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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20

The extent and chronology of Global Glaciation

Ju¨ rgen Ehlersa, Philip L. Gibbardb,Ã

aGeologisches Landesamt, Billstrasse 84, 20539 Hamburg, Germany bCambridge , Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EN, England

Available online 14 December 2006

Abstract

The Quaternary is synonymous with extensive glaciation of ’s mid- and high-latitudes. Although there were local precursors, significant glaciation began in the latest (ca 35 Ma) in eastern . It was followed by glaciation in mountain areas through the (in , , Iceland and ), later in the (e.g. in the Bolivian and possibly in Tasmania) and in the earliest (e.g. in the , New Zealand, Iceland and Greenland). Today, evidence from both the land and the ocean floors demonstrates that the major continental glaciations, outside the polar regions, rather than occurring throughout the 2.6 Ma of the Quaternary, were markedly restricted to the last 1 Ma—800 ka or less. Marine Isotope (MIS) 22 (ca 870–880 ka) included the first of the ‘major’ worldwide events with substantial ice volumes that typify the Later Pleistocene glaciations (i.e. MIS 16, 12, 10, 6, 4-2). r 2006 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mid-latitudes. Although there were possibly local precur- sors, significant glaciation began in the Late Eocene (ca At the congress in Berlin 1995 the INQUA Commission 35 Ma) in eastern Antarctica (Ingo´ lfsson, 2004; Trapati et on Glaciation decided to form a new work group entitled al., 2005). The Earth’s , which had been extremely ‘Extent and Chronology of Glaciations’. The idea of this warm during the ‘hot-house’ (Norris et al., ‘Work Group 5’ was to provide a comprehensive overview 2002), continued to be both warm and without extreme of the extent and chronology of glaciations during the fluctuations during the (Jenkyns, 2003). An Quaternary, particularly including digital maps, giving overall, long-term trend of cooling global through glacial limits, relevant key locations and type sections. The the culminated in the mid-latitudes with warm project involved the contribution of over 200 scientists temperate, alternating with cool-temperate climates in the working in more than 60 countries and territories Late . Neogene-age ice-rafted debris is found in throughout the world (Fig. 1). The resulting compilation ocean-sediment cores from the North region, represents the most complete survey of evidence of including the , and areas adjacent to , glaciations ever attempted (Ehlers and Gibbard, N and SE Greenland, Iceland and northern North 2004a–c). This overview article is largely based on the America, and in the off-Antarctica results of that work group. For the purposes of this review (Mangerud et al., 1996; Chung et al., 2005; Kump, 2005). the base of the Pleistocene and that of the Quaternary are placed together at 2.6 Ma, rather 2. The onset of glaciation than the current global standard at 1.8 Ma, following the convention adopted in Western (Gibbard and van Outside Antarctica, glaciation in mountain areas appar- Kolfschoten, 2005). ently started by the Miocene (in Alaska, Greenland, From the mid-19th century, the Quaternary has been Iceland and Patagonia), extended in the Pliocene (e.g. in considered synonymous with extensive glaciation of the the Bolivian Andes and possibly in Tasmania) and in the earliest Pleistocene (e.g. in the Alps, New Zealand, Iceland ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +44 1223 333924; fax: +44 1223 333392. and Greenland) (Table 1). Neogene glaciations are also E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Ehlers), known from the Piedmont areas of and Chile [email protected] (P.L. Gibbard). where, like in Antarctica, substantial ice caps established

1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2006.10.008 ARTICLE IN PRESS J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 7

Fig. 1. Overview map showing the regions covered by the INQUA project ‘Extent and Chronology of Glaciations’. Each dot on the map represents one contribution to the project. Adapted from Ehlers and Gibbard (2003).

by 14 Ma ago (Heusser, 2003). Evidence of extensive ice- 2.1. Southern hemisphere rafting, an indication that had reached sea-level, is found from the earliest cold stage, the Praetiglian In the Late Matuyama Chron (1.78–0.78 Ma) glaciation (2.6–2.4 Ma) and its equivalents, in both the North Atlantic of the Southern Hemisphere would have looked very and North Pacific oceans (ca Haug et al., 2005). But traces similar to the present situation (Fig. 3). The most striking of the early glaciations are limited, and it is difficult to feature, apart from the Antarctic , would have reconstruct a picture of the extent of those early ice sheets. been the Great Patagonian Glaciation of southernmost Like the Later Neogene, the (Coronato et al., 2004a, b). Matuyama (2.6–0.8 Ma) was characterised by climatic fluctuations Chron glaciations are also known from New Zealand dominated by the 41 ka precession cycle. Only 14 of the 41 (Fitzsimons et al., 1996) and the Tasmanian Linda cold stages of that period currently show evidence of major Glaciation may possibly be of Late Matuyama Chron glaciations. They include the Plio/Pleistocene boundary age (Fitzsimons and Colhoun, 1991). events (MIS) 104, 100 and 98, Throughout the last 2.6 Ma, the constant presence of together with Early Pleistocene MIS 82, ?78, 68, 60, 58, 54, orbital periodicities in the sediment record from cores off- 52, 36, 34, ?30 and 26 that reach d18O values in ocean western Antarctica confirms the relative stability of the sediments of ca 4.6–5%. It seems that until the transition in (Barker et al., 1999; Hillenbrand and dominant orbital cyclicity to the 100 ka cycles that began ca Ehrmann, 2001; Barker and Camerlenghi, 2002; Iorio et 1.2 Ma and was fully established by about 800 ka, that the al., 2004). According to Iorio et al. (2004) periods of cold periods (glacials) are regularly not cold and long particularly intense ice rafting from the western Antarctic enough to allow ice-sheet development on a continental ice-sheet occurred at 1.07 (MIS 32–30), 2.01 (ca MIS 74), scale outside the polar regions (Ehlers and Gibbard, and 2.61 Ma (MIS 104) (Cowan, 2001). 2004a–c). Here, MIS 22 (ca 880–870 ka) is the first of the ‘major’ cold events that reached critical d18O values of ca 2.2. and Greenland 5.5% or above equivalent to substantial ice volumes that typify glaciations of the Later Pleistocene (i.e. MIS 16, 12, During the Early Pleistocene, extensive ice sheets existed 10, 6, 4–2). Potentially therefore, it would seem likely that in parts of the (Fig. 4). The figure there were a minimum of 20 periods during which extensive shows the combined evidence for a Late Matuyama Chron glaciation could have developed during the last 2.6 Ma, cold stage. The North American record of glaciation with the most extensive (ca 5–6 periods) being limited to (Table 2) is similar to its European counterpart, the longest the last 900 ka (Fig. 2). sequences being restricted to Alaska and the adjacent Precisely where these glaciations occurred and how far North-West Territories of . Together with Green- they extended is very difficult to determine, given that the land and the , they preserve evidence of remnants of early glaciations tend to be obliterated and glaciations from the Neogene to the present (Barendregt mostly removed by later, more extensive advances. and Duk-Rodkin, 2004). In northern Canada and Alaska, Especially in mountain regions, the preservation potential the oldest till and accompanying ice-rafted detritus in of older sequences rapidly diminishes with time and marine settings dates from the Early Miocene, with subsequent glaciation. regionally widespread glaciation occurring in the Pliocene ARTICLE IN PRESS 8 J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 Ehlers Chronology of Quaternary Glaciations’ ( ) and Gibbard, 2004a Table 1 Occurrence of glaciation in Europe through the Cenozoic based on numbers of observations presented in contributions to the INQUA project ‘Extent and ARTICLE IN PRESS J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 9

Fig. 2. Cenozoic worldwide glaciation through time, showing the relative importance of glaciations as broadly indicated by the number of literature records cited in the compilation by Ehlers and Gibbard (2004a–c).MIS¼ Marine Isotope Stages.

and regularly throughout the Pleistocene (cf Haug et al., Canada, and if and where in Europe or northern 2005). For North America, apart from minor mountain glaciers existed has so far not been determined. In the map glaciations, four glaciation centres are known: There would (Fig. 4) we have drawn tentative ice sheets over Scandina- have been an extensive , a small via and . glaciation centre in northern Alaska, and an extensive Horton covering the lower Mackenzie region and Banks Island would be centred on the Horton Plateau. 2.3. Whilst the Region of Canada and the USA seems to have remained ice-free, an ice sheet centred in Labrador The early glacial record in Africa may be restricted to the and the eastern region would have spread mountains of East Africa (Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount south across Ontario and Quebec, Canada and into the Kenya). On the latter, glaciations began at ca 2.0 Ma (ca Mid-West USA in Kansas, , Indiana, Ohio and, MIS 68), whilst a second glaciation is recorded before the probably, New York (Barendregt and Duk-Rodkin, 2004; Brunhes/Matuyama magnetic reversal (Mahaney, 2004). Gillespie et al., 2004). It must be kept in mind that the There is evidence for probably three glaciations of the figure drawn represents the minimum extent of glaciation. Atlas mountains, but their age remains equivocal at present Little is known about the true ice extent in northern (Hughes et al., 2004). Fig. 3. Extent of Matuyana Chron glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c).

Fig. 4. Extent of Matuyana Chron glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c). ARTICLE IN PRESS J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 11

Table 2 Occurrence of glaciation in North America through the Cenozoic based on numbers of observations presented in contributions to the INQUA project ‘Extent and Chronology of Quaternary Glaciations’ (Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004b)

2.4. onwards, but becomes established in the Dolomites by MIS 22 (Muttoni et al., 2003). Comparable evidence is also Evidence of glaciation is widespread across Europe and found from north of the European Alps in Switzerland and West throughout the Quaternary and indeed the southern Germany. However, in many cases truly glaci- Neogene (Table 1). However, before the Middle Pleisto- genic deposits are scarce, and in the absence of long, cene glaciation appears to be represented only by ice-rafted continuous sequences, dating is often problematic. Elster- clasts, outside the mountain or high-latitude regions (e.g. in ian deposits may be present in Greece, where the currently the , lowland Germany, European Russia and best-dated glacial sequence of the Mediterranean region is the ) (Mangerud et al., 1996). In this context, found (Hughes et al., 2006a, b). Further to the west, in the the Dutch ‘Hattem Beds’ of Menapian age (1.2–1 Ma; ca , the oldest glaciation currently identified is MIS 36-34) are of particular significance in that they thought to be of early Middle Pleistocene (Cromerian indicate substantial glaciation of the Baltic region late in Complex) age (Calvet, 2004). the Early Pleistocene (Ehlers, 1996). On Iceland glaciation began in the Miocene (Geirsdo´ ttir, 2004), occurred 2.5. Asia regularly through the Pliocene and onwards to the present-day (cf Greenland, below, Table 2). Likewise, in Glaciations of Tibet and Tianshu are not recorded Norway, its adjacent offshore and the neighbouring before the Middle Pleistocene. Barents Sea, glaciations are recorded from the Early Miocene, Early Pliocene, Plio/Pleistocene and periodically 2.6. Southern hemisphere throughout the remaining period (Mangerud et al., 1996). The absence of evidence from the early Middle Pleistocene Glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere has always been probably represents removal of evidence by later glaciation limited by the lack of available landmass. Whilst Antarc- rather than an interruption of the glacial history. tica was already glaciated from early in the Tertiary, only In , particularly in the northern mountains, glacia- southernmost South America reached far enough pole- tion is identified possibly from the Plio/Pleistocene wards to allow extensive glaciations (Fig. 5). Whilst in ARTICLE IN PRESS 12 J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20

Fig. 5. Extent of the Pleistocene glacial maximum in the Southern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c). southern Chile in the Pleistocene glacial maximum the ice Territory, Canada, was largely ice-covered (Duk-Rodkin, sheet extended to the shelf edge, only major tongues 1999). Only in Alaska, as well as in eastern Siberia, major seem to have reached the . Both easternmost areas seem to have remained ice-free (Brigham-Grette et Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands are supposed to al., 2003; Gualtieri et al., 2005). have remained largely unglaciated (Clapperton, 1993). In Also, mountain glaciations reached a considerable size, e.g. New Zealand and on Tasmania glaciers formed, the New in the Apennines (Italy) (Federici, 1980). Glaciation of the Zealand glaciers covering about one-third of the South high mountains and the Tibetan Plateau in central Asia seems Island (Suggate, 1990). to have not extended far beyond that of the (LGM). Glaciation in MIS 12 seems to have been 3. Pleistocene Glacial Maximum the most extensive. In Tainshu an older glaciation (?MIS 16) may also have occurred. Subsequent events took place during During the Pleistocene Glacial Maximum, extensive ice MIS 8 and 6. The map shows the Chinese (minimum) version sheets covered major parts of North America and Europe (Li Binyuan et al., 1991). When assessing this map, it must be (Fig. 6). In both they reached south beyond taken into account that age control on the glacial maximum 401N, in Europe only leaving an ice-free corridor of a mere position is poor, and that not all parts of the ice sheets 200 km between the Nordic and the Alpine piedmont reached their maximum positions simultaneously. For glaciers. The Eurasian ice sheet extended eastwards beyond instance, the Dniepr Lobe and the Don Lobe in Eastern 1101E. It covered the northern part of the West Siberian Europe (Fig. 6) are of a different age (Astakhov, 2004). Lowlands, blocking all northward-directed drainage and Whilst the Don Lobe formed in the early Middle Pleistocene adding a vast meltwater input to the Black Sea/Mediterra- Donian Stage (MIS 16), the Dniepr Lobe originated in the nean Sea system (Lambeck et al., 2006). Extensive shelf Saalian(MIS6). areas were glaciated, including the northeastern Canadian , all around Greenland, all around Iceland and the 4. Last Glacial Maximum shelf seas of the Barents Sea and Kara Sea (Svendsen et al., 2004a, b). The and Irish Sea were fully glaciated The term LGM is widely accepted as referring to the (Clark et al., 2004). With the exception of the Yukon maximum global ice volume during the last glacial cycle ARTICLE IN PRESS J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 13

Fig. 6. Extent of the Pleistocene glacial maximum in the Northern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c). 1 ¼ Don Lobe, 2 ¼ Dniepr Lobe. corresponding with the trough in the marine isotope record be kept in mind that is located relatively close centred on ca 18 14CkaBP(Martinson et al., 1987) and the to the equator to the North. Were it in the Northern associated global eustatic low also dated to 18 Hemisphere, Cape Town would be situated at the same 14CkaBP (Yokoyama et al., 2000). It has also been latitude as Atlanta, Georgia, USA or, if placed relative to assigned status (23–19 or 24–18 ka cal BP the European ice sheet it would be south of Tunis. dependent on the dating applied) by Mix et al. (2001) During the LGM, ice in many parts of the Northern who consider the event should be centred on the calibrated Hemisphere reached an extent very similar to the Qua- date at 21 ka cal BP. (i.e. LGM sensu stricto) However, ternary glacial maximum (Fig. 8). In North America, the since the last maximum glaciation after MIS 5 occurred in differences are very small. Again, most parts of Canada some areas much earlier than in others, the term LGM were ice-covered, including the shelf areas (Dyke, 2004). should be used with care. The same can be said of Greenland (Funder et al., 2004; During the LGM, the extent of the glaciation of the Weidick et al., 2004). Southern Hemisphere differed very little from the Pleisto- In Europe, however, the situation was different. New cene glacial maximum (Fig. 7). Glaciers in Antarctica still evidence suggests that the North Sea was not fully glaciated reached to the shelf edge, and on New Zealand, Tasmania during the Weichselian glacial maximum (Sejrup et al., and in South America the glacier tongues were only slightly 1994; Carr, 2004). An ice sheet covered the Barents Sea and smaller than during earlier events (Andersen et al., 1999; extended well into the Kara Sea but hardly touched the Coronato et al, 2004a, b). In mainland , local Russian mainland (Svendsen et al., 1999; Svendsen et al., mountain glaciation occurred (Barrows et al., 2001, 2002). It 2004a, b). The ice sheet was much smaller than during the seems that the LGM in the Southern Hemisphere began Quaternary glacial maximum. It seems that the northwards earlier than in the Northern Hemisphere, probably around drainage of the Ob and Yenisei was not impeded 27 ka (Suggate and Almond, 2005). The high mountains of (Lambeck et al., 2006). In glaciated mountain areas out- East Africa were glaciated (Osmaston, 2004). There is no side of the major ice sheets, such as in Italy and Greece, unequivocal evidence of glaciation in South Africa, although the maximum Middle Pleistocene glaciations were much minor glaciers have been postulated by various authors bigger than the local last glacial maxima (Giraudi, 2004; (Borchert and Sa¨ nger, 1981; Hall, 1994). However, it has to Woodward et al., 2004). This is because a change in Fig. 7. Extent of the LGM on the Southern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c).

Fig. 8. Extent of the LGM on the Northern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c). ARTICLE IN PRESS J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 15 equilibrium line altitude (ELA) in areas characterised by to Antarctica (Pudsey et al., 2006), the land surface of only mountain glaciation has a much bigger impact on which is still almost completely ice-covered (Fig. 9). In glacier size than in areas where ice covered the lowlands South America, minor ice caps remain in Patagonia and on during multiple glaciations. Tierra del Fuego, and there are numerous mountain There were major ice sheets or mountain glacier systems glaciers in the Andes. In New Zealand there are only in the Siberian mountains further to the east. Because of small mountain glaciers left on the South Island. Africa the lack of detailed investigations so far in most cases it is and Australia, including Tasmania, are ice-free today. not possible to differentiate between the extent of the LGM Some of the Subantarctic Islands are still extensively and earlier glaciations (Glushkova, 2001; Zamoruyev, glaciated (Hall, 1990). These include the islands of 2004). Also, the age and extent of the glaciers in Iran and South Georgia, Kerguelen, Heard and Bouvet. Marion the mountain ranges and high plateaux further to the east, Island has a small area (2–3 km2) of permanent snow and and especially the extent of glaciation on the Tibetan ice. The Iˆles Crozet are ice-free, so are Prince-Edward, Plateau, are still matters of debate (Owen et al., 2003; Macquarie, Campbell and the Auckland Islands (south of Klinge and Lehmkuhl, 2004; Kuhle, 2004; Lehmkuhl and New Zealand). Owen, 2005; Abramowski et al., 2006). In contrast, the In the Northern Hemisphere, recent glaciation is very small mountain glaciers of Japan are well mapped and limited compared to that during the Pleistocene (Fig. 10). dated and, in contrast to the adjoining Asian mainland, the Of the large LGM ice sheets only the Greenland ice cap has maximum ice advance of the last glaciation occurred in survived (Funder and Hansen, 1996). Even that has shrunk MIS 4 (Sawagaki et al., 2004). The same date for the considerably, from the shelf edge to its present ‘inland ice’ maximum extent is found in New Zealand (Suggate, 1990; position, with unglaciated margins that are locally over Preusser et al., 2005). 150 km wide in the SW and in the NE. In contrast to Greenland, Iceland has only a few ice caps and mountain 5. Modern glaciations glaciers at present (Bjo¨ rnsson, 1979). There are mountain glaciers in the Rocky Mountains, especially in Alaska and As a consequence of topography and latitude, modern Canada, and major ice caps in the northeastern Canadian glaciation of the Southern Hemisphere is largely restricted Arctic, especially on the large islands of the Canadian

Fig. 9. Extent of the recent glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c). ARTICLE IN PRESS 16 J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20

Fig. 10. Extent of the recent glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere (based on Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004a–c).

Arctic Archipelago, west of Greenland, on Ellesmere, Middle–. Whilst this pattern is not , Bylot and Baffin Islands (Dowdeswell et al., 1997). unexpected, potentially a result of the relative distribution Europe is ice-free, except a few mountain glaciers in of land and land-locked seas on the earth’s surface, the Scandinavia and in the European Alps. Small glaciers are striking increase in ice sheets through the Quaternary found in the Pyrenees (Palla` s et al., in press) and also the clearly emphasises that worldwide glaciation is in effect a Italian Appenines (Giraudi, 2005), although they are northern-hemispheric phenomenon. Examination of the subject to rapid retreat. Only 100 ago, southern evidence accumulated in the INQUA project ‘Extent and Europe was home to many glaciers in other areas as well, Chronology of Quaternary Glaciations’ (Ehlers and such as the , Picos de Europa and even the Gibbard, 2004a–c: Fig. 1), supported by other published Sierra Nevada (Hughes et al., in press). Mainland Russia sources, demonstrates the current state of knowledge. and Siberia are ice-free. The only major glaciers and ice When examining the resulting tables (Tables 1–3)itis caps left are found on the Subarctic Islands of Svalbard important to in mind that the stratigraphical control (Spitsbergen), Franz-Josef-Land, (espe- between regions, beyond the range of radiocarbon dating, cially the North Island) and Severnaya Zemlya. is weaker than might be desired. This is particularly a problem outside Europe where biostratigraphy is less well 6. Conclusions developed and the sheer extent of the unexplored regions makes future discoveries likely. Thus the presentation Examination of the frequency of glaciation through the below can only be a first step towards a comprehensive Cenozoic (Fig. 11) indicates that glaciation in the Southern overview. The correlations applied here are based on the Hemisphere, having been established first, principally in Global Correlation Chart (Gibbard and van Kolfschoten, Antarctica (and southern South America), occurred con- 2005; Gibbard et al., 2005). tinually from the early Neogene to the present day. By Some major uncertainties remain and will have to be contrast, Northern Hemisphere glaciation, although initi- resolved by later research. They include: ally somewhat restricted, grew markedly at the Plio/ Pleistocene boundary, increasing again in frequency in (1) LGM definition. The term LGM refers to the maximum the latest Early Pleistocene and reaching a maximum in the global ice volume during the last glacial cycle at ca 18 ARTICLE IN PRESS J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20 17

60 Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere 50

40

30

20 Number of records

10

0 2 3 4 5 6 16 60 127 147 22* 34-38 54-72 72-82 99-104 187 or 20

UpperLower Pliocene UpperPliocene LowerMidcene Midcene

PLEISTOCENE (MIS) PLIOCENE MIDCENE PAL

Fig. 11. Distribution of major and minor glaciations through Quaternary time. Extracted from Global Correlation Table by Gibbard and van Kolfschoten, (2005); Gibbard et al., (2005). Please note that the base of the Pleistocene according to the latest definition should be at 2.6 Ma.

Table 3 Occurrence of glaciation in the rest of the World through the Cenozoic based on numbers of observations presented in contributions to the INQUA project ‘Extent and Chronology of Quaternary Glaciations’ (Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004c) ARTICLE IN PRESS 18 J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard / Quaternary International 164–165 (2007) 6–20

14C ka BP or 21 ka cal BP (Martinson et al., 1987; Mix References et al., 2001). However, since the last maximum glaciation after MIS 5 occurred in some areas much Abramowski, U., Bergau, A., Seebach, D., Zech, R., Glaser, B., Sosin, P., Kubik, P.W., Zech, W., 2006. Pleistocene glaciations of Central Asia: earlier than in others, this term must be used with care results from 10Be surface exposure ages of erratic boulders from the (cf above). Pamir (Tajikistan), and the Alay-Turkestan range (Kyrgyzstan). (2) LGM ice sheet extent between Norway and Britain. It is Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 1080–1096. stated that the North Sea was not glaciated during the Andersen, B.G., Denton, G.H., Lowell, Th.V., 1999. Glacial geomorpho- LGM. As a matter of fact, there is evidence to suggest logic maps of Llanquihue Drift in the area of the southern District, Chile. Geografiska Annaler 81A, 155–166. that the Scandinavian Ice Sheet was merging with an Astakhov, V., 2004. Pleistocene ice limits in the Russian northern ice sheet over the British Isles during the glacial lowlands. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary Glacia- maximum (Carr, 2004, Carr et al., 2006). However, tions—Extent and Chronology, Part I: Europe. Developments in this did not occur during the LGM (21 ka). As Quaternary Science, vol. 2a. Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp. 309–319. mentioned above, in the North Sea the maximum Barendregt, R.W., Duk-Rodkin, A., 2004. Chronology and extent of glaciations seem to have occurred a few thousand years Late Cenozoic ice sheets in North America: a magnetostrati- graphic assessment. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary prior to the LGM. Glaciations—Extent and Chronology, Part II: North America. (3) LGM glaciations in Russia. The LGM reconstruction Developments in Quaternary Science, vol. 2b. Elsevier, Amsterdam, shows an extensive ice cap on the Putorana Plateau pp. 1–7. during the LGM (and over other mountain areas as Barker, P.F., Barret, P.J., Cooper, A.K., Huybrechts, P., 1999. Antarctic well). Judged from the available evidence it seems quite glacial history from numerical models and continental margin sediments. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 150, possible that the glaciers on this mountain plateau were 247–267. much smaller during the LGM and that the ice caps Barker, P.F., Camerlenghi, A., 2002. Glacial history of the Antarctic shown on Fig. 8 are significantly older (see discussion in Peninsula from Pacific margin sediments. In: Barker, P.F., Camerlen- Svendsen et al., 2004a, b). ghi, A., Acton, G.D., Ramsay, A.T.S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean (4) Pleistocene glacial maximum. It seems likely that the Drilling Program, Scientific Results, vol. 178, pp. 1–40 [Online]. Available at /http://www-odp.tamu.edu./publications/178_SR/ glacier coverage may have been even more extensive over Volume/Synth/Synth.PDFS. parts of the Arctic, especially over Arctic Canada and Barrows, T.T., Stone, J.O., Fifield, L.K., Cresswell, R.G., 2001. Late adjacent shelves than shown on the map. Recent findings Pleistocene glaciation of the Kosciuszko Massif, , from the shelf areas in the seem to suggest Australia. Quaternary Research 55, 179–189. that thick marine ice shelves grew into the central Arctic Barrows, T.T., Stone, J.O., Fifield, L.K., Cresswell, R.G., 2002. The timing of the Last Glacial Maximum in Australia. Quaternary Science Ocean during some of the large glaciations (Svendsen et Reviews 21, 159–173. al., 2004a, b; Mangerud et al., 2004). If correct, the ice Bjo¨ rnsson, H., 1979. Glaciers in Iceland. Jo¨ kull 29, 74–80. sheets/caps must have been somewhat larger than shown Borchert, G., Sa¨ nger, H., 1981. Research findings of a Pleistocene here. 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