ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake
Final Report
March 2004
ICZM in the UK a Stocktake Final 0 SCOPING REPORT Report.doc
ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
Notice
This document has been produced by ATKINS solely for the purpose of the project: ICZM in the UK: A Stocktake.
It may not be used by any person for any other purpose other than that specified without the express written permission of ATKINS. Any liability arising out of use by a third party of this document for purposes not wholly connected with the above shall be the responsibility of that party who shall indemnify ATKINS against all claims costs damages and losses arising out of such use.
Document History
JOB NUMBER: 5014129 DOCUMENT REF: 5014129/DG/62/010
Purpose and Revision Originated Checked Reviewed Authorised Date Description
1 March 001 Draft Final Report HR JMcC SG ISH 2004
24 March 002 Final Report HR JMcC SG ISH 2004
i ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a process which seeks to ‘join up’ the different policies that have an effect on the coast whilst bringing together stakeholders to inform, support, and implement these policies.
During the 1990s, the European Commission funded a “Demonstration Programme” on ICZM. This included 35 projects around Europe, (seven in the UK) which were examined to understand the pressures and problems facing coasts. The EU Demonstration Programme identified a wide range of environmental and social issues at the coast such as habitat destruction, loss of fish stocks and biodiversity, pollution, economic decline and social deprivation. Interrelated biological, physical and human issues facing European coastal zones were also investigated and the causes were traced to a number of underlying problems, namely:
¨ a lack of vision related to management at the coast based on a very limited understanding of coastal processes and dynamics and with scientific research and data collection isolated from end-users;
¨ inadequate involvement of the stakeholders in formulating and implementing solutions to coastal problems;
¨ inappropriate and uncoordinated sectoral legislation and policy, often working against the long-term interests of sustainable management of coastal zones;
¨ rigid bureaucratic systems and the lack of coordination between relevant administrative bodies limiting local creativity and adaptability;
¨ local initiatives in sustainable coastal management lacking adequate resources and political support from higher administrative levels.
The Demonstration Programme also identified eight key principles for ICZM:
¨ a broad overall perspective;
¨ a long-term perspective;
¨ adaptive management;
¨ local specificity;
¨ working with natural processes;
¨ involving all the parties concerned;
¨ support of relevant administrative bodies;
¨ using a combination of instruments.
These results provided the basis for a European Parliament and Council Recommendation concerning ICZM which was adopted by the fifteen Member States of the EU in 2002. The Recommendation proposed that Member States should conduct a national stocktake to analyse which actors, laws and institutions influence the planning and management of their coastal zones. Based on the evidence gathered by the stocktaking, Member States should then develop a national strategy to implement ICZM.
In March 2003, the UK Government commissioned Atkins to carry out a stocktake of the current framework for management of the coastal zone in the UK. This, the final report of the project, is a contribution to the developing ICZM programme for the UK and the national strategies for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland which are due to be completed by 2006.
ii ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
The findings are based on research carried out since April 2003 using questionnaires, interviews, workshops, expert panels and case study reports. These methods were used to gather the views of coastal practitioners on the situation in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and the UK as a whole.
Reference has also been made to the considerable body of existing information gathered by the EU Demonstration Programme on ICZM and other surveys, research, and coastal projects that have taken place around UK during the last decade. The main issues are illustrated in the report using examples that show what is happening on the ground.
The UK Coastline
More than 19,000km long, the UK coastline is an environment of considerable contrast, dynamism, and inspiration. The coastal land, estuaries, and inshore waters of the UK are rich in natural resources and wildlife. They support a large proportion of the population and a great variety of economic activity as well as a range of leisure and recreation interests.
The special nature of the coast lies in the fact that it is the transition zone between land and sea. This interface where land, sea and air meet is a highly dynamic environment where the biological, chemical and physical attributes change continuously and sometimes dramatically, altering the profile of the shoreline. The coast also includes highly productive and biologically diverse ecosystems with features that serve as critical natural defences against storms, flooding and erosion.
Decision-makers concerned with the planning and management of this zone have to reconcile potentially competing activities and interests such as:
¨ facilitating economic development;
¨ meeting the demands of tourism and recreation;
¨ protecting areas of scenic, geological or ecological importance;
¨ protecting vulnerable communities against the effects of erosion and flooding.
The Coastal Management Framework in the UK
Historically, coastal management policies and decisions in the UK have been made with reference to individual sectoral interests such as transport, environment, economic growth or waste management.
The framework currently in place reflects the sectoral nature of managing coastal issues in the UK and, like many other European nations, the framework is not representative of true ICZM principles as set out by the European Commission. At the present time local non-regulatory actions are much closer to these principles and aspirations.
Key government departments which have an interest in coastal management include: ¨ Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (in sustainable development, environment protection, wildlife conservation, coastal defence, fisheries and water quality);
¨ Department of Trade and Industry (offshore oil and gas and offshore renewable energy);
¨ Department for Transport (ports, harbours and shipping);
¨ Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (land-use planning and aggregate extraction);
¨ Ministry of Defence.
Many policies are also the responsibility of the devolved administrations of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales whose remits extend to 12 miles offshore (beyond which powers are reserved to the UK Government).
A number of executive agencies and non-departmental public bodies have varying levels of jurisdiction over the regulation and management of the coast including:
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¨ English Nature;
¨ Countryside Agency
¨ Countryside Council for Wales;
¨ Environment Agency (covering England and Wales);
¨ Sea Fisheries Committees (England and Wales);
¨ Environment and Heritage Service (Northern Ireland);
¨ Scottish Natural Heritage;
¨ Scottish Environment Protection Agency.
Local government is also a key player and, in the UK, is a mix of District, Borough and Island Councils, County Councils, and Unitary Authorities. In general, local authority jurisdiction extends down to the mean low water mark. However, different situations are likely to apply in estuaries, bays and inlets. Local authorities can have local Acts of Parliament or make local byelaws to extend their statutory functions seaward (generally associated with health and safety for the management of tourism and recreation).
In Scotland, local authority jurisdiction extends further down the foreshore than elsewhere in the UK as the 1982 Civic Government (Scotland) Act allows local authorities to make bye-laws restricting recreational activity on seashores or adjacent waters up to 1km offshore. The 2003 Water Environment and Water Services Act extends local authorities’ planning control of aquaculture developments in the marine environment up to 3 miles offshore.
Harbour authorities generally have their own powers laid down in a private Act of Parliament or in a harbour empowerment or revision order. But substantial areas of harbours fall within the jurisdiction of local planning authorities and are therefore subject to planning control.
Above mean low water, the land-use planning system is the dominant mechanism for development control and this is operated through various components and supporting instruments such as structure plans, local development frameworks and local bye-law making powers. The land-use planning system is based on an applications procedure to the local planning authority who determine what action should be taken with reference to the statutory development plans and associated government guidance.
Below mean low water, the planning framework is more sectoral, with separate systems for the regulation of particular types of development. Here government departments are the principal decision-makers through various license and consents procedures. Ownership of the foreshore and seabed below low water mark is generally held by the Crown Estate. Acting as landlords, the Crown Estate provides leases for those activities which seek to make use of this resource such as offshore development. While the Crown Estate is closely involved in the decision-making process of government departments and the devolved administrations it is not the final arbiter of development decisions.
Control of activities at the coast also relies on individual regulatory systems governed by local, national and international legislation for sectors including:
¨ Coastal defence (flooding and erosion).
¨ Discharges to water.
¨ Water abstraction.
¨ Waste management.
¨ Energy industry (power stations).
¨ Landscape conservation.
iv ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
¨ Wildlife conservation.
¨ Archaeological and cultural heritage conservation.
¨ Development in ports and harbours.
¨ Marine aggregate extraction.
¨ Fishing and fish farming.
¨ Oil and gas.
¨ Shipping.
¨ Renewable energy.
¨ Telecommunications.
¨ near shore recreation.
In addition to these statutory systems, there are also non-statutory policies which influence decision- making. These include regional economic strategies, local transport plans, and estuary and coastal management plans.
Coastal Stakeholders
Many organisations, groups and individuals influence coastal management in the UK. Their interests may lie in a single issue (recreation, fisheries, etc), or they may work as a multi-disciplinary partnerships bringing together different interests to resolve conflicts or find common ground. The level of engagement by stakeholders will depend on factors, such as: ¨ The scale and type of activity or decision.
¨ The relevance, risk and impact associated with the activity or decision.
¨ Whether the activity or decision is statutory or non-statutory.
¨ Whether there are frameworks in place to encourage participation at the local or community level.
In addition stakeholder influence can be wide ranging, from coastal engineers responsible for preparing coastal defence plans to more indirect influences such as visitors buying souvenirs in beach shops.
Despite the success of a number of initiatives aimed at creating opportunities for greater stakeholder involvement in coastal management decisions, studies have identified a number of sectoral interests that are not as likely to get involved. At the same time “consultation fatigue” may be a problem because of the large number of initiatives, and a limited pool of people with the relevant expertise and time. Uncertainty concerning their role in the decision making process has also been highlighted.
Progress on ICZM in the UK
A desire to simplify and improve the framework for the planning and management of coastal activities has been voiced by many organisations, and on many occasions, from the non-governmental Coastal Preservation Committee set up in 1936, to the Government’s Marine Stewardship Report in 2002.
The response has been a range of initiatives and actions. Policy has been developed through coastal planning guidance; attempts have been made to resolve conflicts of interest through local estuary plans; practical works such as management realignment projects have tried to deliver more holistic management on the ground, and wider ownership and appreciation of coastal issues has been sought through much greater consultation with stakeholders at all levels.
v ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
Much of this work has been driven by an environmental agenda - in particular the conservation of coastal biodiversity and the recognition of the need to safeguard areas of scenic beauty. However other drivers such as economic growth and the desire to involve stakeholders in decisions that affect them are equally important and have become more apparent in successful coastal initiatives in recent years.
At the local level, a number of coastal forums, groups and partnerships have developed around the UK to resolve specific issues of concern. Their exact remits vary but almost all these initiatives possess a common purpose of promoting a more integrated approach to local coastal management by facilitating cooperation and resolving conflicts; raising awareness and understanding, and collecting and distributing information.
In many cases these forums have been housed within local authorities. Often this has been because the authority can support the initiative through administrative services and other in-kind contributions but also because the local authority is often seen as the ‘honest broker’.
Stocktake Findings
The Stocktake findings present a mixed picture of how the principles of ICZM (as set out by the European Commission) are being implemented in the UK. There are examples of good practice but the current framework reflects the sectoral approach to managing coastal issues in the UK and, like many other European nations, the framework is not representative of true ICZM principles. At the present time local, voluntary actions are much closer to these principles and aspirations and it is the principle of “local specificity” which has been taken forward most successfully. Many examples were cited of local action taken to address local issues. Considerable effort was also being put into facilitating and encouraging the “involvement of all parties” in coastal planning and management. This principle is now widespread and an integral part of decision making at all levels from local initiatives through to Government consultations on policy direction. Long-term planning for ICZM was perceived as the weakest principle. Although standard practice in the planning of some sectoral marine activities, this is an area where there has been significant difficulty up to now. Most if not all ICZM initiatives to date have been short-term projects rather than being an integral part of an established decision-making and delivery process.
Marine Spatial Planning
In addition to facilitating wider sustainable development, ICZM should help resolve conflicts and deliver a more integrated approach to planning activities. Marine spatial planning can contribute to delivering an ecosystem approach to management of marine activities through a plan-led framework for development of the seabed. ICZM plans or strategies could form a vital link between any system of marine spatial planning and the land-use planning system as well as other relevant planning mechanisms such as the forthcoming River Basin Management Plans required under the Water Framework Directive.
Through its Marine Stewardship initiative the Government is exploring how co-ordination between Whitehall departments might be improved in the issuing of individual consents for activities that impact on the seabed, and is reviewing the legislation affecting development in coastal waters with a view to simplifying the regulatory system (in England and Wales) and protecting the marine environment. The findings of this review are likely to refer to marine spatial planning and are due to be published in the near future.
‘People, Places, Futures - The Wales Spatial Plan’ was published as a consultation document by the Welsh Assembly Government in 2003. While this is limited to the land area of Wales, there is interest in some quarters for it to be extended to include the territorial waters off the coast of Wales. In Scotland, a seminar to discuss the potential of extending local authority jurisdiction offshore and the issue of marine spatial planning was held in 2002. There was support for the extension of planning control to the marine environment and a need for marine spatial planning as an important tool for resource management at the same time as a recognition that much of the detail remains to be developed. In Northern Ireland, the Regional Development Strategy for Northern Ireland 2025, which incorporates the Northern Ireland Spatial Development Strategy, could also cover this issue.
The Government’s pilot study on a marine nature conservation framework for the Irish Sea has also pointed to the potential value of marine spatial planning. It was suggested that the pilot be extended to explore this and the mechanisms for terrestrial and marine planning in a sea area that borders five
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different land-use planning regimes. Partnerships of key bodies such as coastal forums, could also have a role by facilitating stakeholder participation in any future system of marine spatial planning.
Communicating ICZM
Many aspects of communication were raised during the Stocktake. These ranged from the need to clearly articulate what ICZM means to suggesting possible administrative changes to improve communication. Across the different workshops there was broad agreement that ICZM needed to be “championed” by central and devolved governments. In general, there was support for the establishment of a lead, co-ordinating body to promote ICZM and ensure all parties to contribute to its implementation.
The case for ICZM has still to be made clearly to the private and commercial sectors. Engaging business continues to remain a challenge, not least because it is difficult to demonstrate an immediate economic return. It was generally agreed that, to improve the situation, ICZM needed to be incentive based. A set of tangible benefits (social/environmental and economic) need to be clearly communicated and doing this effectively required considerable commitment of time and effort.
Dialogue between stakeholders at the local level seemed to be proactive with many good examples. The communication link between local to regional level appeared to be improving, though this varied across the UK. Interaction between these levels and government departments could be assisted by clarification of the roles of individuals and organisations. How ICZM supports other government policies (eg. ecosystem approach), initiatives (eg. marine stewardship), requirements (eg. Water Framework Directive), and developing ideas (eg. marine spatial planning) should be part of this task.
Role of Partnerships/Local Action
There has been considerable interest in setting up coastal forums to promote, develop and deliver ICZM on the ground. The precise role of these forums varies depending on the level at which they operate. For example, at a local level, much of this partnership work is directed at resolving conflicts and preparing local management strategies. At a national level discussions are of a more strategic nature and concerned with policy direction.
A number of studies have examined the benefits and difficulties of partnership working to deliver ICZM. Some of the earliest work was conservation led but support for such partnerships now comes from a much broader group of stakeholders including local authorities (who have both helped to fund and “host” project officers), marine industries (ports, oil companies, sea fisheries committees), and local residents.
The Stocktake has demonstrated considerable support for coastal forums as a way of involving stakeholders, facilitating exchange of information, breaking down sectoral barriers and moving ICZM forward at a local level. Their current ability to deliver action and change is under debate, though reasons being given for this inability include the absence of long-term core funding, as opposed to project funding to support their work and support staff. While there was clearly a variety of existing sources of potential funding, a central “pot” and guidance on what is available was regarded as essential for the long-term survival of these forums.
Exchanging information on funding opportunities and other issues of interest to all coastal forums is an effective way of supporting their work. To a limited extent, this is being provided through networking groups such as CoastNet and the coastal forums that operate at a national level in Scotland and Wales. National partnerships might also be used to help prepare and consult on the national strategies for ICZM that need to be developed by 2006 under the EU Recommendation.
Drivers influencing ICZM in the UK
A number of drivers will influence the future development of ICZM in the UK. These include recent and proposed legislative changes, new policies and programmes such as the commitments made in the UK Marine Stewardship Report. Key future drivers include:
Across the UK
¨ The outcome of the Government’s review of development in coastal and marine waters which is due to be published shortly.
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¨ The outcome of the Government’s Review of Marine Nature Conservation and the findings from the accompanying Irish Sea Pilot Study.
¨ The development of the ecosystem approach to management and planning of activities at the coast as set out in the Marine Stewardship Report.
¨ Progress on European and international agreements such as the EU marine strategy, the OSPAR Convention, and the Convention of Biological Diversity.
¨ Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive which offers opportunities to employ the communication networks established by coastal forums when consulting on draft river basin management plans.
¨ Programme of offshore renewable development and the implementation of the Directive of Strategic Environmental Assessment.
In England
¨ Progress on the various initiatives in the Government’s Marine Stewardship Report.
¨ The development of regional spatial strategies and the expected revision of planning policy guidance for the coast.
¨ The study by the Inter-Agency Committee on Marine Science and Technology into integrating marine and coastal data.
¨ The development of second generation shoreline management plans.
¨ The development of English Nature’s Maritime Strategy.
In Scotland
¨ The strategy produced by the Scottish Coastal Forum expected in 2004.
¨ Scottish Sustainable Marine Environment Project.
¨ The development of a Strategic Framework for the Marine Environment by the Scottish Executive.
In Wales
¨ The work of the Wales Coastal and Marine Partnership.
¨ The development and implementation of People, Places, Futures - The Wales Spatial Plan’.
In Northern Ireland
¨ The establishment of a potential Coastal Forum in Northern Ireland (a goal of the Northern Ireland Biodiversity Strategy and identified as a need in the Regional Development Strategy) to take forward a strategy for the management of the Northern Ireland coast.
viii ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
The Next Steps
The current coastal management framework is spread across many organisations and tends to operate on a sectoral basis. This provides clarity to specific user groups but comes at a risk of not achieving the bigger picture and integrating the requirements of all activities at the coast.
The Stocktake findings suggest that even without an integrated national framework, local ICZM initiatives have developed around the UK to address specific issues. This local commitment has been driven by the need to find a practical way of resolving conflicts in the coastal zone. However, this progress has been uncoordinated and many initiatives have been constrained by the lack of long term resources and commitment by some stakeholders.
This need for a more secure funding arrangement to support ICZM, coupled with stronger leadership at all levels (national, regional and local) is a key message of the Stocktake. A second message is that more coastal stakeholders at all levels need to engage in ICZM activity.
This report completes the first stage in the UK’s implementation of the EU Recommendation on ICZM. It provides a stocktake of the current framework for coastal management: the institutions, legislation and stakeholders concerned. It is hoped that it will steer the way forward in the next stage of implementation, the development of national strategies for ICZM.
Acknowledgements
The Atkins Project Team would like to thank the support of the following groups for their valued comments and direction throughout this project : ¨ All stakeholders who spared their time to participate in this project (questionnaires, semi structured case study interviews etc).
¨ Project Steering Group members (Alan Hamilton, Gerry Quarrell, Carolyn Heeps, Ian Melville) under the direction of Sam Rowbury (Defra).
¨ Atkins Stocktake Panel Members for each Home Country (see table below).
¨ All Workshop attendees who contributed to the September 2003 events around the UK.
Atkins Project Manager Jonathan McCue Atkins Technical Leader Dr Sue Gubbay Atkins ICZM Home Country Leaders Heidi Roberts – Atkins (England) Dr Rhoda Ballinger – Cardiff University (Wales) Frank Fortune – BMT Cordah Ltd (Scotland) Dr Anne Marie O’Hagan - National University of Ireland, Galway (Northern Ireland).
English ICZM Stocktake Panel Wales ICZM Stocktake Panel Members Members David Poulter (Afordir) Pat Doody (independent), Emma Plunkett-Dillon (Wales Environment Link / Roger Morris/Mark Duffy (English Council for British Archaeology) Nature) John Everett (CBI Wales) Peter Barham (ABP), Tonya Forsyth (Pembrokeshire Coast Forum), Tim Badman (Dorset Coast Forum), Madeleine Havard (Wales Coast Maritime Partnership) Rob Jarman (National Trust) Robin McInnes (IoW Council) Scotland ICZM Stocktake Panel Northern Ireland Stocktake Panel Members Members Caroline Nolan (Strangford Lough) Martin Cox (Scottish Coastal Forum); Andrew Cooper (University of Ulster) Cathy Tilbrook (Scottish Natural Michael Meharg (EHS Biodiversity Unit) Heritage); Des Stephens (DRD Regional Planning) Jim Simpson (SCF Panel chair); David Erwin (Ulster Wildlife Trust) Colin Wishart (The Highland Council); George Dawson (Arena Network) Darren Kindleysides (RSPB). Heather Moorhead (Chief Exec of NILGA). Scot Mathieson (SEPA).
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Integrated Coastal Zone Management ...... 1 1.2 The Coastal Zone...... 2 1.3 The UK ICZM Stocktake...... 4 2 THE CHARACTER OF THE COAST...... 7 2.1 Environmental Characteristics...... 7 2.2 Social Characteristics...... 15 2.3 Economic Characteristics...... 21 3 INSTITUTIONAL ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE COASTAL ZONE...... 35 3.1 Introduction...... 35 3.2 Summary of the Institutional Framework ...... 36 3.3 Legal Framework for Coastal Management ...... 50 3.4 Overview ...... 61 4 PARTNERSHIPS, PROJECTS AND THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR ...... 63 4.1 Introduction...... 63 4.2 European, Regional and Cross-border partnerships and projects...... 63 4.3 National and Regional Stakeholders ...... 67 4.4 Sub Regional and Local Authority Groups ...... 72 4.5 Research and Education ...... 75 4.6 Local Level (Residents and users / visitors) ...... 77 4.7 Overview ...... 78 5 TOWARDS INTEGRATED ZONE COASTAL MANAGEMENT...... 79 5.1 Taking a broad holistic perspective ...... 80 5.2 A long term perspective...... 81 5.3 Adaptive management during a gradual process ...... 83 5.4 Reflect local specificity ...... 85 5.5 Work with natural processes ...... 86 5.6 Participatory planning...... 88 5.7 Support and involvement of all relevant administrative bodies...... 90 5.8 Use of a combination of instruments ...... 92 5.9 Obstacles to ICZM in the UK...... 92 5.10 The Next Steps...... 96
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1 INTRODUCTION
The coastal land, estuaries, and inshore waters of the UK are rich in natural resources and wildlife. They support a large proportion of the population and a great variety of economic activity including industry, recreation, trade and fisheries. Decision-makers concerned with coastal planning and management have to reconcile and manage potentially competing activities and interests such as1a
¨ facilitating economic development.
¨ meeting the demands of tourism and recreation.
¨ protecting areas of scenic, geological or ecological importance.
¨ protecting vulnerable communities against the effects of erosion and flooding.
Historically, policies and decisions have been made from the viewpoint of individual sectors such as transport, environment, economic regeneration, and waste management, but there are risks and difficulties with this approach. Poor co-ordination of actions on the ground, inconsistent decision- making, unclear overall direction and an adversarial rather than co-operative approach to managing activities at the coast can often arise as a result. The greatest risk however, is not being able to achieve the combined environmental, economic and social potential of sustainable development. In recent decades, many sectoral interests have recognised the need for a more consistent, integrated, and visionary approach to working and to managing their activities at the coast. Ideas of how this might be achieved have been enshrined into an approach known as ‘integrated coastal zone management’, which seeks to integrate policies and actions across sectors, as well as recognising the interlinked nature of the natural environment of coastal land, estuaries and inshore waters. 1.1 Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) (also referred to as coastal zone management or integrated coastal management), is a process which attempts to ‘join up’ the different policies which have an effect on the coast as well as bringing together stakeholders from local to national levels to inform, support, and implement these policies. The need to protect functioning natural ecosystems is at the heart of ICZM but it is not just an environmental policy. ICZM also seeks to improve the economic and social well-being of coastal zones and help them develop their full potential as modern, vibrant communities1b.
1.1.1 Definition of ICZM
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) has been defined as a dynamic, continuous and iterative process designed to promote sustainable management of coastal zones. ICZM seeks, over the long-term to balance the benefits from economic development and human uses of the coastal zone, the benefits from protecting, preserving and restoring coastal zones, the benefits from minimising loss of human life and property, and the benefits from public access to and enjoyment of the coastal zone, all within the limits set by natural dynamics and carrying capacity. 1c
The principles of ICZM, as promoted by the European Commission are to:
¨ Take a broad, holistic perspective (geographic and thematic).
¨ Take a long term perspective.
¨ Provide for adaptive management (responding to new information and conditions).
¨ Provide for local specificity.
¨ Work with natural processes.
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¨ Use participatory planning.
¨ Support and involve all relevant administrative bodies.
¨ Use a combination of instruments.
In the past 30 years, ICZM has become recognised worldwide as fundamental to good management of coastal resources. The earliest significant ICZM efforts were adopted in Europe and USA in the 1970’s out of concern for the quality of coastal and marine environments. These efforts prompted the US Coastal Zone Management Act in 1972, the 1973 Council of Europe Resolution on the protection of coastal areas (including the promotion of integrated coastal planning), and the 1981 European Coastal Charter. The 1980’s saw a number of ICZM programmes take off in developing countries and today ICZM programmes illustrate many policy goals, approaches and techniques.
International bodies such as the World Bank, United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations Development Programme and the Food & Agriculture Organisation recognise the special importance of coastal areas and resources, and are all involved in promoting, developing or implementing ICZM programmes. In Europe, the idea has been the subject of discussion in the European Commission since the early 1990’s following a Recommendation from the Council of Ministers, which identified the need for concerted European action to implement ICZM1d. Later communications raised concerns about the continued degradation of the European coast and funded a “Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management”. This Programme examined 35 coastal management projects around Europe, including seven in the UK, to understand the pressures and problems facing European coasts and to identify the key principles of ICZM1e
The EU Demonstration Programme identified a wide range of environmental and social degradation issues at the coast such as habitat destruction, loss of fish stocks and biodiversity, pollution, economic decline and social deprivation. Interrelated biological, physical and human issues facing European coastal zones were also investigated and the causes were traced to underlying problems, namely:
¨ a lack of vision related to management at the coast based on a very limited understanding of coastal processes and dynamics and with scientific research and data collection isolated from end-users;
¨ inadequate involvement of the stakeholders in formulating and implementing solutions to coastal problems;
¨ inappropriate and uncoordinated sectoral legislation and policy, often working against the long-term interests of sustainable management of coastal zones;
¨ rigid bureaucratic systems and the lack of coordination between relevant administrative bodies limiting local creativity and adaptability; and
¨ local initiatives in sustainable coastal management lacking adequate resources and support from higher administrative levels.
1.2 The Coastal Zone
The geographic area of coastal land, foreshore and adjacent sea that falls within an ICZM programme is generally referred to as “the coastal zone”. In this context it is a management term but it is also a description of the natural environment of the coast - “an area of dynamic transition where land and sea interact and which includes both the landward margin and inshore waters”.1f (Figure 1.1).
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Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of the coastal environment 1f The special nature of the coast lies in the fact that it is the transition zone between land and sea. This interface where land, sea and air meet is a highly dynamic environment where the biological, chemical and physical attributes change continuously and sometimes dramatically, altering the profile of the shoreline. The coast also includes highly productive and biologically diverse ecosystems, features that serve as critical natural defences against storms, flooding and erosion, and ecosystems such wetlands that can act to moderate the impacts of pollution originating from land.
Cliffs, sand dunes, intertidal rocky shores, mudflats and cobble beaches, intersected by estuaries, rias and firths, are part of the coastal environment but it is less clear where the inland and offshore boundaries lie. Sandy beaches can grade into offshore sand banks and gravel beds, river water may be detectable many kilometres from the shoreline and agricultural land adjacent to the coastline may once have been tidal before being taken as land claim.
The pattern of ownership also changes across the coastal zone. Most coastal land is privately owned, while around two-thirds of the intertidal zone and the full extent of UK territorial waters is vested in the Crown and managed by the Crown Estate.
There is no universally accepted definition of how far inland and how far offshore the management boundaries of the coastal zone should lie. There are also different views on whether the boundaries for ICZM programmes should be fixed or flexible, and whether they should be drawn in relation to existing environmental, economic or administrative regions (Figure 1.2). Issues such as these have resulted in different definitions of the ‘coastal zone’ in different countries.
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Figure 1.2 Examples of environmental and administrative boundaries that may be used to delimit the coastal zone.1g
The European Commission states that “it is probably not desirable to have an exclusive legal definition of the coastal zone for general purposes, but preferable to include all areas where land and sea exert a mutual influence. However, specific boundaries do need to be defined at the stage when management is applied to particular places. Those boundaries should be flexible enough to embrace the dynamic nature of the coast. In particular, the boundaries should not subdivide natural areas such as estuaries that ought to be managed as a whole”.
In the UK, the 1992 House of Commons Environment Select Committee into coastal zone protection and planning concluded “that the definition of the coastal zone may vary from area to area and from issue to issue, and that a pragmatic approach must therefore be taken at the appropriate national, regional or local level.” 1h
National coastal planning guidance documents produced for England (PPG20) Wales (TAN (W) 14) and Scotland (NPPG 13 & PAN 53), and PPS20 (under development in Northern Ireland), reinforce this view. Current UK policy is therefore that there should be no nationally agreed boundary but rather that local planning authorities consider and define the most appropriate coastal zone in their area.
In order to support future national strategies on ICZM a broad and flexible approach has been taken on the inclusion of information in this report. Rather than using a precise definition of the coastal zone, the more general guidance in the UK “Best Practice” report has been used1f. This states that the coastal zone includes the adjacent land including both developed and undeveloped areas; estuaries, tidal inlets and the intertidal zone; and the inshore marine zone.
1.3 The UK ICZM Stocktake
The conclusions and recommendations of the EU Demonstration Programme provided the basis for a Communication on ICZM from the Commission to the Council and European Parliament in 2000, and a European Parliament and Council Recommendation concerning ICZM in Europe.
The Recommendation set out five key tasks;
¨ Member States should commit to a common vision for the future of their coastal zones.
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¨ Member States should adopt the principles of ICZM.
¨ Member States should conduct a national stocktaking to analyse which actors, laws and institutions influence the planning and management of their coastal zones.
¨ Based on the stocktaking, Member States should develop a national strategy to implement the principles of ICZM, and
¨ Member States should enter into dialogue with neighbouring countries to establish mechanisms for better coordination of responses to cross-border issues.
The UK is fortunate in already having undertaken a considerable amount of work on these issues. This includes developing ICZM policy through the production of reviews on coastal planning and management frameworks and the preparation of a Good Practice Guide, as well as trials on the practical implementation of ICZM for a number of firths, estuaries and stretches of open coast. The UK Marine Stewardship Report1i has helped to achieve the first two tasks by supporting ICZM and setting out the Government’s strategic aim of balancing competing pressures by promoting the sustainable management of coastal areas based on both conservation value and the different human activities that take place there. The Marine Stewardship Report also makes it clear that the UK supports the principles of ICZM as set out in the EU Recommendation and that these principles are already part of the UK’s approach to coastal policy.
This project fulfils the third task by taking stock of the current framework for management of the coastal zone in the UK (i.e: the different legislation, institutions and stakeholders involved and how they interact) and identifying issues of common concern in terms of the scale of integration within this framework. This, the final report of the project, is a contribution to the developing ICZM programme for the UK and the national strategies for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Many organisations with sectoral interests in the coast have also been developing their policy and practice on ICZM. These and other sources of information, have been reviewed, supplemented and analysed to prepare this report. The methodology of the project has also included wide consultation through questionnaires, interviews and workshops.
The following chapters describe the character of the UK coast and the current state of its planning and management. The information is presented for the UK as a whole but with site-specific information presented in boxes as short case studies. Maps, tables and figures have also been included where these can provide a summary of the current situation.
References
1a) EC - Commission proposal for a European Parliament and Council Recommendation concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe (COM/2000/545), adopted 8 September, 2000
1b) European Commission (2001) EU Focus on Coastal Zones. Turning the tide for Europe’s coastal zones. Directorate-General Environment, Nuclear, Safety and Civil Protection.
1c) European Commission (1999) “Towards a European Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Strategy. General Principles and Policy Options. A reflection paper. Directorates-General Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection; Fisheries; Regional Policies and Cohesion.
1d) Council Recommendation 92/C/59/01 on the future of Community policy concerning the European coastal zone
1e) EC (1997) Better Management of Coastal Resources. A European programme for integrated coastal zone management. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Luxembourg.
1f) Department of the Environment (1996) Coastal Zone Management. Towards Best Practice. A report prepared by Nicholas Pearson Associates for the Department of the Environment.
1g) Gubbay, S. (1991) “A definition of the coastal zone for UK coastal zone management programmes”. Discussion paper CZM/1. Marine Conservation Society
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1h) HMSO (1992) Coastal Zone Protection & Planning. House of Commons Environment Select Committee Report.
1i) Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (2002) Safeguarding Our Seas. A strategy for the conservation and sustainable development of our marine environment.
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2 THE CHARACTER OF THE COAST
The UK coastline, more than 19,000km long, is an environment of considerable contrast, dynamism, and inspiration. This chapter describes the environmental, social and economic character of the UK coast (Table 2.1).
Geographical Area Length km England 5,496 Scotland (mainland) 6,482 Wales 1,562 Northern Ireland 650 Scottish Island Grouping: Orkney Islands 881 Shetland Islands 1,398 Outer Hebrides 2,103 Inner Hebrides 916
TOTAL 19,488 Table 2.1 Length of the UK of the coastline (measured from 1:50.000 Ordnance Survey maps).2.1a
2.1 Environmental Characteristics
The richness of the UK coastline is well known. Forming the interface of land and sea, it is a dynamic place where tides, currents, and the movement of land relative to sea level, bring about change on timescales of seconds to millennia. These and other factors described below, create the environmental character of the coast and make it distinctly different from the adjacent land and sea.
¨ British estuaries form approximately 28% of the total estuarine habitat of the North Sea shores and the Atlantic seaboard of western Europe, the largest single national area of estuaries in Europe2.1 b.
¨ The intertidal zone of Great Britain covers an estimated 370,157 ha. 2.1c
¨ An estimated 40,000 species comprise the native marine fauna and flora of the British Isles.2.1c
2.1.1 The Physical Environment
2.1.1.1 Geology
In terms of physical characteristics, the UK coastline is renowned for its variety of landforms. This is due to its complex geological history, which has resulted in rocks being formed, uplifted, compressed, folded and faulted before being acted upon by processes such as glaciation and weathering 2.1d.
Metamorphic and igneous rocks predominate on the northern and western coasts of Scotland, outcropping as granite and basalt cliffs/islands whereas the softer sedimentary rocks on the east and south coasts of England are visible as features such as chalk cliffs and limestone reefs.
2.1.1.2 Bathymetry
Much of the seabed immediately adjacent to the UK coast is relatively shallow and gently shelving with large parts of the eastern Irish Sea and the central and southern North Sea less than 50m deep. The edge of the continental shelf edge (at a depth of 200m) is closest to the coast off north west Scotland and, a few kilometres beyond this, the sea is more than 1,000m deep.
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2.1.1.3 Geomorphology
The underlying geology coupled with the energy of the sea as it reaches the shore through waves, tides and currents, has shaped the physical environment of the UK coastline. There are high-energy coasts characterised by cliffs and offshore islands (more commonly found on the Atlantic western shores of the UK) low-energy coasts with extensive beach and dune systems and sheltered inlets such as estuaries, loughs, firths and rias. This has resulted in a physical environment of considerable contrast; the low-lying coastal land along much of the east and south coasts of England compared to the large proportion (around 50%) of the cliffed coastline of Wales; the intricate coastline of the west coast of Scotland with a mix of high sea cliffs, to broad areas of sediment: areas of extremely exposed open coast to extremely sheltered sealochs, firths and estuaries.
The coastal landscape of Northern Ireland
The north and north-east coasts of Northern Ireland are characterised by steep rock cliffs and headlands separated by smaller sandy embayments. The eastern and south-eastern coasts have a lower relief and are fronted mainly by glacial sediments which give rise to sandy and muddy beaches. There are major dune systems at Magillian on the north coast and Murlough on the County Down coast and the coastal inlet of Lough Foyle, each with their own distinctive character.
Similar influences shape the underwater landscape. An overall picture of the distribution of bottom deposits and large seabed features of the continental shelf around the UK reveals that much of the seabed is comprised of sediment from soft mud to sands and gravels, with glacial deposits reworked by wave or tidal action and inputs from rivers2.1e. At a more detailed level it can be seen that some of these areas of soft sediment are interrupted by rocky outcrops that form pinnacles, reefs, underwater cliffs and rock platforms 2.1f. In south-west Britain rocky areas extend offshore for some distance whereas underwater rock exposures are very rare off the East Anglian coast2.1e. The variety of the underwater landscape of the UK is particularly well illustrated around Scotland.
The underwater landscape of Scotland
Scotland’s coastal waters are generally less than 200m deep with North Sea waters mostly shallower (50-100m) than those off the west coast. The results of glaciation can be seen at the coast, which has deep fjordic basins such as Loch Sween and shallower fjards, such as Loch Maddy in North Uist. The latter are formed in areas of lowland glaciation and create a more irregular coastline with numerous islands, and narrows. Along much of the east coast of Scotland there is a relatively narrow band of sublittoral rock which fringes extensive areas of soft sediment. This is well illustrated at St. Abbs on the Berwickshire coast where cliffs mark the shoreline and where rocky reefs grade into areas of gravel, and sand further offshore. On the west coast there are extensive rock platforms to the west of the Monach Isles in the Outer Hebrides, rocky channels between the islands and occasional dramatic pinnacles of rock.
Improved knowledge and interpretation of UK geology and geomorphology has revealed a rich supply of natural resources such as oil, gas and marine aggregate in the coastal environment (see Section 2.3). While many of the oil and gas reserves lie in offshore waters there are areas where the extraction takes place on shore e.g. Wytch Farm on the Dorset coast, or from platforms close to the shore e.g. the Beatrice field in the outer Moray Firth. Sand and gravel, which is the basis of the marine aggregate industry has mostly been taken from relatively shallow deposits (less than 40m) With the material sourced from ancient river systems or relict coastal landforms that were created when sea level was lower but which have since become submerged.
2.1.2 Natural Hydrodynamic Forces
Currents, tides, wave action, wind, and storm surges act on the coast and, together with the resulting coastal processes such as sediment transport, they shape, maintain and change the coastal environment.
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The tidal range around the UK is at its greatest in the Severn Estuary, which, at more than 12m on an average spring tide, has the second largest tidal range in the world. This contrasts with south-east Scotland where the range can be less than 1mZ resulting in a much narrower intertidal zone. Tidal movement of water also affects offshore areas. Off the Northern Ireland coast, for example, tidal currents of more than 4 knots have been recorded off Ballycastle and around Rathlin Island, where the North Channel reaches its narrowest point. Off the headlands north of Belfast Lough and between the Ards Peninsula and the Copeland Islands, the tidal streams during spring tides can be as much as 5-6 knots.2.1g
Sediment is moved by these forces along the coast as well as onshore and offshore. In some situations this has created offshore sand banks such as those off Great Yarmouth while in other cases shore parallel barrier or spits are formed. The quantity of material that can be moved in this way can be very large. Along the Suffolk coast, for example, the annual drift of shingle along the coast has been calculated at between 20,000-30,000m3/year. 2.1h
Shoreline Evolution in Scotland
The prevalence of durable rock outcropping around much of Scotland means that potential for significant erosion is limited to beach, soft sediment and saltmarsh environments.2.1i
A study of 647 sandy Scottish beaches over 100m long estimated that 40% were eroding, 22% were stable, 11% were advancing, 18% showed some advance and retreat, and 9% were protected or backed by stable features (e.g. rocks).2.1j
For the purposes of coastal defence management, a number of ‘coastal sediment cells’ have been identified around the UK. These are areas where the amount of sediment is more or less stable and self-contained and can be considered the coastal equivalent of river drainage basins. More recent work has identified ‘coastal behaviour systems’ in England and Wales. These are areas that have similar characteristics or strong interactions, which provide either some commonality or inter- dependence in terms of behaviour and future evolution of the coast2.1h. Human intervention in these processes, for example through the building of coast protection works, jetties, breakwaters and other structures, has played a part in shaping the physical geography of the coast. Hard sea defences protect many coastal developments from flooding and erosion, and many seaside towns are fronted by Victorian seawalls and promenades.
2.1.2.1 Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
Over longer time scales, sea-level rise, combined with the readjustment of the land following the last ice age, is shaping the coast. Much of southern Britain is sinking while northern Britain has or is rising relative to the sea.2.1k A rise in relative sea level has been recorded around the UK during the 20th century and, when considered together with the latest climate change scenarios it has been suggested that by the 2080s, sea level may be between 2cm below and 58cm above the current level in western Scotland, and between 26 - 86 cm above the current level in south-east England.2.1l When taken together with predicted increases in storminess and storm surges, extreme sea levels will be experienced more frequently in many coastal locations in the future with low lying areas particularly vulnerable to flooding under these circumstances. Another result of global warming can be seen in the analysis of local and global sea-surface temperatures. These data point to an increase of about 0.5ºC in UK waters over the last 70-100 years. 2.1l
A project to assess the impacts of rapid climate change (including changes in sea temperature) on marine biodiversity (MarClim) has recorded signs of change in some inter-tidal species that reach their geographical limits in Britain and Ireland. Southern species of barnacle and limpet are now much more common than their northern counterparts on many shores, for example, with one species extending its range by about 100km since the 1950s. 2.1c
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Figure 2.1 Changes in annual relative sea level recorded by tide gauges at 5 locations around the UK (Aberdeen, North Shields, Sheerness, Newlyn, 2.1l
The hydrodynamics of the British Isles is strongly influenced by residual flow of the North Atlantic Drift. This passes north-east along the western coasts of Scotland and Ireland and, to the north of Scotland; it divides with elements continuing north eastwards and southwards into the North Sea 2.1e. Surface water flow through the Irish Sea is weakly northward from St. George’s Channel with water typically taking a year to travel the full distance. There is also a seasonal anticlockwise gyre in the Irish Sea, west of the Isle of Man 2.1m. On a more local level, the effects of natural forces can be seen in whirlpools, tidal races, and current swept narrows.
Dramatic natural forces
The Gulf of Corryvreckan is an area of narrows between the islands of Scarba and Jura off the west coast of Scotland. The area is exposed to very extreme currents and a whirlpool forms because of a rock pinnacle in the channel, which rises from 200m to 27m with a peak approximately 20m in diameter. Standing waves form on the surface and the top of the pinnacle is broken by small gullies and rock mills with a dense turf of hydroids and barnacles2.1n.
Portland Bill on the south coast of England can have some dramatic tidal water movement. The double tide, overfalls, standing waves and currents that can exceed 7 knots create an area of confused water known as the Portland Race. The effects can be seen at depths of 30m where the gravel seabed has been worked into megaripples more than 1m high
The Menai Strait is a narrow channel more than 20km long, which separates the island of Anglesey (Ynys Mon) from North Wales. Currents of over 8knots have been recorded in its narrowest part. The result is a gradation of seabed substrates from exposed bedrock where the current is most severe to areas of mobile shell gravel and cobble. The benthic communities change from those dominated by barnacles to massive colonies of sponges and then to brittlestar beds.2.1o
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2.1.3 The Aquatic Environment
Major rivers like the Thames, Humber, Severn, Dee, Mersey, Forth and Solway carry huge volumes of freshwater to the coast. This water becomes brackish where it mixes with the sea and, further offshore, as the influence of run-off from the land and river water reduces, conditions become fully marine. The coastline is therefore not only the interface between terrestrial and marine environments but also a zone of transition, a migration route for species that travel between fresh water and the sea, and a pathway along which waterborne materials and sediments are carried from inland areas to the open ocean.
The chemical, physical and biological characteristics of the aquatic environment at the coast are far from uniform. Differences in salinity and sediment volumes are most obvious in coastal inlets and river mouths such as firths, sealochs and estuaries and the effects, when considered along with the degree of shelter from wave action, can be seen as zonal boundaries of colonisation by aquatic species within these inlets.
Zone 1 – Oceanic – marine, sandy substratum Marine – polyhaline,
Zone 2 – marine polyhaline mixed substrata.
Zone 3 - Marine – mesohaline, rocky substrata.
Zone 4 - Polyhaline – mesohaline, muddy substrata.
Figure 2.2 The salinity gradient and 4 main zones in Milford Haven 2.1p
Further from the coast, changes in salinity are more gradual and are an indication of the influence of different water masses. Water of Atlantic Ocean origin in the English Channel during the winter months, for example, results in the salinity exceeding 35‰ compared to the eastern Irish Sea where the salinity can be as low as 31-32‰ because there is very little oceanic water influence in this region2.1e.
Sea temperature is another variable. This can range from around 5°C in the winter in the inner reaches of the Moray Firth and the eastern waters of the Irish Sea, to more than 17°C in the outer Thames and parts of English Channel in the summer.2.1e
The boundaries between water bodies with different characteristics are known as ‘fronts’. In estuaries, fronts usually mark the boundary between water masses of different salinity, whereas shelf-sea fronts mark the boundary between well-mixed water and stratified waters where the upper layers of the sea are warmed but remain isolated from the colder bottom waters. The Islay front, the western Irish sea front, and the Isles of Scilly front are examples of shelf-sea fronts that abut the coast. An important aspect of these features is that they indicate areas of enhanced productivity as well as acting as potential barriers to the dispersal of planktonic larvae 2.1n.
The quality of estuary and coastal waters around the UK is classified using a range of physical, chemical, biological, and aesthetic criteria. Data collected in the last two decades shows a generally
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high standard in coastal waters and a steady improvement in the estuaries such as the Tyne, parts of which were grossly polluted in the early 1970’s2.1r.
Water quality is affected by point source and diffuse pollution. Point sources, such as industrial discharges are easier to regulate and require a consent whereas more diffuse inputs such as litter being carried down water courses to the coast, or run-off from agricultural land is both harder to measure and control. In the latter case any localised nutrient enrichment can lead to excessive growth of green algae which result in de-oxygenation of sediments in intertidal areas. Marine blooms of planktonic algae can also occur from elevated nutrient loads offshore and cause a nuisance by depositing foams on beaches, contaminating shellfisheries or discolouring the water (red tides). The frequency of such blooms has increased in Welsh waters and parts of England in recent decades2.1r .
There has been growing concern about the presence of chemical substances in the aquatic environment that interfere with the hormone systems of animals. These chemicals, known as endocrine disruptors, occur naturally and in synthetic substances. The earliest example of the effects was seen on the rocky shore dog whelk, Nucella lapillus and was attributed to the antifouling agent tributyltin. Dog whelk populations declined in areas such as the Solent which were used frequently by large ships. The paint can no longer be used on vessels more than 25m and there has been some recovery of dogwhelk populations2.1r
Pollution incidents also affect the quality of the aquatic environment and included current and past industrial discharges into coastal waters. These can be as varied as the cooling water discharges from power stations to radioactivity in the form of Caesium-137. Other contaminants include heavy metals such as copper, zinc and mercury, which have shown steady decreases since the 1970s2.1r.
Figure 2.3 Contaminate loads to coastal waters of England and Wales. 2.1r
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2.1.4 Wildlife and Habitats
The coastal environment of the UK supports a wealth of wildlife and habitats. This includes coastal habitats such as hard rock cliff ledges, soft-rock cliffs and ungrazed saltmarshes that have hardly been altered by human activity and others, such as sand dunes, and the land around estuaries that have been considerably altered. A similar pattern can be seen in the marine environment. Since 1900 the average fish size in the England Channel has declined by more than 15% as most of the large and old fish have been removed from the natural population, but there are also areas where the hand of man is less obvious and where the location of the British Isles, influenced by both warm and cold waters, enables a richness of marine life to thrive.
2.1.4.1 Coastal biodiversity
Cliffs, shingle beaches, sand dunes and salt marshes reveal the considerable contrasts in coastal habitats around the UK and support a wealth of biodiversity. On hard rock cliffs, plants tolerant of salt spray such as rock sea-lavender and thrift, colonise ledges and clefts in the rock where soil has accumulated. Soft cliffs with their gentler slopes are more easily colonised by vegetation and areas of seepage where water trickles down provide a range of conditions for plants such as shore dock and animals such as solitary bees, wasps and beetles. Shingle beaches are widely distributed around the coast with the main concentrations of vegetated shingle in East Anglia and on the English Channel coast, north-east England and in north-east and south-west Scotland. Large shingle features are rare with the largest a 1,600ha site at Dungeness where distinct vegetation transitions can be seen on the ridges and hollows.
Sand dunes form in relatively exposed locations and the largest dune systems in the UK are formed where large quantities of sand are driven some distance inland, over a low-lying hinterland (hindshore dunes). Zones of vegetation colonise the dunes depending on the stability of the sand and local hydrological conditions. They include marram grass in the least stable areas, dune heaths dominated by heather on more stable areas where the dunes have become acidified by leaching, and dune slack vegetation in wet depressions, often characterised by creeping willow and a number of mosses. Machair is a distinctive sand dune formation supporting a mix of wet and dry grassland communities. Around 70% (17,500ha) of the global extent of this habitat occurs on the north and west coasts of Scotland.
Most of the saltmarsh habitat in the UK occurs around estuaries. The lowest levels, where immersion is occasional, may be colonised by salt-tolerate species such as the sea-blight and perennial cord- grass which help the deposition of further sediment eventually raising the level of the marsh. The upper marsh can support shrubby species such as sea-purslane and sea wormwood. On traditionally grazed sites, saltmarsh vegetation is shorter and dominated by grasses.
Saline lagoons, with their distinctive assemblage of species, have a restricted distribution in Europe and are relatively uncommon in the UK. Most cover just a few hectares but exceptions are Loch of Stenness in Orkney, which covers more than 860ha and is the largest lagoon in the UK, and the Fleet lagoon in Dorset, which is 13km long, covers an area of 480ha. Many of these habitats are found in estuaries whose total area in Britain is around 530,000ha of which over 300,000ha is intertidal. This represents one quarter of the estuarine area of the Atlantic coast for north-west Europe (excluding Scandinavia)2.1s.
Mudflats are created when sediment is deposited in intertidal areas, either from rivers or the sea. The sediment is mostly silts and clays with a high organic content. Mudflats contain an abundance of invertebrate life and are therefore highly productive although generally with a low diversity of species. These rich invertebrate communities provide abundant food for fish at high tide, and for waders and waterfowl at low tide. In contrast sandy beaches are often highly mobile and in such conditions there may be little infauna, especial toward the top of the shore where the sand dries out quickly once the tide recedes. A mixture of muddy-sand contains probably the most varied marine sediment communities.
Rocky shores fringe much of the mainland and many hundreds of islands that are common off the coasts of north and west Scotland and the large island groups of Shetland, Orkney and the Western Isles. The rock type and exposure to wave action are major influences on which species colonise and thrive in these areas from boring molluscs in the soft, more easily eroded chalk, to different variety species of brown seaweeds depending on the exposure of the shore. Rock pools, overhands and crevices provide a variety of microhabitats that act as a refuge for fish such as blennies and gobies and crustaceans when the tide is out.
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2.1.4.2 Marine biodiversity
Sedimentary and rocky shores with their characteristic fauna and flora fringe the shallow sub-littoral zone where reefs and expansive sandy plains support some of the estimated 40,000 species that make up the native marine fauna and flora of the British Isles2.1c. Seagrass beds are particularly productive areas that occur on soft sediments and act as nursery grounds for fish and other marine wildlife as well as stabilising nearshore sediments. Large seagrass beds are found around the Isles of Scilly, in the Moray Firth and the Cromarty Firth. In Northern Ireland, significant areas of seagrass can be found in Strangford Lough with lesser abundant areas found at Dundrum Bay and Lough Foyle. Other biogenic habitats are created by mussels (both the blue mussel and Horse Mussel) and ‘maerl’, a calcified red seaweed.
In the rocky sub-littoral zone, kelp forests are havens for fish and sedentary wildlife but there are also more ephemeral communities. Off the coastline of Wales, narrow ridges of boulders and stones, known as ‘sarns’ project out into Cardigan Bay. Strong currents flow over these features and so only species resistant to scour and sand cover or that are fast growing species colonise the reefs during calmer summer conditions and may then be washed away during winter storms.
Figure 2.4 Irish Sea pilot map of ecological units 2.1t
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The warming influence of the North Atlantic Drift is a major fact in the distribution of species on the western coasts of the British Isles and other circulation patterns, such as the gyre in the Irish Sea may explain how larvae of ‘southern marine organisms, as well as contaminants from the seas of the west coast of England reach the Co. Down coast in Northern Ireland. Other species, such as the basking shark, are attracted by seasonal conditions, feeding on plankton-rich waters off south west Britain and western Scotland during the summer months.
2.1.4.3 Cetaceans
The shallow seas around the UK are also important for cetaceans. The harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena is the commonest species and is widely distributed and most abundant in the northern seas, particularly around Shetland and Orkney. The minke whale is the only baleen whale commonly seen in British waters and is most abundant off west and north Scotland but widely distributed, in small numbers, along Atlantic coasts and the northern North Sea as far south as Yorkshire. Bottlenose dolphins have a more coastal distribution and resident populations have been identified in the Moray Firth and Cardigan Bay. Smaller semi-resident groups are present elsewhere including the south of Barra in the Outer Hebrides 2.1n.
2.1.4.4 Seabirds
The coasts, cliffs and islands support huge numbers of seabirds. Every year over five million pairs of gannets, gulls, and guillemots, puffins and petrels, shearwaters, skuas and shags, fulmars, kittiwakes, cormorants and terns return to the shores of the UK to breed. Many of our estuaries, firths, bays and sealochs support internationally recognised concentrations of seaduck, geese and shorebirds over winter.
The UK supports such a large number of seabirds that the habitats and bird populations are deemed to be globally important. Particularly important are species where a large proportion of the world population breeds in the UK. These include more than half of the world's great skuas and gannets. 2.1v
Although often described separately, the habitats and species of the coastal and marine environment are interlinked and interdependent, functioning as ecosystems rather than isolated units of biodiversity, where coastal and marine wildlife thrive.
Coastal and marine ecosystems
The islands of St. Kilda support one of the most important Atlantic seabird colonies including the world’s largest colony of gannets. The islands have the highest sea cliffs in Europe and these continue vertically below sea level to depths of over 50m and are occasionally cut into forming underwater caves, tunnels and archways. The clarity of the Atlantic sea water is high and dense kelp forests may occur as deep as 35m. The sublittoral fringe communities which, elsewhere, are found only at the low-water mark, may here reach to 12 m. Circa-littoral rock is dominated by diverse communities of anemones, sponges and soft corals, with different species of sponge, hydroid and bryzoan occurring in the surge gullies and caves.2.1c
The Isles of Scilly, at the south-western tip of Britain are the last UK outpost before the open ocean of the Atlantic. These low-lying outcrops of granite are surrounded by a wealth of marine wildlife. Seabirds such as less black-backed gulls, roseate terns and razorbills are indicators of the richness of marine life below the surface. The shallow channels between the islands and rocky outcrops are swept by strong tides and currents mixing different water masses creating a region of high plankton productivity. Large shoals of mackerel can be found in the winter months feeding in these productive waters. Auks, storm petrels and terns also congregate to feed on the plankton and fish. The seagrass beds around the Isle of Scilly are some of the best developed in the British Isles and the kelp forests support and abundance of marine wildlife.2.1b
2.2 Social Characteristics
The coastal environment influences and is influenced by society. Many coastal communities in the UK have had a long reliance on coastal resources, and have developed important historic and cultural links with the maritime environment. Living at the coast also has an influence on employment and wealth and, although these factors differ from area to area, some coastal communities still have a clear and close dependence on their surrounding environment. This is something that no longer exists in many other inland parts of the UK.
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16.9 million people, about a third of the UK population, live within 10km of the coast. Today around 1.7 million residencies, 130,000 commercial properties and 1.3 million hectares of agricultural land in England are located in areas vulnerable to fluvial, tidal and coastal flooding as well as coastal erosion. 2.2a
2.2.1 Wealth and Employment
The coastal regions of the UK can display considerable social contrast in terms of wealth and employment. The capital cities of London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, all established in locations with easy access to the sea and on maritime trade routes, are major economic centres. The average weekly earnings of residents in Belfast are the highest in Northern Ireland and London is consistently ranked ‘top city for business’ in Europe and produces almost 20% of the nation’s wealth.2.2b
Wealth linked to coastal activities
A 1998 study estimated that the Port of London generated around 37,000 jobs and contributed £2.7 billion gross value added. Of this, £1.9 billion was attributed to port operators and processors, £800 million to associated marine services, agents and suppliers and £50 million to ship and boat related services.2.2c
Fishing communities have made important contributions to the growth and prosperity of many of our villages, towns and cities. Bristol, for example, was a significant commercial centre for the import and export of North Atlantic cod in the 17th century, and many North Sea towns were the hub of the herring fishery in the 19th and early 20th centuries. While these are no longer linked to fishing, in other cities a coastal location has remained fundamental to the jobs and wealth of the region. Portsmouth, Southampton and Plymouth along the south coast of England are examples where the naval dockyards, ports, fishing, and recreational activities (such as sailing), create jobs associated with the sea. In Shetland the offshore oil industry and fisheries are major sources of employment and the population has a higher proportion of professionals (18.3%) compared to other coastal areas of Scotland as a whole, and a comparatively high household income with 27.6% having an income of more than £30,000 compared to 19.9% in other coastal areas of Scotland and 24.6% in the UK2.2d.
This contrasts with other coastal areas, both urban and rural, that have above average levels of unemployment. In 2002, the top twenty employment deprived areas included the coastal wards of Liverpool, Wirral, Bristol, Newcastle upon Tyne, Sefton and the Kingston upon Hull2.2e.
Assets located near the coast and estuaries are increasingly at risk owing to a rise in global mean sea level2.2a. People with low incomes are believed to be the most vulnerable group at risk from coastal flooding as they are less likely to take out home insurance.2.2a
Relative wealth of coastal communities in Scotland
A significantly higher proportion of the households in Scotland’s coastal areas have an income of less than £10,000 per annum. Scotland’s coastal areas have a lower proportion of professional/managerial led households than the UK as a whole (19.5% compared to 22.4%)2.2d.
The population structure of coastal communities shows some distinct patterns with concentrated areas where less than 5% of the population are older than 65 in parts of western Scotland compared to more than 33% in coastal towns along the south coast of England 2.2f.
2.2.2 Urban Communities
The coast has long been a natural focus for settlement. Coastal inlets, which provide natural harbours and sheltered access to the sea, are particularly important and it has been calculated that 11.5million people live within one kilometre of an estuary in Great Britain2.2g.
1
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Figure 2.5 Population by census enumeration district in the 10km coastal zone, 2.2h
The average population density for coasts of the British Isles is 241 people per square kilometre and rising. This is mainly due to migration from inland urban areas to rural coastal towns and villages where people traditionally head for sea views in the countryside when they retire. This trend is forecast to increase as people live longer and enjoy a greater affluence. This is supported by data from the Office for National Statistics which predicts that the proportion of the population of England over 65 years of age will grow from 15.6% in 2000 to 19.2% by 2021 2.2i.
The capital cities of London, Edinburgh & Cardiff and Belfast have grown into major urban centres and it is clear that this will continue to be the case. In contrast to this, the population of some coastal cities in the UK has decreased in recent years due to the decline in various industries, including some associated with the coast. The decline of the shipbuilding industry on Tyneside in the north east of England) is an example of this.
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Trends in coastal population
Much of the Welsh population is coastal with the main centres along the south coast. Swansea, Cardiff and Newport have 7.7%, 10.5% and 4.7% of the total population respectively.
The highest density of population in Northern Ireland (more than 300 per square kilometre) is on the coast in the Belfast Metropolitan Area and its hinterland. The next largest urban conurbation, also on the coast is Londonderry with a population of 90,000 2.2j.
The population of Scottish coastal areas has been estimated as 1,527,310 or just under 30% of the total population of Scotland. Most of Scotland’s major towns and cities are also on the coast 2.2d. Despite many similarities with rural coastal areas, urban coastal areas in Scotland tend to have younger populations, significant percentages of population employed in professional activities and high levels of deprivation2.2d.
50% of the 7.2million population of north-west England live in coastal settlements.
In more recent times, waterfront developments have become an important component of urban renewal in some coastal communities. The Llanelli Coastal Millennium Park is an example where 22km of industrial coastline on the northern shore of the Lough or estuary has been developed into a leisure park with golf course, coastal footpaths and cycle-ways. A city centre example of waterfront development can be seen at Middlehaven in Middlesborough. The dock was a catalyst for the growth of the surrounding Teesside community and its economy in the 19th century but closed in 1980. Following the recent completion of a multi-million reclamation and restoration programme, a site covering over 15 hectares has been prepared for commercial and residential development. The dredging and treatment of over 190,000 cubic metres of silt has created a significantly deeper waterfront to allow sports such as sailing, canoeing and windsurfing. A second phase aims to incorporate 1,700 new homes and up to 50,000m2 of commercial and community accommodation with associated transportation link improvements 2.2k
These and other coastal tourism initiatives are seen as a means to boost wealth and employment in coastal communities and resorts around the UK.
2.2.3 Rural Communities Large stretches of the coast are rural in nature with small communities defining the character of the coast 2.2l. A pilot study in Scotland, aimed at identifying coastal planning zones based on their state of development looked at a 190km stretch of the coast of north-east coast of Scotland, from Montrose to Cullen (excluding Aberdeen), classified 85% of the area as undeveloped and 15% as developed2.2m.
Rural Development in Northern Ireland On the Northern Ireland coast there has been a noticeable shift in house building from the urban fringes of Belfast which were the subject of 50% of rural planning applications in 1987 to the open countryside including the coast, where an estimated 25,000 house were built between 1983 and 1993. Linked to the rural environment and the coastal zone is Northern Ireland’s Objective 1 status as a region for EU assistance. Objective 1 status promotes the structural adjustment of regions within the EU that are considered to be in need of development and Northern Ireland’s transport infrastructure has benefited greatly from these funds over the years.
There are some important current issues arising from rural communities around the coast.
2.2.3.1 Social Deprivation Traditional employment of rural villages on the coast has been in agriculture, and fishing. Saltmarshes have been enclosed and drained for use as grazing marsh since the Middle Ages for example. Since the 1940s most grazing marshes have been improved for arable crops so that many saltmarshes are now directly next to arable farmland. The decline of these industries in the UK has meant that many people, particularly the young are moving away to larger towns and cities. The result has been that rural coastal communities have suffered economic decline, with employment mainly small fishing vessels, some agriculture, tourism and seasonal jobs. There are also many who still live in coastal villages but travel inland to their place of work. For example, many coastal villages in the county of Norfolk have for many years survived as a low wage economy. Seasonal employment holds wage levels down and the flight to the city in the 60s and 70s left local economies
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depressed with low demand for village housing. People seeking retirement homes and holiday properties have now mopped up the surplus and demand outstrips supply.
Many coastal areas are isolated, have low incomes and limited opportunities. Significant rural deprivation exists in rural coastal communities of the South East. Parts of the Isle of Wight, East Sussex and Kent constitute specially designated Rural Development Areas in recognition of the need to counter economic decline, and average earnings on the Isle of Wight and in East Sussex are the third and seventh lowest in England respectively 2.2n. Service provision is poor and, in places, the level of dependence on the agricultural industry is more than twice the national average.
Although the South East is the second most prosperous region in the UK, there are pockets of severe deprivation. In particular, the coastal fringes of the region are performing significantly below regional and national average levels 2.2n.
Many coastal resorts (such as Skegness and Mablethorpe in Lincolnshire) have for many years enjoyed a reputation as major tourist destinations providing many tourist attractions and facilities. However, despite the significant benefits generated by the tourist industry these coastal areas suffer significant levels of deprivation and acute social needs. Eight out of ten most deprived wards in Lincolnshire, for example, are in or around these two resorts.
2.2.3.2 Long Term Unemployment Many coastal areas have a significantly lower proportion of those persons out of work for a year or over, than the regional or national average.
Long Term Unemployment (% Area) Lincolnshire (county) 13% UK (national) 20% East Midlands (regional) 18% Scarborough (coastal resort town) 2% No. of people claiming unemployment benefit out of work for 1yr+ per 1000 of 16-59 populations 2.2 o
2.2.3.3 Homelessness in rural coastal areas Homelessness continues to be one of the key social problems for coastal resorts in the UK. East Lindsey District Council (eastern England) has the highest incidence of homelessness of any authority in the Lincolnshire area, with 1046 applications in 2002-3 2.2p.
Many coastal resorts around the UK have a tremendous draw for the homeless in rural areas. The perceived attractiveness of living by the sea and accessibility attract many who are homeless from non coastal areas. Young people seeking seasonal employment in the tourist industry are often accommodated in short term lets, tied to their employment, or in restricted occupancy holiday caravans. This means frequently they are faced with homelessness and unemployment out of the holiday season and those in winter lets also face eviction at the start of the holiday season, as landlords look for more lucrative holiday lets 2.2p.
2.2.3.4 Coastal Demographic Profiles
The age structure of rural districts differs from the average for England with coastal districts having a much higher proportion of elderly people (men aged 65 and over, women aged 60 and over).
RDA % under 16 % elderly East Sussex 17.6 27.6 RDA Isle of Wight 17.8 27.6 RDA Kent RDA 18.6 23.5 Table 2.3 Demography of East Sussex, Isle of Wight and Kent Rural Development Areas2.2q
Other social indicators of poor rural areas include, lower than average earnings, and low housing prices. Second home purchases is becoming an issue in many coastal areas, which is having a direct influence on younger populations in coastal areas having to move away to find more affordable housing, resulting in an changing demographic profile developing in some coastal areas.
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2.2.4 Culture and Heritage
The pattern of settlement along the coast has followed historical maritime and sea trading routes and has become an important part of the UK culture and heritage. These settlements, coupled with its archaeological evidence, are vital for the understanding of Britain’s emergence as an island, her developing relationship with the sea and the maritime influences which contributed to forging the identity of the UK as a major mercantile, industrial, and imperial nation2.2r.
The coastal environment is particularly important for the understanding of early prehistoric communities. This is because such understanding depends on the surviving archaeological record being preserved in association with contemporary land surfaces. In many parts of the UK, this link has been largely destroyed by subsequent land use (e.g. agriculture and forestry) while those elements in the marine environment are much less accessible. The coastal fringe and particularly the estuaries of major rivers such as the Forth, Humber, Severn, Solent and Thames are therefore highly significant as they still provide opportunities to record this evidence. Despite this, archaeological information of coastal areas is still relatively sparse. For example, only 20% of the Scottish coast has been surveyed for its archaeological remains, and it has been estimated that there is potential for an average of one site per kilometre of coastline2.2d.
The abundant and diverse maritime archaeological record around the UK includes prehistoric features such as trackways and fishtraps; drowned villages and towns; industrial and extractive sites such as quarries and salterns; shipwrecks and lost cargoes; shipyards, harbours, wharves; historic sea defences and land reclamation, and an elaborate defence heritage of emplacements, forts and batteries2.2r. It consists of submerged landscapes, specifically coastal archaeology (i.e. remains relating to human settlement at the coast and exploitation of the sea) and archaeology situated at the coast including some which is now classified as “coastal” as a result of shoreline retreat.
Important discoveries have come to light during construction works or when sections of the coast are exposed through erosion. For example, in 2002, a medieval boat was found in foreshore muds at the mouth of the River Usk (Newport) during work on the foundations for an orchestra pit of a new theatre and arts centre. On the Yorkshire coast, the remains of an Anglo-Saxon settlement were discovered near Whitby Abbey after a large coastal cliff fall exposed the area in October 2000. One of the most remarkable discoveries was made at Skara Brae on Orkney when, in 1850, stormy weather exposed a number of stone buildings at the coast. These were later identified as being more than 4,000 years old and part of a Neolithic village, making them the oldest example of built heritage in Europe.
Archaeological finds at Wootton Creek on the shores of the Solent have revealed flints which were shaped into arrowheads from around 2,000BC, Roman objects including New Forest pottery and glass from the Rhineland, that may have been brought ashore from ships anchored off the creek and Saintonge pots thought to be imported cargos for the nearby Cistercian abbey of Quarr founded in the 12th century. Oak posts, uncovered from the edge of a former channel, which have been dated to around 500BC, are thought to have been acting as a sea defence 2.2r. They showed that the creek had been used for many thousands of years.
Submerged settlements, like Dunwich off the Suffolk coast and palaeo-landscapes as well as more discrete features in the marine environment, such as shipwrecks, are also part of the culture and heritage of the UK. Evidence of population by Mesolithic and Neolithic peoples has been found in the former extensive coastal plain off the west coast of Wales when the sea level was 40m lower than today.
In Northern Ireland, the DOE Environment and Heritage Service undertook a survey of the maritime archaeology of Strangford Lough (University of Ulster Centre for Maritime Archaeology) which found an array of new artefacts to help reconstruct the history of settlement in the area.
Historic wrecks
Forty eight historic wreck sites have been designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973. The best known is probably the Mary Rose, Henry VIII’s flagship built in 1509, which sank off Southsea Castle in the Solent on July 19, 1545. Other examples are the yacht Mary which was presented by the City of Amsterdam to Charles II on his restoration in 1660 and now lies on The Skerries off Anglesey, North Wales, the Girona a Neapolitan galleass homeward bound from the failed 1588 Armada off Lacada Point, Co.Antrim, Northern Ireland and the Wrangels Palais a Danish warship which sank in 1687 after running aground while pursuing Barbary pirates in thick fog off the east coast of Shetland2.2s.
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The built heritage is more obvious and at the coast much of this was associated with defensive installations and trade with many major ports and harbours in use for many centuries. There was a period of great castle building in Wales during the reign of Edward 1 (1272-1397) including the construction of those which can still be seen today at Caernavon & Beaumaris.
Examples of more recent defence fortifications are Martello Towers. These are fortifications built in the early 1800’s along the coast of Kent & Sussex during the Napoleonic wars. Defensive features from the 20th century include numerous pill boxes and anti-tank structures on beach fronts that were established to deter landing forces during World War II.
In some places, whilst there is often very little physical evidence of historic events, the locations have become an important part of our cultural heritage. These include coastal sites of religious significance such as the island of Iona where St. Columba (521 – 597) and his followers founded a monastery from which they went on to convert Scotland and much of northern England to Christianity.
Coastal areas also have an important industrial heritage. The development of many coastal areas was associated with geological resources such as coal, iron ore and limestone, extracted at the coast or in the near hinterland. The large-scale 19th century development in SE Wales, for example in Swansea Bay/Llanelli/Barry – Newport and in NE Wales (e.g. Flintshire) was linked to the exploitation of these resources and ports were established to export raw materials such as slate from Cardigan Bay and Menai Strait. There was also some metal mining in river catchments close to the coast since Roman Times, for example in the rivers east of Aberystwyth.
The tin mining industry of Cornwall was at its peak in the mid-1800s. The mines, many of which are on the coast, supplied most the country’s tin, copper and arsenic from deep mines. The buildings that housed the mine works are now derelict but they remain as reminders of the industrial heritage of the region.
Language is an important part of culture and coastal communities in some parts of the country have kept alive languages which were once much more widespread and which are becoming important again as a recognition of a distinctive cultural identity. This is less of an issue in England, though efforts to sustain the Cornish language (Kernow) continue as a culturally important issue in more remote parts of the County.
The Gaelic speaking communities in north-west Scotland can trace the origins of their language back to the Celts who came from Ireland some 1000–1800 years ago. The coastal region of Gaelic speaking Scotland is mostly in the west of the country in an area that extends from Cape Wrath on the northwest tip of Scotland, to the Mull of Kintyre. The Inner and Outer Hebrides are where more than 90% of the Gaelic speaking population live today while Norse influence is still apparent today in the English spoken in Shetland & Orkney.
Rural agricultural communities on the Welsh coast include those that are a stronghold of Welsh language. These Welsh language communities, also known as the Welsh ‘heartland’, are mainly in Gwynned/Llen Peninsula, Anglesey (Ynys Môn), Ceredigion and north Pembrokeshire coast. In the latter case, the traditional ‘English’ and ‘Welsh’ communities of south and north Pembrokeshire can be traced back to Norman times.
Another aspect of coastal culture and heritage is the inspiration it has provided for musicians, writers, poets and artists. The basalt columns of Fingals Cave on Staffa in the Inner Hebrides inspired Mendelsson to compose his Hebridean overture, and many of the seascapes painted by the Impressionist artist J.M.W. Turner are from around the coast of Britain. John Masefield, the Poet Laureate in the mid-1900’s wrote many poems inspired by the sea. His first collected works were “Salt-water Ballads” including Cardigan Bay in 1902. From sea shanties recounting the days of the abundant North Sea herring fishery to modern day ballads such as “The Mull of Kintyre”, and “Fog on the Tyne”, these are clear and continual reminders of the maritime culture and heritage of Britain.
2.3 Economic Characteristics
The UK coastline has been of major economic importance for centuries. Cities were established and grew where maritime trade routes made their landfall, and access to fisheries bought food and wealth to coastal communities. Today coastal locations attract industry, housing, recreation, trade and other activities. However, in many rural locations issues associated with peripherality are still to be fully addressed. Some key economic statistics of interest for this section include:
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¨ Coast and marine related industries and services are estimated to contribute almost 5% of UK GDP, equivalent to an annual turnover of £69.2 billion2.3a.
¨ The sea fishing industry contributed approximately £500m to the Scottish economy in 20002.3b
¨ Offshore aggregate extraction for 1999 totalled 13.4 million tonnes, 15% of the total UK production 2.3a.
¨ Blackpool attracts around 17 million visitors a year, supporting an estimated 52,000 jobs 2.3c
¨ Recreational anglers are estimated to be spending around £140 million each year in the coastal economies of England and Wales.
Not all economic activities present around the UK coast require a coastal location. Some industries have relocated there because coastal towns and cities have become hubs of activity and regional gateways to other parts of the UK, Europe and the world. Figure 2.6 describes major areas of economic activity that take place on the coast and within the territorial waters of the UK.
Figure 2.6 Number and type of enterprises in Scottish coastal areas from Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) data.2.3d
2.3.1 Transport and Communications
Transport networks on the coast and links with the rest of the UK and Europe have played a major role in supporting the coastal economy. Access to maritime trade routes was the impetus for the location of coastal settlements and this has resulted in the subsequent development of both marine and land based transport and communications links. In Wales, for example, the growth of seaports, largely established in the 19th and early 20th centuries, has had a marked impact on the strategic road networks of the country and on the patterns of port-related industrial activity. The M4 and A55, the major strategic highways in the Principality, have acted as catalysts for urban and industrial development, inducing a positive flow of inward investment along the north and south Wales coast.
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Coastal transport corridors
In Northern Ireland one of five key transport corridors is the coastal ‘Northern Corridor’ which links the Belfast Metropolitan Area to Antrim, Ballymena, Ballymoney, Coleraine, and Derry city by road and rail, providing access to the Antrim Glens and Causeway Coast.
Bridges on all scales have also contributed to and changed the pattern of access to coastal areas. The second Severn Crossing was built to facilitate traffic movement from central south Wales to the south-west of England. The toll operated crossing, which is just over 5km long, opened in 1996 and forms part of the European Strategic Route Network. On a smaller scale, the Skye Bridge opened in 1995. This replaced a long running ferry service between Kyleakin on Skye and the Kyle of Lochalsh. This has influenced tourism in the area by providing continuous access to many people who wish to visit Skye.
Ports are major transport hubs on the coast. There are over 650 ports and harbours in the UK, transporting 95% of the UK’s trade. They vary in size and type from the commercial Port of London, extending 95 miles from Teddington to the North Sea, to numerous small, recreational based harbours such as Fowey Harbour in Cornwall. In 1999, UK ports handled just under 566 million tonnes of foreign and domestic cargo 2.3a. In contrast, a total of 1,801,829 tonnes of cargo passed through BAA's seven UK airports in the financial year 1999/20002.3e. There are plans for port expansion, particularly in southern England at Dibden Bay, Thames Gateway and Shellhaven.
UK Ports and Harbours
Of the 650 ports and harbours in the UK, only about 20 are active commercial ports with three- quarters of trade cargo handled by 13 ports (London, Grimsby & Immingham, Tees & Hartlepool, Forth, Sullom Voe, Southampton, Milford Haven, Felixstowe, Liverpool, Dover, Orkneys, Medway and Belfast). Sullom Voe in Shetland is the largest oil and gas handling port in the UK, handling some 38.2m tonnes of cargo in 2000.
Port traffic has increased by 33% since 1980 with the Humber region seeing the largest growth of 115% (39 million tonnes). The Haven region (ports in south Suffolk and north Essex) has grown by 196%, increasing handling by 25 million tonnes. The closure of Anglesey’s Marine Terminal oil facility in 1998 and a reduction of traffic in Milford Haven have resulted in a fall in port traffic in Wales and the North West of 24%, handling just under 37 million tonnes. In contrast, Belfast Port handles some 50% of the sea traffic into and out of Northern Ireland. Since 1990 the tonnage of inward freight traffic at Northern Ireland ports has increased by 20% and the outward tonnage by 29%.
Ports and harbours also provide ferry transport, an essential service for non-mainland locations. In 1999, 16 million passengers travelled on inter-island services, including 8.3 million passengers per year to/from the Isle of Wight. Scotland’s ports serve over 5 million passengers in the Highlands and Islands, with an additional 4 million other domestic sea crossings. International ferry routes are also important and take passengers as well as trade to Ireland, France, Spain, and across the North Sea to countries such as the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Norway. In 1999 there were 32 million international passenger journeys to Europe 2.3a
Apart from the vessel movements in and out of ports and harbours, shipping traffic also moves along the coast and through UK territorial waters. The greatest density is in the English Channel where more than 100 vessels a day move in each direction along the Traffic Separation Scheme. An analysis of movements in the eastern channel shows that the majority of these are cargo ships (just under 60%) with bulk carriers making up 11% of the traffic and oil tankers 10%.2.3f
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Figure 2.7 Major UK ports and shipping movements/density – COAST database, December 1999.2.3f
The largest UK airports (Heathrow & Gatwick) are not located on the coast but there are important regional airports on coastal land. These include Aberdeen, Belfast City and Cardiff. Proposals have also been made for regional airports to be built on reclaimed land e.g. on the Severn Estuary and Derry airport (proposal to extend existing airfield), but these remain proposals at the present time as do ideas for ‘offshore island’ air terminals.
The Channel Tunnel, a complex of three tunnels each 50km long that links terminals at Folkestone and Calais has been described as one of the greatest technological and engineering feats of the 20th century. The tunnel was completed in 1994 at a total cost of more than £10 billion and carries both passengers and freight traffic to mainland Europe. In 2001 nearly 2.53 million vehicles, 1.19 million lorries and 6.94 million passengers between London and Paris or Brussels.
Undersea cables are important part of the power distribution and communications network in the UK. The growth of the internet and e-commerce led to an increasing demand for communications capacity and undersea telecommunications cables supported this service. Changes in economic conditions have however meant that some of these systems are no longer operational. The Crown Estate (Marine Division) believe that immediate future growth in the number of cables will be slow until such time as technology applications evolve to use mass surplus transmission capacity currently available. This will not however prevent strategic cable systems appearing to enhance & complement existing systems, resulting in cable network growth designed to provide flexibility and further resilience.
The Moyle Interconnector, undersea electricity cable has been an important development that allows the movement of electricity between Northern Ireland and the rest of the UK. Northern Ireland is also growing increasingly reliant on the supply of gas via the undersea connection to Scotland.
2.3.2 Trade and Industry
2.3.2.1 Fisheries
The UK fishing industry is a diverse sector made up of inshore and offshore fisherman, targeting finfish and shellfish. It is an economic sector that has seen many changes in technology and fortunes. Advances brought by steam and then diesel power as well as refrigeration, synthetic net fibres and echo-location have changed the way the industry operates. The public right to fish is enshrined in the Magna Carta of 1215, however, political changes such as the declaration of a 200nm Exclusive Economic Zone by Iceland (including waters that were fished by the UK distant water fleets) and
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entry into the Common Market and adoption of the EU Common Fisheries Policy have had a major impact on how and where UK fisheries may be carried out. The state of the fish stocks has also changed the industry. In 2002, 22 out of the 31 finfish stocks exploited by UK vessels (i.e. just over 70%) were either at, close to, or outside safe biological limits, or being harvested outside safe biological limits. There has also been issues relating to overseas market competition (eg: from Chile), increased transport costs and over supply to market.
Economic dependence on the sea
In 1906, Milford Haven was ranked as the sixth most active port in England & Wales in terms of the tonnage of fish landed, and fourth in terms of the value of the catch. By 1925, there were 110 Milford steam trawlers fishing up to 400miles offshore. A further 150 herring drifters from Scotland and the east coast used the Haven in season. Ashore, the curing houses, ice and box factories and engineering shops employed another 1,200 workers2.3g. Today it is mainly Spanish distant water trawlers, landing into the UK market that use the port. The number of registered fishing vessels in the whole of Wales in the year 2000 was 482 with just 1,588 people employed on a full- time equivalent basis within the inland and sea fishery sector combined2.3h.
In Scotland, the sea fishing industry (pelagic, whitefish and shellfish) is crucial to the rural economy of coastal communities, contributing approximately £500m to the Scottish economy in 2000. 2.3b In the Highlands and Islands, landings represent 6% of the area’s GDP and in Banff and Buchan 43% of jobs are fisheries dependent. The pelagic and whitefish segments of the fleet are concentrated in the North and North East of Scotland and shellfish are harvested primarily by inshore vessels throughout Scotland, but with a greater density on the West Coast and Hebrides.
The significance of the industry in Scotland is emphasised by the fact that Scottish-based vessels landed 65% by weight, and 60% by value, of all landings by UK vessels in 2002. At the end of 2002, there were 842 active Scottish-based over-10m vessels – almost half of the over-10m UK fishing fleet. In 2001, the most important fishing ports were Peterhead and Fraserburgh, landing £57m and £31m in value respectively and 76501t and 40,395t respectively2.3b. The number of vessels and catch levels are nevertheless much reduced from a decade ago. In the last year, the value of sea fish landings by Scottish-based vessels fell by 4% to £328m in 2002 and the weight, of landings was down by 9% to 446,000t 2.3d.
The fisheries sector is of particular relevance to Northern Ireland. There are fisheries for pelagic and demersal fish, several marine shellfish species and diadromous fish (salmon, sea trout and eels). Lough Foyle is one of the only places remaining in Ireland to operate a dredge fishery for native oysters. The three main ports of landing are Ardglass, Kilkeel and Portavogie. Some fish landings, mainly by part-time fishermen, are also made at various small ports around the coastline of Counties Down, Antrim and Derry. Local fish processors are based primarily in Kilkeel, Ardglass, Portavogie and Annalong where they provide an important source of employment. There are about 1,300 people employed in processing and marketing. There are some 39 companies with an estimated gross turnover of £70m.
Fishing in SW England
In 2001, Devon had 350 fishing vessels employing 1038 full or part time fishermen, generating over £40million annually. There are 525 fishing vessels in Cornwall, employing a total of 1171 folk and generating £35million annually (knock on effect of an extra 4429 jobs that rely on fishing industry for employment).
The UK’s shellfish industry was valued at £166 million in 1999, using an estimated 3000 vessels (over 80% under 10m) and landing 117,000 tonnes of shellfish. This represents approximately 35% of all fish landings in the UK by weight and is an important industry in many areas.
2.3.2.2 Aquaculture
Commercial aquaculture is a significant industry in parts of the UK and most widespread in Scotland where both finfish and shellfish are farmed. Most of the industry is located on Scotland’s western seaboard, in the Inner and Outer Hebrides, and in the Northern Isles, with a few facilities on the north and east coasts.
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At the present time most finfish culture is for salmon, which are grown in coastal seawater cages. Other marine species such as halibut and cod may become more important in the future. The Scottish salmon farming industry is claimed to be the single most important economic development in the Highlands and Islands for the past 30 years, injecting, through wages, around £2m every week into rural communities. The value of salmon at the first point of sale after leaving the farm is estimated to be around £300m with an estimated retail value of £600 million. The salmon industry contributed circa £266m to Scottish food exports in 19992.3b
Shellfish culture in Scotland is mostly for mussels, but also involves culture of scallop species and both native and Pacific oysters. The industry is dominated by small producers and the number of active sites and the amount of manpower working in the industry continues to increase2.3.d. The industry in Scotland employed 137 full time and 235 part time workers in 2001, an increase of 18% on the previous year 2.3a.
Aquaculture is growing in Northern Ireland and takes place in sheltered areas such as in Lough Foyle, Larne Lough, Belfast Lough, Strangford Lough, Killough Harbour, Dundrum Inner Bay and Carlingford Lough. During 1998 eleven new sites were licensed bringing the total number to twenty- eight. Various cultivation techniques are involved and species licensed for cultivation include mussels (Mytilus edulis), Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas), Native oysters (Ostrea edulis) and both Manila clam (Tapes semi-decussatas) and Native clam (Tapes decussatas). Most of the production is geared towards the local and UK markets. However, growers are showing increasing interest in exporting to mainland Europe and the majority of mussels cultivated in Northern Ireland are exported to specialist producers in the Republic of Ireland and France.
In England the focus of the aquaculture industry is for shellfish with examples of active sites being in sheltered inlets such as on the Dart estuary, Devon.
2.3.2.3 Oil and gas
Oil and gas is the most important of all the UK marine-related economic activities in terms of income generation. The contribution to the UK economy varies substantially, as oil prices fluctuate, even though production and employment levels remain relatively stable. Proceedings from the sale of oil and natural gas liquid produced from the UK Continental Shelf are estimated at £10.95bn. Adding gas sales, which generated £ 5.10bn, makes an oil and gas sale total of £16.05bn in 1999, compared with £13.3bn in 1994. 2.3a
Most of the industry is in offshore areas, but there are important fields close to the coast such as Beatrice Field in the Moray Firth and Wytch Farm in Dorset. The oil and gas industry currently employs 37,000 people in Scotland (1.7% of total Scottish workforce) and accounts for £5.6 billion in sales and turnover for Scotland. Whereas much of the British oil and gas sector is in decline, the industry is still expanding in Scotland with an estimated 5,650 new employees required between 2002 and 2006 (Scottish Enterprise, 2002).
Oil spills following catastrophic events such as shipping accidents are one of the more visible forms of pollution although not the main source of oil pollution.
Alongside the potential effects on wildlife, especially if oil reaches the coast, there may be major implications for the local economy. Cleanup and other costs associated with the Braer oil spill in 1993 were of the order of £52 million and with the Sea Empress, in 1996, £23 million to date, but likely to be around £39 million once all claims are settled2.3i
2.3.2.4 Coastal Mineral Resources
Mineral resources have also been exploited from coastal locations. Despite the virtual disappearance of the coal industry, coal, there remain deep mining prospects at Port Talbot (South Wales) although, in common with possible low grade ore extraction in other parts of Wales, development remains very problematic.
The Durham coast in north east England has a proud mining heritage. For over 150 years the industry was the economic mainstay of the area after the presence of a coalfield extending almost completely across the County to the coast and under the sea was discovered in the mid-nineteenth century. There were five coastal collieries and subsequent problems caused by tipping spoil over the cliff tops and onto the beaches below. At the height of production, the coastal coalfield dumped 2.4 million tonnes of waste onto the shores of the county each year. The closure of the last coal pits in 1993 cleared the way for regeneration and following extensive clean up operations the area has since been designated a Heritage Coast.
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Mining for non-fossil minerals includes land based aggregate extraction at a select number of coastal ‘super’ quarries. These are defined as those being capable of producing at least 5 mtpa and with reserves of at least 150mt2.3j. The only operational site at the present time is at Glensanda (Loch Linnhe). Public debate, including a Public Local Enquiry about whether another one should be opened at Lingerabay on the Isle of Harris has been going on for more than a decade.
2.3.2.5 Marine Aggregates
Marine aggregate extraction was a small-scale activity in England for many years, with sand and gravel collected from the Thames estuary for use in the ballasting of ships in the 17th and 18th centuries. It started to be used by the construction industry in the 1930s but only became significant in the 1970’s when technical advances made it economically feasible to dredge large quantities of material from the seabed2.3k. Today, the UK marine aggregate industry has become a major supplier for the European and domestic construction industry and for coastal protection schemes. Marine aggregates supply 7% of total aggregate in the UK. Primary aggregates provide 50% of the construction market and virtually all materials for beach re-nourishment for coastal defence schemes. 30% is exported to mainland Europe, mainly Holland and Belgium.
Around the English coastline, over 20 million tonnes of aggregate were removed in 2003 out of a permitted annual total of over 37.25 million tonnes 2.3y
Dredging is restricted to relatively localised areas from the Humber off Great Yarmouth, Outer Thames Estuary, the south coast from East Sussex to the Isle of Wight, the Bristol Channel and Liverpool Bay. There are currently 72 active licences and 28 production applications in the pipeline. Recent investigations into significant exploitable sand and gravel resources in the eastern English Channel may start a new phase of marine aggregate extraction further offshore and in deeper waters. Locally, there are examples of beach material extraction for the purposes of liming acidic agricultural soils. Such practices are often linked to historic rights, such as in Portstewart in Northern Ireland and at Poldhu Cove in south Cornwall, where practices of sand extraction to assist the agricultural sector have been practiced over many decades.
2.3.2.6 Renewable energy
There is considerable potential to harness the energy from waves, tides and wind around the UK as the basis of a renewable energy industry. Initiatives to test and harness energy from renewable sources in a sustainable manner are currently very topical. In terms of the coastal environment, key possibilities arise from using wind, wave and tidal energy. In December 2003, the UK government increased its commitment to a new target of 15% of electricity to be generated from renewable sources by 2015.
Whilst wind energy is not uniquely coastal, it is recognised that the UK is considered to be the windiest country in Europe and UK coastal areas often experience the most sustained significant wind speeds. It has been estimated that our present electricity needs could be met more than three times over by offshore wind energy.2.3g The first offshore wind farm, which consists of two turbines, was built off Blyth, Northumberland. It became operational in 2001 and generates enough electricity for 3,000 households.
In December The Crown Estate responded to a request from DTI and launched a first round of commercial scale offshore windfarm projects. Developers were invited to come forward to pre-qualify for sites and 18 projects, amounting to a possible 1.4GW, were awarded site options in February 2001. To date 12 projects, totalling 720MW have been fully consented and offered capital grant funding from DTI. North Hoyle windfarm off the coast north Wales at Rhyl became operational in November 2001 and Scroby Sands off Great Yarmouth is currently under construction and is due to become operational later this year. At least five other projects are due to enter construction in 2004-5 and it is anticipated that the remaining consented sites will be built between 2005-2007. In July 2003 the second round of development was launched, taking place in three strategic areas identified by the DTI and subjected to a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in the Thames, Greater Wash and North West. The Secretary of State for Trade and Industry announced a desire to see a 4-6GW of installed capacity from this round of development. This would provide a significant contribution to the Government’s targets under the Kyoto protocol. The Round was run as a competitive tender with developers invited to bid for projects in the three areas. As a result, 15 projects were awarded in December 2003 to 12 developers to yield a maximum projected output of 7.1GW (see Figure 2.8).
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Wave power is probably most likely in the south west approaches to Pembrokeshire and in high energy wave environments off south west England, western Northern Ireland and the Western and Northern Isles of Scotland. One of the earliest schemes was a research project on Islay in the Outer Hebrides. The facility was run for 10 years before being decommissioned and was replaced by the LIMPET (Land-Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer) in the year 2000. This is a shoreline wave energy converter designed to operate on exposed shores for local or island power generation and port development. The LIMPET supplies power to the Island grid, playing a crucial part in enabling Islay to displace fossil fuels and become self-sufficient in renewable energy. More recently, consent has been given for the development of a further two wave power generation facilities in Scotland.
There are many areas with strong tides, such as the coasts around Anglesey and Pembrokeshire, and the exceptional tidal regime of the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel which should be suitable for generation of power. The latter has been the projected location of the Severn Barrage 2.3l. The idea of a barrage on the Severn has been considered on several occasions and although dropped two decades ago after extensive feasibility studies, there is renewed interest as moves to counteract global warming gain momentum who claim that a Severn barrage could generate 7 per cent of energy requirements for England and Wales whilst the Mersey barrage proposal could generate 0.5% of the UK energy production. A 150kW Stingray tidal stream generator has been successfully deployed in Yell Sound off the Shetland Islands in 2002. The demonstrator Stingray in Yell Sound has been designed to produce time-averaged power of 150kW from a 4 knot current. 2.3w
Trials on renewable energy generation from the sea
A prototype underwater marine current turbine underwater marine current turbine has been deployed off the North Devon Coast. It will be several years before the technology has developed to produce electricity at a commercial scale to the grid.
In the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park a research project established in 1997 has successfully tested a single tidal-flow turbine. The next phase will involve testing a small array of turbines in the Severn Estuary.
2.3.3 Tourism and Recreation
The tourism industry is socially and economically important to the UK and the coast in particular has been a popular destination for British holidaymakers of all age groups. From large traditional seaside resorts to small-scale coastal attractions, this sector makes an important contribution to the local, regional and national character of the coast. Devon, for example, receives 3.5 million visitors a year – 80% in coastal areas, and Blackpool attracts 17million visitors/year supporting around 52,000 jobs.2.3m
As a nation on an annual basis, the British public take 27.9 million days on seaside holidays in the UK spending £5.1 billion. England accounts for 21.6 million of these seaside holiday days with £4 billion of spend. In Wales, the equivalent figures are 3.5 million holidays and £0.52 billion spend and in Scotland 2.2 million holidays generating £0.44 billion. As a proportion of all holidays in England taken by the British, seaside holidays account for 27% of all holiday trips, 34% of all nights and 31% of all spend. In Wales, coastal holidays account for 42% of all holiday trips, 49% of all holiday nights and 42% of all spend. In Scotland, because of the different tourist product, coastal holidays account for a smaller but nevertheless important 19% of all holiday trips, 23% of all holiday nights and 19% of all holiday expenditure2.3n. In addition, there were in excess of 240 million day visits made to the British coast, generating a further £2 billion spend 2.3o.
The coast is a vital resource for the Welsh recreation and tourist industries, and of strategic importance to the Welsh economy as it currently represents 7% of the Welsh GDP generating £1.5 – 2 billion revenue per annum. The sector employs 100,000 people (10% of the workforce) and 50% of tourism revenue accrues to communities in rural Wales. Over 7 million residential holidaymakers visit Wales each year with more than 60% going to the coast.
In Northern Ireland, two of the largest visitor attractions have coastal locations: the World Heritage Site at the Giant’s Causeway and Carrickfergus Castle. The Giant’s Causeway Visitor Centre on the Antrim coast was visited by 383,133 people in 2002.
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2.3g Figure 2.8 Proposed offshore windfarms (map of R1 and R2 sites)
29 ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
2.3.3.1 Coastal resorts
Coastal resorts have been the focus for seaside holidays since the Victorian era. There are 12 large and 45 smaller resorts in England. The principle Welsh resorts are Porthcawl, Rhyl and Llandudno, with smaller resorts such as Ceredigion and Dyfi coast, Aberystwyth, Aberdyfi and Borth.
Since the 1970’s, visits to English resorts have fallen by a third, from 32 million to 22 million staying visits. Over the same period, the number of nights when visitors stayed in seaside locations dropped from 193 million to 104 million. There is also further evidence that the English seaside holiday market has fallen by as much as 50%.
The economic decline of coastal resorts has become a matter of concern in recent years and many are in need of economic regeneration and some suffer levels of deprivation equivalent to the worst areas of inner cities.2.3d. The problem is amplified by the reduced disposable income available to visitors choosing resorts. Socio-economic indicators have shown that there are three times more people of lower socio-economic standing visiting the seaside than those of higher socio-economic status. In comparison, there is a more equal ratio of those visiting the countryside. Visitors of traditional coastal resorts have comparably less spending power when visiting, reducing local economic income.
Despite a decline in the appeal of coastal resorts, Blackpool still attracts over 17 million individual visits each year with an expenditure of £545 million. During the early 1990s it had over 43,000 bed spaces, including 8,000 in hotels and 33,000 in guesthouses2.3p. Linked to this, recent research 23x is suggesting that the continuing imbalance in seaside labour markets is mainly the result of larger scale migration in seaside towns which is outstripping the growth of local employment. Over the last thirty years, 360,000 more adults of working age moved into seaside towns than moved out.
Regeneration projects are now underway at many coastal resorts. The Welsh Tourist Board, for example, has stimulated over £50 million total investment during the past five years in coastal resorts and historic towns. This can be seen in places such as Aber on the north Wales coast where considerable capital has been used to provide a wider range of tourist facilities as well as upgrading the visual appearance of the resort.
At Carlyon Bay, Cornwall, a new proposed housing/tourist developments is being put forward to regenerate coastal areas and where possible to utilise existing infrastructure to encourage wider community acceptance of the proposed projects.
2.3.3.2 Rural Coastal Tourism
A trend of recent decades has been a move away from traditional seaside holidays to shorter, rural and countryside breaks. This can be seen in the growth of ‘environmental tourism’ in Scotland in particular. The accessible coastal landscape and abundance of coastal wildlife, for example in colonies of seabirds and seals, have led to the development of a burgeoning industry in coastal and marine wildlife watching.
Wildlife Tourism in Scotland
The total income generated by whale tourism alone in Western Highlands in 2001 was £7.8m 2.3q
Wildlife tourism generated £9.3m in direct income to Highlands while supporting 400 jobs. For Mull alone, in 1999, wildlife tourism was estimated to generate £650,000 in direct spend supporting 22 jobs 2.3q.
The coastal and marine environments are also seen as the real strength of Wales for leisure/educational/activity based pursuits while in Northern Ireland, bathing water quality, high quality beaches, a Marine Nature Reserve and 30 coastal National Trust properties give an indication of the high recreational quality of Northern Ireland's coast.
2.3.3.3 Coastal Recreation
The coast has always been a focus for leisure and tourism. Recent research has identified over 110 recreational activities which take place at the coast, ranging from walking the dog to SCUBA diving. These are mainly informal activities and can be land based, such as bird watching and sand buggying or water based, such as kite-surfing, jet skiing, and swimming, which makes levels of
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uptake and participation difficult to quantify. New ways of enjoying the coast are constantly emerging, such as wakeboarding and coasteering, attracting increasing numbers of new visitors to the coast 2.3r.
Many coastal authorities have developed and maintain formal coastal paths to support recreational use. The South West Coastal Path, for example, runs from Poole in Dorset to Minehead in Somerset. This route alone attracted approximately one million user days per annum in 1994 2.3m. Recent research suggests that the path generates about £300m a year for the economy of the region.2.3s
2.3.3.4 Water-based activities
Boating and water sports are extremely popular. Approx 900,000 people participate in sailing, motor boating, windsurfing, and associated board sailing at the coast. 2.3r
The British Marine Federation estimates that between 3.5 and 4 million people aged 16 or above participate in these activities in the UK. There are approximately 450,000 boats kept in the UK by UK residents and a further 16,000 owned by overseas visitors, the focus of ownership being southern England. The most important area for water-based activities in Wales is the Pwllheli to Abersoch stretch of the Llyn Peninsula. 150 000 people regularly participate in waterskiing, with a further 250 000 casual participants in the UK.2.3a
In terms of boat development, the industry was worth around £1743 million (including £722 million exports) in 2002 and grew by 8% in 2002. This trend is expected to continue. The UK retail market is worth £845 million and overseas visitors spend a further £50 million.
The boating industry is an extremely important part of coastal tourism in some areas. The ownership of personal watercraft in the UK is currently estimated at around 17,000 2.3u. In Wales, many coastal towns have included marina development as part of wider regeneration programmes, the largest of which are part of the redevelopment of Swansea Docks and in the Cardiff Bay area. There are a string of marinas around the Welsh coast and many moorings and small marinas in sheltered bays and inlets and many others planned. Thirty-nine potential marina sites were identified by the Council (now Campaign) for the Protection of Rural Wales in the late 1980s 2.3 v many of which have since been developed with associated housing.
Marina-based tourism has increased rapidly in recent years in Northern Ireland with the two large marinas of Carrickfergus and Bangor each having more than 300 berths.
Non-motorised water sports, such as sea canoeing, windsurfing, marine wildlife watching and SCUBA diving are popular. The various clubs and societies encourage best practice in the appropriate use of the coastal resource, often with mixed results.
Many enthusiasts enjoy scuba diving in UK waters to explore caves and wrecks and to enjoy the aquatic wildlife. There are approximately 120,000 SCUBA divers in the UK. St. Abbs Head is a popular coastal site in the UK for divers as it benefits from a flow of Atlantic water entering the North Sea around the northern tip of Scotland and also from cooler Arctic influences. This results in clear water and a diverse mix of marine species from both cold and relatively warm water enhancing interest for divers.
In 1990, there were 10,000 regular surfers, and an equivalent number of seasonal surfers, a 69% increase since 1980.2.3t
2.3.3.5 Recreational fishing
Sea angling is a popular sport practiced by over two million people in Great Britain.2.3t The governing body in England is the National Federation of Sea Anglers, which has approximately 570 affiliated clubs with some 33,000 individual members. Sea angling has three main forms: angling from the shore, inshore fishing within 5 km of the shore and deep sea fishing. Key locations for sea angling include the Fylde coast (Lancashire) and off the coast of Anglesey (North Wales).
Bait collection for sea angling occurs in many coastal areas especially estuaries, although some are more plentiful for bait species than others, and may attract commercial collectors2.3t. Anglers often collect their own bait locally, while commercial collectors travel in teams to suitable shores.
Different bait species are targeted according to the species of fish being caught as well as the location and time of the year. The main collecting techniques are digging and boulder turning. Bait digging, especially for lugworms, is carried out over the lower part of muddy and sandy shores around the time of low water.2.3t
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The over exploitation of bait species is, however, taking place at many locations2.3t. This has locally resulted in the preparation of voluntary initiatives and the development of codes of conduct. The Teign Estuary is important for peeler crab collection and also for sandeel seining; like squid and mackerel, sandeel are also used as angling and pot bait. All areas including Torbay and the Exe, Salcombe and Kingsbridge Tamar, Fowey, Fal, Helford, Hayle and Camel estuaries have experienced larger numbers of diggers and some problems have been encountered.2.3t
References (including information taken from websites) 2.1a) Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 1999. Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom. Coastal Directories Electronic Platform (Phase 1). Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough http://www.coastalguide.org/england/index.html.
2.1 b) Davidson, N.C., Laffoley, D. Doody, J.P., Way, L.S., Gordon, J., Key, R., Pienknowki, M.W., Mitchell, R. & Duff, K.L. (1991) Nature conservation and estuaries in Great Britain. NCC, Peterborough.
2.1 c) Hiscock, K. (Ed) (1996) Marine Nature Conservation review: rational & methods. Peterborough, JNCC. Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom. MNCR Series.
2.1d) Robin McInnes (2003) “Coastal Defence - a Non-Technical Guide”, published by SCOPAC (Standing Conference on the Problems Associated with the Coastline), 2003.
2.1e) MAFF (1981) Atlas of the Seas around the British Isles. HMSO.
2.1 f) Bastos A.C, Collins M and Kenyon N.H (2003) “Morphology and internal structure of sand shoals and sandbanks off the Dorset coast, English Channel” Sedimentology Vol. 50 Issue 6 Page 1105.
2.1 g) Barne J.H, Robson C.F, Kaznowska S.S, Doody J.P, Davidson N.C & Buck A.L (Eds), Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom: Region 17 Northern Ireland. Peterborough.
2.1h) Defra (2003) FutureCoast (http://www.Defra.gov.uk/environ/fcd/research/futurecoast.htm)
2.1 i) Scottish Coast Forum (2002) “A Strategy For Scotland’s Coasts And Inshore Waters” Position Paper By Coastal Defence And Shoreline Management1 Task Group (ed: George Lees).
2.1 j) Ritchie, W. and Mather, A.S. 1984. The Beaches of Scotland. Countryside Commission for Scotland, Battleby, Perth.
2.1 k) Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2001). Shoreline Management Plans. A Guide for Coastal Defence Authorities. Defra Publications, PB5519. London 2.1 l) Hulme M, Turnpenny J.R & Jenkins G.J: (2002) “Climate change scenarios for the UK: UKCIP02 briefing report”, Tyndall Centre, 14pp, 2002.
2.1 m) Horsburgh, K.J., Hill, A.E., Brown, J., Fernand, L., Garvine, R.W. and Angelico, M.M.P., (2000) “Seasonal Evolution of the cold pool gyre in the western Irish Sea”. Progress in Oceanography, 46, 1 - 58 2.1 n) Howson, C.M. & Picton, B.E. (ed.), 1997. The species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the British Isles and surrounding seas. Ulster Museum and The Marine Conservation Society, Belfast and Ross-on-Wye. Belfast: Ulster Museum publication, no. 276.
2.1 o) D.A. Birkett, C.A. Maggs, M.J. Dring & P.J.S. Boaden, (1998) “ Infra-Littoral Reef Biotopes With Kelp Species - An overview of dynamic and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine SACs” Queen’s University of Belfast Marine Laboratory)
2.1 p) Hiscock, K., Jackson, A., & Lear, D. (1999). Assessing seabed species and ecosystems sensitivities. Existing approaches and development. Report to the Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions from the Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN). Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the UK. (MarLIN Report No.1).
2.1 q) Simpson, J. H. (1981) “The shelf-sea fronts: implications of their existence and behaviour”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A302, 531 – 546
2.1 r) Environment Agency (1999) “State of the Environment of England and Wales: Coasts”,
32 ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
2.1 s) Buisson, R. (2001). Habitat management news - Managing and creating saline lagoons. British Wildlife, 13/1., 42. 2.1 t) Vincent, M.A., Atkins, S.M., Lumb, C.M, Golding, N., Lieberknecht, L.M. and Webster, M. 2004. (2004) Marine nature conservation and sustainable development - the Irish Sea Pilot. Report to Defra by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.
2.1 u) Atlantic Frontier Environmental Network Coastal Protection Plan : Phases 1, 2 and 3 (2000). A report to the Atlantic Frontier Environmental Network from Cordah Ltd and Robin Perry Associates. Report no. Cordah/AFE.003/1999.
2.1 v) RSPB - http://www.rspb.org.uk
2.2 a) http://www.abi.org.uk/Display/File/78/DEFRA_FUNDING_REVIEW.doc
2.2 b) London Development Agency (LDA) (2003) “London Annual Business Survey 2003”.
2.2c) taken from “Focus on Ports” 2000, DfT http://www.transtat.dft.gov.uk/tables/2000/fports/fports.htm
2.2 d) Scottish Coastal Forum (2002) “Scottish Coastal Socio-Economic Scoping Study”, School of Resources, Environment and Society, University of Aberdeen, 2002
2.2 e) DETR. (1998). Opportunities for Change: Consultation Paper on a Revised UK Sustainability Strategy - Summary Document. DETR, London. 2.2 f) European Commission. (1999). Lessons from the European Commission’s Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Luxembourg. 2.2g LGA (2001) “On the Edge – the Coastal Strategy”. Local Government Association 28pp.
2.2 h) Environment Agency (1999) “State of the Environment of England and Wales: Coasts”,
2.2 i) http://society.guardian.co.uk/regeneration/story/0,7940,411482,00.html
2.2 j) DRD (2001) “Shaping our Future – Regional Development Strategy for Northern Ireland 2025”. DRD.
2.2 k) http://www.englishpartnerships.co.uk
2.2 l) EU Demonstration Programme (1999) “Towards a European Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Strategy: General Principles and Policy Options, Annex 3, Map B).
2.2 m) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library/pan/pan53-m2.htm
2.2 n) SEEDA (2003) “An Economic Profile of the South East”.
2.2 o) ONS/Nomis (2001) http://www.statistics.gov.uk/
2.2 p) LGA Coastal Issues Special Interest Group (2004) “Report on Housing Issues in Coastal Areas – Homelessness in Skegness and Mablethorpe)”. Topic Paper, Tues 17 February 2004.
2.2 q) South East Rural Development Plan Regional Planning Group, November 1999
2.2 r) English Heritage (1997) England's Coastal Heritage: a policy statement by English Heritage and the RCHME.
2.2 s) Martin, Colin, (1998) Scotland's Historic Shipwrecks, London
2.3 a) IACMST (2002) “A new analysis of marine related activities in the UK economy with supporting science and technology” David Pugh and Leonard Skinner, Information Document No.10 August 2002.
2.3 b) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/fisheries/sfs01-00.asp
2.3 c) http://www.blackpool.com/sights/gmile.html
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2.3 d) Scottish Coastal Forum (2002) “Scottish Coastal Socio-Economic Scoping Study”, School of Resources, Environment and Society, University of Aberdeen, 2002
2.3 e) http://www.baa.com/doc/99b595f525664c7b802568c7003414a8_frame.html
2.3 f) http://www.Defra.gov.uk/environment/consult/mehra/pdf/appx1pt3.pdf
2.3 g) DTI (2002) “Future Offshore” A Strategic Framework for the Offshore Wind Industry.
2.3 h) Defra Fisheries Statistics Unit (2001) http://www.Defra.gov.uk/fish/fishstat/over10.pdf
2.3 i) http://www.pik potsdam.de/~thomalla/town&country_fthomalla.pdf
2.3 j) DETR (1994) Mineral Planning Guidance Note 6 (MPG6) Guidelines for Aggregates Provision in England (HMSO, London).
2.3 k) English Heritage (1997) England's Coastal Heritage: a policy statement by English Heritage and the RCHME
2.3 l) National Assembly for Wales (2002) Renewable Energy Consultation Economic Development Committee of the NAW.
2.3 m) Atlantic Living Coastlines Summary and Recommendations Report, 2000
2.3 n) UKTS (2001) ETC/WTB/VISITSCOTLAND
2.3 o) UK Day Visits Survey 1998
2.3 p) North West Tourist Board (2001) Statistics
2.3 q) "Marine Wildlife Tourism and Whale Watching off the Island of Mull" - Warburton, Parsons, Goodwin (1999)
2.3 r) Defra (2004) “Managing Recreational Activities – a best practice guide for Maritime Local Authorities”
2.3 s) Countryside Agency (2003) “South West Coast Path”
2.3 t) Fowler, S.L. (1992) “Survey of Bait Collection in Britain”. JNCC Report No17.
2.3 u) www.ukmarinesac.org.uk
2.3 v) CPRW (1989) “Sustainable housing in protected areas”, CPRW Main Report
2.3 w) Trapp T (2002) “Developing and building the Stingray tidal stream generator” (report available from website http://www.engb.com/Downloads/M02-030-01.pdf).
2.3 x) Beatty c. and Fothergill S. (2003) “The Seaside Economy”, The final report of the seaside towns research project. CRESR, Sheffield Hallam University, City Campus, Sheffield. 2.3 y) Crown Estate – Marine Estate Aggregate Extraction Figures 2003.
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3 INSTITUTIONAL ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE COASTAL ZONE
3.1 Introduction The significant economic, social, cultural and environmental resources of the coast mean that it is subject to many demands and uses, from both land and sea. Institutional, legal and policy frameworks help decision-makers manage these demands which include (adapted from DoE, 1993 3a ):
¨ Coastal defence (flooding and erosion).
¨ Discharges to water.
¨ Water abstraction.
¨ Dumping at sea.
¨ Landscape conservation.
¨ Wildlife conservation (habitats and species).
¨ Archaeological and cultural heritage conservation.
¨ Development in ports and harbours.
¨ Marine aggregate extraction.
¨ Fishing (freshwater, estuarine, inshore and offshore).
¨ Fish and shellfish farming.
¨ Oil and gas.
¨ Shipping.
¨ Renewable energy.
¨ Near shore recreation.
This section of the report describes the statutory framework of institutions and legislation relevant to the management of activities in the coastal zone.
In addition to the regulatory frameworks, there are also non-statutory policies which influence decision-making. These include regional economic strategies, local transport plans, and non-statutory estuary and coastal management plans. There are also many non-statutory bodies included in ICZM. These are described in Section 4.
35 ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report 3.2 Summary of the Institutional Framework
3.2.1 International
The need to improve the planning and management of activities at the coast has been acknowledged for many years by various international bodies including the United Nations, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Bank.
The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 bringing together 191 countries to preserve world peace through international cooperation and collective security. A number of UN treaties and conventions are relevant to coastal management.
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) stipulates coastal states' jurisdictional rights for internationally recognised maritime zones, including inland waters, the territorial sea (approximately 12nm from the coastline where states have sovereign jurisdiction), the contiguous zone, and the exclusive economic zone (EEZ, approximately 200nm where coastal States have exclusive jurisdictional rights over all living resources but also an obligation to conserve these resources).
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity was one of five major Conventions to result from the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and was the first international agreement to address all aspects of biodiversity including protection and the equitable use of biological resources.
The UN World Heritage Convention was signed in 1972 following concerns for the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. It provides the designation of World Heritage Sites and protection of sites, groups of buildings and monuments of global importance.
The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1997 (UNFCCC) aims to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases that cause global warming. With the recognition of future sea level rise posing a significant threat to coastal areas, the UK ratified UNFCCC on 31 May 2002.
The UN Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (The Århus Convention) establishes a number of rights of the public (citizens and their associations) with regard to access to environmental information.
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) was established in 1948 to manage shipping safety due to the increasing amount of global traffic between countries. However, more recently, marine pollution has moved to the forefront of IMO’s work and a number of international conventions now exist between its one hundred and sixty-two member countries aimed at tackling problems such as the management of oil spills, pollution from ballast waters and prevention of collisions at sea.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) brings together 30 member countries, including the UK, to discuss, develop and refine economic and social policies. They compare experiences, seek answers to common problems and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies to help members and non-members deal with an increasingly globalised world. This may lead to agreements to act in a formal way for example by establishing legally binding agreements. In 1992, OECD produced a Recommendation on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (adopted by the Council at its 787th session on 28 July 1992) and a report entitled “Coastal Zone Management: Integrated Policies” which produced guidance to Member Countries for implementing this Recommendation.
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Figure 3.1 – Key International Legislation and Regulations that influence coastal management
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) represents 100 government agencies and over 750 non- governmental organisations. The IUCN aims to promote ecological conservation and protection of natural resources to ensure the development of sustainable livelihoods. The IUCN has a Global Marine Program and a sister organisation, the World Commission on Protected Areas.
The international community has signed a number of other conventions intended to protect the world’s coastal and marine natural resources.
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1971) requires signatories to designate and protect wetlands of international importance as well as promote and foster the wise use of wetlands. The Convention is implemented in the UK through the statutory planning system, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, the Countryside Rights of Way Act (CRoW) 2000 and through the EU Birds and Habitats Directives and associated UK Regulations.
The 1992 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic (the OSPAR Convention) entered into force on 25 March 1998. This consolidated the work of the former Oslo and Paris Conventions. Annex V to the OSPAR Convention requires Contracting Parties to implement measures required to protect and conserve marine ecosystems and biodiversity. It also provides for the adoption of programmes and measures to assist in managing human activities that can have an adverse impact on the marine environment. At the OSPAR Ministerial Meeting in 1998, a suite of strategies were agreed to guide future work of OSPAR 3b. These covered hazardous substances, eutrophication, radioactive substances, biodiversity, and assessment and monitoring. A strategy for offshore oil and gas was agreed the following year.
The UK also cooperates in many international marine science programmes including: the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea; the International Whaling Commission; Global
37 ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report
Oceans Observing System; World Ocean Circulation Experiment; Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environment Protection; Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme.
3.2.2 European
The European Union (EU) has a major influence on coastal management in Europe. The UK became a member of the EU (then termed the European Economic Community) in 1973 and is one of 15 Member States. A further ten “acceding countries” are set to join the EU in 2004.
The European Parliament, European Council and the European Commission supported by the Court of Justice and the Court of Auditors make up the institutional structure of the EU. Member States sit on the Council and elect representatives to the Parliament.
The main role of the European Commission is to develop and oversee the implementation of legislation, budgets and programmes agreed by the Council and the Parliament. The Commission is made up of a number of Directorates-General (DGs). Those whose work is directly relevant to coastal management issues are the DGs on Environment, Fisheries and Regional Policy. EU Directives require Member States to implement certain actions by transposition into national legislation within a set time frame. Member States are required to adhere to Directives and can be taken to the European Court for breaching them.
The EU has adopted over 200 environmental protection directives. The main ones relevant to coastal management include: the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive; the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive; the Habitats and Birds Directives and, in future, the Water Framework Directive.
The EIA Directive (85/337/EEC) ensures that the 'competent authority' for a particular project makes its decision based on a clear appreciation (in the form of an assessment) of any significant environmental impacts. From this, an appreciation of predicted effects and the scope for reducing them, are properly understood by the public and the relevant competent authority.
The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive (Directive 201/42/EC) will apply to a range of plans and programmes which directly or indirectly affect the marine environment. It focuses mainly on plans or programmes which set frameworks for development consent of individual projects, and will apply where their preparation formally begins after 21 July 2004 or where they have not been adopted or submitted to a legislative procedure by 21 July 2006.
Authorities which prepare and/or adopt a plan or programme which falls within the Directive's scope will have to draw up a report on its probable significant environmental effects, consult authorities with environmental responsibilities and the public, and take the findings of both these exercises into account in reaching a decision on how to proceed. Basic procedural and technical requirements are set out in the Directive, which Member States can implement within their existing systems if they wish.
The Natural Habitats and Wild Fauna and Flora Directive (Directive 92/43/EC - the “Habitats Directive”) and the Council Directive (Directive 79/409/EC) of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of the wild birds (the “Birds” Directive) provide for the designation of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) to protect listed species and habitats from damage, destruction or exploitation.
The Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC) sets out a framework for protecting waters, including coastal waters, with the aim of achieving demanding water quality targets by 2015. The Bathing Water Directive (Directive 76/160/EEC) sets mandatory water quality standards as well as more stringent guideline levels that Member States must endeavour to meet. The Shellfish Waters Directive (Directive 79/923/EEC) aims to protect and improve the quality of waters in which shellfish grow.
Regulations created by the EU are automatically operative in the Member States without further action. The EU also produces Recommendations requesting Member States to undertake certain actions and monitoring their implementation, and Communications which suggest possible actions. At the present time EU initiatives on ICZM fall into the latter category.
A European Marine Strategy is currently being prepared and will influence future policy development on marine issues in the EU. In terms of coastal management, the draft report summarises the present situation with regard to development and implementation of policies to control threats, and sets out environmental, operational and institutional objectives for large scale ecosystem management. This
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will need to be linked to future EU actions on the Common Fisheries Policy and the Spatial Development perspective.
EU financial instruments have an important influence on coastal planning and management. Examples include the Structural Fund, INTERREG III (financed under the European Regional Development Fund, the Cohesion Fund and the Community Financial Instrument for the Environment (LIFE).
The European Environment Agency collates information and produces reports to guide the development of EU environmental policy. It has a European Marine & Coastal Environment Topic Centre based in Barcelona.
3.2.3 UK and Devolved Administrations
The Westminster Parliament, government departments and devolved administrations of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland constitute the institutional framework within the UK. A number of executive agencies and executive non-departmental public bodies also have varying levels of jurisdiction over the regulation and management of the coastal zone (see Figure 3.2).
The main central government departments who have a sectoral interest in UK coastal issues are: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra); Department for Transport (DfT); Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM); Department of Trade and Industry (DTI); Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) and Ministry of Defence (MOD).
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is responsible for nature conservation, wildlife conservation, fisheries (under CEFAS), agriculture, water quality, flood and coastal defence, landscape conservation and countryside enjoyment. Three of Defra’s overarching objectives are relevant to the coastal and marine environment: ¨ To protect and improve the rural, urban, marine and global environment, and lead integration of these with other policies across Government and internationally;
¨ To promote sustainable management and prudent use of natural resources domestically and internationally;
¨ To protect the public’s interest in relation to environmental impacts and health, and ensure high standards of animal health and welfare.
Department for Transport The Department for Transport (DfT) has responsibility with respect to harbours, shipping (including pollution from ships) and offshore safety. DfT’s objective is to oversee the delivery of a reliable, safe and secure transport system that responds efficiently to the needs of individuals and business whilst safeguarding our environment.
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) oversees local and regional government and the terrestrial land-use planning system. It co-ordinates the voluntary Government View procedure for marine minerals dredging licence applications and is preparing regulations to replace this with a statutory procedure. It is responsible for overseeing the implementation of Strategic Environmental Assessments for offshore renewable projects.
Department of Trade and Industry The Department for Trade and Industry (DTI) has responsibility with respect to the development of offshore renewables and oil and gas exploitation. Potential environmental issues are addressed through environmental impact assessments and liaison with the relevant conservation bodies. Additionally DTI is a carrying out a programme of Strategic Environmental Assessment covering the whole of the UK continental shelf for oil and gas exploitation. For offshore renewables, the decision was taken, to carry out a Strategic Environmental Assessment prior to the second round of offshore wind development and for subsequent rounds.
Department for Culture, Media and Sport The Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) is responsible for tourism, heritage (including historic wrecks), sport and other forms of recreational activity. DCMS manage the 48 wreck sites in the UK currently designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973.
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Ministry of Defence The Ministry of Defence owns 220 coastal locations covering over 230km of coastline and has the power to create byelaws for land it owns for defence purposes. This land is part of the MOD’s ‘Defence Estate’ and includes naval bases, RAF stations, artillery and bombing ranges and storage depots. The changing nature of coastal developments mean that the MOD have an interest in the offshore regulatory process as new developments, such as offshore wind farms, may impact on their activities.
Crown Estate Whilst not a government body, the Crown Estate is a public body that acts as an enabler of government policy (thus not a regulator) that has statutory functions under the Crown Estate Act of 1961. Ownership of the foreshore and seabed below low water mark throughout the UK is generally held by the Crown Estate. The Marine Estates ownership extends to about 55% of the foreshore around the UK and virtually all the seabed out to the territorial limit. It has rights to exploit natural resources excluding oil, gas and coal.
Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) Shipping and navigational issues are also reserved to UK Government with the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) taking the lead organisation. The MCA has an overarching role in promoting marine safety and enforcing safety regulations. This is carried out through its role as the UK’s maritime emergency service. The MCA also confirms byelaws for the regulation of seaside pleasure boats including vessels let for hire to the public. They co-ordinate search and rescue at sea through Her Majesty’s Coastguard, and checking that ships meet UK and international safety rules
Countryside Agency The Countryside Agency (England) is an independent statutory public agency funded by the Government. Of relevance to coasts, the Countryside Agency (previously the Countryside Commission) initiated the Heritage Coast classification scheme in 1972 to protect coastlines of special scenic and environmental value from undesirable development.
UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) The UKHO is a government Trading Fund and part of the Ministry of Defence. Its primary activity is the provision of navigational products and services to the Royal Navy and the merchant marine in compliance with Safety of Life At Sea Regulations. The UKHO's products offer worldwide coverage in the form of 3,300 Standard Navigational Charts and 220 Navigational Publications. UKHO also produce a range of electronic charts and a popular range of Leisure Charts and Editions produced specifically for the small craft and leisure mariner.
British Geological Survey (BGS) The section of BGS of relevance to the coast is the Coastal Geoscience and Global Change Programme (CGGCP). The aims of the CGGCP are to provide geoscience information on: the coastal zone and its processes; and the flux and transformations of sediments and rocks and materials that either drive, or are impacted upon by, global change, in order to address coastal management questions posed by the user community.
The UKHO, BGS and the Ordnance Survey recently worked together on a national Integrated Coastal Zone Mapping (ICZMap) project which was initiated in April 2001 within the Treasury Invest to Save Budget (ISB) programme. The project sought to bring together information on both the terrestrial and marine parts of the coastal zone by unifying digital mapping of the land, sea and geology. The trial area was in Southern England – from Shoreham in West Sussex to Lyme Regis in Dorset, including the Isle of Wight – and sections of coastline around the Firth of Forth in Scotland and Milford Haven in Wales.
Many coastal policies are the responsibility of the devolved administrations of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Memoranda of Understanding and Concordats exist between the UK Government and Scottish Ministers, the Cabinet of the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Executive Committee. These have been drawn up to ensure coherent governance of the UK as well as the procedures and rules to be followed for cooperation and policy coordination where there is shared competence or where the actions of one administration will impact on the policies of others. Certain reserved matters still remain under the competency of the UK Government (including defence and national security, foreign policy, trade and industry and constitutional matters).
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Figure 3.2 Examples of the geographic jurisdiction of various organisations across the coastal zone adapted from 3c
3.2.3.1 England
In England, legislative powers and responsibilities are delivered through central government departments. Those with policy functions of particular importance to coastal management include: Defra (in sustainable development, environment protection, coastal defence, fisheries, water quality, nature conservation and countryside management); DTI (offshore oil and gas and offshore renewable energy); DfT (ports, harbours and shipping); ODPM (land-use planning and aggregate extraction) and MOD (defence estates).
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Figure 3.3 National Roles and Responsibilities (NB : English Heritage deal with England only, while the other bodies have UK remits) 3 c).
Regional government in England is shared between three sets of organisations, the regional Government Offices, the Regional Development Agencies and, more recently in some parts of the country, Regional Assemblies.
The Government Offices (GOs) bring together the activities and interests of the government departments at regional level, linking the region and central government. GOs promote government policy and take forward a range of government programmes and initiatives in the region and work on behalf of a broad range of government departments in key policy areas such as sustainable development.
Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) were established by the Regional Development Agencies Act 1998. The RDAs’ main strategic role is to promote sustainable economic development and to produce Regional Economic Strategies.
Members of the Regional Assemblies can include elected councillors chosen by local authorities as well as people from the voluntary sector, environmental groups, faith groups, the business and education sectors, the arts and local communities. The Assembly has an important role in providing regional accountability for RDAs and as a sounding board for other government agencies. The East
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of England Regional Assembly does not as yet, have statutory powers and the East of England Local Government Conference is fulfilling the role at present.
Figure 3.4 – Various Roles of Defra 3c
English Nature provides advice and information on nature conservation to national, regional and local government. English Nature owns coastal land which is designated NNRs or SSSIs and works in partnership with other owners and occupiers to safeguard natural heritage in England. It is responsible for :
¨ advising Government on the selection of European and international wildlife sites;
¨ implementing the UK Biodiversity Action Plan and assisting in the practical application of sustainable development;
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¨ implementing international conventions, EC Directives and national legislation on nature conservation;
¨ licensing various activities;
¨ establishing and managing a series of sites as National Nature Reserves and Marine Nature Reserves;
¨ increasing the opportunities for people to take action for, and to experience, wildlife and natural features;
¨ offering various types of grants to help others carry out nature conservation.
The Countryside Agency was established by the Government in 1999 to conserve and enhance England's countryside and spread social and economic opportunity for the people who live there. The Agency advises government on matters relating to:
¨ the social and economic development of rural areas;
¨ the conservation and enhancement of the natural beauty and amenity of the countryside;
¨ the need to secure public access to the countryside for the purposes of open recreation;
¨ the provision and improvement of services for the enjoyment of the countryside.
The Countryside Agency can provide financial assistance towards expenditure in the public and private sector which helps achieve any of the conservation and recreation objectives and can carry out, or assist others to carry out, measures likely to further social and economic development.
In England and Wales, the Environment Agency is responsible for enforcing environmental protection by regulating and monitoring discharges to water courses and prosecuting polluters.
As Regulator, it performs the following roles:
¨ Competent Authority (designate) for the EC Water Framework Directive (including transitional and coastal waters).
¨ Effluent discharge permitting and compliance monitoring, under the Water Resources Act 1991, Environmental Protection Act 1990, and Pollution Prevention and Control Act 1999 (out to 3 nautical miles).
¨ Prosecution for pollution incidents in controlled waters under the Water Resources Act 1991 (out to 3 nautical miles).
¨ Regulation of fishing for salmon, migratory trout and eels to 6 nautical miles under the Environment Act 1995.
¨ Sea Fisheries Power (out to 6 nautical miles) in a number of transitional waters (estuaries).
¨ Competent and Relevant Authority under the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c) Regulations 1994.
¨ Competent Authority for the Bathing and Shellfish Waters Directives.
¨ Competent Authority for the Dangerous Substances Directive.
¨ Regulation of developments affecting flood risk management under Environment Act 1995.
The Agency also performs the following roles within wider monitoring and management:
¨ Navigation – e.g. Rye Harbour (where we have a port authority role); Dee Conservancy.
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¨ Monitoring, assessment and reporting for EC Directives and other international obligations (e.g. the National Marine Monitoring Programme), including research and Development of marine monitoring and assessment techniques.
¨ Under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, lead partner role for coastal saltmarsh and mudflats, (and contacts for many other BAP habitats and species).
¨ Emergency Planning, e.g. Bristol Channel Counter Pollution Association Group.
English Heritage advises government on the implications of coastal zone management and coastal defence policy on the historic environment at a strategic and scheme specific level (see Section 3.3.7).
3.2.3.2 Scotland
The devolved government for Scotland is represented by the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Executive, both established under the Scotland Act 1998. Civil servants in the Scottish Executive (SE) are accountable to Scottish Ministers, who are themselves accountable to the Scottish Parliament. There are eight main departments in the Scottish Executive, Development, Education, Enterprise and Lifelong Learning, Environment and Rural Affairs, Finance & Central Services, Health, and Justice and Corporate Services.
Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) has a similar role to that of English Nature in England with responsibilities for securing the conservation and enhancement of Scotland’s natural heritage, wildlife, habitats and landscapes under the Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991. Perhaps the most significant difference is that SNH has a landscape management remit as a result of its combination with the Countryside Commission for Scotland on creation.
The Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) established by the Environment (Scotland) Act 1995, has responsibility for water quality, protection and improvement similar to the role and remit of the Environment Agency in England and Wales. One major difference is that SEPA is responsible for the issuing of flood warnings, but not other elements of flood protection or prevention works. SEPA also undertakes research for fisheries management
Inshore fisheries are managed directly by Scottish Executive which can create measures necessary for the regulation and management of local fisheries. These mechanisms include the regulation of the types of equipment used, closure of areas to certain fisheries (for example, exclusion of mobile gear) and the creation of regional (within Scotland) devolved management regimes for shellfish fisheries (such as the recent shellfish regulating order in Shetland). Enforcement of inshore fisheries management measures is undertaken by the Scottish Executive’s executive agency, the Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency.
Fish farming is primarily governed under an interim scheme since 1998 through existing offshore consenting procedures and environmental assessment legislation. The key agencies in the consenting regime are SEPA, SNH and the Scottish Executive with guidance from the Crown Estate. The Crown Estate’s involvement in aquaculture is at present two-fold. Its primary responsibility is as landlord of the seabed and parts of the foreshore; The Crown Estate also has a duty to maintain and enhance the value of the Estate and the return from it, and therefore leases areas of seabed and foreshore for commercial operations including salmon and shellfish development, and charges rent for any development which requires the use of Crown-owned foreshore and / or seabed. Currently, it is also the non-statutory planning authority for aquaculture development though formal transfer of the regulatory role to Local Authorities is now possible under the Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003.
Historic Scotland performs a similar role to English Heritage and the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England.
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Figure 3.5 - Role of Scottish Executive with respect to the coastal environment 3c
3.2.3.3 Northern Ireland
The Northern Ireland Act 1998 enabled the setting of the Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive, along with a First Minister and Deputy First Minister, an Executive Committee of Ministers and a number of government departments. Of these, the most relevant to the management of activities at the coast include the Department of Enterprise, Trade and Investment, the Department for Regional
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Development, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Department of the Environment. (Note: from 2004, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, assisted by a team of Northern Ireland Office Ministers has assumed responsibility for the direction and control of the Northern Ireland Departments).
In Northern Ireland environmental protection is the concern of the Environmental Protection directorate of the Environment and Heritage Service. It is responsible for the enforcement of legislation and a range of supporting activities to monitor and report on discharges and emissions, to establish the impacts of pollution, to set standards, and to issue consent licenses and authorisations.
The Rivers Agency, as an executive agency within the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, and acts as the statutory drainage and flood defence authority. The Rivers Agency does not have responsibility for preventing flooding and its powers are limited to providing free- flowing watercourses to alleviate flooding.
Responsibility for carrying out essential coastal protection works to combat the effects of erosion is currently shared between three departments:
¨ The Department of Enterprise, Trade & Investment for Northern Ireland for schemes related to tourism or harbours.
¨ The Department for Regional Development for schemes where there is a road or promenade interest.
¨ The Department of Agriculture and Rural Development for any essential schemes not falling within the above.
The Department of the Environment has a duty to control discharges to surface waters and groundwaters, including tidal waters out to the three-mile limit.
Regional Planning and Transportation Division within the Department for Regional Development is responsible for the implementation of the Regional Development Strategy for Northern Ireland 2025, which provides an overarching framework for competitive and sustainable development in Northern Ireland. The Strategic Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 requires that all departments in exercising their functions shall have regard to the Regional Development Strategy (RDS).The Planning (Amendment) Northern Ireland Order 2003 requires all policies, development plans and development schemes to be in general conformity with the RDS. To assist in the implementation, Regional Planning and Transportation Division is preparing Planning Policy Statement 20 to provide strategic planning policy for coastal areas of Northern Ireland.
The Foyle Fisheries Commission (FFC) was established under the Foyle Fisheries Act (NI) 1952 in Northern Ireland and the Foyle Fisheries Act 1952 in the Republic of Ireland for the purposes of protecting, conserving and improving the fisheries of the Foyle Area.
The North South Co-operation (Implementation Bodies) (NI) Order 1999 and British Irish Agreement Act 1999 dissolved the Foyle Fisheries Commission and transferred its functions to the new implementation body, The Foyle, Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission. It also extended the area which the new body is responsible to include the Carlingford Area and extended the functions of the new body to include the promotion of development of Lough Foyle and Carlingford Lough, the development and licensing of aquaculture and the development of marine tourism.
Fisheries enforcement is carried out by the DARD’s Sea Fisheries Inspectorate. The enforcement is through routine patrolling in the Irish Sea to observe and inspect fishing vessels and monitoring fishing activity on the Northern Ireland coast. The patrols of the North Coast Salmon Fishery are in addition to the regular patrols by the Fisheries Conservancy Board and the Foyle Fisheries Commission in their respective areas.
The Agricultural and Environmental Science Division of DARD undertakes research for fisheries management and environmental protection.
Under the provisions of the Fisheries Act (NI) 1966, as amended, DARD Fisheries Division is responsible for the licensing of all fish farms including marine fish and shellfish farms and land based fish farms using either an enclosed water re-circulation system, a pump ashore system, abstracting from a bore hole or fish farms on inland waters ie: Fish farms on rivers or lakes. DCAL are responsible for salmon fisheries under the Fisheries Act (NI) 1966.
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Figure 3.6– Role of Northern Ireland Executive with respect to the coastal environment 3c
3.2.3.4 Wales
The National Assembly for Wales (NAW) was created through the Government of Wales Act 1998. It has secondary legislative powers only, so it is bound by Westminster Acts but has powers to make orders and regulations provided for in such Acts. The NAW elects a First Minister and cabinet and operates through a number of committees. Subject committees develop policy and examine what the Assembly does while regional committees represent the needs and interests of localities and convey issues of local concern to the subject committees and the Assembly.
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The Assembly’s duty towards sustainable development under section 121 of the 1998 Act is unique in Europe and is an important guiding policy for management of the coast.
The Countryside Council for Wales (CCW) acts as an independent advisor to the National Assembly for Wales and is empowered by three main pieces of legislation, the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (amended by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000) and The Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994. Their role and responsibilities are similar to Scottish Natural Heritage in that their remit covers access to the countryside, landscape and nature conservation.
The Environment Agency has responsibilities in Wales similar to those outlined for England (see section 3.2.3.1).
The North West and North Wales Sea Fisheries Committee (NW&NWSFC) regulates, protects and develop fisheries for shellfish and regulates the fishing for or taking of seafish. The jurisdiction of the NW&NWSFC is currently between Cardigan in Ceredigion and Millom in Cumbria, and to the 6 nautical mile offshore fishery limit. Fisheries research is undertaken through the Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS).
Cadw is the agency within the Welsh Assembly Government with responsibility for protecting, conserving, and promoting an appreciation of the historic environment of Wales. Created in 1984, Cadw carries out the complete range of responsibilities for the conservation, presentation, and promotion of the built heritage of Wales on behalf of the National Assembly for Wales. Its duties include securing the preservation of ancient monuments and historic buildings; grant aiding the repair of ancient monuments and historic buildings; and managing 129 ancient monuments in Wales which are in direct State care. These include coastal sites.
The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales (RCAHMW) performs a similar role to the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England through the holding of site records.
The Welsh Development Agency (WDA) was established by the UK government in 1976, working to stimulate and support the economic prosperity of Wales. WDA helps to enhance the local economy by responding to the needs of business in Wales and attracting investment to all areas of the Principality. Investors in Wales have brought over £12 billion into the country and continue to reinvest once established. WDA encourages partnerships to facilitate access to European programmes funding. Its main objective is to sustain business climates in Europe by aiding the growth of quality jobs and competitive industry for the benefit of people throughout Wales including funding for coastal initiatives and developments.
3.2.4 Local Government
Local government in the United Kingdom is structured in two different ways. In Scotland, Wales and parts of England –- a single tier council (Unitary, Metropolitan Borough or London Borough Council) is responsible for all local authority functions. The remaining areas have a two-tier system in which responsibility is divided between district and county councils. County councils have a strategic planning and management role while the district councils have development control, coast protection and public health roles.
In general, local authority jurisdiction extends to mean low water (MLW). However, different situations are likely to apply in estuaries, bays and inlets. Local authorities may have powers under local Acts of Parliament or make byelaws to regulate activity further out to sea.
Substantial areas of harbours fall within the jurisdiction of local planning though harbour authorities have their own powers laid down in private Acts of Parliament or in harbour empowerment or revision orders under section 14 of the Harbours Act 1964.
In Northern Ireland, local government is comprised of Borough, City and District Councils. The main responsibilities of local authorities are refuse collection/disposal, building control, environmental health, registration services and recreation facilities. Local authority jurisdiction coincides with the authority’s seaward administrative boundary, usually the mean low water mark.
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Figure 3.7 – Role of NAW with respect to the coastal environment 3c
3.3 Legal Framework for Coastal Management
The statutory framework for coastal management in the UK is primarily implemented through central government and the devolved administrations of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. There is no overarching legislation that covers ICZM in the UK, instead, the approach is currently sectoral as demonstrated in Figure 3.8 for Northern Ireland.
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Figure 3.8 – Sectoral Legislation in Northern Ireland
The Government’s legal and policy framework for managing and protecting the marine environment was set out in the first Marine Stewardship Report. The report covered the broad spectrum of policies and human activities that affect the marine and coastal environment. It defined the Government’s vision of clean, healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas based on the adoption of an ecosystem approach to management. As well as describing past achievements and progress made, it contained a package of initiatives and a timetable for delivery. These included two key initiatives: a Review of Development in Marine and Coastal Waters and a pilot scheme in the Irish Sea as the next stage of the Review of Marine Nature Conservation. The recommendations from these Reviews will help determine whether new marine legislation is needed to protect and manage the marine environment.
This section only briefly summaries the current legal framework. For a more detailed analysis, the reader should refer to the report of the Irish Sea Pilot 3c on current and expected legislation relevant to nature conservation in the marine environment.
3.3.1 Development Control above Low Water Mark
Decisions about planning applications for most coastal developments above low water mark are made by local planning authorities (district or county councils for minerals and waste management applications, unitary, metropolitan, borough and London Borough councils, National Park authorities and the Broads Authority) through the land-use planning system under the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 legislation.
National policy on the planning system is set out in Planning Policy Guidance Notes (now Planning Policy Statements) in England, Planning guidance (Wales) and Technical Advice Notes (TAN) in Wales, National Planning Policy Guidance (NPPG) (now Scottish Planning Policies) in Scotland and Planning Policy Statements in Northern Ireland. These documents set out the national policy on different aspects of planning and local planning authorities must take these policies into account when preparing their statutory regional and local development plans. In addition in England, Regional Planning Guidance sets the broad spatial context and principles for the sustainable development of a region's economy, infrastructure, housing and other land uses.
Development is controlled through the production of development plans (structure and local plans prepared by county and district councils or Unitary Development Plans prepared by unitary authorities) which outline the policies applicable within the plan area and identify areas suitable for different development types (housing, industry, retail etc).The National Park Authorities and the Broads Authority in England and Wales are responsible for strategic planning, minerals and waste plans and local plans.
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The Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations for England and Wales 1999 incorporates environmental impact assessment (EIA) into the planning system whereby the requirements of the EIA depend on the size and type of the development. In addition the Environmental Impact Assessment (Land Drainage Improvement Works) Act 1999 requires an EIA to assess the effects of land drainage work on the environment.
Figure 3.9 below provides a simplified summary of the policy framework in place to support the statutory planning system at the coast.
STATUTORY NON-STATUTORY
National Defra High Level Planning Targets Guidance (PPGs etc) Estuary Management Plans
Regional Shoreline Planning Management Coastal Guidance Plans Management (RPGs) Plans (limited local initiatives)
Structure Plans and Long Term Part 1 of Coastal Habitat Coastal Management UDP’s Defence Plans Strategy
Local Plans Coastal and Part 2 of Defence UDP’s Schemes
Figure 3.9 – Generic Planning Structure relevant to the English coastal zone
In Scotland, the roles and responsibilities of local authorities regarding development control are set out in the Town and County Planning (Scotland) Act 1997. In general the extent of Local Authority jurisdiction extends to mean low water spring (MLWS), further down the foreshore than in England and Wales. The Water Environment and Water Services Act 2003 also extends to local authorities, planning control of aquaculture developments in the marine environment, beyond MLWS, and up to 3 miles offshore in coastal waters.
In the Northern Isles of Scotland, the planning control of local authorities extends into specified harbour or coastal waters below MLWS under the Zetland County Council Act, 1974 (Shetland) and the Orkney County Council Act 1974. These Acts allow the exercise of planning control through a work license system, with licenses required for development sectors including aquaculture, oil and gas and offshore renewables.
In Northern Ireland, terrestrial planning legislation is through the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 which mirrors the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, with an amendment proposed in 2003 for the Planning (Amendment) (NI) Order 2003. However there are important differences to the English system with responsibility for planning and planning applications lying with the Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland), with no central role for local authorities.
Developments that straddle the land-sea interface require consent through both the land-use planning system and by central government departments through the relevant offshore consents. As a landowner, permission from the Crown Estate is required for any development on land within its ownership. If coastal developments are within port or harbour jurisdiction then local authority consent
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may not be required and development can go ahead through Permitted Development Rights. However, if there are significant environmental implications (for example in areas protected by the Habitats Directive) then these rights are superseded and planning permission is required.
3.3.2 Development below Low Water Mark
The terrestrial land-use planning system operates to the seaward boundary of local authorities (generally taken to be mean low water mark unless other statutory provisions amend this). Development straddling the low water mark is controlled under both the planning system and the offshore sectoral regimes. Where such development effectively constitutes an extension of the land eg: land claim of solid structures, the planning system operates for the whole development.
The primary consents required for development below mean low water are the FEPA and Coastal Protection Acts, these and other marine licences are obtained through the MCEU. These licences are required for coastal defences and any structures, such as jetties, slipways, marinas or other development which impacts the marine environment. FEPA requires that licences are obtained prior to any placement of material in tidal waters. This can be any type of material from boulders placed for coastal defence and jetties constructed for marine access to any material dredged below the mean high water mark for navigation purposes. A summary of the current regime is given in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10 – Consenting regime for marine works (England and Wales) 3d
A Review, led by ODPM, aims to identify opportunities for simplifying the complex marine and development control regime, which has built up piecemeal over the decades. For example, some activities that take place in the marine environment are regulated by up to three Secretaries of State. The UK Government has identified a number of options for possible reform in the shorter and longer term and is currently considering its position on the best option for longer-term reform ahead of public consultation on its proposals.
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3.3.3 Nature and Landscape Conservation
The key legislation for the protection of wildlife includes the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 and the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 known as the CRoW Act (which, however, does not apply to Northern Ireland or Scotland).
The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (WCA) makes provision for marine nature conservation, through the establishment of Marine Nature Reserves. It also provides for the notification of Sites of Special Scientific Interest for the protection of flora, fauna, geological and physiographical features of special interest. The Act also provides for the transposition of the EC Wild Birds Directive by protecting all species of wild birds from intentional killing, injury or taking of birds or their eggs. It also protects certain species of animals, including whales, dolphins, porpoises and basking sharks from intentional killing, taking or injuring and, for certain species, protection against disturbance.
The CRoW Act amended the WCA to provide greater protection for SSSIs and provides powers to prosecute third parties for damage to SSSI sites. The CroW Act also gives local authorities the power to govern access to the foreshore for recreation by creating byelaws to regulate certain activities such as boating, motorbike scrambling or kite surfing. These two aspects are particularly relevant to the prevention of potentially damaging activities to SSSIs at the coast. Other changes enabled the relevant authorities to modify, refuse or apply conditions to consents for activities taking place that might affect SSSIs; to impose management schemes and issue mandatory notices to ensure proper protection and management of the sites when necessary; and statutory obligations placed on all public bodies to take reasonable steps to further SSSI conservation in the course of exercising their functions.
The UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) establishes a framework for the conservation of species and habitats as well as the integration of biodiversity into policy development. There are currently some 40 individual and grouped action plans for priority marine and coastal habitats and species, including mammals, reptiles and fish. Each action plans sets objectives and targets for conservation and enhancement. The latest report on progress on the UK BAP shows mixed results with some marine species and habitats showing progress on target but more plans lacking data to assess progress.
The England Biodiversity Strategy builds on the foundations laid in the UKBAP and aims to achieve the sustainable use and management of coasts and seas using natural processes and the ecosystem-based approach. The Strategy sets out a work programme and has identified 6 coastal and marine indicators to monitor implementation and measure progress against the objectives.
The Habitats Directive is transposed principally through the Conservation (Natural Habitats etc) Regulations 1994 and the Conservation (Natural habitats etc) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1995. The scope of these regulations extends to the limit of UK territorial waters (ie. out to 12 nautical miles) with regulations currently being prepared for offshore areas. The Habitats Regulations provide for the protection of a number of marine species (including cetaceans) and habitats (including reefs and sandbanks) through the designation of protected areas and other measures. The Habitats Directive requires a single scheme of management to be prepared for every SAC. Where the SPA and SAC overlap, the scheme will cover both designations. The drawing up of the management scheme is the responsibility of the ‘relevant authorities’ - those organisations who have powers or functions which could impact on the marine environment within or adjacent to the SAC. It is expected to set the framework within which activities will be managed either voluntarily or through regulation, so as to achieve the statutory nature conservation objectives for the site. To date, 71 coastal and marine SPAs have been designated under the Birds Directive and 62 candidate SACs designated under the Habitats Directive.
The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 enables the creation of National Nature Reserves (NNRs) and also includes provision for the protection of important landscapes through the designation of National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs) within England and Wales. There are 11 National Parks in England, Wales and Scotland. The Lake District, North York Moors, Exmoor, Snowdonia, Pembrokeshire Coast and Broads Authority all have a coastal strip. There are also two new Parks proposed in England, the New Forest and the South Downs, both in southern England.
In Scotland there are 2 National Parks established under the National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000, one of which includes a small stretch of coastline. The aims of each Park are to conserve and enhance the natural and cultural heritage; to promote sustainable use of natural resources; to promote public understanding and enjoyment of the Park's special qualities; and to promote sustainable economic and social development of the Park's communities. The National Park Authorities are funded directly by the Scottish Executive.
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National Parks are run by National Park Authorities set up by law as a single purpose local authority with twin purposes of conserving and enhancing the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage and to provide opportunities for the understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of the Park by the public. In pursuing the above purposes the National Park Authorities also have a duty to foster the social and economic well being of their local communities. Funds for the National Park Authorities are provided directly by Government (75%) and via the local authorities (25%) within the park area.
The CROW Act made new statutory provisions for AONBs, and placed a statutory duty on local authorities to prepare and publish AONB management plans by 31 March 2004. It provides an option for Conservation Boards to be established by order of the Secretary of State for individual AONBs where there would be particular benefits and there is strong local support for doing so, and places a duty on all public bodies to have regard to the purposes of AONBs when carrying out their statutory functions.
The Countryside Agency and the Countryside Council for Wales are responsible for formally designating AONBs and advising on policies for their protection. There are 41 AONBs in England and Wales including many with a coastline. 75% funding is provided to AONB Partnerships by the Countryside Agency or Countryside Council for Wales in grant aid for delivery of the core functions in each AONB.
In England and Wales (through CCW), there are 43 designated Heritage Coasts. Some 31% of the coast in England and 42% in Wales is protected under the scheme. Many of these coasts are part of larger National Parks or AONB, and the protected area extends inland for an average of 1.5 miles. Heritage Coasts cover stretches of undeveloped coastal landscapes in England and Wales. They are a non statutory landscape designation but its objectives have been endorsed by the Government and are defined by local authorities in consultation with the Countryside Agency and Countryside Council for Wales. There are four main objectives for Heritage Coasts:
¨ to conserve, protect and enhance their natural beauty;
¨ to facilitate their enjoyment by the public;
¨ to maintain and improve the environmental health of inshore waters;
¨ to take account of the needs of agriculture, forestry and fishing and of the social and economic needs of the small communities on these coasts.
These objectives are met through land-use planning process. Local authorities take the lead role in the protection and management of Heritage Coasts, however, this role is supported by partnership working with all organisations with coastal responsibilities.
Marine Nature Reserves are officially designated by the Secretary of State for the Environment and have similar status and protection to a National Nature Reserve (NNR). There are relatively few MNRs yet designated. There are three at the present time: at Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel, at Skomer Island in Wales and Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. The UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) establishes a framework for the conservation of species and habitats as well as the integration of biodiversity into policy development. There are currently some 40 individual and grouped action plans for priority marine and coastal habitats and species, including mammals, reptiles and fish. Each action plans sets objectives and targets for conservation and enhancement. The latest report on progress on the UK BAP shows mixed results with some marine species and habitats showing progress on target but more plans lacking data to assess progress.
3.3.4 Flood and Coastal Defence
The Environment Agency (in England and Wales) under the Land Drainage Act 1991 and the Rivers Agency in Northern Ireland under the Drainage (Northern Ireland) Order have powers to undertake coastal flood management works. Other operating Authorities (primarily District or Borough Councils or Unitary authorities but also private landowners) have permissive powers under the Coastal Protection Act 1949 to protect land from coastal erosion and encroachment by the sea.
In England and Wales, research has been undertaken to identify ‘sediment cells’, defined by coastal processes, relating to coarse-grained sediments. Based, on these coastal sediment cells, a
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framework was developed for the development of shoreline management plans, prepared by groups of operating authorities in collaboration with other relevant interests.
Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) are non-statutory documents which define coastal defence policies designed to reduce risk to people and the developed, natural and historic environment in a sustainable manner. These documents form part of the strategy for flood and coastal defence for Defra and the NAW. The SMPs are supported by additional national guidance and locally produced coastal defence strategies and schemes. The policies in the documents should also feed into the statutory planning system. The first generation of SMPs were completed in 1999 and the outcomes were reviewed. As a result of this review new guidance produced with the objectives of improving the consideration of coastal processes, integration with the development planning system and consideration of environmental and other issues. The second round of plans will also identify policies in line with the Water framework Directive and other national targets such as those set out in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. The schemes and strategies developed within each SMP area are generally subject to planning consent, FEPA and coast protection licences, and thus be in line with other government and local policies.
Catchment Flood Management Plans (CFMPs) are intended to have a complementary role to SMPs in providing a framework for managing flood risk within catchments. These plans will generally have their coastal limits coincident with the landward boundary of SMPs though in some large estuaries, separate estuary management strategies will be produced using the same framework as SMPs.
Defra’s High Level Targets are designed to assess the extent to which Operating Authorities meet their flood and coastal defence objectives and assist with the implementation of national policy and the achievement of greater consistency in authorities approach to flood management and coastal defence activities. Defra also produce a series of Flood and Coastal Defence Project Appraisal Guidance (FCDPAG) documents to encourage a broad based, logical approach to the appraisal of plans, strategies and individual projects.
In Scotland there is no single agency responsible for coastal protection and flood defence. Instead, responsibility for these areas is shared by Scottish Executive, SEPA, local authorities and land owners. The main legislative instruments are the Coast Protection Act 1949, the Food Defence (Scotland) Act 1961 and the Flood Prevention and Land Drainage (Scotland) Act 1997. NPPGs 7 and 13 provide guidance to local authorities in these areas, with NPPG 13 commending the preparation of SMPs where coastal erosion is identified as a problem.
3.3.5 Fisheries
UK fishing policy is largely shaped by the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and exclusive competence for the conservation of marine resources rests with the Community. The UK however has the right to introduce non-discriminatory conservation measures, up to twelve miles from the shore line and responsibility for ensuring UK compliance with the CFP largely falls to the UK government. Scotland has a voice at all UK level negotiations on the CFP with the Scottish Fisheries Minister attending Council of Ministers’ meetings.
A revised CFP framework regulation came into force in January 2003, the objectives of which focus to a greater extent than previously on the sustainable exploitation of resources, based on sound science, and with emphasis placed on the need for a precautionary approach to fisheries management and the need to minimise the impact of fishing on the wider marine environment. There is also now an increased focus on limitations of fishing effort in combination with Total Allowable Catches (TACs) and quotas, within the CFP, particularly for mixed demersal fisheries such as cod and haddock.
Shellfish (molluscs and crustaceans) are managed primarily through the Sea Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967 and subsequent legislation which also includes the management of freshwater fisheries and salmonid fisheries. In Northern Ireland, the Foyle Fisheries Act 1952 and Fisheries Act 1966 make it an offence to discharge deleterious matter into waters, which impacts on fish, or spawning grounds.
In Scotland, competency for fisheries management inside 12 miles falls to the Scottish Executive, via a variety of fisheries legislation, with the bulk of Scottish fisheries management powers limited to fishing areas inshore of 6 miles, the area reserved under the CFP for the exclusive use of UK vessels. Mechanisms used include the regulation of the types of equipment used, closure of areas to certain types of fishery, and the creation of regional devolved management regimes for shellfish fisheries. The last of these mechanisms, regional devolved management, has come to the fore in recent years with the establishment of a shellfish regulating order in Shetland, with progress to the same end in the Western Isles, Highland Region and the Solway.
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There are twelve Sea Fisheries Committees (SFCs) which regulate local sea fisheries around the entire coast of England and Wales out to 6 miles. SFCs are empowered to make byelaws for the management and conservation of their districts' fisheries. In 1995 their powers were widened to include the control of fisheries in their districts for environmental reasons. The principal acts are the Sea Fisheries (Regulation) Act 1966, confirming the establishment of SFCs and setting out their constitution; the Sea Fisheries (Conservation) Act 1967, elaborating the conditions under which byelaws may be issued for regulating sea fisheries; and the Sea Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967 authorising the issuing of several and regulating orders for the management of molluscan shellfish. This last Act was amended in 1997 to allow for the inclusions of crustacean fisheries. Recently the SFCs. remit has been significantly expanded through additional legislation introduced in the 1990s, mainly in response to European initiatives on marine nature conservation. SFCs aim to promote and enact fisheries bylaws and other regulations; monitor fishing activity and the biological health of fisheries; provide, maintain and support the resources required to police, monitor and administer fishery matters in a cost effective and efficient manner; and liaise and cooperate with a wide range of other bodies concerned with fisheries for the benefit of both the wider marine environment and those who use it.
Fisheries research is undertaken through the Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), an executive agency of Defra, which advises and undertakes research for fisheries management and environmental protection. Fisheries enforcement is through a number of bodies including the SFCs, the Fisheries Inspectorate, CEFAS, the Navy, Ministry of Defence Police and the Environment Agency (freshwater and salmonid) depending on the issue.
In March 2003, the Prime Minister's Strategy Unit announced a UK wide project on the “Sustainable future for UK fishing”, which is expected to report in 2004. The project will aim to develop a long-term strategy for a sustainable sea fishing industry. In addition, Defra is conducting a review of marine fisheries and environmental enforcement arrangements in England and Wales which will report in Spring 2004 and the Scottish Executive has recently completed (August 2003) a review of inshore fisheries management.
In Northern Ireland, under the Fisheries Act (Northern Ireland) as amended, the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure has overall policy responsibility for the supervision and protection of salmon and inland fisheries and for the development and establishment of fisheries. The Department exercises the functions conferred on it by the 1966 Act to meet those responsibilities. Under section 25 of the 1966 Act, the Fisheries Conservancy Board for Northern Ireland (a non Departmental Public Body) is responsible for the conservation and protection of salmon and inland fisheries of Northern Ireland. , other than those in the Foyle and Newry areas which are the responsibility of the Loughs Agency of the Foyle, Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission (FCILC).
3.3.6 Shipping
The management of shipping has an international context as impacts are likely to be trans-national by the simple fact that ships travel between countries and continents and can impact on the country of origin, destination or those in between. Consequently, critical issues for management include international trade, national economics and regulation of activities linked to shipping.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 relates primarily to safety and the safe operation of ships, but recent amendments also contain provisions for the protection of the environment. Chapter 11 enforces the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention which was adopted by the International Maritime Organisation in 1993, and requires shipping companies to have a safety management system including a policy, instructions and procedures for safety and environmental protection.
International regulations standardise shipping standards, navigational safety and port health (the transport of alien species in ballast water is an example). The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) covers not only accidental and operational oil pollution but also pollution by chemicals, goods in packaged form, garbage and air pollution.
In the UK, the Merchant Shipping and Maritime Security Act 1997 caters for a broad range of regulation of shipping and navigation in UK waters. It covers safety of navigation, regulation of Port waste reception facilities, the preparation, response and co-operation of activities relating to oil pollution incidents, the prevention and control of pollution and the protection of wrecks. The Pilotage Act 1987 transfers local authority responsibility for the regulating the movement of ships within harbours to the harbour authorities.
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3.3.7 Cultural Heritage and Archaeology
Cultural heritage and archaeological interest at the coast is protected through specific heritage legislation as well as through the more general conservation measures and requirements for survey and development control.
The legal basis for protection of sites of cultural and archaeological importance is contained in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. This Act provides the protection of ancient monuments through the process of designation known as scheduling. The schedule currently includes many coastal sites, some of which are in the intertidal zone. (RCHME 1997). Forty-eight sites have been designated to date; most are the sites of shipwrecks of post-medieval date, and the majority are on the south and south-west coast of England (RCHME 1997).
The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales (RCAHMW) is the equivalent Welsh body that is responsible for maintaining the National Monuments Record (NMR) for Wales as well as a database of wreck sites. The key Acts relating to the conservation of marine archaeology and cultural heritage (the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973, and the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979) are administered in Wales by Cadw: Welsh Historic Monuments, an executive agency of NAW. The Transport and Works Act 1992 has a bearing upon the conservation of marine archaeology and cultural heritage. Since 1 January 1993, when Part I of the Act entered into force, proposals which would have previously been authorised under a Private Bill procedure have instead had to be authorised by Orders made under that Act.
Marine heritage is protected through the Transport and Works Act (1992) which protects listed buildings or demolition of an unlisted building in a conservation area against development. This combines with the new National Heritage Act (2002) which gives full protection to any object, building or area of cultural and archaeological importance from land out to the limits of the Territorial seas.
The National Heritage Act 2002 harmonises the roles of the UK heritage agencies by extending the functions of English Heritage to include responsibility for ancient monuments in, on or under the seabed within the territorial sea adjacent to England. In this respect, the Act amends the National Heritage Act 1983 and the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. Under s.3 of the 2002 Act, English Heritage takes over responsibility for a number of administrative functions relating to marine archaeology and the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973.
English Heritage advises government on the implications of coastal zone management and coastal defence policy on the historic environment at a strategic and scheme specific level. They also commission research intended to improve understanding and conservation of historic remains in the coastal zone. With the passing of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage has also assumed responsibility for maritime archaeology within Englands' territorial waters.
The Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME) holds site records. RCHME has a Royal Warrant which also affirms the responsibility for monuments and constructions in or under the seabed in UK Territorial Waters. RCHME compile the National Monuments Record (NMR), which includes identification, survey, and interpretation.
Cadw (in Wales) and Historic Scotland already have similar responsibilities in the devolved administrations. The boundaries of internal waters and the territorial sea between England, Wales and Scotland for this purpose are defined in the National Heritage (Territorial Waters Adjacent to England) Order 2002 (SI 2002/2427).
The Built Heritage Division of the EHS maintains the Northern Ireland Sites and Monuments Record (SMR) for the six counties of Northern Ireland, holding information on approximately 15,000 sites.
3.3.8 Water Quality and Morphology
Many water quality standards are set at European level. These are through directives on bathing waters, shellfish waters, urban waste water treatment and nitrates.
The Water Framework Directive requires the development and implementation of a new strategic framework for the management of the water environment, and establishes a common approach to protecting and setting environmental objectives for groundwaters and surface waters within the Community. The Directive also specifies the arrangements by which environmental objectives will be set.
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In England and Wales the Transposition of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) is through the Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) (England and Wales) Regulations 2003. Transposition in Scotland was through The Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Bill 2003.
For cross border issues, further Regulations were laid before Parliament (came into force on 10th February 2004) For example, the Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) (Solway Tweed River Basin District) Regulations 2004 transpose the Directive in relation to the Solway Tweed river basin district which crosses England and Scotland.
Much of the implementation work will be undertaken by the Competent Authorities, which will be the Environment Agency in England and Wales; the Scottish Environment Protection Agency in Scotland; and the Environment and Heritage Service in Northern Ireland.
Northern Ireland has implemented its own legislation for the control of contaminants in to the marine environment. Of the primary legislation the following have a direct bearing on the control of effluent discharges:
¨ Water (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (WO) requires the Department of Environment to promote the conservation of the water resources of Northern Ireland and to promote the cleanliness of water in waterways and underground strata. ¨ Pollution Prevention and Control Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2003 (SR 2003/46) provide request that the applicant must consider all the environmental impacts associated with the installation when preparing the application. This includes potential impacts of granting a permit near European sites as designated under the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994. ¨ The Food and Environment Protection Act 1985, under Part II enables the Department of the Environment to license disposal at sea, out to a distance of 12 nm of the Northern Ireland coastline.
3.3.9 Ports and Harbours
Harbours are regulated through the Harbours Act 1964 (including Secretary of State approval of major port developments), Section 34 of the Coast Protection Act 1949 (restriction of works detrimental to navigation); the Transport and Works Act 1992 (alternative power conferring route for works affecting navigation) and numerous local acts under which Tidal Works consent can be granted. Harbour works are subject to a number of consent procedures as set out in these Acts, for example, the control of construction and extension of harbours that may interfere with other rights of navigation. In addition FEPA licences (see section 3.3.2) may be required for the deposit of any material at sea or if the harbour falls within the seashore covered by Section 18 of the Coast Protection Act. Harbour Authorities have environmental responsibilities to maintain public access for the inspection or visiting of building, site or object with architectural, archaeological or historic interest. The Harbour Works (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations (1999) require an EIA to be carried out when works occur in any harbour area that may cause environmental damage.
In Northern Ireland, harbours are regulated through the Harbour Docks and Piers Clauses Act 1847 and the Harbours Act (Northern Ireland) 1970 (which equates to the Harbours Act 1964). This confers on all harbour authorities certain powers in respect to port related activities. As in the UK, harbour works are subject to a number of consent procedures as set out in these Acts and other subordinate legislation. The Harbour Works (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2003 are the equivalent to the UK 1999 Harbour Works (EIA) Regulations and provide the requirement for an EIA to be carried out when works occur in a harbour area.
3.3.10 Marine Aggregate Extraction
Control of marine aggregate dredging has historically been exercised through the Government View Procedure, currently administered by the Minerals and Waste Planning Division of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. Licenses to extract marine aggregates are issued by the Crown Estate if the application receives favourable Government View.
Applications for the extraction of marine minerals are currently operating an Interim Procedure. Both the Interim and proposed Statutory Procedures will be administered by ODPM in England, DoE in Northern Ireland, the Welsh Assembly Government and the Scottish Executive, as appropriate. Each application will require an Environmental Impact Assessment and extensive consultation with the fishing industry, relevant government bodies and the general public. Both the Interim and Statutory Procedures have provision to hold a public inquiry if necessary.
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The Coast Protection Act 1949 gives DfT the power to prohibit the extraction of any sand or minerals from the seabed. This is in all locations except Devon and Cornwall where the Sea-Sand Act 1609 gives residents of these counties the right to fetch and take sea sand for land improvements. In addition, boat operators are able to land and transport sea-sand.
Policy Guidance on the Extraction by Dredging of Sand, Gravel and Other Minerals from the English Seabed is set out in Marine Minerals Guidance Note 1 (MMG1) issued by ODPM in 2002. The Summary Consultation Document: Marine Dredging Aggregates Policy, South Wales (May 2001) outlines the policy situation for Wales. In Scotland, the Environmental Impact Assessment and Habitats (Extraction of Minerals by Marine Dredging) (Scotland) Regulations 1999, recommend decision making for marine aggregate extraction in Scotland to be placed on a statutory basis. This recommendation has been drafted by the Scottish Executive.
3.3.11 Offshore Energy
The Mineral Workings Act 1971 regulates activities that relate to the use of installations maintained in the sea or foreshore. Licences for the oil and gas operations are issued by DTI.
Activities relating to the laying of pipelines on the sea bed are regulated through three Acts. Submarine pipelines i.e. those laid on the seabed from the low water mark seawards are authorised under the Petroleum Act 1998. Pipelines laid from the low water mark landwards require planning permission under the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 unless they exceed 10 miles in length in which case they need authorisation under the Pipe-lines Act 1962. Environmental implications must also have been taken into account before permission is granted. The Transport and Works Act (1992) requires an order for the construction and laying of offshore submarine cables.
The Communications Act 2003 gives the operators the right to carry out any works on tidal waters or lands for installation, maintenance or adjustment of telecommunication equipment.
Section 36 of the Electricity Act 1989 requires developers to obtain consent from the Secretary of State (for Trade and Industry) for the construction, extension or operation of a generating station of a capacity above the permitted capacity. For offshore wind and water driven generating stations in the territorial waters around England and Wales, this has been modified under the Electricity Act 1989 (Requirement of Consent for Offshore Wind and Water Driven Generating Stations) (England and Wales) Order 2001 for developments generating one megawatt.
Section 36 consents for generating stations in Scotland rest with Scottish Ministers. The Scottish framework mirrors that in England and Wales (ie: offshore generating stations driven wholly or mainly by wind or water require section 36 consent if their capacity exceeds 1MW (The Electricity Act 1989 (Requirements of Consent for Offshore Generating Stations Scotland Order 2002) which came into force in September 2002).
In Northern Ireland, leases are granted under the three Acts (Foreshore Act, 1933, Foreshore (Amendment) Act 1992 and the Fisheries and Foreshore (Amendment) Act 1998) for the erection of long-term structures (e.g. piers, marinas, bridges, roads, carparks). Licences are also required for other works (e.g. laying of submarine pipelines and cables) and purposes (e.g. aquaculture).
The Energy Bill, which is currently going through the Houses of Parliament, if accepted will enable developers to build wind farms more than 12 nautical miles out to sea, beyond territorial waters.
3.3.12 Military Activities
The Ministry of Defence (MoD) owns a large amount of land along the UK coastline and operates legislation to restrict access and navigation at the coast. Byelaws can be made to restrict access on MoD land and property for operational and safety reasons. The MoD have exemptions from legislation such as the Port Waste Regulations, but have a policy of applying them anyway under normal circumstances. The MoD is also exempt from planning regulations but has an equivalent system provided under Circular 18/84.
The Military Lands Acts of 1892 and 1900 provide powers to exclude access to land owned by the Ministry of Defence for the purposes of military training or national defence, through the making of byelaws.
Dockyard ports are governed by the Dockyard Ports Regulation Act 1865. A dockyard port is a port or other navigable water in or near which Her Majesty has a dock, dockyard, steam factory yard,
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victualling yard, arsenal, wharf or mooring. Each dockyard port is supervised by a Queen's Harbour Master appointed by the Secretary of State for Defence.
The Protection of Military Remains Act applies to any aircraft which crashed at any time while in military service and to vessels designated by the Secretary of State for Defence which sank or were stranded after 4 August 1914 while in military service. All military aircraft are automatically designated under this legislation and wrecks (both in territorial and international waters) either as a Protected Place or as a Controlled Site. There are various restrictions under the designations which make tampering, entering, excavating, diving, salvaging on the site illegal. The Secretary of State for Defence may grant licences authorising conduct that would otherwise be an offence. 3e
3.3.13 Coastal Byelaws
Byelaws are used to regulate activities at a local level. Local authorities, harbour authorities, sea fisheries committees, English Nature and the National Trust are some of the bodies that have powers under different Acts of Parliament to make byelaws 3g.
Byelaws can be made to protect flora and fauna, to manage fisheries, and to regulate recreational activities. They can be used to impose speed restrictions, manage public access deal with dog fouling and other nuisances.
Byelaws are made by local authorities and other bodies under Acts of Parliament. Byelaws made by local authorities in England are confirmed by the ODPM and the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, in Wales by the National Assembly for Wales. Making byelaws can be a long and complex process although the ODPM and MCA have model texts for some byelaws and ODPM has a fast-track procedure for confirming byelaws. Local authorities may also have local or private Acts of Parliament under which they can make byelaws.
Under the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 (control of the seashore, adjacent waters and inland waters, police can take action against people breaching byelaws. The Act gives local authorities powers to manage recreational activities but this is not often taken up and implemented by LA’s because of difficulties of enforcement.
In Northern Ireland, under Section 90 of the 1972 Local Government Act, a council may make bye- laws in accordance with the succeeding provisions of this Part -(a) for the good rule and government of the whole or any part of its district; (b) for the prevention and suppression of nuisances in its district; (c) for any purpose for which bye-laws may be made by it under any other transferred provision. Of relevance to the coast, bye-laws made to date include those for recreational, dog-fouling, drinking in public places and access to open spaces and local authority beaches. The Department of the Environment (DOE) may also make bye-laws to protect ASSIs, European Sites or Nature Reserves, under a range of legislation.
3.4 Overview
Institutional roles and responsibilities in the coastal zone are clearly spread across many organisations and are covered by a large number of legal provisions. Many have been developed in response to sectoral interests but there are also more general provisions and roles, such as development control and land use planning, which are not specific to the coast but have major influence on what takes place there.
Some of the institutions have roles in both the terrestrial and marine environments and therefore span the coastal zone in there geographic jurisdiction, however, there are rarely any interdisciplinary approach which enables institutes to work across sectoral interests. The broadest role and responsibilities fall to local planning authorities although the regulation of coastal zone activities such as inshore fisheries and marine aggregate extraction are not within their remit.
Enforcement of the legal framework is also spread across many organisations and tends to take place within a sector. This provides clarity to specific user groups but this comes with a risk of not achieving the bigger picture of enforcement requirements for all activities at the coast.
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References (including information taken from websites)
3a) Department of Environment (1993) “Coastal Planning and Management: a Review”, prepared by Rendel Geotechnics, 1993, ISBN 011752817X. 3b) ANNEX V - The Protection and Conservation of the Ecosystems and Biological Diversity of the Maritime Area (Reference number 1998-15.1) 3c) Vincent, M.A., Atkins, S.M., Lumb, C.M, Golding, N., Lieberknecht, L.M. and Webster, M. 2004. (2004) Marine nature conservation and sustainable development - the Irish Sea Pilot. Report to Defra by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.
3d) http://www.mceu.gov.uk/MCEU_LOCAL/FEPA/MENU-IE.HTM.
3e) Summary of Current Legislation Relevant to Nature Conservation in the Marine Environment in the United Kingdom - Report 1 11th June 2003, Reference No: ZBB604-F1-2003).
3f) Defra (2001) “Shoreline Management Plans: a guide for coastal defence authorities”.
3g) Defra (2004) “Managing Recreational Activities – a best practice guide for Maritime Local Authorities.
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4 PARTNERSHIPS, PROJECTS AND THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR
4.1 Introduction
Coastal stakeholders are the individuals, groups of people or partnerships of organisations that manage, regulate or have an influence on coastal activities. They can have several simultaneous roles and interests that change with time, and may act as individuals, agents or as part of a group or organisation. Section 3 introduced those stakeholders who have statutory roles or responsibilities. This part of the report describes other key stakeholders and how they interact.
The number and types of stakeholders involved in coastal management can be wide ranging and their involvement and engagement will depend on factors, such as:
¨ The level/scale/type of activity or decision.
¨ The relevance, risk or impact associated with the activity/decision.
¨ Whether the activity/decision is statutory or non-statutory.
¨ Whether there are frameworks in place to encourage participation at the local or community level.
The influence can also be seen at many different levels from the direct influence of coastal engineers responsible for preparing coastal defence plans to supporting a tourist industry at the coast. Key partnerships are described in this section and the integration links (where these occur) between the different stakeholders are described, to provide a comprehensive picture of who does what at the coast and how the different parties interact. No clear distinction is made between a partnership or a forum within this section (often can have different remits/agendas and approaches).
4.2 European, Regional and Cross-border partnerships and projects
There are two European non-governmental organisations with a particular interest in coastal matters. The European Coastal Association for Science and Technology (EUROCOAST) was established in 1989 as an association of scientists, engineers and decision makers within the European community. The UK are included within the current National Federations. Other nations include Croatia, Italy, Portugal, Ukraine, France, Poland and Spain.
The European Union for Coastal Conservation (EUCC – The Coastal Union) is an association with members and member organisations in 40 countries (including the UK). Founded in 1989 with the aim of promoting coastal conservation by bridging the gap between scientists, environmentalists, site managers, planners and policy makers, it has grown since then into the largest network of coastal practitioners and experts in Europe, with 14 National Branches and offices in seven countries.
An Expert Group was set up by the European Commission in 2002 to support the implementation of the EU ICZM Recommendation. Its purpose is to allow exchanges of experiences among Member States in building national ICZM strategies; assist in establishing a common understanding and interpretation of the Recommendation requirements, so as to enhance its coherent implementation and to provide transparency and visibility to the Recommendation implementation process.
Sectoral initiatives that seek to improve communication and wider involvement in coastal management also operate at international and European levels. The establishment of Regional Advisory Councils (RACs) under the reformed Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is one example which aims to increase the participation of those affected by the CFP and to get better and more regionally
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focused fisheries management. They will be coalitions of a wide range of interest groups, the majority of which will be from the fishing sector, organised to review and inform regional implementation of the CFP.
There are a number of trans-national partnerships and initiatives around the country based around “Regional Seas” such as the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the North Sea and partnerships working across borders. Some examples are described below.
4.2.1 Arc Manche
Arc Manche is a network of French Regions and British local authorities along the English Channel founded in 1996. The group itself also involves other stakeholders and bodies in its activities. Members include Regions of Brittany, Nord-Pas de Calais, Lower Normandy, Upper Normandy, Picardy and the Counties of Dorset, Hampshire, Kent, West Sussex, East Sussex and the Isle of Wight (with the counties of Essex, Cornwall and Devon as observers).
The aims of the group are to:
¨ obtain recognition of the specificity of the Channel area by the EU;
¨ develop a joint initiative on the future of the area;
¨ achieve improved integration of the Channel coastal regions within Europe;
¨ enhance the local and regional economies;
¨ propose a framework for cooperation between our regions on common themes.
The working group on “Environmental and Coastal Management” has been the most active and has had notable success including several activities and projects, in particular the organisation of two conferences on coastal issues and European funding for a trans-national coastal erosion project (Eurosion 4a and a sustainable tourism project to help improve the trans-national understanding of the coast and its communities and improve cooperation.
4.2.2 Irish Sea Forum
The Irish Sea Forum (set up in 1990) was set up to discuss and exchange information on the Irish Sea. The objectives of the forum were the enhancement of the environmental health of the Irish Sea and its associated coastal features and estuaries, and the assessment of the priorities for the enhancement of the environment and the sustainable use of its resources by the promotion of strategies for integrated development. The Forum is a non-profit making organisation which was supported by the relevant departments of both the British and Irish Governments and includes as members individuals with an interest in the environment, voluntary organisations, district and county councils, educational establishments, industrial and commercial companies and organisations, as well as statutory bodies. Due to financial problems, the Forum will cease operation in July 2004.
4.2.3 Irish Sea Pilot Study (ISP)
The UK government’s Review of Marine Nature Conservation (RMNC) recommended the establishment of a pilot to test new approaches for achieving marine nature conservation at a regional sea scale. The Irish Sea, an ecologically-distinct regional sea, was chosen as the Pilot area.
The Irish Sea Pilot 4b aims to: ¨ test ways of integrating nature conservation into key sectors in order to make an effective contribution to sustainable development on a regional basis;
¨ determine the potential of existing regulatory and other systems to deliver effective marine;
¨ nature conservation, and identify any gaps; and
¨ recommend measures to fill the gaps identified.
The Irish Sea Pilot Project was completed in March 2004.
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4.2.4 Severn Estuary Partnership (SEP)
Since its inception in 1995, the Severn Estuary Partnership has sought to foster co-operation between the many public, non-statutory and commercial organisations with interests and responsibilities in the estuary, and to encourage a more co-ordinated approach to management activities in the area, including across the English-Welsh border. This has taken place against a backdrop of evolving external organisational arrangements, including the establishment of the National Assembly for Wales in 1999 and a major local government re-organisation in 1996. With a distinct emphasis on participation and extensive consultation, long-term and positive relationships between partners have been established. These have been facilitated by active support from both Welsh and English representatives, particularly through the Partnership’s Steering Group and Working Group, and from time to time through ad hoc technical groups overseeing specific project requirements, such as the current Severn INTERREG Project Working Group.
4.2.5 Solway Firth Partnership
Since it was formed in 1994, the Solway Firth Partnership has successfully brought together a large number of organisations, agencies, companies and individuals (in England and Scotland) to work in partnership for the Solway Firth. The geographic area covered by the partnership is cross border and encompasses within it a European Marine Site under the EC Habitats Directive. The Partnerships objective is “to work with local people to increase sustainable use and management of the Solway to secure an environmental sustainable future for the Solway Firth Area which allows the economy to prosper while respecting the distinctive character, natural features, wildlife and habitats of the Solway Firth”.
The Solway Firth Partnership has approximately 1700 registered members, who are kept informed of the work of the SFP Steering Group via regular mailings. The steering group brings together statutory agencies / bodies from England and Scotland and a smaller subset of this group, the Management Group, undertakes the day to day running of the forum and implementation of the SFP strategy. The wider membership of the partnership has the opportunity to discuss and influence management by the Steering Group, via an annual conference. Similar consultation mechanisms occur within other Firths partnerships throughout Scotland.
Figure 4-1 and 4.2 overleaf show the location of the different partnerships in the UK.
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Figure 4-1: Location of Partnerships and Forums in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (excluding Coastal Groups – see Section 4.4.2)
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Figure 4.2 : Location of Partnerships and Forums in Scotland.
4.3 National and Regional Stakeholders
4.3.1 Non Government Organisations (NGO’s) A number of national NGOs take an active interest in coastal matters ranging from large independent landowners such as the National Trust to lobbying organisations such as WWF-UK. These NGOs play many roles in the sustainable management of marine resources, and often act as a link between local communities and government bodies, the academic community or industry.
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The National Trust is an independent charity with over three million members. It owns over 600 miles of coast and more than 53,000 hectares of hinterland, now owning one in every five miles of coastline in England, Wales and NI. The Trust promotes sustainable management of the land by working with others such as the Neptune campaign to raise money to buy coastal land through its Neptune Campaign.
A similar body, the National Trust for Scotland protects and promotes Scotland's natural and cultural heritage. With over 250,000 members it is the largest conservation charity in Scotland, and owns considerable areas of coast and a number of islands.
The Wildlife Trusts are a network of local groups working at county level, with other stakeholders to help manage nature conservation at a local level. There are 47 independent, charitable Wildlife Trusts (six in Scotland, six in Wales, one in Northern Ireland). The Wildlife Trusts also have national representation, acting on behalf of all the local groups when commenting on policy and lobbying at a national or international level. The Trusts together own 500 reserves and are helped by 25,000 volunteers.
The Marine Conservation Society (MCS) is the UK's national charity dedicated to the protection of the marine environment and its wildlife. Founded in 1977, MCS has worked successfully to highlight issues of concern and threats to marine wildlife and the wider marine environment, bringing them to the attention of the public, media, politicians and Government agencies alike. MCS informs Government, the European Union and industry with sound, accurate advice. MCS has a regular presence in Whitehall and Westminster and enjoys a very high media profile in TV, radio and newspapers, consistently bringing marine conservation to the attention of the UK public.
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) also buy and manage land to promote their objectives (and has 176 nature reserves, over 121,000 hectares) and work with stakeholders on a number of levels. The RSPB covers the UK with Committees for Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales and the English regions represented on a national board. The group works with stakeholders at a number of levels;
¨ working with decision-makers on behalf of birds and the environment;
¨ researching wildlife problems and promoting practical solutions;
¨ protects, restores and manages important areas for wildlife across the UK;
¨ share experience and knowledge; tackles habitat crime and habitat loss;
¨ works with landowners and farmers to help countryside birds;
¨ works internationally through the global partnership of Birdlife International (website).
Many of the most influential environmental marine and coastal voluntary organisations in the UK co- ordinate their consultation responses through the Marine Task Force of the Wildlife and Countryside Link (Link). ‘Link’ has increased the efficiency and effectiveness of the NGO sector, bringing together relevant environmental voluntary organisations to exchange information and to develop and promote policies through active research and policy programmes. Recently, it has co-ordinated NGO input to the government’s Review of Marine Nature Conservation and the Irish Sea regional pilot sea project as well as promoting issues such as marine spatial planning (Wildlife, Countryside and Environment, 2003).
Major NGOs operating in Scotland (including the RSPB, WWF Scotland and the Scottish Wildlife Trust) liaise through Scottish Environment Link which was established 13 years ago to provide a forum and network for its member organisations. The NGOs can use Link as a mechanism for delivery of combined comment upon important consultations as well as a combined lobbying platform.
In Wales, the Wales Environment Link (WEL) group of NGOs is currently taking a watching brief on the wider activities of the Joint Links marine group, only advising on what would or would not be appropriate for Wales.
Northern Ireland Environment Link (NIEL) was formally set up in 1990 as one of four Links throughout the UK. It is not specifically coastal NGO, though delivers its wide environmental Mission through establishing partnerships with the full range of organisations with an interest in the environment and providing a central point of access to the environmental sector in Northern Ireland.
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The Joint Nautical Archaeological Policy Committee (JNAPC) was set up as a non statutory committee representing a wide range of interests in the preservation of the UK underwater heritage. This essentially acts as a pressure group, though has produced a useful Code of Practise for sea bed developers to adhere to. A similar lobbying organisation for heritage related issues includes the Council for British Archaeology.
CoastNET is a charitable organisation that receives small amounts of central government funding, and seeks to link individuals and organisations working for the sustainable management of the coastal and marine environment.
4.3.2 National Coastal Forums
The idea of setting up national Coastal For a came out of discussions in the early 1990’s on how best to encourage a more integrated approach to coastal management. The Coastal Forum for England was the first to be set up but is no longer operating. At the last meeting, in October 2000, delegates discussed where best to focus effort to influence and develop the policy and practice of ICM. A report of the meeting summarises what were considered to be European, national, regional and local priorities (CoastNET, 2000). The Forum has not met since then and its future status is unclear at the present time.
The Scottish Coastal Forum (SCF) was set up by the Scottish Office (now Scottish Executive) in 1996 as a permanent forum and operates as the Secretariat through an independent chair. The SCF is a very active group with a membership of around 20 organisations and individuals drawn from a wide range of coastal and marine interests. Examples of work carried out under its auspices include an audit of Scottish coastal plans, acting as a central focus for local coastal forums in Scotland, responding to Government consultations eg: the 2002 Review of the Common Fisheries Policy, and disseminating information on coastal management to a wide audience. A major focus of current work is the development of a Scottish Coastal Strategy which is now produced to a draft level (2004).
Table 4.1 Overview of UK National Coastal Forums (from WWF UK 2002)
Year Terms of Reference Current Main working methods Estab. status
1994 ENGLISH COASTAL FORUM In abeyance Set up and originally chaired by DoE, Provide for an exchange of views last meeting organised by CoastNet – a by those concerned, including coastal heritage network. representatives of central and local Attendance by coastal and marine government, and conservation, interest groups, no formal membership. commercial and recreation bodies Formal meetings (7 since established) and organisations. with presentations and discussions – sometimes in small groups. Promote understanding of the Idea of sub-groups to work on particular proposed policy guidelines for the policy areas between main forum coast. meetings was proposed but only one was ever established (covering nature Assist evaluation of local and other conservation). action in implementing coastal zone management initiatives, and to monitor preparation and publication of a guide to good practice.
To build on existing liaison arrangements at regional and local level
1996 SCOTTISH COASTAL FORUM Operational Set up by Scottish Office Independent chair Encourage a voluntary, sustainable Membership drawn from wide range of and holistic approach to the coastal stakeholder representatives management of Scotland's Coasts through the formation of local Methods of working include formal coastal forums; meetings (17 since established), conferences, seminars and working Act as the national focus for groups. Outputs include topic papers, coastal issues and co-ordinate the research reports and responses to dissemination of advice on best consultations.
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practice;
Reflect views and aspirations of local forums for the coast of Scotland and guide a national policy framework within which local initiatives can operate; and
Advise Government in the development of coastal policies for Scotland.
2002 WALES COASTAL AND Operational Developed from the Wales Coastal MARITIME PARTNERSHIP Forum which was established in 1997.
To help inform policy development Methods of working include meetings in Wales on the sustainable and responses to consultation papers development and management of and preparation of other papers to the Welsh coastal areas and inform Assembly debates on coastal maritime waters. matters. May acts as an Advisory group which can be called on by Environment To help take forward the Minister of Welsh Assembly Government implementation of the EU Recommendation on integrated coastal zone planning and management in Wales.
To provide better co-ordination of national and local policies for Welsh coastal areas and maritime waters and to complement existing consultation mechanisms.
To facilitate the integrated management and use of the Welsh coastal areas and maritime waters by encouraging debate and by building partnerships supporting the exchange and dissemination of information and good practice.
To co-operate with other national and regional coastal forums.
To support research where this could identify gaps and add value to existing research activity on coastal and maritime issues.
The Wales Coastal and Maritime Partnership (WCMP) has evolved from the Wales Coastal Forum. There is a part-time officer, based in the Welsh Assembly and the link to Government is mostly through the Countryside and Coastal Policy Branch which comes under the jurisdiction of the Environment, Planning and Transport Department of the Welsh Assembly Government. The work plan for 2002/3 included follow up to the work of the Assembly’s Renewable Energy Working Group, review of flood and coastal defence funding mechanisms, and the development of sustainability indicators for coastal environment. The WCMP Terms of Reference dictates the work plan for the partnership.
The idea of a national coastal forum for Northern Ireland was first proposed in 1995 as part of Northern Ireland Environment Policy. However, despite receiving support in principle from the Environment Committee and the Minister, it was never established. Lack of funding has been cited as the principle reason for the lack of progress. Attention has recently been refocused on this issue with recommendations put forward for the creation of a Northern Ireland Coastal Forum.
Experience to date with national coastal forums raises some relevant issues about consultation, advice, delivery, and information exchange as part of the implementation of ICM. The greatest strength of these groups in their present form is seen as providing an opportunity for networking - keeping up-to-date, exchanging information and raising issues for discussion. A far less successful aspect, up to now, has been their ability to influence government policy and facilitate action on the ground. Part of the difficulty lies with the voluntary nature of the forums, and the informal or unclear links with the development of Government policy. The forums are a useful sounding board and initial
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drafting group to work on these matters and are therefore playing a part in the development of Government response to these issues.
4.3.3 Commercial Sector Partnerships The benefits of partnership working have also been recognised by the commercial sector and there are a number of trade associations of particular relevance to the coast. In the majority of cases, they have a sectoral interest only.
The UK Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA) is representative organisation for the UK offshore oil and gas industry. Its members are companies licensed by the Government for the exploration of and production of oil and gas in UK waters and have published general and specific guidelines for oil and gas activities.
To improve consultation and liaison within the aggregate extraction industry, private companies formed the British Marine Aggregate Producers Association (BMAPA) which acts as a focal point for the industry. BMAPA has produced a number of publications including regional zoning maps. BMAPA and English Heritage worked together in partnership to produce guidance on dredging impacts on marine heritage and archaeological concerns which may arise.
The British Ports Association (BPA) is a trade association whose function is to represent members' interests directly to policy makers - the UK government, the European Commission and a host of other organisations which have an influence on the port sector. By consulting such a wide range of port interests, the BPA is able to set an agenda for the ports industry with clear policy targets. Alongside its representational work is the comprehensive in-house information service which the Association provides, much of it covering specialist interests. The BPA organises conferences and seminars on topical issues and participates in a range of UK and European R&D projects. BPA members represent a very broad cross section of the UK port industry encompassing the trust, private and municipal sectors. Its members cover every kind of activity ranging from large cargo handling ports to small leisure ports. The spread of these interests mean that the Association has to maintain a very wide range of contacts within government.
The UK Major Ports Group is a trade association representing the major ports handling 60% of the trade passing through British ports. This group now includes the UK Independent Ports Association (UKIPA) which included ports of Harwich, Felixstowe, Bristol and Thamesport.
The British Marine Federation (BMF) is the trade association for the British boating industry. The Federation's 1,500 Members account for 90% of the industry's turnover and employ about 30,000 people. They are drawn from both the seagoing and inland sectors of the marine industry covering the leisure boat, hire fleet, commercial workboat and super-yacht categories and supporting services
The Salvage Association (commercial salvage) is the worlds premier marine casualty surveying organisation, which is now part of British Maritime Technology, whose annual turnover is around £45million (IACMST 2002).
With specific reference to the offshore wind industry, the British Wind Energy Association (BWEA) is the largest renewable energy body in the UK, representing more than 300 companies active in the sector. Membership interests range across the entire industry from wind energy research, consultancy and manufacture to financing and insurance, development, operation and associated services.
Within the fishing industry, a non-profit making company the Shetland Shellfish Management Organisation Limited (SSMO) has been established in order to manage the shellfisheries of Shetland. Working closely with local shell fishermen, Shetland Islands Council, the North Atlantic Fisheries College and the Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency, Scottish Natural Heritage and fish processing interests, it is the aim of the SSMO Ltd, to undertake sustainable management of inshore shellfish fisheries for the benefit of the people of Shetland. Scientific research undertaken by the fisheries college will undertake the management decisions taken for these fisheries.
The Sea Fish Industry Authority (Seafish) works across all sectors of the UK seafood industry to promote good quality, sustainable seafood. They undertake research and projects aimed at raising standards, improving efficiency and ensuring that the industry within the UK develops in a viable way. They are the UK’s only cross-industry seafood body working with fishermen, processors, wholesalers, seafood farmers, fish-friers, caterers, retailers and the import/export trade.
The Tidy Britain Group (TBG) are responsible for the implementation of the Seaside Awards around the UK. TBG designate awards based on two categories of beach; 'resort' and 'rural'. A Seaside
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Award will be given to a beach, which complies with all appropriate legislation, including the Bathing Water Directive and fulfils 28 land-based criteria, in the case of the resort and 12 in the case of a rural beach. The aim of the TBG Seaside Award is to acknowledge those beaches which are visited and enjoyed for their intrinsic qualities, and where local interest and management maintains a clean environment whilst at the same time promoting considerate use by visitors.
The Blue Flag scheme is an international award involving stringent tests on cleanliness and visitor facilities. It is administered in the UK by environmental charity Environmental Campaigns (ENCAMS). In 2003, there were 105 qualified UK beaches under this scheme.
The Green Sea (Môr Glas) Partnership is an all-Wales partnership which is concerned with enhancing coastal and particularly beach environmental quality. The partnership initially developed in the mid 1990s alongside Welsh Water massive sewerage treatment improvement programme and the commitment by the Wales Tourist Board in its national tourist strategy (Tourism 2000) to support local authorities to participate in Blue Flag Award schemes. The Welsh Tourist Board is producing a directory to help co-ordinate and provide details of organisations to people world-wide. They will also provide a guide to beaches and organise meetings to discuss relevant issues and progress to date.
4.4 Sub Regional and Local Authority Groups
4.4.1 Local Authorities and Harbour Authorities The Local Government Association (LGA), established in 1997, represents all local authorities in England and was formed to promote better local government and working with the Government to improve public services.
The LGA set up a Coastal Special Interest Group (SIG) which acts on behalf of coastal LAs in lobbying government and raising awareness of coastal issues. For example, the LGA Coastal SIG produced a coastal strategy identifying the actions needed to be undertaken to improve coastal management in England and Wales, and has carried out additional policy research to help develop and promote ICZM (LGA 2001).
The Welsh Local Government Association (WLGA) represents the interests of local authorities in Wales. It is a constituent part of the LGA but retains full autonomy in dealing with Welsh affairs. Its main method of working through collaboration on multi-disciplinary team projects from across the public sector. These teams are working with private-sector suppliers to identify means to improve value for money for Welsh local authorities. No specific coastal projects have been set up to date.
The Northern Ireland Local Government Association (NILGA) has 157 members from all the 26 councils and representing all the political parties. Whilst not promoting specifically coastal issues, NILGA aims to be the voice of local government, representing the interests of Local Government to Government Departments, Parliament, International Institutions and other bodies. It also formulates policies for: the development of Local Government; promotes the effective management of local authorities and the enhancement of local democratic processes in NI to provide a forum for debate.
Similarly in Scotland, the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA) provide a useful forum for interaction between local authorities, agencies and Scottish Executive on a range of issues including those on the coast.
Individual local authorities or harbour authorities may become involved in statutory or non-statutory forums and groups to help in the management of specific areas, topics or functions. The level of involvement will depend on the remit and objectives of the particular group.
Local Strategic Partnerships (LSPs), for example, are single non-statutory, multi-agency bodies in England which match local authority boundaries, and aim to bring together at a local level the different parts of the public, private, community and voluntary sectors. LSPs should also provide a single co-ordinating framework to prepare and implement a Community Strategy, with the aim of improving the economic, social and environmental well-being of an area. LSPs are being set up across England, but in the 88 most deprived local authority areas, they are receiving additional resources through the Government’s Neighbourhood Renewal Fund. In many cases, local authorities have taken the lead in establishing LSPs. However, once established, LSPs are able to decide who they feel is most appropriate to lead and chair the partnership.
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4.4.2 Shoreline Management (Regional) Coastal Groups
There are 18 voluntary regional coastal defence groups covering the English and Welsh coastlines. In the main, they comprise representatives of the 105 maritime district councils, English Nature, Defra, the National Assembly of Wales and the Environment Agency.
Coastal Groups provide a sub-regional forum for managing and developing the shoreline management plans in England and Wales. Defra provide guidance on membership, namely; representatives from all operating authorities with statutory responsibility in the area; representation from local planning authorities; CCW or English Nature; and significant bodies with an interest or stake in the shoreline and the Defra Regional Engineer. The Groups should be supported by a secretariat and lead by a Chairman from the lead authority. The Chairmen of each group also meet regularly with national Agency and Defra officers to discuss progress, research and issues. The meetings of the Coastal Group Chairmen provides an additional link between the sub-regional (or sediment sub-cell) and national levels.
In some areas, Coastal Groups are now consulted on a wide variety of issues. For example, SCOPAC (Standing Conference on Problems Associated with the Coast – established in 1982) are consulted on ‘draft policy guidelines; proposed policy changes; questionnaires on financial and other (most pragmatic) matters and advance notifications of various types.
For Scotland, a similar initiative has been developed. The current Flood Appraisal Group (FAG) concept, set up via the Scottish Executive, is set up to ensure every LA has a FAG in place. Such a group helps LA’s to solve problems on flood risk issues, advising property developers and preparing guidelines on best practice which can be broadly disseminated to other groups/LA’s. The insurance industry welcomed this initiative and the FAGs help LA’s adopt the guidelines into their respective planning policy.
No such initiative exists within Northern Ireland at present.
4.4.3 Coastal or Estuary Forums and Partnerships
The 1999 review of English Nature’s estuaries initiatives (Jemmett et al 1999) identified important elements for the successful management of estuaries. Partnerships and their role in awareness raising, conflict prevention, assisting the development of other plans and initiatives and the financial issues supporting them were identified as being particularly useful. For example, the Solway Forth Partnership has been identified as an example of linking Coastal National Parks and UKBAP targets as well as improving links to other initiatives.
In many areas local authorities have provided the official base for coastal partnerships. This is often because the authority can support the initiative through administrative support services, in kind contributions, application for European and other funding sources and because, in many cases, the local authority are seen as the honest broker.
Many coastal forums work with local academic institutions to undertake research to help address management issues and bridge the gap between coastal managers and the academic community. Two examples are the Solent Forum with the Southampton Oceanography Centre and Southampton University, and Plymouth Marine Laboratories with the Tamar SACs initiative.
Some Forums also work in schools to relay messages to wider stakeholder groups. One example is the Forth Estuary Forum and the Morecambe Bay Partnership who were involved in an initiative called “Mermaids Purse” to help provide coastal education within schools.
Most fora have been set up in response to a local issue, but there has also been some general promotion of coastal forums such as English Nature’s Estuary Initiative and SNH’s Focus on Firths initiative provided pump-priming for estuary-wide partnerships.
Some examples of local coastal initiatives and forums (non-exhaustive list) are described below and cited in Figure 4.1 and 4.2.
Solent Forum Established in December 1992, the Solent Forum was set up to develop a greater understanding among the authorities and agencies involved in planning and management in the Solent area, and to assist and influence them in carrying out their functions. The area covered by the Forum is the whole of the Solent, including Southampton Water and the three main harbours - Portsmouth, Langstone
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and Chichester. The western limit is a line between the eastern tip of the Isle of Wight and Selsey Bill. Its website contains a metadata base of GIS data, published coastal reports and plans and guidance on coastal strategy.
Dorset Coastal Forum The Dorset Coastal Forum was established in 1995 to look at the long-term strategic issues facing the Dorset coast. The Dorset Coastal Forum is raising awareness about these issues in communities along the South West coast through improved visitor facilities, education programmes, newsletters, information boards and a website. The Dorset Coastal Strategy sets out a strategic future for the coast, covering the coastline and inshore seas from Lyme Regis to Highcliffe.
Moray Firth Partnership Established in 1996, the Moray Firth Partnership covers the north east of Scotland and has over 600 members made up of representatives or partners from industry, the local authorities, conservation bodies, recreational users, local residents all with an interest in the future well-being of the Moray Firth. The Partnership has developed a community grants scheme so local groups can undertake a range of projects to deliver integrated coastal management in their area. The development of the Management Guidelines and an Action Programme for the Moray Firth was carried out through extensive consultation with coastal experts and public participation.
Strangford Lough Management Advisory Committee The advisory committee on the management of Strangford Lough – Northern Ireland’s leading marine site in terms of conservation – has been trying to resolve local problems since its formation in 1992 and acts as an advisory body to the Northern Ireland Government. The Committee has 18 member organisations and Minister nominees. Members include local councils, conservation, fishing, agriculture, recreation and other interests. It has set up working groups to deal with specific issues. The Committee is funded 75% by Environment and Heritage Service and 25% by two local councils.
North West Coast Forum The North West Coastal Forum is a multi-agency partnership bringing together stakeholders from the public, private and voluntary sectors working to promote and deliver integrated management for north-west coastal areas to ensure their long term sustainability. The Forum is a unique regional organisation, which has been promoted as a model of good practice in the UK.
The Thames Estuary Partnership (TEP) The Thames Estuary Partnership is an "umbrella" body which aims co-ordinate action and projects across the many organisations and sectors involved on the estuary. To aid the co-ordination of activities the Partnership is in the process of establishing action groups to drive forward partnership work on specific issues. The Partnership is guided by a Steering Group of key players from across the estuary and managed on a day-to-day basis by a smaller Management Group. The Management Group oversees the work of the Partnership Staff who provide a neutral team to drive forward the work of the Partnership.
4.4.4 Other sub-regional groups
The Industry Nature Conservation Association (INCA) was founded to help bring balance to the debate about economic development and the protection of the natural environment in the Tees valley in north east England. There is now much more environmental legislation and business is more environmentally aware, which has increased the demand for INCA’s services. This has brought significant benefits to the Tees Valley through more sustainable development and a better local environment.
INCA membership includes industry, regulatory agencies, local authorities and conservation organisations. It is a forum to:-
¨ Build consensus on sustainability.
¨ Support business in meeting environmental standards.
¨ Promote conservation in the industrial setting.
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The Torridon Project in north-west Scotland, is an example of a sustainable fishery initiative with strong support from local fishermen and is being undertaken in partnership with them, the local authority, SNH and the Scottish Executive (SE). The success of the project depends upon statutory measures by SE, voluntary measures by fishermen and support from SNH and the Highland Council. It is hoped that with success of the fisheries component of the study, a second socio-economic component will receive strong local support, paving the way for greater integration of aspects of coastal management.
In Scotland, the Scottish Borders Local Biodiversity Action Plan (Coastal and Marine Working Group) is made up of key local partners including SNH, NTS and SEPA to integrate actions for biodiversity along the coastal strip and in the marine environment. Activities mainly focus on coastal habitats and the inshore marine.
Other sub-regional groups include:
¨ Coleraine Borough Council Inter-Departmental Working Group on coastal issues.
¨ Causeway Coast and Glens Heritage Trust.
¨ North West Rural Development Group (Northern Ireland).
¨ Mourne Foreshore Lands Group (Northern Ireland).
¨ Belfast Harbour Forum – (pre- 2002).
¨ Fair Isle Tourism Initiative.
¨ Sefton Beach Management Initiative (see Section 5).
¨ Milford Haven Surveillance Group.
4.5 Research and Education
Over the last decade there has been a considerable increase in the provision of higher education (HE) courses related to coastal management 4c / 4d. This has accompanied a parallel upsurge of academic interest in coastal issues in the UK and an increase in demand for suitable graduates for a new generation of coastal management positions, including for coastal/estuary forums and partnerships. In addition to degree course programmes in traditional subjects, such as geography and biology, which frequently include modules on aspects of coastal management, a number of tertiary programmes, entirely focused on coastal and marine resource management (Table 4.1 – see below), have developed. Of the current degree programmes which focus on such aspects, most are delivered at postgraduate level and educate graduates from a wide spectrum of discipline backgrounds.
In addition to core discipline training, which provides a sound understanding of coastal functions, processes and systems, most courses include the development of key personal transferable skills, including communication, presentational, team-work and ICT (information and communication technologies) skills. A recent, but currently defunct Coastal Sciences and Management National Discipline network in HE identified the need for such courses to provide coastal scientist / manager with the following 4d:
¨ core discipline training.
¨ political / legal / social awareness.
¨ Key Personal transferable skills (PTS).
¨ Communication skills, including verbal, written and effective presentational skills including use of IT visual aids.
¨ IT skills.
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¨ Statistical skills and survey design.
¨ Fieldwork-related skills.
¨ Team work (appropriate for large and small groups).
¨ Planning and time management/decision-making skills.
¨ Interpersonal and organisational skills.
¨ Safety and monitoring / recording skills.
¨ Career management abilities.
¨ Subject specific skills and knowledge, (environmental law and sustainability).
Although there is little detailed analysis of the teaching strategies used, many UK courses appear to include problem-orientated case studies and active learning processes. Such ‘aligned’ teaching strategies4e include an understanding of public participation and stakeholder involvement processes. Formal links with coastal management employers are often a feature of HE courses. These include:
¨ Involvement of employers in curriculum design.
¨ Students undertaking ‘industrial / field visits to the ‘industry’.
¨ Guest lectures from speakers in ‘industry’.
¨ Internships, including provision of ‘dissertation’ material.
Currently, there is no national or sub-national network for coastal or marine HE programme providers in the UK although discussions are underway to re-establish one if suitable funding could be made available.
Table 4.2 Coastal and marine management Higher Education Courses in the UK (Information correct as of January 2004)
HE Institute Course title Masters Other degree qualification Aberdeen Coastal Management MA University Marine Resource Management (including BSc degree scheme sub-titled Marine and Coastal Planning) Bournemouth Environment and Coastal Management (BSc) BSc University Coastal Zone Management MSc / PgDip
Exeter University Coastal Zone Environmental Management BSc Glamorgan Coastal Conservation & Management MSc University Greenwich Coastal and Estuarine Management MSc and University PgDip (Medway University Campus)
Heriot Watt Marine Resource Management MSc / University PgDip (Edinburgh) Marine Resource Development and Protection MSc / PgDip
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Kings College, Marine Resource Management MSc London Newcastle Upon Tropical Coastal Management MSc / Tyne PgDip Pembrokeshire Coastal Zone and Marine Environment Studies BSc / HND College (accredited college of the University of Glamorgan) Plymouth Coastal and Ocean Policy MSc/PgD University ip / MRes Portsmouth Coastal and Marine Resource Management MSc University Southampton Coastal conservation and management BSc Institute Ulster University Virtual - MSc Coastal Zone Management /PgDip
4.6 Local Level (Residents and users / visitors)
Citizens in this context are classified as anyone who uses the coast, although they have no authority in decision-making. Understandably, citizens are only closely involved in matters when a key issue arises that stirs local debate and forces actions groups to be set up to address the issue.
Local residents can often provide valuable information on coastal management related information. In England and Wales, local flood forums provide information about the extent or depth of flooding in their locality (mainly anecdotal) in the form of location provision of properties flooded, or through the provision of photographic evidence. At some locations, local Flood Wardens are provided to record a flood event or mark maximum flood levels. Community Councils operate in Scotland and are generally effective at collecting local views. These are established to promote the well-being of the community resident in areas by ascertaining, co-ordinating and expressing to the local authorities, public authorities and any other bodies the views of the community.
Issues associated with shoreline management are very emotive and there are a number of cases where local communities are unhappy with the SMP policies and group together as ‘single issue’ groups to lobby for a change in policy. For example, in Exmouth house owners formed a residents group to campaign for better defences as they believed that they were not sufficiently informed of the flood risk issues. In Happisburgh (North Norfolk), residents have formed a Coastal Concern Action Group to raise awareness and lobby for the provision of coastal defences (or compensation) for a cliff top community at risk from coastal erosion. Information is disseminated through a website and the group lobby the local authority, coastal group, national government and most recently the European Commission.
An example of other types of local coastal group involvement include the Mablethorpe Residents' Association which started in 1991 with a campaign to prevent the badger sets being destroyed when a road through dunes was being constructed. The campaign was successful and it was felt that Mablethorpe needed a "Voice for the People", so the Association continued its' work. The Association now allows residents to have their say in public matters and items of concern or interest, and the Association will take the matter up on their behalf, and liaise with other bodies.
Many coastal management projects could not be undertaken without the help and support of local volunteers. There are over three million members of the National Trust, over one million members of the RSPB and 25,000 volunteers working for the Wildlife Trusts. Local clubs and recreational groups can actively influence site specific coastal management when situations dictate. For example, the Stone Water Sports Club in Essex is a water-skiing club that has begun to voluntarily enforce regulations. This arose following the need to enforce speed restrictions within the local estuary.
Similarly, much of the nearshore of England is currently being surveyed by recreational divers through the Seasearch initiative. The divers are mapping the seabed to provide a national data base of nearshore marine habitats for the UK coast held at the Natural History Museum.
In Northern Ireland, the Co-ordinated Local Aquaculture Management Systems (CLAMS) process is a non-statutory initiative introduced by the UK Government in 2004 as a means of managing the development of aquaculture at a local level in bays and inshore waters throughout Northern Ireland. The concept is to develop a management plan for each bay that fully integrates aquaculture interests
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with relevant national and European policies whilst incorporating the interests of all groups using the bays and inshore waters. Currently, a CLAMS group is being driven forward in Carlingford Lough comprising of representatives from all aquaculture interest groups including producers, a liason officer, the Irish Sea Fisheries Board (BIM), the aquaculture initiative (EEIG), the Marine Institute, the Republic of Ireland Government, the Loughs Agency and DARD.
4.7 Overview
There is a variety of voluntary coastal groups currently in existence, of which Coastal Partnerships are just one type. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate the diversity of such groups in the UK. The range of groups extends from international networks to local and regional partnerships and groupings. Sectoral groups seek voluntary integration in specific coastal interest sectors (such as coastal defence), while multi-sectoral groups explicitly attempt to deliver co-ordination amongst all coastal users. Partnerships are the most locally focussed voluntary coastal group. They are described as action-centred networks, which are flexible groupings of cognitive representatives whose purpose is information sharing, discussion, consensus building and strategy development.
In addition to local groups, the commercial sector has created groupings based on specific coastal sectors, though memberships are often inclusive of partners within that sector. Evidence of the commercial sector actively involved within broad interest partnerships is improving, though remains as the exception around the UK.
References
4a) Eurosion - http://www.eurosion.org/
4b) Vincent, M.A., Atkins, S.M., Lumb, C.M, Golding, N., Lieberknecht, L.M. and Webster, M. 2004. (2004) Marine nature conservation and sustainable development - the Irish Sea Pilot. Report to Defra by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.
4c) Cicin-Sain, B., Knecht, R., Vallega, A. and Harakunarak, A. (2000) Education and training in Integrated Coastal management: lessons from the international arena, Genoa Special issue on Education and Training in Integrated Coastal management, Ocean and Coastal Management, Volume 43 (4 – 5), 291 – 330.
4d) Ducrotoy, J-P., Shastri., S and Williams, P. (2000) Coastal sciences and management: the need for networking in higher education, Ocean and Coastal Management, 43, 427 – 444.
4e) Fletcher, S. and Dodds, W. (2003) The use of a virtual learning environment to enhance ICM capacity building, Marine Policy, 27 (3), 241 – 249.
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5 TOWARDS INTEGRATED ZONE COASTAL MANAGEMENT
A desire to improve the planning and management of coastal activities around the UK has been voiced by many organisations, and on many occasions, from the non-governmental Coastal Preservation Committee set up in 1936, to the 2002 ‘Marine Stewardship Report’ of Defra, the Scottish Executive and the Welsh Assembly Government.
The response has been a range of initiatives and actions to improve the planning and management of activities at the coast. Policy has been developed through coastal planning guidance, attempts have been made to resolve conflicts of interest through local estuary plans, practical works, such as coastal realignment projects have sought to deliver more holistic management on the ground, and wider ownership and appreciation of coastal issues has been sought through much greater involvement of local stakeholders in coastal projects.
Much of this work has been driven by an environmental agenda and, in particular, the case for conservation of coastal biodiversity and recognition of the need to safeguard areas of scenic beauty. However other drivers such as economic imperatives and the desire to involve stakeholders in making decisions that affect them are equally important and they have become more apparent in coastal initiatives of recent years. Today, the mix of environment, economic and social factors that deliver sustainable development are informing the current debate on how to shape a future of ICZM in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, and the UK as a whole.
In 2002, the European Parliament and the European Council of Ministers recommended that Member States follow eight principles in formulating national strategies for ICZM and any subsequent measures based on these strategies. These principles are:
¨ a broad overall perspective.
¨ a long-term perspective.
¨ adaptive management.
¨ local specificity.
¨ working with natural processes and respecting the carrying capacity of ecosystems.
¨ involving all the parties concerned.
¨ support and involvement of relevant administrative bodies at national, regional and local level.
¨ using a combination of instruments.
These principles are the foundation on which UK and national ICZM initiatives are likely to be built and against which success will be measured. Consequently, they have been used to structure the following discussion of progress towards ICZM in the UK.
The findings are based on research carried out in 2003, using questionnaires, interviews, workshops, Stocktake Panels and case study reports. These methods were used to gather the views of coastal practitioners on the situation in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, as well as the UK as a whole. Reference has also been made to the considerable body of information gathered by the EU ICZM Demonstration projects, surveys, research work, reports, and practical coastal initiatives that have taken place around UK during the last decade. The main issues are illustrated using examples that show what is happening on the ground.
79 ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report 5.1 Taking a broad holistic perspective
An effective ICZM policy needs to look at the problems faced by coastal zones in the widest possible context. This principle is an acknowledgement that successful planning and management should be strategic, looking at the bigger picture and the long-term interdependence between maintaining the integrity of natural and cultural systems and the provision of economic and social options. In terms of geography, it points to the need to consider both marine and terrestrial parts of the coastal zone as well as the river basins draining into to the coast.
The Severn Estuary Partnership (SEP)
SEP is an independent estuary-wide project set up in 1995 and involving all organisations and individuals who have declared their interest in caring for the Estuary and who want to encourage a more co-ordinated approach between organisations and agencies and their management activities
Their aim is to bring together all those involved in the development, management and use of the Estuary within a framework that encourages the integration of their interests and responsibilities to achieve common objectives
The broad holistic perspective of the Partnership is illustrated through its aims, which include “the development of a prosperous, vibrant and sustainable economy whilst protecting and promoting the natural, cultural and historic heritage of the area”
The Partnership has also taken a broad, holistic perspective in deciding on the geographic area over which its activities are focused. This covers the entire estuary, including both terrestrial and marine areas, as well as spanning the boundary between Wales and the South West of England, and including parts of thirteen local authority areas.
The need to consider coastal management issues in the widest possible context is also relevant to individual sectoral interests and is particularly well illustrated by examining the approach to coast protection in the UK. In the 1970’s most schemes were viewed from a very local perspective with consideration of potential effects mostly limited to the immediate area. The situation is totally different today with schemes being assessed within the much broader context of Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs). In 1993, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Welsh Office published their ‘Strategy for Flood and Coastal Defence in England and Wales’. This document set out the need for management to based on coastal process cells or sub-cells rather than the administrative boundaries of coastal operating authorities. The resulting regions cover many kilometres of coast and provide the necessary broad context in which individual schemes need to be considered. A major challenge in trying to take a broad, holistic approach to coastal management, is finding an effective way to link the work of the many organisations and individuals who need to be involved, while taking account of their individual roles and responsibilities. At the same time it is essential to make the end product relevant and useful to the different sectoral interests.
The Humber Estuary The Humber Estuary Standing Conferences, Humber Estuary Management Strategy and Humber Estuary Action Programme are examples of initiatives and products which sought to bring together a large number of organisations that had a role or responsibilities to manage development and use of the Humber estuary and the surrounding land in the mid 1990’s. The work was a contribution to the local delivery of Agenda 21 and involved more than eighty organisations. The environmental emphasis and the fact that the Strategy concentrated on water quality issues, although an issue of common interest to many of those operating in the area, were subsequently seen as shortcomings and unable to deliver a broad holistic approach.
In a similar vein, the first Shoreline Management Plan for the Holderness coast was rejected by the District Council who took the view that it did not have sufficient regard to social and economic concerns. East Riding of Yorkshire District Council tackled this by producing a holistic ICZM plan which addressed shoreline management as well as other social and political issues such as transport and tourism. A Coastal Forum was established as a wider steering group mechanism to help develop and implement the actions. The wider Forum meets biannually and attendance is regularly over 300. This has improved relations with the general public by engaging communities in vulnerable areas.
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A broad holistic approach to coastal management is also promoted at a national level in a number of ways. The coast-specific policy documents that guide local authorities on decisions regarding development and management of activities at the coast are particularly important. The first of these was issued for England and Wales in 1972 and they have since been updated and now cover all parts of the UK except Northern Ireland, where coastal policy guidance is still being developed (see Section 3.3). The guidance is important in that it identifies coastal planning as a strategic issue. Other elements in the guidance that reinforce the principle of a broad, holistic advocated by the European Council of Ministers include calling on planning authorities to recognise the inter-relationship between onshore and offshore activities, for Structure Plans to identify key coast-related policy issues and coastal land, and for planning authorities to work with others to achieve a co-ordinated approach to dealing with issues arising on the coast. Certain elements of the land use planning system are being revised at the present time and it is unclear whether this strategic coastal guidance for planning authorities will be retained.
Another way in which the need for a broad holistic approach to coastal management has been recognised at national level has been through the establishment of national coastal forums. Their role in bringing together wide range of coastal interests to inform the development of ICZM is illustrated by the work of the Scottish Coastal Forum (see Table 4.1). Green Sea Partnership
The Green Sea (Môr Glas) Partnership is an example of a partnership that has taken a broard planning perspective, through the involvement of the tourist industry as one of its major players. The initiative is an all-Wales informal, working partnership of organisations committed to enhancing the quality of the Welsh coastal, and particularly the beach, environment – a key asset to the Welsh tourist industry and coastal economy. Chaired by the Wales Tourist Board, it involves over forty bodies from the public, private and voluntary sectors including all the Welsh maritime local authorities, Dwr Cymru Welsh Water, the coastal national parks, CBI, Wales Tourist Board, Countryside Council for Wales, Environment Agency and NGOs (Surfers against Sewage, Friends of the Earth, Marine Conservation Society, Keep Wales Tidy).
National Coastal Forums also illustrate some of the difficulties of taking a broad approach at this level such as getting good representation from all sectoral interests, especially in the private sector, and social and economic interests. Clarity of purpose and a meaningful role for the participating organisations is also essential. A failing in these areas was perhaps the most significant factor in the demise of the English Coastal Forum.
The broad holistic approach at a UK level is difficult to achieve but a desire to do so and a direction has been set out in the governments Marine Stewardship report. At the present time the only structural opportunity within government to foster such an approach is a coastal Inter-Departmental Group of representatives from different Government Departments whose remits include coastal matters. Representatives from the Crown Estate and Regional Government Offices also attend the meetings to exchange of information. The Group has a very limited remit at present however it could be developed to provide a focus within government for better integration of coastal policy and the identification of gaps and opportunities to promote ICZM.
An effective ICZM strategy must try to bring together the many different interests that affect coastal regions and address the many different but interconnected problems that affect these areas. There are some good examples where work is being advanced at national and local levels, but there are also some recurring issues that need to be tackled within any future national ICZM strategies. Gaps are most apparent in economic and social area and the private sector where the benefits and opportunities from ICZM have still to be made clear. At the same time the need to involve many interests brings its own problems as unwieldy processes may be needed to keep communication going.
Current interest in the idea of marine spatial planning may help improve links between terrestrial and marine decision-making regimes as there will need to be clarity about the links and boundaries between any formal marine planning system with the arrangements on land.
5.2 A long term perspective
Coastal management solutions that resolve current problems may be very different to strategies required in the future or to tackle issues in the long-term. This principle sets out the need to consider the needs of both present and future generations concurrently and equally, and in an institutional
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framework that looks beyond the present political cycle. There is considerable variety in the planning horizon for sectors operating in the coastal environment.
Long Term Perspective
Shoreline Management Plans are one of the larger and more influential coastal management strategies that take a long-term perspective. Climate change scenarios have been considered in coastal management plans with coastal defence strategies which are looking towards the management of fluctuating coastal processes over 100 years. Recommendations, monitoring, research and management review procedures are created to ensure that the SMP is carried into the future as a working document.
The need for a long-term perspective is not limited to coastal management decisions but also the administrative structures that will take forward ICZM. This is an area where there has been significant difficulty up to now. Most if not all ICZM initiatives to date have been short-term projects rather than being an integral part of an established decision-making and delivery process. As such they have relied on a variety of short-term funding sources with a view to becoming self-sufficient in around 3-5 years time.
The Estuaries Initiatives supported by English Nature and the Firths Project supported by Scottish Natural Heritage, in the 1990’s, illustrate the difficulties. These projects were very effective at initiating coastal management projects and bringing together organisations into partnerships to take forward ICZM at a local level where none had existed before. Keeping these initiatives going when project funding was no longer available has proved difficult. In the case of the Forth Estuary Forum and the Moray Firth Partnership, the groups have been set up as limited companies and operate as businesses in order to secure a long-term future. In other cases, financial contributions and contributions “in-kind” from public sector stakeholders and private sector companies support the management groups by enabling the employment of a project officer. In other cases the difficulty of securing follow-on funds has resulted project officer posts becoming part time (eg. Tay Estuary Forum) or being unsustainable (eg. Exe estuary).
Another area where progress has been slow has been in setting out a long-term coastal vision for a region, looking perhaps 25 or 50 years ahead.
Setting Long Term Visions
The Scottish Office and Aberdeenshire Council commissioned a Coastal Planning Zones study in 1998 to provide a practical framework for Local Authorities to classify their coast into developed, undeveloped or isolated coast, as advised by National Planning Policy Guidance. The indicators used to draw up a preliminary map of the three zones along 190km of Aberdeenshire coast included the population size of settlements, infrastructure, industrial facilities, offshore activity and character with a defined “coastal zone”. While not an additional statutory designation, the classification is seen as a basis for the promotion and control of development and gives some indication of vision for these different areas. For example;
¨ The developed coast should be the focus for developments requiring a coastal location or which contribute to the economic regeneration of settlements whose livelihood is dependent on coastal or marine activities and features or which meet the social needs of these communities.
¨ The undeveloped coast should not be expected to accommodated development that could be located on the developed coast or inland.
¨ There should be a strong presumption against new development on sections of remote coast.
(from NPPG 13 & PAN 53)
Regional Planning Guidance documents are an opportunity to set out a long-term vision for sections of coast and are particularly important where most of the region is coastal. This is the case in North- West England and in 2000, the Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions funded a research study on ICZM to inform the review of Regional Planning Guidance in the North West, inform subsequent reviews of development plans and relevant coastal strategies and encourage a
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more consistent, integrated and holistic planning and management for the north-west coast. This set out a vision for the integrated coastal planning of north-west England.
Vision for the Integrated Coastal Planning of North West England
In 2020 the coast of the north west of England is:
¨ A dynamic coast where human activities and development are in harmony with natural processes, coastal resources are managed in a sustainable manner and diverse environmental assets are protected and enhanced.
¨ A coast with diverse, competitive and sustainable local economies with strong and complementary identities which build upon established strengths and are responsive to new technologies and market opportunities.
¨ A coast with liveable, vibrant and supportive communities which celebrate their maritime heritage and are socially inclusive; communities which are informed, confident and responsive in their management of environmental, social and economic change.
¨ A coast with thriving ports and airports recognised as key gateways to the region and beyond, seeking new local and global market opportunities, with affordable and high quality links to national highway and rail networks and with a range of sustainable tourism and recreation access routes. (from DETR, 2000) The planning horizon needs to be appropriate to the sector and this will undoubtedly differ depending on the issue under discussion.
5.3 Adaptive management during a gradual process
ICZM is an evolving process, which is not only able to deal with today’s problems but also flexible enough to adapt to as yet unforeseen issues that may arise in the future. The EU advocates that good coastal zone planning and management should be based on the ‘precautionary principle’ – trying to anticipate potential problems and erring on the side of caution if there is uncertainty about whether an action will have a detrimental effect on the coastal environment.
Most of the ICZM initiatives in the UK have been established in the last decade. While this is a relatively short period of time lessons have been learnt and management systems have been adapted as a result. An important pre-requisite is good information provision, shared responsibilities and monitoring so the programme can be adjusted as problems and knowledge evolve.
Shetlands Island Council
The Northern Isles of Scotland have had an advantage over other areas of Scotland and the wider UK in their remit to manage a range of activities in their coastal waters. The 1974 Zetland County Council Act allows Shetland Islands Council (SIC) to regulate development activities through a system of work permits. The Act was used initially to manage the activities of the offshore oil and gas industry, however, it has been applied to a range of coastal and marine works, including recently, to tidal power generation projects.
Historically, the work permit system has not been subject to strategic planning, rather, cases have been assessed on a site by site basis. However, SIC is currently working to integrate the work permit system between departments and into the land use planning system, through the development of a strategic marine plan. It is proposed that this marine plan will, also include the work of the recently initiated Shetland Shellfish Management Organisation, which has powers under the recently established Shetland Shellfish Regulating Order, to put in place byelaws and fishery licensing systems for Shetland waters.
Changes to the management regime in light of lessons learnt can also be seen in individual sectors of coastal activity. One example is in the aquaculture industry in Scotland where the licensing process has moved from considering applications on an individual basis in the 1980’s, to the more recent broad approach of setting them in the context of area management agreements. Northern Ireland is developing an ERA package for assessing individual licence applications and assessing the impact of aquaculture on sea loughs.
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Area Management Agreements (AMA’s)
The Scottish Executive established a tripartite working group, in 1999, to establish Area Management Agreements (AMA’s) for sea loch areas. Here, fish farming interests would work together and with local wild fisheries management bodies, to tackle sea lice in farmed fish and bring fish farming, wild fisheries and regulatory interests together. A number of AMAs have since been established in NW Scotland in the Western Isles and Highland Region.
Changes in management systems are most often reactive. They come about when problems with existing arrangements come to light. This was the case with oil spill contingency planning along the Welsh coast which has evolved in light of experience gained in dealing with a number of shipping accidents and associated oil spills.
Oil spill contingency planning in Wales
In the late 1980s, in recognition of the potential risk to the Pembrokeshire and south west Wales coast of oil pollution, the establishment of a Dyfed Oil Pollution Advisory Group (Dyfed OPAG: including representatives from local and central government and the shipping and petroleum industries) gave rise to one of the most extensive consultations on county contingency planning at the time.
Following the Braer disaster in Shetland in 1993, and the threat of potential hazards from offshore operations, particularly along the north and mid Wales coast, several other Welsh counties then reviewed their contingency plans, however, it was the Sea Empress incident in 1996 that became the greatest catalyst for change in this area of planning. It is widely acknowledged that a more joined-up approach has come about since the incident with Local Authority’s appearing to want to take a more proactive role and to develop their own non-statutory contingency plans. Post Sea Empress, the Dyfed OPAG has been reorganised, expanded and renamed as the West Wales Oil Pollution Advisory Group (WWOPAG) and now covers the coast of three Unitary Authorities (Ceredigion, Pembrokeshire, Carmarthenshire). In the light of the knowledge and experience gained as a result of the Sea Empress, the Dyfed contingency plan, has been completely rewritten, although the rewritten planning document is still in draft form, currently being amended to gain acceptance by all three UAs.
Recommendations and changes of national significance have also followed from the Sea Empress oil spill including those following Lord Donaldson’s Review into Salvage Intervention and Command and Control (1999: CM 4432) which has resulted in National contingency Exercises. The report of the independent Sea Empress Environmental Evaluation Committee (SEEEC), set up by government to evaluate the results of more than 100 related scientific studies, has also provided a wealth of information and knowledge to inform the future development of oil pollution contingency planning.
Clearly planning and management systems at the coast need to be flexible enough to meet these new challenges as they arise.
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Insurance for development in flood risk areas
ABI guidance "Development Planning and Flood Risk" sets out the insurance industry perspective on development in flood risk areas. This has been sent to over 400 local planning authorities in response to advice contained in paragraph 32 of Development Planning and Flood Risk (PPG25) that planning authorities should consult with their insurers about the availability of insurance for new developments. This focuses on the need for a risk based adaptive approach for development in coastal and fluvial flood risk areas.
The Insurance Industry in the UK fully endorse the sequential and risk based approach to development planning and permissive decisions. The uncertainties around the impact of climate change nevertheless require a precautionary approach given the risk to life, the aggregations and longevity of assets, and the economic, social and environmental costs that result from coastal and riverine floods. Insurance costs form only part of the total economic costs arising from inappropriate development or insufficiently protected development on the floodplain. Nevertheless since 1990, weather related (flood and storm damage) insurance claims have cost an average of £825 million per annum in the UK, and have risen to levels in excess of £1 billion in four out of the last 15 years
The sustainability and affordability of insurance cover for flood risk will only be ensured by the avoidance of development in high-risk areas, adequate alleviation and mitigation measures where development goes ahead in medium risk areas, and the proper provision and maintenance of drainage systems in areas outside the floodplain. Whilst insurance may still be available in areas of higher risk, the vulnerability of properties to damage and the level of risk may price this beyond the reach of many property owners or occupiers. The impact of new developments on flood risk elsewhere on the floodplain will be a material factor for insurance decisions on existing properties.
5.4 Reflect local specificity
Effective ICZM requires action at many levels. Local solutions that suit local conditions are an essential part of this, and indeed the driving force behind many ICZM initiatives has been a desire to tackle issues of local concern. This not only makes ICZM relevant to local people but also encourages the development of practical solutions.
Sefton Beach Management Plan
The need for a Beach Management Plan for the Sefton coast in north-west England was highlighted in 1990 in a regional coastal issues report. The plan was developed and implemented in April 1993 and will be an important component of the area Coast Management Plan when it is next reviewed. Before April 1993, vehicular access was allowed over the whole of the foreshore between Ainsdale and Southport, a section of coast 9km long and up to 3km out to the waters edge. The size of this area made it impossible to control its use by visitors and, more importantly, to enforce the Seashore Byelaws and collect incidental litter. In recent years more people have had access to a car and this, along with the development of high performance off road recreational vehicles, such as quad and trike motorcycles, had led to the considerable unauthorised and damaging use of the foreshore and dune areas.
The draft beach management plan recommended a corporate and co-ordinated approach to beach management. The Council acted on this by transferring the responsibility for managing the foreshore and related staffing from the Tourism and Attractions Department and amalgamating the Shore Patrol and Lifeguards with the Coast and Countryside Ranger Service as part of the Leisure Services Department. The Coast and Countryside Service has now evolved to include all aspects of beach management including a demand led beach cleansing operation with in-house staff and equipment.
In many cases local forums have been set up to identify issues of concern and prepare coastal management plans and it is through such groups that local factors are reflected in ICZM plans. There are at least a dozen groups which take a broad overview (rather than sector specific) of coastal
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management and they deal with issues as wide-ranging as fisheries, aggregate dredging, tourism, coastal development and coast protection.
At a national level, ICZM initiatives need to provide support and guidance in order to ensure a consistent approach, yet allow freedom and flexibility for actions to reflect and respond to local circumstances. Planning policy guidance at regional and national levels provides a framework within which coastal planning and management can reflects local circumstances but the extent to which there has been a local response has been variable.
In England, for example, Regional Development Agencies have been set up to provide coordinated regional economic development and regeneration within England’s nine geographic regions. They work within regional planning guidance and local authority development plans which set out the long- term spatial planning context for the region including for coastal areas. The RDAs are therefore ideally placed to advocate locally appropriate solutions for ICZM in their Regional Economic Strategies. A review of these strategies as of November 2002 revealed that coastal issues are mentioned very briefly, if at all. This suggests that the value of ICZM in harnessing the economic potential of the region and the opportunities for enhancing economic and social benefits to a coastal region from ICZM have not been recognised by the RDAs.
One of the most challenging aspects of ICZM plans reflecting local specificity is to ensure there is sufficient support and guidance at a national level at the same time as having enough freedom and flexibility to enable decisions to reflect and respond to local circumstances. This is not an issue which is unique or specific to planning and management of activities in coastal areas but, given the relatively early stage of ICZM in the UK, it is one where a consistent approach has still to be clarified and agreed.
5.5 Work with natural processes
This principle recognises that natural processes and the dynamics of coastal systems are in continual and sometimes sudden flux. It advocates working with, rather than against these natural processes as well a recognising the limits (or carrying capacity) which is imposed as a result. The emphasis given to working with natural processes in the development and review of Shoreline Management Plans shows that this approach has become accepted practice in the UK, at least in the area of coast protection and flood defence.
Research and Development Programmes in England and Wales
The Environment Agency and Defra operate a joint thematic programme of research and development on flood risk management for England and Wales. This promotes communication and co-operation between the two organisations while organising the research within a number of topic areas. The programme as a whole is delivering R&D focussed on the needs of users within the flood risk management industry. The joint programme also allows effective promotion and development of cross cutting issues. One of six themes covered by the programme is fluvial, coastal and estuarine processes. This is considered important as developing and delivering technically successful, efficient and environmentally sustainable flood and coastal defences requires an understanding of the natural processes involved.
The theme specifically aims to promote understanding of cause- and effect linkages between processes that are defined from different sciences and sources and is advancing the understanding and quantifiable description of river, estuary and coastal systems. Through this essential information and building blocks are being provided to make practical progress in design, construction and management of flood and coastal defences. The programme includes estuary morphology, tidal and non-tidal sediments and habitats, and coastal dynamics.
Dynamic processes are essential for the conservation of coastal habitats, but can result in change to other habitats of equal conservation importance. There are also consequences for site boundaries where the designated features are mobile, and implications for flood management where features have conflicting ecological requirements. This raises difficult questions particularly in relation to implementing the EC Birds Directive and Habitats Directive on dynamic coastlines. Possible approaches to resolving these difficulties have been the subject of study through a EC LIFE Nature Programme involving English Nature, Defra, the Environment Agency, and the Natural Environment Research Council.
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Living with the Sea LIFE Nature Project
A partnership of organisations responsible for planning and managing the coastline of England came together through this project to develop new ways of tackling the impact of sea level rise and flood and coastal defences on areas identified as important for wildlife. The project aims were to promote understanding of how sea level rise will affect the coast of England over the next 30 to 100 years, create sustainable and integrated coastal management policies and share the challenges and solutions. Seven pilot Coastal Habitat Management Plans (CHaMPS) were developed for coastal areas in eastern and south-eastern England as part of the project. Various approaches to coastal defence and options for creating new habitat were explored through these management plans as a contribution to the local Shoreline Management Plans.
Overall recommendations of the project included the need to manage sites as part of a coherent network to ensure that they can respond to environmental change; to focus on systems, not features, to develop a more innovative approach to habitat compensation arising from flood defence schemes; to integrate data and spatial information to improve the adequacy of use for monitoring and management and, in the long-term, move towards a presumption to restore functional coastlines, linked to a major programme of habitat restoration in more sustainable locations.
As well as looking at the bigger picture, site-specific solutions need to reflect a policy of working with natural processes. Some examples are the ‘managed realignment’ projects, which have been carried out by breaching or removing seawalls to reduce and offset the scale of loss of intertidal area in some parts of the country. The first demonstration project of this type was carried out in the Blackwater Estuary in 1991, for example at Tollesbury where 22 ha of arable land on the coastal flood plain was inundated allowing intertidal mudflat and saltmarsh to develop on the site. The most recent scheme is at Abbots Hall Farm, also on the Blackwater, where the Essex Wildlife Trust is working in partnership with others to encourage the reversion of more than 80 ha of arable land back to saltmarsh, mudflat, coastal grassland and transition habitat. The tidal wetlands that result will recreate natural coastal defences and which will be a more sustainable solution to the current 3km of sea wall which defends a relatively narrow strip of arable land.
A different type of approach can be seen in Wales where coastal development projects such as the Camarthen Bay Millennium Park have benefited from an awareness of natural processes.
Camarthen Bay Millennium Park
The Llanelli Millennium coastal park, a £27 million Millennium Commission-supported project for 22 km of low-lying coastline along the south Wales coast, is a good example of working with natural processes and how local aspirations and intentions have evolved in light of changed economic circumstances.
The project took advantage of a large area of land in local authority ownership, originally acquired for land reclamation and industrial redevelopment. Once an industrial wasteland, the Park now provides limited residential development, recreational (including boating, cycling, fishing and golfing) and wildlife conservation resources, including the National Wetlands Centre of Wales.
Another aspect of working with natural processes which is being trialled is the reuse of dredge spoil to provide soft coastal projection and retain material within particular coastal systems. Navigational dredging of ports and estuaries in southeast England yields large quantities of material, some of which may be suitable to enhance eroding, sediment-deficient, intertidal margins for the benefit of flood defence and conservation. A trial recharge of an eroding foreshore in the lower Orwell estuary has shown that it is possible to pump unconsolidated cohesive dredgings within a coarse gravel retaining bund, and much is being learnt about behaviour of the combined mud and gravel formation. Some of the benefits observed have been an increase in intertidal flat elevation to help flood defence, significant reduction in wave energy at the seawall toe, a rapid establishment of a diverse and abundant invertebrate fauna and increased use of the area by waders as they are able to feed later into the tidal cycle.
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Carrying Capacity Model in Northern Ireland The shellfish aquaculture industry in Northern Ireland has expanded significantly over the past decade and in 2001and in 2001 the Queen’s University and the Department for Agriculture and Rural Development) published a Shellfish Aquaculture Plan for Northern Ireland. This was the outcome of a five month project with the aim of producing a management plan to promote a sustainable aquaculture industry based on scientifically researched facts. The Plan contains a number of strategic recommendations including one recommending the concept of developing a carrying capacity model as a means to predict the ability of coastal environments to support sustainable bivalve mollusc culture and at the same time avoid or minimise ecological impacts.
5.6 Participatory planning
The opportunity for stakeholders to participate in the development, implementation, and review of ICZM is essential to the success of any ICZM programme. The views of stakeholders need to be drawn into the process as such involvement helps to identify real issues, harness local knowledge and build commitment and shared responsibility for the outcomes.
Participatory planning is at the heart of most ICZM initiatives in the UK and is perhaps a reflection of the origin of such initiatives. In the absence of any statutory basis for ICZM, the only way that coastal management ideas were likely to be put into practice, was with the full support of all interested parties. This led to a collaborative approach to ICZM, with a desire to keep stakeholders involved and informed of the process and to benefit from their input. Participation of stakeholders remains the foundation of ICZM initiatives in this country and has been formalised in some cases, such as the development of Shoreline Management Plans.
Defra Shoreline Management Procedural Guidance Note
In 2003, Defra published an interim Shoreline Management Plan Procedural Guidance document which had been developed using industry-wide expertise to establish the most appropriate, best practice methodologies to deliver the SMPs. Stakeholders are considered to be all those with an interest in the preparation of a shoreline management plan or affected by the policies produced (including agencies, authorities, organisations and private persons).
The following guiding principles for a Stakeholder Engagement Strategy are set out in the document;
¨ Inclusivity.
¨ The initiation of the SMP process should indicate whether a participatory or a consultative approach is adopted and outline the extent of wider community involvement.
¨ Transparency. Timely, accurate, comprehensive and accessible recording of representations, decisions and their justification is required to track decisions. The strategy should indicate who has responsibility for this.
¨ Appropriateness, The range of stakeholders, their level of involvement and likely knowledge, the potential for differences of view and the opportunity for awareness raising will influence the approach adopted
¨ Clarity. The roles of different “players”, including where final decision-making lies, must be made clear in the strategy.
¨ Comprehensiveness. The strategy should cover all stages, including plan dissemination and arrangements for reporting on stakeholder engagement.
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There are many different models for participatory planning in ICZM. The establishment of coastal forums has been particularly widespread with examples from all around the UK. An important issue in relation to participatory planning is how to encourage participation and, at the same time as ensure that coastal forums do not reach a size or structure that makes them ineffective. This has been tackled in a variety of ways.
Loughs Agency Advisory Forum
The Loughs Agency in Northern Ireland operates an Advisory Forum with representatives from tourism, forestry, farming, salmon fishermen and conservation group interests. This forum has representatives from most sectors with interests in both Loughs (Foyle and Carlingford). The forum has been in operation for more than a year and meets every three months. The forum members have their own agenda at such meetings and also have focus groups that look at particular issues. Recently focus groups have looked at the proposed wind farm development at Tunes Plateau, salmon management, shellfish farming and also marine leisure and tourism.
Coastal forums have been successful in providing an opportunity for all interested parties to get involved in ICZM initiatives. This involvement can range from overseeing or participating in projects to helping develop management solutions to issues of concern. Two examples of the sort of work undertaken are given below.
Pembrokeshire Marine Code
In response to a marked increase in wildlife boat operators along the Pembrokeshire coast over the last few years along stretches of coast of high nature conservation value, a pilot Pembrokeshire Marine Code has recently been drawn up to promote a sustainable approach to commercial boating activities. This voluntary behavioural code has been developed with commercial operators and conservation organisations and has been facilitated by its lead partner, the Pembrokeshire Coastal Forum. The Code is currently being piloted by commercial boat operators in advance of discussions with the general public next year. The code includes three species codes (for seabirds, seals and cetaceans), site specific zoning codes and maps for all the offshore islands and stretches of the mainland coast.
Despite the success of coastal forums in creating opportunities for involvement in ICZM various studies have identified a number of sector interests that are difficult to bring into the forums and initiatives. Most often these appear to be economic development and tourism sectors, with stated reasons including that the benefits are not obvious and that other areas of work, where they have statutory responsibilities, must have a higher priority. The fisheries sector has been brought into fisheries initiatives for example by the producers organisations and local fishery groups however these are mostly bottom-up initiatives and there are still calls for greater inclusivity of such groups in regional and sub-regional initiatives.
At the other end of the spectrum, “consultation fatigue” may also be a problem because of the large number of initiatives to get involved in, a limited pool of people with the relevant expertise, and many committees or sub-committees. The situation in Strangford Lough is one example of such complexity.
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Strangford Lough Management Scheme
The Strangford Lough Management Scheme was formally launched on 8th October 2001. The management scheme is intended to safeguard the conservation status of those features for which Strangford Lough has been selected as a candidate Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and classified a Special Protection Area (SPA). The scheme sets the framework through which activities will be managed, either voluntarily or through regulation, so as to achieve the conservation objectives of the European Marine site. Conservation objectives have been identified by the Department of the Environment (DOENI) and are at the core of the management scheme.
Statutory authorities have a legal responsibility to ensure that these objectives are met. This primarily applies to the Environment and Heritage Service (EHS) and Planning Service of the DOE, Fisheries Division of the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD), Ards Borough Council and Down District Council. The National Trust has an important practical and role in view of its conservation and wildlife monitoring work and its extensive ownership within the Lough.
The Strangford Lough Management Advisory Committee (representing local user and specialist interests), is closely involved in the management scheme in an advisory capacity and has initiated many related projects.
5.7 Support and involvement of all relevant administrative bodies
The support and involvement of relevant administrative bodies is another essential element of successful ICZM because administrative policies, programmes and plans set the context for management at the coast. These bodies may have responsibilities at local, regional or national level and may deal with European or wider international matters that help to deliver ICZM and can therefore provide a nested set of planning and management actions at different scales.
This principle also stresses the need for support and links between sectors of administration and co- ordination of policies as well as ensuring that legal instruments which influence the coastal zone are mutually compatible and coherent.
Severn Estuary Chairs Group and Memorandum of Understanding
The Severn Estuary is unique. In response to perceived concern over duplication of estuary-wide management efforts and the need to improve communication between such groups, an Estuary Chairs Group was established for the Severn Estuary. This Group is attempting to co-ordinate efforts between the following key estuary-wide groups:
¨ Severn Estuary Partnership (SEP).
¨ Association of Severn Estuary Relevant Authorities (ASERA) – with a statutory function to produce a scheme of management for the Severn Estuary SPA.
¨ North Devon and Somerset Coastal Group– responsible for producing a SMP.
¨ Severn Estuary Coastal Group - responsible for producing a SMP.
¨ Bristol Channel Counter Pollution Association; and
¨ Standing Conference of Severnside Local Authorities (SCOSLA) – an estuary-wide Local Authorities group considering planning and development issues.
These groups have recently signed a ‘Memorandum of Understanding,’ providing the Chairs with a mechanism for further integration and a new approach to ICZM on the Severn.
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In other cases, existing statutory powers have provided the foundation for the support and involvement of administrative bodies in delivering ICZM. This is the case with the Loughs Agency which is concern with fisheries management of Lough Foyle and Carlingford Lough which straddle the borders of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
Loughs Agency Fisheries Management
The Loughs Agency in Northern Ireland was initially the Foyle Fisheries Commission, which was established in 1952 to manage salmonid fisheries within Lough Foyle. This Commission had judicial and executive powers on both sides of the border. The Loughs Agency is now an agency of the Foyle Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission, which was established following the Good Friday Agreement. It has a Board with 12 members who in exercising the functions of the body are required to act in accordance with, any directions given by the North South Ministerial Council, to whom it also reports. The Commission’s sponsoring Departments are the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development in Northern Ireland and the Department of the Communications, Marine and Natural Resources in the Republic of Ireland.
The involvement of administrative bodies in ICZM is most often driven by the need to resolve a particular problem and may therefore be sector specific. The challenge is to set these matters into a broader context of ICZM using the issue as a focus for practical action. One example of where this is occurring is on the Exe estuary.
Devon Crab Tile Forum
The Devon Crab Tile Forum was convened by Devon Sea Fisheries Committee and Estuary Officers in response to concerns over increasing crab tiling activity. In the context of increasing interest in and regulation of the Exe Estuary’s resources, typical concerns about crab tiling have arisen (removal of crabs, disturbance of foreshore muds, presence/movement of collectors, proximity to other users) especially since the designation of the area as a Special Area of Conservation.
The Devon Crab Tile Forum was established to find a way of operating a sustainable crab fishery without the need for rigid regulation of crab tiling. Involving all users of the Exe Estuary, in Devon at all levels, the Forum has promoted the adoption of a Code of Practice. A general code of conduct has also been prepared and provides a starting point for a broader Exe Estuary Code of Conduct for users.
A more proactive approach can be seen in the work of the Scottish Coastal Archaeological and Paleo-environmental Trust.
Scottish Archaelogical and Palaeo-environmental Trust
The Scottish Coastal Archaeological and Paleo-environmental (SCAPE) Trust aims to encourage and co-ordinate research into coastal archaeology and to enhance the enjoyment of all in the heritage of the coastline. It provides a forum for discussion of coastal archaeological as well as advising and educating on the issues affecting coastal archaeology. SCAPE acts as an advocate for coastal archaeology in development of guidance for coastal planning.
The work of SCAPE is recognised and supported of the Scottish Executive and Historic Scotland, while recent work to map and assess archaeological heritage in Scotland’s coastal zone was grant aided by the Carnegie Trust. SCAPE is one of the two organisations that runs the successful shorewatch project, which uses Scottish coastal communities to monitor erosion of coastal archaeological sites.
91 ICZM in the UK : A Stocktake Final Report 5.8 Use of a combination of instruments
This principle recognises the need for a mix of instruments to deliver ICZM. They include legal and economic instruments, voluntary agreements, information provision, technological solutions, research and education. In such circumstances it is also clear that there should be coherence between legal instruments and administrative objectives and between planning and management..
Shetland Islands Council
In Shetland the strategic marine plan currently being developed by Shetland Islands Council, will aim to integrate the planning and management systems associated with land use planning, the system for granting permits for a range of industrial and engineering activities in Shetland’s coastal waters, and management of Shetland’s inshore shellfisheries. Achievement of this aim will involve the integration and co-ordinated use of land use planning legislation and associated guidance; the Zetland Count Council Act of 1974; and the 2002 Shetland Shellfish Management Order.
An example of an organisation using a varied combination of instruments to implement ICZM at a regional level is the Norfolk Coast Partnership (NCP) who have developed a Visitor Management Zoning Scheme for the AONB.
Norfolk Coast Partnership
The Norfolk Coast Partnership (NCP) was set up in 1991 to facilitate integrated management of the Norfolk Coast AONB and address the problems associated with increasing visitor pressures experienced within the AONB. All organisations and partners have signed up to the scheme which is working effectively zoning areas of the North Norfolk coast are managed with a combination of instrument based on their sensitivity to visitor pressures.
One of the difficulties faced by coastal managers is the bringing together the plethora of initiatives, and instruments, with different objectives and agendas into a coherent ICZM plan. The scale of the task is particularly well illustrated in the Humber which has 38 Relevant Authorities. The Humber Estuary Management Strategy, has been identified as proving a useful frameworks for the Humber region despite its recognised focus on water quality.
The complexity of the current consenting regime in the marine environment has been recognised by Government and has been subject to review. The findings of this review are due to be published in 2004. At the same time, there are the beginnings of a debate on the idea of marine spatial planning for UK waters (see Section 5.9). If this were to be developed the linkage between bodies and systems at the coast will be critical.
5.9 Obstacles to ICZM in the UK
5.9.1 Implementation of ICZM principles
The Stocktake reveals a mixed and inconsistent picture on implementation of the principles of ICZM, as set out by the European Commission. There are examples of good practice but, at the same time, it is clear that some of the principles are being implemented more widely than others. The most common conclusion from the workshops held during the Stocktake was that there is no consistency in the effective implementation of ICZM principles across the UK. Key reasons given for this included amongst others, lack of long term funding and problems with implementing current legislation.
The principle that appeared to be implemented best was that of “local specificity”, and many examples were cited of successful local actions or partnerships on the coast established to address a specific issue. Considerable effort has been put into facilitating and encouraging the involvement of all parties in coastal planning and management in the last decade. This approach is now widespread and an integral part of decision making at all levels from local initiatives, such as coastal projects, through to Government consultations on policy direction.
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Long-term planning for ICZM is probably the weakest area. Although standard practice in spatial planning of some sectoral marine activities such as licensing areas for oil and gas extraction and offshore renewable energy it has been absent until recently for the UK as a whole. The current programme of work is set to change this as the Stocktake is completed and national strategies are prepared. In Scotland, for example, where work is well advanced on ideas for a national strategy, the Scottish Coastal Forum are looking beyond the short-to-medium term to develop an influential vision for the wise use of Scotland’s coasts and inshore waters based on a 25-year forward view.
5.9.2 Role of ICZM in relation to marine spatial planning
One key gap in successful ICZM implementation in the UK is that there is no effective mechanism for planning across the land-sea margin. In recent years the desire for better integration and more effective management of the conflicting pressures and demands placed on the marine environment has led international bodies and national governments to consider the potential of “marine spatial planning”. At the 5th North Sea Conference, held in 2002, Ministers agreed that strengthening of the spatial planning process of North Sea States related to the marine environment was required and invited OSPAR to take forward a number of initiatives on this subject. The European Commission is also promoting the idea of marine spatial planning in its developing strategy for the marine environment.
The UK is now contributing to this work at a regional and national level as part of a programme of work on integrated stewardship. This includes exploring how co-ordination between Departments might be improved in the issuing of individual consents for activities that impact on the seabed, and reviewing legislation affecting development in the coastal area with a view to simplifying the regulatory system and protecting the marine environment. The findings of this review are likely to refer to marine spatial planning and are due to be published in the near future.
The Stocktake findings suggest that better spatial planning linking land and sea will benefit long term management of marine resources. In Scotland, this issue is being reviewed by RSPB/RTPI as a specific issue 5.1. A similar exercise is being undertaken for the Irish Sea Pilot region 5.2.
Marine spatial planning is seen as a way of improving decision-making and delivering a more ecosystem-based approach to management of marine activities. In essence, it is a plan-led framework that enables integrated, forward-looking, consistent, decision-making on the use of the sea. There are clearly parallels with ICZM. Because of this, and the potential geographical overlap of the two processes, the relationship and respective roles of these two systems (and the forthcoming River Basin Management Plans under the EC Water Framework Directive) including whether and how ICZM might exist, needs to be clarified. This was raised as a significant issue during the Stocktake consultations and workshops. Much remains to be done before such clarification is possible, not least because discussions on the whole approach and detailed objectives and elements of any system of marine spatial planning have still to be agreed.
The role of ICZM in relation to marine spatial planning may also differ across the UK depending on the still to be determined future responsibilities of the devolved administrations with regard to development control and management of activities in territorial waters if marine spatial planning were to become UK policy. There has already been some discussion of this issue in Scotland and Wales. ‘People, Places, Futures - The Wales Spatial Plan’ was published as a consultation document by the Welsh Assembly Government in 2003. While this is limited to the land area of Wales, there is interest in some quarters for it to be extended to include the territorial waters off the coast of Wales. In Scotland, a seminar to discuss the potential of extending local authority jurisdiction offshore and the issue of marine spatial planning was held in 2002. There was support for the extension of planning control to the marine environment and a need for marine spatial planning as an important tool for resource management at the same time as a recognition that much of the detail remains to be developed. In Northern Ireland, the Regional Development Strategy for Northern Ireland 2025, which incorporates the Northern Ireland Spatial Development Strategy, could also cover this issue.
Discussions are therefore underway on how any future system of marine spatial planning might mesh in with the existing land use planning systems in the different countries. The recently concluded pilot study on a marine nature conservation framework for the Irish Sea has also pointed to the potential value of marine spatial planning 5.2. There may therefore be an opportunity for the pilot to be extended to explore the role of ICZM as the linking mechanism for terrestrial and marine planning in an area of sea that borders five different land use planning regimes.
5.9.3 Communication needs for ICZM
A current overlapping issue that is stifling successful ICZM is effective communication at all levels. With such a range of consultation efforts currently taking place on environmental and sustainable
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development related issues, standardising messages on ICZM or more sectoral issues is to a degree generating confusion on what ICZM actually is about. Good communication is fundamental to the successful integration of coastal policies, programmes and management actions, and for the successful involvement in ICZM of different sectoral interests, government and other stakeholders, from local to UK level.
Many aspects of the communication needs for ICZM were raised during the stocktake workshops. These ranged from the very basic need to clearly articulate what ICZM is about and the benefits it can bring, to suggesting possible administrative changes to improve communication. The way ICZM fits in with other government policies (eg. ecosystem based approach, sustainable development), initiatives (eg. marine stewardship), requirements (eg. EU Water Framework Directive), and developing ideas (eg. marine spatial planning and marine data management), should be part of this communication task.
Across the different workshops, there was broad agreement that ICZM needs to be “championed” by central government. In general, attendees supported the establishment of a co-ordinating body for ICZM responsible for overseeing ICZM. Common to all workshop events was the observation that communication between stakeholders at the local level is currently sound with many good examples of interaction at this level. The communication link between local level and regional levels appears to be improving, but is variable across the UK. Interaction between these levels and government departments could be assisted by clarification of the roles of individuals and organisations. How ICZM supports other government policies (eg. ecosystem approach), initiatives (eg: marine stewardship), requirements (eg. Water Framework Directive), and developing ideas (eg: marine spatial planning) should be part of this task. The case for ICZM has still to be made clearly to the private and commercial sectors. Engaging business continues to remain a challenge, most probably because the benefits are not clear and because it is difficult to demonstrate immediate economic return. It was generally agreed that, in order to improve integration, ICZM needs to be incentive based. A set of tangible benefits (social/environmental and economic) need to be clearly communicated and doing this effectively will require considerable commitment of time and effort.
5.9.4 Role of Partnerships/Local Action
There has been considerable interest in setting up coastal forums and partnerships to promote, develop and deliver ICZM on the ground. Their precise role varies depending on the level at which they operate. For example, at a local level, much of the partnership work is directed at resolving conflicts and preparing local management plans. At a national level discussions are of a more strategic nature and concerned with policy direction.
Some of the earliest work was conservation led, but support for partnerships now comes from a much broad group of stakeholders such as local authorities (who have both helped to fund and “hosted” partnership project officers), coastal and marine industries (ports, oil companies, sea fisheries committees), and local residents. A number of partnerships also benefited from taking part in the European ICZM Demonstration programme and, in the case of the Severn Estuary Partnership, continue to get some funding from the European Union (in this case through the INTERREG programme).
The Stocktake findings clearly suggest that local level ICZM worked best where there were clear conflicts to be resolved. It also suggests that not every inch of the UK coast needs ICZM to be set up. Where coastal issues needed to be addressed, the workshops and questionnaire returns showed considerable support for partnerships as a way of involving stakeholders in ICZM, facilitating exchange of information, breaking down sectoral barriers and moving ICZM forward at a local level. Long-term funding and resourcing to support their work and support staff, was probably the greatest issue of concern, as the majority are ‘project’ rather than ‘core’ funded. While there are clearly a variety of source of potential funding, some guidance on what is available would be useful for these groups. These partnerships, however, need (n the future) to better demonstrate more transparent and democratic methods for selection of organisations and individuals that truly reflect the needs of the coastal area.
Exchanging information on funding opportunities and other issues of interests to all coastal partnerships is an effective way of supporting their work and is being provided by networking groups such as CoastNet and the national coastal forums in Scotland and Wales, through newsletters, websites, commissioned research and workshops. National partnerships could also be used to help prepare and consult on the national ICZM strategies that need to be developed in the coming year.
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5.9.5 Drivers influencing ICZM in the UK
A number of drivers can influence the likely future direction of ICZM in the UK. Some of these are recent or proposed legislative changes, but there are also existing programmes and policies such as the commitments made in the UK Marine Stewardship report.
The findings of the Stocktake project suggest that ICZM could help to deliver some of the requirements of the WFD at the coast. For example, the data held by ICZM/EM Plans/Partnerships could be used, as could the consultation and consensus approach and the networks of communication that have been developed over a number of years. Not all of the issues that need to be addressed by ICZM are relevant to the Directive or River Basin Management Plans (RBMP) but RBMP principles and the Programme of Measures could be brought into ICZM plans.
Existing models could also be used to provide a basis for greater integration such as AONB Plans, Marine SAC Single Schemes of Management, Shoreline Management Plans and Local Strategic Partnerships.
Initiatives at a UK level that need to be taken into consideration include:
¨ The outcome of the Government’s review of development in coastal and marine waters which is due to be published shortly.
¨ The outcome of the Government’s Review of Marine Nature Conservation and the findings from the accompanying Irish Sea Pilot Study.
¨ The development of the ecosystem approach to management and planning of activities at the coast as set out in the Marine Stewardship Report.
¨ Progress on European and international agreements such as the EU marine strategy, the OSPAR Convention, and the Convention of Biological Diversity.
¨ Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive which offers opportunities to employ the communication networks established by coastal forums when consulting on draft river basin management plans.
¨ Programme of offshore renewable development and the implementation of the Directive of Strategic Environmental Assessment.
There are also initiatives at a national level that are set to influence future action on ICZM. In England these include:
¨ The development of regional spatial strategies and the expected revision of planning policy guidance for the coast.
¨ The study by the Inter-Agency Committee on Marine Science and Technology into integrating marine and coastal data.
In Scotland these include:
¨ The strategy produced by the Scottish Coastal Forum expected in 2004.
¨ Scottish Sustainable Marine Environment Phase 2 Project starting in 2004.
¨ The development of a Strategic Framework for the Marine Environment by the Scottish Executive.
In Wales these include:
¨ The development of second generation shoreline management plans around the Welsh coast.
¨ The work of the Wales Coastal and Marine Partnership.
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¨ The development and implementation of a Spatial Plan for Wales.
In Northern Ireland these include:
¨ Implementation of the Regional Spatial Strategy for Northern Ireland.
¨ Establishment of a working and effective Coastal Forum for Northern Ireland.
5.10 The Next Steps
The current coastal management framework is spread across many organisations and tends to operate on a sectoral basis. This provides clarity to specific user groups but comes at a risk of not achieving the bigger picture and integrating the requirements of all activities at the coast.
The Stocktake findings suggest that even without an integrated national framework, local ICZM initiatives have developed around the UK to address specific issues. This local commitment has been driven by the need to find a practical way of resolving conflicts in the coastal zone. However, this progress has been un-coordinated and many initiatives have been constrained by the lack of long term resources.
This need for a more secure funding arrangement to support ICZM is a key message of the Stocktake. A second message is that more coastal stakeholders at all levels – national, regional and local - need to engage in ICZM activity.
This report completes the first stage in the UK’s implementation of the EU Recommendation on ICZM. It provides a stocktake of the current framework for coastal management: the institutions, legislation and stakeholders concerned. It is hoped that it will steer the way forward in the next stage of implementation, the development of national strategies for ICZM.
References
5.1) Tyldesley, D and Associates. (2004) 'Making the case for marine spatial planning in Scotland' report commissioned by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the Royal Town Planning Institute Scotland.
5.2) Tyldesley, D and Associates, (2004) Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning Framework for the Irish Sea Pilot Project.
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