unable to determine the cause of death in skeletonised bodies, however, they may find evidence to support either a natural or unnatural mode of death, and they may describe skeletal pathology or trauma, and identify skeletal features to support radiological identification of the deceased. Anthropologists can provide supplementary evidence of skeletal trauma. Additionally, they can assess age, sex, stature and racial affiliation from skeletal remains. Odontologists can identify individuals through comparison with ante-mortem dental records; however, potential difficulties exist in identifying the treating dentist of a socially isolated person. Odontologists may also examine the teeth and oro-facial skeleton for trauma. Entomologists may estimate minimum death time and/or season of death. Entomological examination of insect remains may also confirm that a body has lain in situ for a considerable period. # 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Skeleton; Social isolation; Forensic pathology; Forensic anthropology; Forensic odontology; Forensic entomology; Multi- disciplinary

1. Introduction in the deceased’s own home months, or even years after death [2]. Sometimes, these cases receive extensive media Bodies may remain undiscovered until they are wholly or coverage and the sadness of the circumstances may be seen partially skeletonised for a number of reasons. Some bodies as an indictment on society and on responsible authorities are deliberately concealed after death [1], whereas for [2]. others, death occurs in isolated or inaccessible areas. How- Long delays in the discovery of bodies in houses often ever, a proportion of severely decomposed bodies are found occur because the deceased was socially isolated in life [2]. Factors such as mental and physical illness or disability [3– * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9684 4469; 6], drug and alcohol addiction [7,8], or trauma from previous fax: +61 3 9682 7353. abuse [9,10] can contribute to, or accompany, a person’s E-mail address: [email protected] (M.S. Archer). disengagement from society. Modern conveniences, such as

0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.02.016 260 M.S. Archer et al. / Forensic Science International 151 (2005) 259–265 telephone banking, 24 h shopping and Internet access, can through the mail slot, and the rear yard was overgrown and in also help to eliminate the need for physical interaction with disarray. others. Additionally, automated payment systems can allow Upon entry the police found the skeletal remains of an rent and bill paying to continue long after death. unknown person lying supine on a lounge room couch. The The discovery of skeletonised or partially skeletonised remains were photographed in situ prior to being removed to remains in dwellings raises numerous social and legal the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine for further questions that must be addressed as part of a coronial examination. Numerous media articles and editorials ques- investigation. The principal requirements of the Coronial tioned how the body remained undiscovered for so long; investigation in Victoria (Australia) are to establish the however, it appears that no agency was officially responsible identity of the deceased, and to determine the cause and for the deceased’s welfare. circumstances surrounding the death [11]. Further, the Cor- oner seeks to identify whether the death was preventable, 2.2. Case two (elderly male) and therefore whether future deaths of this nature might be averted [12]. Forensic pathology services are provided to the Staff at an inner suburban housing commission apartment Victorian Coroner by the Victorian Institute of Forensic requested that police conduct a welfare check on a resident Medicine. This facility is housed in the Coronial Services who had not been seen for several months. Enquiries with Centre together with the State Coroners Office. neighbours revealed that an unpleasant odour had emanated Many Coronial requirements are fulfilled by the medico- from the apartment for at least six months. This information legal investigation that forms part of the Coroner’s proceed- had reportedly been passed to building staff, but no action ings. However, the effects of decomposition can complicate taken. the autopsy and render some routine procedures, such as Skeletal remains were found in the apartment positioned organ histology, less useful. The passage of time can also semi-prone in bed. No next of kin details were available, and cause difficulties at other levels of the investigation since the nothing in the apartment pointed to an exact or approximate recollections of witnesses potentially fade, and death scenes time of death. The remains were taken to the Victorian may become contaminated and altered. Institute of Forensic Medicine for further examination. Given the complexity of the medico-legal investigation The delayed discovery of these remains gained less required of these cases, it is preferable for a combination of media attention than the first case; however, there was some specialists to address the major questions raised by the Coroner scrutiny of the circumstances since the death occurred in a or other relevant authority. There are a variety of techniques supervised government housing project. The media also available from forensic pathology, anthropology, odontology highlighted the fact that complaints of odours from nearby and entomology that may help to establish the deceased’s residents had been ignored for months, and that a similar identity, cause of death, factors contributing to death and the incident had occurred in the same building the previous year. timing of death [13–16]. Here, we provide the first summary of current pathological, anthropological, odontological and ento- mological investigative techniques that can be employed in 3. Forensic pathology cases involving skeletonised or partially skeletonised bodies found in houses. This paper is not intended to provide com- It is often impossible to determine the cause of death in prehensive instructions on how to employ these techniques, but cases where the body is wholly or partially skeletonised. rather it is hoped that the reader will gain an appreciation of the This is especially true if the diagnostic features of the cause questions each discipline can answer. Two recent cases from are manifested in soft tissue, as is the case with disease Victoria, Australia, illustrate the value of multidisciplinary processes most commonly associated with sudden death. investigation. The autopsy may therefore become an exercise of exclusion where it is most important to search for signs of injury, and to identify signs that death was most likely natural. 2. Case study circumstances 3.1. Skeleton and associated soft tissue 2.1. Case one (elderly female) The state of the nails and hair may indicate the deceased’s Police discovered the remains of the deceased female level of personal care. Any remaining soft tissue is usually while making a welfare check. The check was requested by a examined, and scavenger damage noted to this, and to the concerned woman who had not seen her neighbour for over skeleton. The pathologist routinely checks the integrity of 18 months. The deceased shopped in the early hours of the the hyoid bone if it is located, however, this small, delicate morning, remained indoors at other times and shunned bone frequently remains unidentified, and may be lost due to contact with her neighbours. The deceased’s home, a con- rodent scavenging. Damage to the hyoid may result from verted shop, was located in metropolitan Melbourne. The ante-mortem trauma to the neck, such as manual strangula- lobby was filled with unopened mail that had been pushed tion, although this is not always the case. The thyroid and M.S. Archer et al. / Forensic Science International 151 (2005) 259–265 261 cricoid cartilage commonly calcify in the elderly [17], and a necklace and rings. Some money and identifying papers damage to their structures may also provide evidence of were also located on the deceased’s person. The remains lay ante-mortem trauma. Radiographs of the skeleton may also intact on a couch, surrounded by a dried decomposition be taken to check for prostheses or distinctive bone mor- stain. The hyoid bone was intact, and there was nothing to phology that can support personal identification [18,19],as indicate ante-mortem trauma. The presence of bony anoma- well as projectiles and fractures. An examination should also lies indicated that a pathological process such as Paget’s be made of the bones for subtle damage such as nicks caused disease afflicted this individual in life, and may have been by a sharp instrument [20,21]. painful and debilitating. However, these bony changes are Bone pathology may allow disease diagnosis [22]. Bone unlikely to have contributed directly to death. changes rarely cause death in isolation, however, they may indicate pathology that can be hypothesised as a significant 3.4. Case two (elderly male) contributor to the cause of death (for example, osteosar- coma). In some cases, bone pathology may also be important The deceased wore an undamaged shirt, jumper and socks, in elucidating the state of mind and physical capabilities of and was lying on a decomposition fluid-stained blanket. There the deceased at the time of death, and in allowing inferences was also a fragile mass of decomposed white-grey material to be made about whether the deceased may have been in present over the perineum, and while it was not possible to pain or immobile. Such symptoms potentially contribute to identify it, this material may have been the remains of a diaper. social isolation or to suicidal ideation [23–25]. Additionally, The arms of the deceased were crossed over the body, and the immobility may limit the movement of the deceased within remains were lying intact on a bed. their own dwelling; if a body is found upstairs, it may be a The hyoid bone, thyroid and cricoid cartilages were cause for suspicion if skeletal pathology or medical records identified and the latter were partially calcified. There indicate that the deceased was unable to climb stairs. was evidence of fusion of elements of the thoracic and The pathologist should examine the position of the bones lumbar spine with significant numbers of osteophytes and before the remains are recovered. An intact and relatively bony exostoses on the anterior surface, indicative of arthritic undisturbed skeleton is consistent with the premises remain- change. The right 8th, 9th and 10th ribs exhibited evidence ing secure throughout body decomposition. The presence of of pre-existing fractures at their costal angles, with callus a dried body fluid stain in association only with the skeletal formation indicating repair. No signs of acute ante-mortem remains is also an excellent indicator that the body has trauma were found. remained in situ throughout decay. The pathologist may submit hair or bone samples for toxicological testing. Tissue samples may also be submitted 4. Forensic anthropology for nuclear or mitochondrial DNA analysis to aid identifica- tion if a suitable genetic relative can be located to provide an The anthropological examination is relatively uncompli- ante-mortem sample for comparison. cated with a complete skeleton. Limitations may arise if structures central to various techniques have been removed 3.2. Items associated with the body by scavengers, or lost during recovery. It is therefore pre- ferable for an anthropologist to supervise the recovery and The pathologist usually describes the clothing associated transfer of the remains from the site of discovery to the with the body, and clues on conditions at the time of death may mortuary. be gained by noting whether garments are heavy or light. However, caution must be exercised since hypothermia some- 4.1. Age estimation times induces the shedding of clothes (so-called ‘paradoxical undressing’) [26], whereas cachexic individuals may feel cold Age may be estimated using a number of skeletal mar- even during warm weather. Damage to the clothing may also kers, including the condition of the sternal end of the fourth indicate peri-mortem trauma, and style of the clothing or rib [27], the presence of arthritic changes within the skele- jewellery may provide a putative gender determination. Med- ton, the amount of cranial suture fusion, the appearance of ication and prescriptions in the deceased’s home can also the articular surfaces of the pubic symphysis [28], and the provide the pathologist with invaluable medical information, presence and appearance of bone growth centres, particu- and empty bottles and glasses can be submitted for toxicolo- larly in long bones. Age estimates are always given as a gical testing as it may be possible to determine or confirm range because of anatomical variation between individuals which substances they once contained. [29].

3.3. Case one (elderly female) 4.2. Gender determination

The deceased was wearing undamaged pants, slippers Determination of gender is usually 85–95% accurate and a jumper. She also wore two watches (one on each wrist), when both the pelvis and the skull are present [30]. The 262 M.S. Archer et al. / Forensic Science International 151 (2005) 259–265 main pelvic indicators of gender include the shape of the 4.6. Case two (elderly male) sciatic notch, obturator foramen and the appearance of the sub-pubic angle. Gender determination from the skull is Clothing was removed and the remains were cleaned of based on the more gracile nature of the female skull, the soft tissue prior to anthropological analysis. All bones were sharper orbital margins, steeper forehead, smaller mastoid identified. The remains were determined as male since bony processes, generally more delicate supra-orbital ridges and elements were quite robust and the mandible showed sig- finer muscle attachments. The male mandible also has a nificant flaring of the gonial angle. There was an acute sub- more pronounced gonial flare and a heavier, more squared pubic angle, a narrow sciatic notch and a vertically oriented chin [31]. obturator foramen. The sternal ends of the ribs showed considerable miner- 4.3. Stature determination alisation indicating late phase age-related change. Examina- tion of the pubic symphysis and the appearance of the sternal Stature may be estimated using the tables of Trotter and end of the fourth rib suggested an age range of 70–82 years, Gleser [32]. A correction factor must be incorporated if the which is consistent with the age of the deceased once remains are thought to be over 40 years old. The femur and identified (73 years). The skull showed Caucasian racial tibia are most commonly used, and although stature can be characteristics. Stature was determined from the right femur determined from either of these bones independently, and was estimated to be 179 cm (Æ3.55 cm) after correcting accuracy increases if they are used in combination. Stature for age. However, this estimate could not be verified. is always expressed as a range, and the range is far greater when long bones other than the femur and tibia are used [29]. 5. Forensic odontology

4.4. Ancestry The identification of unknown deceased persons is the primary focus of the forensic odontologist [31]. This is Determination of ancestry is becoming increasingly dif- usually achieved by comparison of the ante-mortem dental ficult in multicultural societies since intermarriage is blur- records and post mortem dental charts. There is usually ring traditional boundaries between caucasoid, mongoloid, copious circumstantial evidence to suggest identity when negroid and aboriginal groups [14]. In general, anthropol- people are found deceased in their homes; however, formal ogists use several features of the skull and post cranial confirmation is still required to eliminate doubt [31]. skeleton to determine racial affiliation. Methods used are Locating the treating dentist can be time consuming and complex to describe, and are beyond the scope of this work. sometimes impossible in cases involving socially isolated For further information on this topic see [29]. people, as they may not have visited a dentist for many years (if at all). Also, the dentist may be located far from where 4.5. Case one (elderly female) now they live, either interstate or overseas. However, despite the inherent difficulties, a search for treating dentists should All bones, except for the distal phalanx of the right always be attempted. This is especially true where no thumb, were present. There were soft tissue remnants adher- relatives can be located to provide a DNA sample for ing to the posterior thoracic region, pelvis and sacrum. Both comparative analysis. feet were encased in mummified soft tissue. Evidence of Odontologists may also examine the teeth and oro-facial rodent scavenging was apparent on the rib cage, metacarpal skeleton for trauma. They may potentially identify chips, bones, heads of the right and left ulna, and the distal end of breaks or recent tooth loss that can indicate ante-mortem the right femur. The skull showed evidence of significant left trauma to the mouth. Such injuries could be sustained either asymmetry since the mastoid processes were bulbous and as a result of non-accidental or accidental trauma. Odontol- dysmorphic. There was also overdevelopment of the gla- ogists can also examine the structure of the teeth and jaws, bellar region and significant thickening of the calvarium. and degree of dental attrition for clues that may support Sex was determined from the appearance of the pelvis anthropological age estimates. and the gracile nature of the skull, and was confirmed by the size of the femoral head. Age was estimated at between 60 5.1. Case one (elderly female) and 82 years based on the appearance of the pubic sym- physis, the sternal end of the fourth rib and the cranial It was estimated from the degree of discolouration of sutures. The estimated age range was consistent with the age fillings in the lower anterior teeth that treatment was pro- of the deceased when subsequently identified (75 years). The vided at a maximum of 4–5 years prior to death. The degree skull features were consistent with the Caucasian racial of attrition and bone loss associated with the remaining teeth group. Although impossible to verify, stature was estimated indicated that the deceased was elderly. at 166.5 cm (Æ3.55 cm) using the combined lengths of Unfortunately, neither police nor odontologists were able femur and tibia. to locate the treating dentist, despite enquiries to practices in M.S. Archer et al. / Forensic Science International 151 (2005) 259–265 263 the surrounding suburbs. The subsequent media exposure in summer will generally progress through the initial decom- surrounding this case also failed to reveal the deceased’s position stages faster than those who die in winter [35,36]. dentist. Therefore, dental identification could not be per- An entomologist may be able to determine the season in formed. Identification was eventually confirmed through which death occurred (although not necessarily the year) by DNA analysis. using durable remnants left by seasonally active carrion insects that occur in the early stages of decay [37,38]. 5.2. Case two (elderly male) However, care must be taken when using this technique for indoor remains since certain species may have extended The upper jaw was edentulous and the lower jaw partially indoor activity periods [37]. dentate, however, there was no evidence that the deceased had ever worn dentures due to the gross resorption of the 6.2. Location of the body maxilla, indicating atrophy through long term lack of phy- sical loading. The general state of the remaining dentition Large accumulations of remnants left by insects occur and oro-facial bony structures indicated that the deceased when a decomposing body lies indoors for a long period, and was elderly. The teeth in the lower jaw were all extensively this can help to confirm that the body has lain undisturbed in decayed (some down to bone level), and there was no situ for an extended time. Remnants include puparia (pupal evidence of any dental treatment whatsoever. Given this, cases) of earlier generations of fly larvae, skins of beetle no search was made for a treating dentist. Identification was larvae, the bodies of dead insects and frass (solid excrement; eventually determined by circumstantial evidence. personal observation). Remnants of blow fly egg chorions (shells) may be found on and around the body long after hatching (personal observation). Eggs are usually laid on 6. Forensic entomology damp, protein-rich surfaces [39,40], thus areas that were originally soaked with blood or decomposition products 6.1. Timing of death during early decomposition can sometimes be identified quickly and easily from the pattern of fly egg chorions The forensic entomologist may be able to estimate the (personal observation). minimum time since death. Many generations of larval Entomologists can also determine whether the insects carrion insects will have matured on the body by the time found associated with the body are species that are expected it is skeletonised or partially so. Therefore, larval growth to occur in the geographic area that the body was found [41]. rates will no longer be useful for aging the body. Instead, the Additionally, some insects associate readily with bodies species composition of insects present may indicate the indoors, whereas others rarely, or never, enter dwellings minimum time elapsed since death [33]. This is because a [42]. Thus, it is useful to confirm that the species collected relatively predictable succession of insect species associates are known to occur on indoor bodies. with bodies throughout decomposition and the species composition can therefore be indicative of the minimum 6.3. Case one (elderly female) time elapsed since death [33]. In practice, it is very difficult for an entomologist to Adults and larvae of several hide beetle species (family accurately estimate the minimum death time in cases where Dermestidae) were feeding on the remaining soft tissues. many months, or even years, have elapsed. Thus, entomol- The limbs were skeletonised, however, the feet were encased ogists must be very cautious when estimating the minimum in sheepskin lined slippers, and were spared from insect post mortem interval for severely decomposed bodies. Gen- feeding. The body was also surrounded by an accumulation erally, insect species succession progresses more slowly as of hundreds of cast skins from hide beetle larvae (beetle time since death increases. Eventually, carrion insect activity larvae shed their skins in order to grow). This coupled with on the body ceases, although this can take in excess of two the large and localised build-up of hide beetle (dermestid) years (personal observation). As succession slows, the reso- frass indicates that the beetles were associated with the body lution of entomological estimates decreases because the for many months. Hide beetle larval skins were in excellent species composition can remain similar for many months condition, indicating no sign of weathering; these skins at a time (personal observation). break down rapidly when exposed to the elements. Additionally, error resulting from succession rate varia- Many blow fly puparia were collected from the body, bility can affect entomological estimates of age [33,34], and however, the adults had emerged from them many months such variability may result from the level of access available previous during early decay. It was impossible to determine to insects into the home. Temperature is also especially the season in which death occurred since no season-specific influential on the succession rate [34], and separate houses insect remnants were found with the body. However, the may be colder on average than flats (especially in centrally species collected were typical of those found on indoor heated buildings). Seasonal temperature variation is also bodies in urban areas, and the extent of insect feeding on highly influential on decay rates [35], and those who die the soft tissues indicated that death occurred more than one 264 M.S. Archer et al. / Forensic Science International 151 (2005) 259–265 year before the body was found. The deceased had last been possible to assist the relevant medico-legal death investiga- seen 18 months previously. tion authority.

6.4. Case two (elderly male) Acknowledgements As for case one, there was a large population of hide We would like to thank the Department of Forensic beetles feeding on the body. There was also a large, localised Medicine, Monash University and the Office of the State accumulation of frass and cast larval skins, indicating that Coroner (Victoria) the for their generous support. We would the beetles had long been associated with the body and that also like to thank Dr. Malcolm Dodd and Dr. Judith the body lay in situ throughout this period. Again, there were McCreath for their helpful suggestions during the prepara- blow fly puparia, from earlier insect generations, but no tion of the manuscript. Finally, we thank anonymous refer- seasonally diagnostic remnants were collected. The insects ees, whose comments improved the manuscript. on the body were typical of those found indoors in Victoria’s urban areas. 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