MUSIC IN THE Social and Behavioral Sciences An Encyclopedia

Volume 1

William Forde Thompson Macquarie University EDITOR

Alexandra Lamont Keele University Richard Parncutt University of Graz Frank A. Russo Ryerson University ASSOCIATE EDITORS

($)SAGE reference

Los Angeles ILondon INew Delhi Singapore IWashington DC Contents

Volume 1

List of Articles vii Reader's Guide xiit About the Editor xviii List of Contributors xix Introduction xxv Chronology xxix

Articles A 1 B 119 C 157 D 311 E 353 F 447 G 495 H 525 I 573

Volume 2

List of Articles Vtt

Articles L 643 M 667 N 799 0 821 P 835 R 925 S 975 T 1097 U 1155 V 1165 W 1179 Y 1205

Glossary 1209 Resource Guide 1217 Appendix 1223 Index 1241 Photo Credits 1310 List of Contributors

Rita Aiello Emmanuel Bigand New York University Universite de Bourgogne Paolo Ammirante Sarah Boak Ryerson University University of South hampton Christina Anagnostopoulou Sarah E. Boslaugh University of Athens Kennesaw State University J ames Andean Janet Bourne University of the Arts Helsinki Northwestern University Artemis Apostolaki Bernd Brabec de Mori University of Hull University ofMusic and Performing Arts Graz Richard Ashley Jillian L. Bracken Northwestern University University of Western Ontario Michael Austin Evan David Bradley Howard University Pennsylvania State University Amee Baird Alessandro Bratus Macquarie University Universita di Pavia, Cremona Felicity Baker Jacob Braun University of Melbourne Bowling Green State University Daniel Bangert Roberto Bresin University of New South Wales KTH Royal Institute of Technology Katherine Bank Nancy Bressler University of London Bowling Green State University Jonathan Bruce Barber Warren Brodsky National Ageing Research Institute Ben-Gurion University of the Negev David Bashwiner Debra Burns University of New Mexico Purdue University Indiana Christine Beckett Densil Cabrera Concordia University University of Sydney Tonya Bergeson David Cashman Indiana University School of Medicine Southern Cross University

xix xx list of Contributors

Roger Chaffin Meredith Eliassen University of Connecticut San Francisco State University Alexandros Charkiolakis Robert J. Ellis MIAM Istanbul Technical University Harvard Medical School Juan Chattah Paul Evans University of Miami University of New South Wales Morgen Chawawa Peter Fielding Botho University Mahidol University Eddy K. M. Chong Amy L. Fletcher Nayang Technological University University of Canterbury Linda Cimardi Georgina Floridou University of Bologna Goldsmiths, University of London Amy Clements-Cortes Anders Friberg University of Toronto KTH Royal Institute of Technology Annabel J. Cohen Dustin Garlitz University of Prince Edward Island University ofSouth Florida Michael Conklin Sandra Garrido The College of New Jersey University of Melbourne, University of Eduardo Coutinho Western Australia University of Liverpool Travis Garrison Lola Cuddy East Carolina University Queen's University, Canada Elise G. M. Gayraud Meagan E. Curtis Durham University State University ofNew York, Purchase College Andrew Geeves Eugene Dairianathan Macquarie University Institute of Ethnomusicology, University Monika Geretsegger of Music and Performing Arts, Graz Aalborg University, Denmark/ Stephen Davies University of Vienna, Austria University of Auckland Joice Waterhouse Gibson Tereza Virginia de Almeida Metropolitan State University Universidade Federal de of Denver Santa Catarina Bruno Gingras Roger T. Dean University of Vienna University of Western Sydney Jane Ginsborg Alexander P. Demos Royal Northern College of Music, University of Connecticut Manchester Christina M. Vanden Bosch der Nederlanden Robert O. Gjerdingen University of Nevada, Las Vegas Northwestern University Diana Deutsch . Jonathan Glixon University of California, San Diego University of Kentucky Frederic Dohl Daniel Gonzalez Moya Freie Univrsitat Berlin Freie Universitat Berlin Paul Doornbusch Aria Good Australian College of the Arts Ryerson University Christopher Dromey Jessica A. Grahn Middlesex University University of Western Ontario Tuomas Eerola Alexander Gra ur Durham University University of Torino Athena Elafros Anthony Gritten Keuka College Royal Academy of Music List of Contributors xxi

Denise Grocke Jorg Jewanski University of Melbourne University of Munster Juliana Guerrero Jordan Johnson University of Buenos Aires Bowling Green University Himanshu Gupta Nicolai J0fgensgaard Graakjrer University of Western Ontario Aalborg University Golan Gur Olivier Julien Humboldt University of Berlin Paris-Sorbonne University Lauren Victoria Hadley Melissa Jungers University of Edinburgh Ohio State University Sara Haefeli Lukasz Kaczmarek Ithaca College John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin Susan Hallam Maria Katsipataki University of London University of Durham Rachel Hallett Kim Kattari Keele University Texas A&M University Erin Hannon Peter E. Keller University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of Western Sydney David Hargreaves Dianna Theadora Kenny Roehampton University University of Sydney Ralph Hartsock Neha Khetrapal University of North Texas Macquarie University ~arta Hawryluk Andrew King John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin University of Hull Lars Erik Helgert Elaine King Georgetown University University of Hull William M. Helmcke Stefan Koelsch University of Massachusetts Amherst Freie Universitat Berlin Ruth Herbert Dimitra Kokotsaki University of Oxford University of Durham Stephen Hinton Vladimir J. Konecni Stanford University University of California, San Diego ~{atthew Hollow Anastasya Koshkin Durham University Columbia University Lisa Hooper Franz Kasper Kronig Tulane University Cologne University of Applied Sciences David Martin Howard Kinga Krzymowska-Szacon University of York John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin ~lichael Huber Belma Kurtisoglu Institute for Musiksoziologie Istanbul Technical University '\{arryn Hudson Alexandra Lamont Newcastle University Keele University Bryn Hughes Lara Lengel University of Miami Bowling Green State University Elina Hytonen-Ng Lisa Liskovoi University of Eastern Finland Ryerson University Kelly Jakubowski Marie Pierre Lissoir University of London-Goldsmiths Universite Libre de Bruxelles ~f.olly Jeon Fang Liu Independent Scholar University College London xxii List of Contributors

Steven R. Livingstone Gra\=a Mota Ryerson University Instituto Politecnico do Porto Raymond MacDonald Kathleen M. Murphy Edinburgh University University of Evansville Karl George Madden Eugene Narmour City University of New York University of Pennsylvania Damien Mahiet Lillooet Nordlinger Denison University Carleton University Stephen Malloch Adam Ockleford University of Sydney University of Roehampton Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis Brooke M. Okada University of Arkansas University of Maryland, College Park Flavia Marisi Rowan Oliver Independent Scholar University of Hull Rossella Marisi Kirk N. Olsen Independent Scholar University of Western Sydney Jeremy Marozeau Alessandra Padula Bionics Institute Conservatorio di Musica "Giuseppe Verdi"­ Elizabeth Marvin Milan University of Rochester Richard Parncutt Eldonna L. May University of Graz Wayne State University Mercedes Pavlicevic Susan E. Mazer Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy Independent Scholar Jonathan Geoffrey Secora Pearl Karen McAulay Independent Scholar Royal Conservatoire of Scotland Jessica Phillips-Silver Josh H. McDermott BRAMS, Montreal Massachusetts Institute of Technology Chiara Pierobon Lytton N. McDonnell Bielefeld University Rutgers University Jonathan Pitkin Brett McKern Royal College of Music Australian Music Centre Nick Poulakis Gary E. McPherson National and Kapodistrian University University of Melbourne of Athens Prayrna Devi Mehan Jon Prince University of Western Ontario Murdoch University Dawn L. Merrett Hyacinthe Ravet University of Melbourne Universite Paris-Sorbonne Dorothy Miell Christina L. Reitz Univeristy of Edinburgh Western Carolina University Matthew Mihalka Nicholas Reyland University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Keele University Jennifer Mishra Nikki Rickard University of Missouri Monash University Shawn Mollenhauer Cricia Rinchon Metropolitan State University of Denver University of Western Ontario Joseph E. Morgan Frank A. Russo New England Conservatory Ryerson University Terry A. Morrow Stephanie Salerno Nova Southeastern University Bowling Green State University list of Contributors xxiii

Ysabel M. Sarte Tom Sykes University of Kentucky University of Salford E. Glenn Schellenberg Leonard Tan University of Toronto Nanyang Technological University Amanda Scherbenske Mari Tervaniemi Wesleyan University University of Helsinki Klaus R. Scherer Michael H. Thaut Swiss Center for Affective Sciences Colorado State University Michael F. Schober Nico Thorn New School for Social Research Lubeck University of Music Franziska Schroeder William Forde Thompson Queen's University Belfast Macquarie University Emery Schubert Barbara Tillmann University of New South Wales Lyon Neuroscience Research Center Michael Schutz Laurel J. Trainor McMaster University McMaster University Steven D. Shaw Ruxandra Trandafoiu University of Western Ontario Edge Hill University Anne Shelley Colwyn Trevarthen Illinois State University University of Edinburgh Gene Shill Peter Tschmuck Australian College of the Arts University of Music and Performing Arts, Marissa Silverman Vienna Montclair State University Giorgos Tsiris Dean Keith Simonton Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy University of California, Davis Leigh VanHandel L. Robert Sieve Michigan State University University of Maryland, College Park Naresh N. Vempala Gareth Dylan Smith Ryerson University Institute of Contemporary Music Jonna K. Vuoskoski Performance University of Oxford Daniela Smolov Levy Zachary Wallmark Stanford University University of California, Gaye Soley Los Angeles Bogazi(i University Wayne Warburton Neta Spiro Macquarie University University of Cambridge, Sarah L Watson N ordoff-Robbins University of Western Ontario Thomas Stegemann John L. Whitener University of Music and Performing Arts, University of Southern California Vienna Victoria Williamson Catherine Stevens University of London-Goldsmiths University of Western Sydney Graeme Wilson Chris Stover Newcastle University New School for Jazz and Sarah Winokur Contemporary Music Smith College Eric S. Strother Reba A. Wissner University of Kentucky Berkeley College Johan Sundberg Clemens Wollner KTH Royal Institute of Technology University of Hamburg 382 Emotions, Aesthetic

See Also: Affect; Anxiety, Performance; Arousal, photography, and literature have all been gener­ Emotional; Emotion; Emotional Contagion; ally subsumed under "art" in aestheticians' analy­ Emotions, Aesthetic; Facial Expression; Hormones; ses and extensively examined with regard to the Humor; Individual Differences; Intelligence; responses they produce. These are complex, spe­ Mood; Motivation; Nostalgia; Pain; Personality; cialized, and often divergent literatures. Responses Physiological Responses, Peripheral; Psychoanalysis; to nature are often discussed separately. Aesthetic Relaxation; Sad Music, Psychological Implications emotions should be distinguished from "aesthetic of; Self-Esteem; Social Bonding; Social Exclusion; judgments" that are in certain philosophical tradi­ Tension; Trauma, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder; tions considered to be "emotional" in the sense of Violence and Aggression. being irrational. In this entry the focus is mostly on aesthetic responses produced by music. Further Readings Austin, E. J., D. H. Saklofske, and V. Egan. Major Issues of Contention "Personality, Well-Being and Health Correlates One basic question is whether music and visual of Trait Emotional Intelligence." Personality and art are able to induce genuine emotions or are the Individual Differences, v.38 (2005). responses, while remaining under the umbrella Bar-On, R., K. J. G. Maree, and M.]. Elias, eds. of affect, qualitatively different from emotions, Educating People to Be Emotionally Intelligent. such as moods or, for example, transient bursts of Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007. surprise. Another possibility is that responses are Caruso, D. R., J. D. Mayer, and P. Salovey. "Relation couched, by both scholars and research partici­ of an Ability Measure of Emotional Intelligence to pants, in "emotional" linguistic terms, perha ps by Personality." Journal of Personality Assessment, force of habit and "folk wisdom," as the com­ v.79/2 (2002). poser Igor Stravinsky, among others, claimed, but Chamorro-Premuzic, T., P. Fagan, and A. Furnham. are found by appropriate empirical probing to be "Personality and Uses of Music "as Predictors of phenomenologically nonemotional. Preferences for Music Consensually Classified And if the responses are genuine emotions, as Happy, Sad, Complex, and Social." Psychology are they those that are also evoked in everyday, ofAesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, vA/4 especially social, life-for example, happiness, (2010). sadness, anger, and fear? In this vein, can dis­ Goleman, D. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can gust with an artwork be considered an aesthetic Matter More Than IQ. New York: Bantam emotion, or even emotion at all, given its primi­ Books, 2006. tive olfactory-gustatory character that minimally Mayer,]. D., D. R. Caruso, and P. Salovey. involves cognition? Or are aesthetic emotions dis­ "Emotional Intelligence Meets Traditional tinct emotional states that may obtain uniquely Standards for an Intelligence." Intelligence, v.27/4 in aesthetic contexts? The key questions in this (2000). discussion are the rigor and relevance of the the­ Salovey, P. and J. D. Mayer. "Emotional Intelligence." ory of emotion that is invoked, and the legitimacy Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, v.9 and empirical validation of the naming-labeling (1990). of states or responses by scholars, experimenters, and participants. Because of such complexities, unwarranted assumptions, overinterpretations, and occasional hyperbole abound. Additional key issues should be considered. Emotions, Aesthetic There have been many theories of emotion, but some of the views that are common to most con­ Emotional states that are induced by exposure to temporary biopsychological positions are that art and nature are called "aesthetic emotions"­ emotions are psychologically, physiologically, and although some scholars, a minority, would say metabolically "costly" and generally reserved for "allegedly induced." Music, painting, sculpture, emergencies; that numerous bodily systems are installations, architecture, theater, film, dance, involved, simultaneously and in tandem; that Emotions, Aesthetic 383 they are acute, occurring in episodes, with feed­ assumed to be, as they are in Stanislavskian the­ back loops; they are highly pronounced; they are ater, identification and empathy with the people readily identifiable and reportable by the experi­ or situations that are represented, even though encer; and that they cannot be easily "switched they are not "real," perhaps with classical (Pav­ off." Some aestheticians have labeled such emo­ lovian) conditioning added to the operative mix. tions "garden variety," "utilitarian," and "crude" This is, by the way, the crux of the "paradox of in order to contrast them with "aesthetic" or fiction" (the "Anna Karenina effect") in the aes­ "refined" emotions. But this approach has opened thetics of literature. Music, however, presents them to the criticism that the "refined" states (for additional complications. instance, triumph, serenity, and majesty) are only quasi-emotions or as-if emotions or mere verbal Musical Emotions descriptors. One can justifiably argue that this Until the second half of the 18th century, the criticism is most convincing when it is clear that majority of claims about the deeply affecting the participants' self-reports are not accompanied nature of music was in reference to music that was by substantial physiological perturbations. sung, containing text (lyrics) and narrative (repre­ Moreover, it has been empirically documented sentational content). Conceptually, the problem that in the psychological research on both music arose with the advent of instrumental (absolute) and visual art, participants frequently misreport music: listeners continued to be deeply affected, on issues of emotion because they are not care­ but it was unclear what it was in these textless, fully instructed by experimenters to distinguish storyless pieces that produced the powerful effect. between emotion that is expressed by (and per­ The problem was sharpened when one rightly ceived in) a piece of music or a painting, com­ removed "program music" from consideration­ pared to emotion that is induced by music and art pieces with literary titles and extramusical, such stimuli, that is, truly experienced by participants. as onomatopoeic, references. Virtually no aesthetician disputes that there are The fact that sung music with a story line is, structural aspects of instrumental music (mode, in this context, a separate, and only a moderately tempo, register, instrumentation, etc.) that jointly interesting, issue to formalist aestheticians-with can accomplish that a piece of music is expres­ its effect on emotion assumed to be largely due sive of a particular fundamental emotion such as to the nonmusical content-is of little concern to anger or sadness: numerous studies have shown the modal music listener. Judging by the sales, the high agreement, across participants of different average listener prefers music with lyrics, and only age, gender, and culture, about the emotion that an unreasonable person would dispute that lyrics, is expressed. But the induction of emotion in the supported or emphasized by the sound of music, listener by pure instrumental music is another are able to drive listeners to genuine joy or anger matter. There are scholars who have claimed that or sadness, as well as to a variety of moods-be people cannot decipher what music expresses it in the Passion According to Saint Matthew by without also experiencing the corresponding emo­ Johann Sebastian Bach or in the rock anthems tion, but this claim has been empirically shown to by Pink Floyd or the extremely fast punk mes­ be mistaken. sages by the group Fear. However, it would seem Precisely because of the scientific appeal of the that the fiery or poignant, deeply felt speeches, biopsychological theories of emotion, the ques­ sermons, and monologues in stadiums, churches, tion of the extent of representational content in theaters, and films can accomplish the same or music and visual art has been in the foreground similar effects without any music at all. This is of discussions about aesthetic emotions. The logic why aestheticians and music psychologists find here is that to the extent that music and visual the possible effects of nonrepresentational, instru­ art induce genuine emotions in listeners and view­ mental, absolute music on emotion so intriguing. ers, this is because of their narrative content, that is, because they represent or portray situations Recent Approaches to Musical Emotions or human conditions that in real life induce such The contemporary philosophical aesthetician emotions. The underlying processes are implicitly Noel Carroll's approach has been to agree with the 384 Emotions, Aesthetic formalist music philosophers, such as Peter Kivy, that pure instrumental music cannot, essentially by definition, arouse "garden variety" emotions in listeners because when listening to instrumen­ tal music there is an absence of an "intentional object" toward which to experience an emotion such as anger or fear. Carroll therefore lowered the bar and claimed that there are conceptual rea­ sons and certain neuropsychological evidence that absolute music can affect moods, for the achieve­ ment of which there are far less stringent theo­ retical criteria, and that this may be accomplished via dance-related movement that is perceived in the music and overtly or covertly mimicked by the listener. Although there is much to be said for this view, it has not been accepted either by the formalists, who insist additionally on "canoni­ cal listening" (knowledgeable and deep, which would exclude, for example, foot-tapping), or A fan reacts with an outpouring of aesthetic emotion at the by some psychologists of music, who insist that NOFX punk rock concert in Port nightclub, Saint-Petersburg, absolute music induces genuine emotions, rather Russia, August 28, 2007. Emotions induced by exposure to art than merely moods. Of course, one should keep and nature are called aesthetic emotions; however, a minority of in mind that psychologists often feel that by deal­ scholars contend that this cause and effect is alleged. ing with emotion, as opposed to mood, they are closer to biology and thus to hard science. There have been literally hundreds of studies, mostly by social and consumer psychologists, three specifically involve nonmusical mediating allegedly showing that "music induces emotion." events. In "episodic memory," remembrances of A high proportion of these studies is theoretically real-world emotional situations are the proxi­ of limited value in that they seem unaware of the mal cause of any emotion induction. In "visual conceptual and methodological issues at stake. imagery," the mental representation of an event is Among the methodological problems, most such the proximal cause, not the music that gives rise studies used numerous, extremely brief musical to the image. As for "evaluative conditioning," excerpts (typically under 60 seconds in duration), a nonmusical emotional event with which music in quick succession, and then claimed that partici­ has been temporally paired in the past is the true pants had experienced a different emotion to each cause of emotion. The fourth proposed mecha­ excerpt. This approach, which essentially assumes nism, brain stem reflex, is not worth discussing that people can experience dozens of emotions in isolation, because dissonant chords or loud one after the other in a matter of several minutes, sounds, for example, may cause startle but this has been strongly criticized by aestheticians and is commonly not thought to be an emotion. And some music psychologists, all long preceded by with regard to "musical expectancy," it would the composer Paul Hindemith. seem that a violation of expectations held by a One. of the notable recent attempts by music knowledgeable listener may produce a "musico­ psychologists to outline the "mechanisms" by logical surprise," but this should not be confused which music may induce everyday emotions has with cognitive-physiological emotional impact. been made by Patrik Juslin and Daniel Vast­ Finally, emotional contagion-whereby emotion fjall. It is important to note that they do not is allegedly induced by the music's expressiveness always restrict themselves to absolute music. being unconsciously mimicked internally by the Of the "mechanisms" they propose for how listener-remains a highly speculative issue­ music may induce the fundamental emotions, and so is, conceptually, the recent addition of Emotions, Mixed 385 subjective "aesthetic judgment" to the proposed Mechanisms." Behavioral and Brain Sciences, list. It would therefore appear that absolute music v.311S (200S). may induce a fundamental, garden-variety emo­ Keltner, D. and J. Haidt. "Approaching Awe, tion only by profiting-like some paintings, sculp­ a Moral, Spiritual, and Aesthetic Emotion." tures, and installations do-from various mental Cognition and Emotion, v.17/2 (2003). associations of music with nonmusical events in Kivy, P. Sound Sentiment: An Essay on the Musical the listeners' and viewers' lives and also from Emotions. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, the visual imagery to which music may give rise; 19S9. and it is these nonmusical events that are the true Konecni, V. "Aesthetic Trinity Theory and the proximal causes of the fundamental emotions. Sublime." Philosophy Today, v.SS/l (2011). There have also been recent attempts to iden­ Konecni, V. "Music, Affect, Method, Data: tify nongarden-variety responses to music that Reflections on the Carroll Versus Kivy Debate." closely resemble the fundamental emotions but American Journal of Psychology, v.126/2 (2013). nevertheless differ from them. Kivy has written of Zentner, M., D. Grandjean, and K. Scherer. "ecstasy" experienced when canonically listening "Emotions Evoked by the Sound of Music: to the supreme examples in the Western classical Characterization, Classification, and idiom. In his view, it is the beauty of the music Measurement." Emotion, v.S/4 (200S). that is the intentional object of the emotion, keep­ ing in mind that different listeners may respond to different streams of the sound (harmony, melody, etc.). Vladimir Konecni has developed an aes­ thetic trinity theory, in which the responses of aes­ Emotions, Mixed thetic awe, being moved, and physiological thrills (chills) are hierarchically arranged, with awe as After a century of neglect, emotions have become the peak response to a "sublime" set of stimuli, the focus of scientific research. While the concept such as superb music (especially when heard in of mixed emotions has long been anecdotally colossal performance spaces) and architectural accepted, there are differing views about it as a and natural wonders. viable theoretical construct, and it is only rela­ Aesthetic awe is defined and empirically inves­ tively recently that the concept has been investi­ tigated independently of the sublime stimuli and gated. Despite the reservations of the research seems to be a mixture of joy and fear, which, like community, the concept has found application in joy, requires existential safety. It is virtually indis­ palliative care settings. tinguishable from the fundamental emotions, yet, Emotional processes are associated with all importantly, it can be readily mentally switched lived experience, and are understood to have an off. Of the three responses, the most frequently adaptive role that supports not merely species observed, thrills (chills), has been the subject of survival, but also the ongoing evolutionary capac­ the greatest number of empirical investigations, ity to thrive and progress. Throughout recorded with the neuroaesthetic research by Anne Blood history, emotional experience has been integral and Robert Zatorre receiving considerable-both to art, music, and literature in all their diverse positive and critical-attention. manifestations. Conversely, scientific research models used in Vladimir J. Konecni psychological and neuropsychological research University of California, San Diego have, until recently, largely treated emotion as a research confound, and have endeavored to See Also: Aesthetic Response; Emotion; Emotions, factor it out of investigations. This approach Mixed; Expectancy; Inspiration; Mood. ' has changed in the past two decades, and emo­ tional phenomena are increasingly investigated. Further Readings The increasing interest in emotion as a research Juslin, P. N. and D. Viistfjiill. "Emotional Responses focus roughly parallels the development of brain­ to Music: The Need to Consider Underlying imaging technologies and increased access to