1 - - - - - 1 1 panies considered considered panies the audience for but it was certainly was it but be “lower-class,” “popular” music to a larger and more sical and operatic than that for clas profitable market the the recording com music recordings, and and recordings, music it remains so today. it remains dustry in America. At the time, time, the At America. in dustry the growth of the recording in there has never been a record has never been there Tex in label record or center ing as comparable to those of New of those to comparable as very important in helping bankroll bankroll helping in important very York, York, Los Angeles, or Nashville. which came out of Texas, were The sales of so-called “cowboy,” so-called of sales The “hillbilly,” and “ethnic” recordings recordings “ethnic” and “hillbilly,” in the 1920s and 1930s, much of the recording industry, although Texas Texas and Texans have been and continue to be prominent in the overall history and development of Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham:

Tish Hinojosa, courtesy of Rounder Records. courtesy of Rounder Hinojosa, Tish

Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas A HistoryA the of

Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas Gary Hickinbotham A HistoryA the of

A History of the Texas Recording Industry Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2004 A History of the Texas Recording Industry 2 - 8 One of Edison’s star recording artists was Texan Vernon Dal Vernon Texan artistsstar recording was One of Edison’s Columbia Grafonola Ad. Columbia Grafonola popular compositions in New York, recording for Edison around around Edison for recording York, New in compositions popular 1915. Edison was constantly improving his cylinder recorder’s design, and Dalhart was one of the artists whose recordings limited frequency response and caused the to recordings sound the However, scratchy. sheer novelty of listening to recordings companies public demand a recording and great several created growing phonograph’s the on capitalize to order in appeared soon example, For the popularity. Columbia Phonograph Company dictation, for system graphophone the market to 1889 in formed but soon found that music sold Columbia far produced better. its firstrecord catalog in 1890, which included alist of Edison on cylinders. and Columbia recordings II). Dalhart Slaughter sang operatic and Try hart (born Marion

------7 Edison Edison 4 Journal of Texas Music History, Vol. 4 [2004], Iss. 1, Art. 4 1, Art. Iss. 4 [2004], Vol. History, Music of Texas Journal 6 Originally intending only to record telegraph record to only intending Originally 3

2

In 1893, a team of Edison’s engineers out on a field trip 1893, In a team of Edison’s 5

Until Until the advent of electronic recording in the mid-1920s, By the end of the nineteenth century, there were three major three were there the By end of the nineteenth century, Piano rolls also were made at that time, and it was on these that that these on was it and time, that at made were also rolls Piano Thomas Edison made his firstrecording on a tinfoil-covered The constant search for new songs and artists led the compet the led artists and songs new for search constant The The recording industryThe recording is an but interdependent not-always- grave a groove in a rotating wax-coated cylinder or disk. The me The disk. or cylinder wax-coated rotating a in groove a grave severely systems acoustically-driven these of limitations chanical most recording systems funneled sound from the musicians into into musicians the from sound funneled systems recording most en to needle a caused vibrations the where horn, trumpet-like a on the Brunswick label, used a zinc photo-engraved lateral-cut cylinder- vertical-groove a “Graphophone,” Tainter’s Charles disk. Columbia. was used by type recorder, competing formats for recording audio. None of these was elec was these of None audio. recording for formats competing com fierce in was which label, associated an had each and tronic, system cylinder lateral-groove Edison’s others. the with petition “Gramophone,” Berliner’s Emile Records. Victor by utilized was made. made. Ragtime innovator Scott Joplin made piano rolls of his compositions from 1896 until shortly before his death in 1917. in a San Antonio hotel. in a San was Texan a of performances the of recordings earliest the of one 1887. “Los of performance a Texas, in recording known first the made pageant) Christmas Latino the of songs shepherds’ (the Pastores,” could record intelligible audio. He then designed He a intelligible commercial audio. could record recorder to be used for dictation, but its real value turned out entertainment. for recordings playing and making be to in recorder cylinder his of version commercial first the patented cylinder in 1877. in cylinder signals, he soon found that he had invented a machine that throughout the world. throughout Pioneers Recording Early ing record labels to Texas because of its broad variety of musical of variety broad its of because Texas to labels record ing The popularity the spread of these scenes recordings and styles. influenceTexan of artists’ musical styles across America and The first country music performer music country first The born was recorded in commercially be to in Texas. the age of three, up, from Arkansas, but grew by the 1930s. by developed, the audience for recordings expanded to the point in point the to expanded recordings for audience the developed, which groups such as the Mexican immigrant communities in people 100 every for records 118 of average an had Texas South city and expense of the requisite equipment, coupled with the necessarytechnical knowledge to operate it, limited the market for recordings mostly to the As wealthy. recording technology harmonious harmonious mix of music, technology, marketing, and ego. A change in each of these elements affects the the others. development In the earliest days of American the recording, scar of http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 3

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19 Also record 14

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17 16 In more recent years, popular demand for these archival field for In demand archival these popular more years, recent In In 1941, J. Dobie Frank hired Owens as a folklorist and the Strachwitz of tradition, Chris recording Continuing the field Lomax and his son Alan continued conducting fieldrecord Though John Lomax is the earliest, most prolific, and best- longer a novelty to listeners, and because many more musicians are are musicians recordings has more probably diminished, because recordings are many no because and listeners, to novelty a longer only exists Records Arhoolie Even themselves. record to able now sales. andCD record than income of sources other has it because singer- by evidenced as appeal, have still recordings field However, success commercial achieved who Shocked, Michelle songwriter and critical acclaim with the release by Cooking Vinyl Records of a cassette recording of her singing off-stage by a campfire at Texas. Kerrville, near Festival the 1986 Kerrville Folk regional music throughout Texas. William Owens, from Pin which traveled with a gramophone-type recorder, Texas, Hook, embossed aluminum discs that were played back with needles Agricul Texas at taught had Louisiana who Owens, spine. cactus of made and Texas East in recorded College, Mechanical & tural Iowa. of University the from doctorate his for mid-1930s the in That institution was not interested in keeping his collection of was, the perhaps Texas recordings. University of rec However, ognizing its earlier mistake in not supporting Lomax. to continued Owens collection. his acquired Texas of University add recordings to the collection into the 1950s. John were Congress Libraryof the for 1940s the in Texas in ing Rosser, Jr., and famous Texan folklorist John Henry Faulk. In Nye. Hermes attorney Dallas was folklorist-recorder Another the 1940s, he recorded and, at times, performed on the radio songs for national distribution. Texas old Arhoolie Records came from California beginning to Texas in “Lightnin’” local musicians, including Sam the 1960s to record Mance of recordings first the made Arhoolie 1960, In Hopkins. been never had who musician Navasota 65-year-old a Lipscomb, Lipscomb recorded recorded previously. for Arhoolie until just before his death in 1976, influencing countless musicians and becoming famous for his eclectic repertoire, blues. which Texas-style gospel, rags, ballads, and included ings throughout the Southern United States in the 1930s for the for 1930s the in States United Southern the throughout ings one During Song. Folk American of Archive Congress of Library to Louisiana in Prison Angola visited Lomaxes the session, such record the prolific butrelatively unknown singerHuddie Led numerous made Lomaxes the years, several next the Over better. and better helped of known recordings as Ledbetter, Leadbelly, bring his music to the attention of the world. recorded who others were certainly there folklorist, Texas known - - - - Cowboy Songs Cowboy 10 Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham:

. This book sold quite well and helped and well quite sold book This . 12 Dalhart’s recordings sold well enough, enough, well sold recordings Dalhart’s 9

11 Lomax had grown up in Texas and, as a teenager, wrote down What we know as “country” music today was strongly influ The first country music performer to be commerciallyre Throughout Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, recording sessions stations, radio at in and halls, Texas banquet buildings, were office churches, held rooms, hotel in and WOAI in San Antonio. WRR, and KLIF in Dallas including WFAA, “The Streets of Laredo,” “Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie,” and “Git Along Little Dogies.” location where he could record cowboys and others singing the old old the singing others and cowboys record could he where location popu and preserve helped efforts His West. American the of songs Range,” the on “Home as songs cowboy now-standard such larize cheap, and unworthy” cowboy music and lore. Because mobility was was mobility Because lore. and music cowboy unworthy” by and traveled and cheap, rig recording portable a other pioneered any Lomax and essential, ranches, prisons, cities, visiting Texas throughout car secured funding from Harvard University to conduct field research research words field to the songs conduct he heard to After he singing. cowboys college, University Harvard from funding secured University the mater, alma own his Ironically, music. cowboy into “tawdry, termed it what of study his in interested not was Texas, of and Other Frontier Ballads Frontier Other and music and folklore. a national fascination with cowboy create Folklore Society, traveled throughout the Southwest in the early songs. cowboy Texas of recordings “field” numerous making 1900s as 1910 in these published then and transcribed He enced by some of the earliest recordings made in the Lone Texas the Star co-founded later who Lomax, A. John Folklorist state. sparked sparked a growing public demand for “hillbilly” music, as well music. as “cowboy” Recordings Field record several of his “hillbilly” fiddle tunes, including “Arkansas “Arkansas including tunes, fiddle a “hillbilly” his of several record establish helped recordings These Gooden.” “Sally and Traveler” popularity their and tradition, band fiddle the in interest national corded was born in Arkansas, but grew up, three, from in Legendary Texas. the fiddlerage Alexander “Eck”Robertson of of in Amarillo 1922 went to and York New persuaded to RCA sold. Dalhart’s hit recording of “Home On the Range” in 1927 the On Range” of “Home hit recording sold. Dalhart’s “star.” established him as the first country music first million-selling country record in history, reviving Dalhart’s Dalhart’s reviving history, in record country million-selling first Records. Victor for much-needed revenue and career providing eventually were songs the of copies million six that claimed Victor some “hillbilly” tunes. Dalhart set aside his vocal training and in heard had he songs the of number a twang, nasally a in sang, Wreck “The included which recordings, these of One youth. his the became Song,” Prisoner’s “The and 97” Southern Old the of Dalhart persuaded Edison or Edison persuaded him to record introduced the famous “Blue Amberol” cylinder that would last would that cylinder Amberol” “Blue famous the introduced playings. many through Vic and career, his when 1924, in came success greatest his but either accounts, various By flagging. were business, Records’ tor

A History of the Texas Recording Industry Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2004 A History of the Texas Recording Industry 4 - - - - Rob

Knox, and

Boy Big

Pullum,

24 Joe

Washington, Carter,

- 1938) Antonio, (San Tannehill Bo

‘Cowboy’ Sheiks,

Walter The two labels continued to send out sepa - 28

Boy, 26 1941) (Dallas, Brothers Wright In Dallas, Okeh recorded Rev. William McKinley 29

25 27 Ramblin’ Ramblin’ Thomas, Walter Davis, and Stump Johnson 1932) (Dallas, Antonio, 1934) Cooper (San Antonio, 1937) (San Band and His Mays Ted and • Mississippi • 1936) Antonio, (San Buddies Boots and His • Andy • Bo Carter and Frank • The The Brunswick and In In late 1926, Columbia bought Okeh, one of a number of The Atlanta-based Okeh label made its first field trip to Texas Texas to trip field first its made label Okeh Atlanta-based The Columbia Records came to Dallas in 1927 and 1928 and re Vocalion labels preferred preferred labels Vocalion or York New in record to Chicago, but they also made fieldtrips to Dallas in 1928, 1929, and 1930. Artists corded Washington Phillips, Lillian Glinn, Blind Willie Johnson, Willie Blind Glinn, Lillian Phillips, Washington corded Billiken Johnson and Fred Adams, Coley Jones, Willie Tyson, William McCoy, Willie Mae McFarland, Hattie Hudson, Get rude the Perkins, Dallas String Band, Laura Henton, Le Roy’s Bobby Marlin, Texas Blind Band, String Franchy’s Band, Dallas Rev. Wright, Emma Lovelady, Jean Baby Taylor, Mary Cadillac, J.W. Heads, Willie Reed, Charlie King, the Texas Jubilee Sing ers, Billiking Johnson and Neal Roberts, Otis Harris, and Jewell Nelson. through continue would that industry recording the in mergers the Depression. rate fieldrecording teams until mid-1929. After that, although records were still released labels,on bothonly one recording team The was joint sent. Okeh-Columbia field trips to Texas took place in December 1929 and June 1930. In Dal las and San Antonio, they recorded many of the same artists again, completing re cordings for the Columbia label before recording for Okeh. in 1925. Dawkins, though this recording wasRecords. In 1928 and 1929, Okeh for returned to record “Texas” Sunshine Gospel Alexander, Lonnie Johnson, Floyd Troy and His Plaza Hotel and Harrison, Charlie Lonesome Jones, Hat” “Little Orchestra, Ranger. Jack - - - and

20 Overall, the the Overall, Thomas, 23 Dickenson,

‘Babyface’ Pere

Journal of Texas Music History, Vol. 4 [2004], Iss. 1, Art. 4 1, Art. Iss. 4 [2004], Vol. History, Music of Texas Journal Jesse Oscar,

Hill, and

22 Eddie

Sammy Davis,

Hyde,

21 Bessie Tucker (Dallas, 1929) (Dallas, Tucker Bessie • Hattie • Jimmie

Artists who recorded at these remote sessions were not always not were sessions remote these at recorded who Artists Conditions at these recording sessions certainly were primitive primitive were certainly sessions recording these at Conditions Recording Recording onto wax-coated cylinders or thick beeswax discs Texas Texas was a regular destination for these recording teams. By the 1920s, record company executives had taken notice of corded in Dallas and San Antonio almost once a year from 1929 from year a once almost Antonio San and Dallas in corded include: Victor by Texas in to 1941. Artists recorded important part of the many recordings done in Texas during this during Texas in done recordings many the of part important period. Several of the major blues and gospel sessions are listed and a later subsidiary re Records Victor label, Bluebird, below. establishing the musical “groove” that everyone allows involved establishing the musical “groove” to be musically creative. but the Texans, records are “race” notable, because they are an ing with sound engineers was far from ideal. In many ways, it reflected music the professionals ongoing still challenge today’s face of trying to achieve technical while in excellence recording play, and there was no stopping because of mistakes. of because stopping no was there and play, without room a into musicians of group a cramming of process air conditioning, windows, or adequate means of communicat not even see each other. The musicians had to wait quietly with quietly wait to had musicians The other. each see even not no idea of what was to time happening was it until on, came a light yellow green light a When came ready!” on, “get signaling summer sessions in Texas. summer sessions in the and room, one in were usually Musicians standards. today’s by equipment and engineers were so, in they another, often could carbon microphones used at the time, so, they were often kept started. recording the before just until wax the with along ice on companies general, In tried, record whenever possible, to avoid heat. Often, engineers had to keep the wax on ice mid-to- the before in began and recording electronic When recording. after the in crackling noisy caused also temperatures high 1920s, late ing trip. also presented a number of problems, especially in the Texas always approve of the music being recorded. There was also the also was There recorded. being music the of approve always chronic problem of findingroom to store the twenty or more record remote a for necessary supplies and equipment of trunks halls, WRR, and at and radio KLIF stations, WFAA, including locations suitable Finding Antonio. San in WOAI and Dallas in at that time was often difficult, because of racial rules at hotels and other commercial locations, and because churches did not Throughout Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, recording sessions in Texas were held in hotel rooms, churches, office buildings, banquet the time, such as Victor, Columbia, Okeh, Brunswick, Vocalion, Vocalion, Brunswick, Okeh, Columbia, Victor, as such time, the and American Record Company, sent teams of engineers and music. regional the countryequipment around to record music, so, they began to actively search for new artists and music music and artists new for search actively to began they so, music, records. Because there “race” new were fewtheir for real studio at labels record major Chicago, and York New of outside facilities “Race” Records “Race” with “hillbilly” along were selling, recordings how well “ethnic” http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 5

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34 Okeh

40 Chicago. recorded twenty twenty recorded in 37 studio its 32 at style, These recordings on the Bluebird label piano 38

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33 ‘barrelhouse’ Accordionist Santiago Jiménez, Sr., made his first recordings in Recordings of Mexican-American music increased in the 1930s, 1930s, the in increased music Mexican-American of Recordings T-Bone T-Bone Walker made his firstrecordings in Dallas in 1929 profit a have to proved also music border Mexican-American Bluebird by 1940. by Bluebird Victor, to switched later He 1936. in label Decca the on Antonio San because they paid $75 per recording, and Decca paid only $21. sexto bajo his by accompanied Martínez, Narciso 1936, in Also, Texas, Skidmore, of Almeida, Santiago player titles in one session. cemented the use of with the bajo sexto, instrument a Mexican double-coursed rhythm preferred the as guitar, bass twelve-string the accordion, replacing the traditional tambora de rancho, a on recordings. out the accordion drum, which drowned Tejano artists. Most of the early recordings of Mexican Americans Americans Mexican of recordings early the of Most artists. Tejano were done in Los Angeles Texas. and through tours Mexico. recording However, by organized had the labels some late 1920s, Antonio, San in sessions for artists Tejano some in brought They Rodríguez, José and Villareal Bruno accordionists notably most Rocha Pedro of duet vocal The Benito. San from both were who y Lupe Martínez, La Orquesta Típica, and El Cuarteto Carta Blanca were also recorded in the late 1920s. In 1928, the great Records. Okeh for recording made her first Mendoza Lydia slots at the artists of the recording occupying more Tejano with temporary studios in Texas. One of the Victor/Bluebird San Antonio Rocha sessions in Pedro 1934 recorded Texano, Octavio Mas Montes, Trio Los Cantú, y Gaitán Chavarria, Hermanos y Lupe Martínez, Bruno Villareal, Los Hermanos San Miguel, and Rafael Rodríguez. Also recorded at that session were W. Lee O’Daniel and His Light Crust Doughboys and bluesman Mendoza left Lydia Okeh Alexander. Records and began Texas on recording the label Bluebird in 1934. An extremely popular singer worldwide, Mendoza would record over 200 songs for Jefferson’s acousticJefferson’s guitar blues style with Lemon CharlieBlind a recorded Christian’s who Dylan, Bob to style, guitar electric song, “See That My Grave Is Kept Clean,” Airplane, on his firstJefferson album. the band, psychedelic 1960s popular the Even blues pioneer. was named after the for Columbia, but many of his major recordings in later years were made outside of Texas. In 1929, Columbia recorded Dal las’s “Whistlin” Alex Moore, one of the originators of the Texas boogie Hous in Thomas Beulah (born Wallace Sippie recorded Records ton) in Chicago and on a field trip to St. Louis the infor 1926,Houston of where Spivey Victoria singer jazz recorded also they first time. recording began labels major the of some so market, regional able 30 Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham:

31 Jefferson’s music has influenced countless musicians, from the from musicians, countless influenced has music Jefferson’s Other Texas rhythm and blues “race” musicians left the state to to state the left musicians “race” blues and rhythm Texas Other In November and December of 1936, at the Gunter Hotel in San San in Hotel Gunter the at 1936, of December and November In The American Record Corporation made perhaps the best first electric bluesman T-Bone Walker of Dallas, who combined who Dallas, of Walker T-Bone bluesman electric first death in 1929, twelve short years after he began performing with with performing began he after years short twelve 1929, in death Dallas’s in Track Central and Street Elm of corner the at cup tin a district. Ellum Deep Records Records in Chicago and two for Okeh Records in was Atlanta. He and commercially record to player blues country first the was the most popular blues singer of the 1920s until his untimely record. Blind Lemon Jefferson, born near Wortham in Freestone Freestone in Wortham near born Jefferson, Lemon Blind record. County, recorded for Paramount in Chicago from 1925 until in Blues” Lonesome “Long hit national first his made He 1929. 1926 and went on to record over eighty songs for Paramount Studio in Saginaw, Texas. This studio also was the home base for base home the was also studio This Texas. Saginaw, in Studio the Light Crust Doughboys. Antonio. In 1938 and 1939, ARC returned to record Kitty Gray, Gray, Kitty record to returned ARC 1939, and 1938 In Antonio. Buddy and Woods, In Dusky Dailey. 1940, ARC the recorded Wright Brothers Gospel Singers at the Burrus Mill Recording at the Brunswick Records Building in Dallas, along with Black Boy Boy Black with along Dallas, in Building Records Brunswick the at Burks,Pinetop Becky, Son recorded ARC year, that Later Shine. San in Woods Buddy and Gray, Kitty Three, Jolly Dailey, Dusky Antonio, Mississippi bluesman Robert Johnson recorded 17 of his his of 17 recorded Johnson Robert bluesman Mississippi Antonio, became which Blues,” Road “Cross including songs, 29 legendary roll.and rock later for foundation the and legacy his of part both recorded were Johnson’s of songs 12 remaining the 1937, June In His Rhythm Five in San Antonio. In early 1936, Buck Turner (The Turner Buck 1936, early In Antonio. San in Five Rhythm His Worth. Fort in ARC for recorded Ace) Black Worth (which was erroneously printed as “Funny Paper” Smith on on Smith Paper” “Funny as printed erroneously and was Bragg (which J.H. and Worth Dallas, in Band Jug Jamboree Dallas label), the bluesman T-Bone Walker of Dallas, who combined Jefferson’s acoustic guitar acoustic Jefferson’s combined who Dallas, of Walker T-Bone bluesman Christian’s electric guitar style, to Bob Dylan. blues style with Charlie Jefferson’s music has influenced countless musicians, from the first electric the team returned the to team returned Fort Worth and where they San Antonio, Fort in Smith Papa” “Funny recorded Perry and Dixon and Alfoncy Harris. In 1935, they recorded Shine, Boy Black Edwards, Bernice legendary producer Don Law recorded “Texas” Alexander at the first first the at Alexander sessions the and of Robert its Johnson 1936-37. ARC Texas, “Texas” in recorded Law Don producer legendary 1934, September In 1934. April in Antonio San in session Texas Southwest, Brunswick later established an office in Dallas. Southwest, Brunswick known and most influential of the race label field recordings Perry Dixon, Jake Jones, Blind Norris, Gene Campbell, and Coley and Campbell, Gene Norris, Blind Jones, Jake Dixon, Perry the in Dotson. Vocalion also presence had its successful sales with secure Henry help “Texas To Sandy. Big of Thomas Ragtime” recorded there include Texas Tommy, Ben Norsingle, Ollie Ross, Ross, Ollie Norsingle, Ben Tommy, Texas include there recorded Hattie Buleson, Eddie and Sugar Lou’s Hotel Tyler Orchestra, Bert Quarters, Four His and Price Sammy Davis, Luis Jones, Bo and EffieFinnell Scott, His Douglas Royal Stompers, Johnson,

A History of the Texas Recording Industry Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2004 A History of the Texas Recording Industry 6 - 47 46 Several members of the Light Crust Light the of members Several W. W. Lee O’Daniel’s Light Crust Doughboys, a “hillbilly” a United States Senator. States a United had Doughboys an enormous impact on Texas music and recording after they left the band. Milton Brown of Stephenville, Texas, formed what fair amount of money in those days. the However, increasing use of jukeboxes created a market for records, and the major labels that survived the Depression saw their markets expand in the 1930s, though prices of 78-rpm records had dropped to about 35 cents each. precursor of “western swing” bands, was one of the first bands to exploit and be exploited by the powerful mix of radio and recording that began in the late The 1920s. popularity of their radio show on WBAP (Fort led Worth) to the creation of one of the first radio networks inTexas America,Quality Net the of enough gained Doughboys Crust Light the Eventually, work. a following to warrant their own recording studio in Saginaw, Though personnel in the Texas. band would change, the Light Crust Doughboys continued to record through the end of the the managed who O’Daniel, “Pappy” Lee W. century. twentieth him brought band his fame the on capitalized group, later and Texas of governor becoming by Journal of Texas Music History, Vol. 4 [2004], Iss. 1, Art. 4 1, Art. Iss. 4 [2004], Vol. History, Music of Texas Journal -

43 42 Radio was 44 Sadly, even Sadly, though he is in the Conjunto 41

The Great Depression, 45

Transcription recording equip When When electronic recording began in 1925, there was some During the 1930s, a clear difference in styles evolved between between evolved styles in difference clear a 1930s, the During Narciso Narciso Martínez had lived for a while near Corpus Christi reduced reduced the demand for records, which sold for about 75 cents, a are extremely noisy, but asurvive. few which began in 1929, further built-in built-in disk recorders. The large played be could disks transcription these of copies so times, few a only only at the larger radio stations, consumer-friendly a in not was and format, although some wealthier Americans owned radios with broadcast. broadcast. found usually expensive, was ment WFAA in Dallas, where musicians where Dallas, in WFAA would perform and be recorded on transcription disks for later Much of the recording1920s was done at inradio stations, the and Antonio San in WOAI as such free, while records were expensive, expensive, were records while free, and the marketing relationship between radio and theindustry had recordnot yet developed. commercial broadcasts put a crimpa put broadcasts commercial in the growth of record sales in the early-to-mid 1920s. promise for radio expanding record sales, However, because disks were cylinders. easier to than replicate of expansion the and appeared, soon Recording, Radio, and Western Swing Radio,Western and Recording, and German heritage, and his band, with Adolph swing Hofner western of and mixture eclectic the an played Antonians, San polkas. and German Czech recordings from Texas helped to establish the Texan accordion- helped to Texan establish the Texas from recordings bajo sexto conjunto as a genre of its own. Contributing to this style was another San Antonio musician, Adolph who Hofner, recorded there for Okeh and Columbia. Hofner was of Czech not available to listeners. not available the of popularity The Texas. and California of music border the except Mexico City, where music from “El Norte” was frowned was frowned Norte” “El music from where City, Mexico except upon at the time. is music his so recorded, never was Cantú Camilo Fame, of Hall who was doing the same in San Antonio. Martínez’s recordings for for recordings Martínez’s Antonio. San in same the doing was who were and style conjunto the of popularization the began Bluebird places, many in received well were They worldwide. distributed among many Bohemians, Czechs, and Germans. He was among was He Germans. and Czechs, Bohemians, many among the first toJiménez, blendSantiago theEuropean and and Mexican accordion styles, Texas Central of Cantú Camilo with along http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 7 - -

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further improved electronic designs, designs, electronic improved further 58 The development of the first working transistor by transistor working first the of development The 57 The postwar withdrawal of major labels from regional markets markets regional from labels major of withdrawal postwar The Although immediately after the war, smaller labels often By the 1950s, broadcast television began to have as much of By 1943, through an agreement with the AFM, this stoppage this AFM, the with agreement an through 1943, By II, the Following the end War American of recording World making large profits from national hits recorded at their studios, their at recorded hits national from profits large making not did recording location of expense extra the decided they so, markets. sales in regional from justify the return actually opened the door for the growth of the record Texas ing industry, since it led to the establishment of several small, labels independent labels that rushed to larger fill thevoid leftby thethe larger by recording location of cessation The companies. Many G.I.s also created a need for Texas. facilities recording in returned from the war with electronic skills, which they put to production. 1954 in Instruments Texas tube vacuum than levels noise lower with fidelity higher allowing and heat levels. size along with reduced circuitry, advances ones, old down melting by records new manufactured in plastics ended the use of shellac and times led playing to disks longer that allowing could together, closer much grooves have and eventually slower rotation speeds. Masters were no longer recorded on wax, but rather on magnetic tape, a new medium developed from captured German tape recorders. A a create helping were also revivingboom baby a and economy American music. for recorded audience growing an impact on the recording industry as radio had in the 1920s and 1930s, when Hollywood first began promoting the“sing The introduction of the ing 12” cowboy.” “LP” format further companies record large the war, the After market. the expanded did not resume their fieldrecording trips.Instead, they were fee per recording, and were not compensated when their records records their when compensated not were and recording, per fee on radio. or broadcast on jukeboxes, sold, played were caused the U.S. Army to produce its own records, called “V- American of entertainment and morale the (Victory)for discs,” soldiers. jazz Texan musicians and Jack Teagarden Oran “Hot and Wills Bob Boyd, Bill did as V-discs, on recorded Page Lips” over 1949, until 1943 From Ritter. Tex and Playboys, Texas His Most manufactured. were records 12” vinyl these of million eight of were destroyed after the V-discs the war in keeping with the with the AFM. made agreement industry continued growing and changing, adapted were as war the innovations during developed in electronics and materials played a to large commercial role recording. Once Texas again, in artistic, technical, and commercial aspects of the recording industry. Technology derived from anti-submarine record and recording audio to adapted was equipment listening acoustic - - - - -

52 Also famous Also 54 51 The Musical Brownies Brownies Musical The 48 This session also was the 50 Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham: 53 Brown’s blend of white “hillbilly” (Appalachian Brown’s square 49 When World War II began, commercial recording in the In 1939, the Houston dance band Cliff Bruner and His Boys Boys His and Bruner Cliff band dance Houston the 1939, In Bill Boyd’s Cowboy Ramblers was another top western swing western top another was Ramblers Cowboy Boyd’s Bill Bob Wills became, of by Texas, Kosse, the far, most famous pensate musicians who lost work because of competition from flat a paid only were musicians strike, the Until music. recorded Petrillo, president of Petrillo, the American of Federation in Musicians, called was strike The years. full two for recording hampered 1942 to seek royalties from the companies record for a fund to com United United States slowed dramatically. The shellac used for disks James was by needed for the war ordered effort, as strike was the beeswax general used for the the addition, In recordings. master World War II, the Post-War Era, Era, II, the Post-War War World Studios Labels and Recording Record and the Rise of Texas “Moon” Mullican, from Corrigan, Texas. The record was a Mullican, from Texas. big Corrigan, “Moon” popularize help to song first the was and label Decca the for hit of country genre music. the “big-rig truck-drivin’” recorded “Truck Driver’s Blues,” written by East Texas musician Texas East by written Blues,” Aubrey by Driver’s sung “Truck recorded and pioneer, guitar electric and steel a Daffan, Ted the recording studio and on the radio, rarely ever touring. They touring. ever rarely radio, the on and studio recording the and 200 appeared in over songs six recorded for RCA-Bluebird films in the 1940s. Hollywood Eagle.” Boyd, from firstrecordedLadonia, Texas, his band for instru and style a with 1934, in Antonio San in Records Bluebird The Cowboy mentation that was more traditional than Wills’s. Ramblers were also different in that they performed mostly in group group of the 1930s, recording the popular “Under the Double morale and entertainment of American soldiers. morale and entertainment The U.S. Army produced its own records, called “V-discs,” (Victory) for the in his own right was Marvin “Smokey” Montgomery, a long-time long-time a Montgomery, “Smokey” Marvin was right own his in pro record successful a became who Doughboys, the of member II. War World in the decades after ducer and studio owner variety of musical styles. Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys made made Playboys Texas His and Wills Bob styles. musical of variety their firstrecording in 1935 for American Record Company’s Art Satherly. other famous producer, country music. in recorded were drums time first pioneer of western swing. Wills western left the of popular most the the Playboys, Doughboys Texas in the formed 1933and a performing and section horn a incorporating often bands, swing dance) music with blues, jazz, polka, and Mexican musical influ musical Mexican and polka, jazz, blues, with music dance) swing.” as “western be known came to ences eventually was the first band torecord an played by amplified steel guitar, Bob bringing Dunn, a sound to country music that is standard today. is generally recognized as the first Western SwingMilton band,Western is generally as recognized the first Brown and His Musical Brownies, in 1932. Brown made over com from death his before Decca and Victor for recordings 100 1936. in wreck car a following plications

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Robey bought the Duke label of Memphis, Tennessee, in 1952, 1952, in Tennessee, Memphis, of label Duke the bought Robey Houston producer, label label producer, Houston One of the premier Texas studios of the post-World War II In the late 1940s, studios and record manufacturing plants were were plants manufacturing record and studios 1940s, late the In adding Bobby Blue Bland, Roscoe Gordon, “Junior” Parker, and Parker, “Junior” Gordon, Back Roscoe the Bland, Blue started Bobby adding Robey 1957, In artists. of roster his to Ace Johnny Peacock also released progressive jazz recordings by Betty Carter Betty by recordings jazz progressive released also Peacock Criss. and Sonny successful black-owned record label, Pea cock had hits by Gatemouth Brown, Big Mama Thornton, Floyd Dixon, Memphis Slim, and Marie Adams. managing Gatemouth Brown, of In order Orange, Texas. to get Brown recorded, Robey started his own label, Peacock Records. The first in Texas in Texas pop, jazz, gospel, and R&B music. In 1949, was owner, nightclub a Robey, owner, and songwriterof one became Robey Don importantmost figures the who who enjoyed recording at his studio. land, land, T-Bone Walker, Willie Thornton, Mama” “Big Mae Little Richard, and many other famous musicians Boy Williamson, Lightnin’ Hopkins, Lightnin’ Williamson, Boy Johnny Winter, Clarence “Gate mouth” Brown, Johnny Cope Doug Sahm. Known for the quality of his record his of quality the for Known Sahm. Doug ings, Holford was well liked and respected by artists, such as B.B. King, Sonny and even the diminutive but no less significant Sarg Records of disc KBOP of recordings first the produced which Texas, Luling, jockey Willie Nelson and San Antonio child prodigy had its own label, ACA Records, but many other regional Texas Texas regional other many but Records, ACA label, own its had labels also hired Holford to help build their own studios. These smaller labels included Peacock, Bellaire, “D” Records, Starday, period, ACA Studios, was built in Houston in 1948 by Bill Hol Bill by 1948 in Houston in built was Studios, ACA period, sound and radio a was he where military, the left he after Sr., ford, reinforcement technician. ACA (Audio Company of America) designer, currently resides in Wimberley, Texas. Wimberley, in resides currently designer, Texas East IndustryHouston and in Recording The until the 1970s, when designers such as Englishman Rupert Neve Neve Rupert Englishman as such designers when 1970s, the until began producing high quality manufactured equipment. Neve, foremost its as industry audio professional the in regarded widely commercially manufactured professional-grade audio recording recording audio professional-grade manufactured commercially fab and design to had engineers studio many meant equipment consoles mixing and preamplifiers microphone own their ricate use by building recording studios. recording building use by McAl and Alice even and Antonio, San Houston, Dallas, in built len by entrepreneurial engineers and businessmen. The lack of http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 9 - - - - Mar 77

78 76 Dallas Sound Labs 79 and Nesman Recording 82 Long-time Lubbock saxophon Lubbock Long-time 84 where Buddy recorded the acetates that that acetates the recorded Buddy where 80 83 There were also some small studios in West Texas, Texas, West in studios small some also were There 81 Also recording at Jim Beck’s studio were George Jones, Jones, George studio were Beck’s at Jim Also recording 75 Tommy Allsup, who had played lead guitar for Holly, built a who had Allsup, played lead guitar for Holly, Tommy In In 1974, engineers Glen Pace and Phil York built Autumn In West Texas during the 1950s, a new musical style was In In nearby Fort Worth, producer “Major Bill” Josie Smith’s Sumet Sumet Studios in Dallas. Montgomery produced and recorded albums by the Doughboys and many other bands Texas there for decades. Still in Sumet operation Studios has today, hosted Helen including world, the over all from musicians famous many in 1971. there Woman” “I Am who recorded Reddy, vin “Smokey” Montgomery, of the Light Crust Doughboys, who who Doughboys, Crust Light the of Montgomery, “Smokey” vin world-famous the built Paula,” “Hey, and Baby” “Hey, produced songs Holly and the Crickets recorded there, including “That’ll Be Be “That’ll including there, recorded Crickets the and Holly songs Roylabels. Coral and Brunswick the on released were Day,” The and Gilmer Jimmy did as studio, Petty’s in recorded also Orbison Fireballs. the Recording such Studio Venture in as Lubbock, Bobby Peeble’s where Holly recorded once in 1956, Falls, Wichita in Studio led to his short-lived contract with Decca. 1960s. the in Odessa in studio Sound, Sound, the first 24-trackrecording studioTexas. inWithin a month of its opening, Willie Cry Eyes “Blue Nelson singer, a as hit #1 recordedfirst “Red-Headed Nelson’s there. Stranger” he and album, Grammy-winning that on was Rain,” The Sound. In ing Autumn at albums platinum more three record to on went the Today studio is called Audio Dallas. in the 1980s and is still open today Vaughan Ray hosted Stevie as both a studio school. and Planet Dallas, Palmyra a recording Studios, and Indian Trail, Deep Ellum Studios are among the two hundred or more studios that have continued the Dallas- Fort Worth and North Central recording Texas tradition into century. the twenty-first and Roll Rock and Early Texas West and Holly Buddy storm. by world the take would that emerging the Crickets and Buddy Knox and the Rhythm Orchids, with Norman at 1957 in songs hit first their recorded Bowen, Jimmy The line. state the across just Mexico, New Clovis, in studio Petty’s sold 2-1/2 million copies in two months, launching Frizzell’s career. Ray Price, Floyd Tillman, and Marty Robbins. Beck was very influential with the major labels, and, if not for hisuntimely death in 1958, Dallas might have gained a comparable stature center. as a country music recording with Nashville including 1960s, the in hits national several released label Records “Hey Paula’s & Paul Go,” I’ll Bruce hit Delbert Channel’s Baby,” “Hey, McClinton To, and the Me Want Really You “If Rondels’ Kiss.” “Last Cavaliers’ the and Wilson Frank J. and Paula,” - - - - 67

65 and Bob Kelly, and Bob Kelly, The psychedelic psychedelic The 73 69 66 Dallas’s rockabilly Dallas’s pioneer Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham: 72 Starting with only a handful of 68 Rockabilly artists Gene Summers, 71 74 where Eck Robertson attempted to resurrect his record his resurrect to attempted Robertson Eck where 70 Dallas studio owner Jim Beck discovered and helped promote promote helped and discovered Beck Jim owner studio Dallas Dallas also had its share of the recording business in the post- the in business recording the of share its had also Dallas Tyler, Texas, also has a colorful recording history. Studio record Studio history. recording colorful a has also Texas, Tyler, International Artist International label also of was the a 1960s. Houston It in 1950, took the recordings to his then friend with Don Law, Columbia Records. Law came to Texas and recorded Frizzell which The Time” Got I’ve The Got Money, singing “If You’ve ers Studio. Lefty Frizzell. Beck, who recorded the singer from Corsicana fame (the “Lost Dallas Sessions”), Dallas”), (later “Johnny Poovey Joe “Groovey” at Sell in all Dallas, recorded Studios Ten Top who also owned example, Bill Boyd recorded at Jack Sellers Studios during the 1950s, ing career in the 1940s. “Be-Bop-A-Lula” of Vincent Gene Cleburne, of Carroll Johnny the Dallas area, including Timothy McNeally’s Shawn label and label Shawn McNeally’s Timothy including area, Dallas the Roger SoulTex label.Boykin’s Country artists also continued to record in Dallas, along with some rockabilly pioneers. For war period. While there was still musical activity in Deep Ellum, Ellum, Deep in activity musical still was there While period. war much of the of R&B the recording time was done in Houston. in established were labels musician-owned small some However, Dallas and Fort Worth and Fort Dallas recorded recorded many songs, including her Grammy-winning “Blue,” at Rosewood Tyler. Studio in studios after the war, there are now more than 200 registered Texas. and East studios in Houston recording & the Traps, Jon & Robin, and Gladstone, along with hundreds hundreds with along Gladstone, and Robin, & Jon Traps, the & and Epic as labels larger such for recorded acts, regional Rimes other of LeAnne Custom. and Ty-Tex labels local smaller and Paula Brian’s Recording Studio, where ZZ Top, John Fred & His Play His & Fred John Top, ZZ where Studio, Recording Brian’s Americans, The Five The boy Uniques, Band, David Houston, Mouse Coley), Ford John & Dan England (later FOB Southwest the soundtrack to the film “Urban Cowboy” was produced. Cowboy” the soundtrack to the film “Urban Hood Robin as such facilities, with 1960s, the in began there ing and Bert Frilot built a new studio next to the club, where part of part where club, the to next studio new a built Frilot Bert and Country artists continued to record in Dallas, along with some rockabilly pio genre provided a contrast to the country music scene in Houston, Houston, in scene music country the to contrast a provided genre which centered on Mickey Jones Gilley Gilley’s Recording Studio Pasadena. in in club night Gilley’s later, and Houston, North Gold Gold Rush. Other Houston labels of the time included Steffek The by recordings released Tantara records. Tantara and Records Top. ZZ became later who Sidewalks, Moving and recorded early bands and psychedelic at recorded Andruswhich Studios, Austin’s were these of notable Most label. record Cinema the had and Puppy, Bubble Elevators, Floor 13th the and Erickson Roky Child, and even the Rolling Stones. Tejano star Selena recorded recorded Selena star Tejano Stones. Rolling the even and Child, Records. Freddie in 1983 for Star Gold at her first album was run by Houstonian Kenny brother Rogers’s Lelan Rogers

A History of the Texas Recording Industry Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2004 A History of the Texas Recording Industry 10 - -

The partnership of of partnership The 91 92 When a Mexican bolero bolero Mexican a When 90

88, 89 Ideal Ideal also recorded such singers “corrido” as Jesus Maya and During During this time, Martínez Narciso made recordings adding Timotéo Cantú, reviving an old tradition of singing ballads about about ballads singing of tradition old an reviving Cantú, Timotéo 1940s the in dormant gone had which politics, and events current trips. field labels’ major the of demise the with Mar with 1959, in amicably ended Bentancourt and Marroquín the United States. For his For the debut States. to United records be released as mass- produced 78s, he recorded his wife Carmen, who her sang sister Laura as with Carmen y Laura. that Paco Betancourt, a later record Marroquín with partnered Benito, San from distributor year, and they moved the studio to a building in Alice, where hundreds of recordings by artists, such as Narciso Martínez,Chelo Silva, Orchestra, Beto Longoria, Valerio Villa’s Carmen y Laura, López,Juan Maya y Cantú of Laredo, Nuevo Paulino over made be would Escobar Linda and Herrera, Johnny Bernal, the next decade. an yet influence helping conjunto, accordion the to duets vocal norteño. as known style for musical other songs Herrera’s Johnny of one recorded Victoria, Maria singer, Mexico, throughout popular became song the and Victor, RCA from countrymusic that against in resistance long-standing the for market strong a Eventually down. break to began Norte” “El of the border. south music developed Texas

87 In El Paso, Paso, El In 85 In West Texas and The Texas In West 86 Journal of Texas Music History, Vol. 4 [2004], Iss. 1, Art. 4 1, Art. Iss. 4 [2004], Vol. History, Music of Texas Journal

In South Texas, independent labels quickly appeared in order order in appeared quickly labels independent Texas, South In Tejano records supply from American his Tejano To labels. jukeboxes, would and 1946 in home his at Records Ideal started Marroquín be the Mexicanfirst American to produce a conjunto record in to record the music of Mexican-American artists the who music of had Mexican-American been to record owner business jukebox Alice, In labels. major the by abandoned Armando Marroquín was frustrated with the postwar lack of Panhandle today there are at least four dozen studios. at least four dozen are today there Panhandle Antonio and San Texas South Bobby Bobby Fuller built a studio in 1962 he and which released Law,” The on Fought “I of his recording first the own label Exeter would later re-record in Los Angeles. studio and Telephone Records label, which often allowed artists allowed often which label, Records Telephone and studio on the label to retain ownership of their material, was popular for many and the years, studio still operates today. Allen, and many other artists recorded and continue to record. Norm Petty required long-term contracts from his artists, and was known for sometimes keeping their royalties, so Caldwell’s ist and four-track studio owner Don Caldwell, with the help of Caldwell, Don studio owner ist and four-track studio multi-track a built Llove, Lloyd banker-musician Lubbock where Texas artists, including the second-generation Maines Brothers, Joe Ely, Delbert McClinton, Butch Hancock, Terry courtesy of Joe Nick Patoski Papers, Southwestern Writers Collection, Texas State University-San Marcos. University-San State Texas Collection, Writers Southwestern Papers, Patoski Nick courtesy of Joe Huey Meaux (right) with Cajun singerTommy McLain, McLain, singerTommy (right) with Cajun Meaux Huey http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 11 - - - - - and, 102 Sarg Records Records Sarg 110 leaving a few 113 104 111 Hacienda Records, also Records, Hacienda There are at least six dozen dozen six least at are There 108 In Corpus Christi and the In 103 109 and band mate Manny Guerra San Antonio’s Sonny Ozuna, who Ozuna, Sonny Antonio’s San 106 105 These labels faded away just as Texas Texas These labels faded away just as 114

107 and Sonobeat Bill Records. Josey’s Sonobeat 112 Blue Cat Studio opened in the late 1970s, 101 Austin in the late 1950s had the local label Domino Records, Records, Domino label local the had 1950s late the in Austin country scene music progressive vibrant a 1970s, early the In By the 1960s a new generation of Tejano artists was emerging, emerging, was artists Tejano of generation new a 1960s the By In Corpus Christi, started Martinez, Re Freddy Freddie Sr., tive tive country truly caught on when Willie Nelson moved back to Jen his from Willie, home Nashville. Waylon state Texas of W. B. Fromholz, Steve Hester, Caroline Walker, Jeff Jerry nings, of newgeneration a by joined were Benson Ray and Stevenson, progressive folk/country/rock musicians, Jimmie including Ray Ely, Wylie Joe Murphy, Martin Walter Michael Nunn, Crow, Alvin Hubbard, P. Gary Weir, Rusty Hancock, Butch Gilmore, Dale and Band, Walt’s Uncle of Ball David and Hood, Champ Hyatt, Junior These Brown. were followed by Stephen Nanci Doster, few. a just name to Keen, Robert Earl and Lovett, Lyle Griffith, of Corpus Christi, recorded the Lee David famous Los Saldívar, Mingo Hermanos Ayala, F, Tropa La Escobar, Linda later, and Victoria include artists New Ybarra. Eva accordionist and Garza, first the built also Records Hacienda Zamora. Albert and Galvan in the 24-track late recording studio 1970s Texas in and South studio. Texas is still a major South studios. at least two dozen are there today, Valley Texas and Central Austin which released by records George Clarence Underwood, Smith (later Sonny Rhodes) and the Daylighters, blues steel guitarist How Harris. Joyce and Slades, the Campi, Ray Rhodes, Sonny ever, Domino shut down in the early 1960s, Polk’s James keyboardist jazz/funk including labels smaller other Records Twink by labels other on released records made and studio small a built Johnny Ray Winter, Campi, the Lavender Hill Express, James 1970s. early the in closed it until others and Polk, of several for Studio Recording Custom Austin Poole’s Roy used in the 1960s. its records saw the emergence of its own blend of folk, rock, and country “progressive country,” “alternative called variously styles musical Rock.” and “Redneck country,” alterna for reputation city’s the and Austin, in emerge to began record music, including Adolph Hofner’s work for Sarg Records Records Sarg for work Hofner’s Adolph including music, record in 1958. in the early 1980s, Augie Meyers and his son Clay built CAM 2003. until operated which Studios, Antonio area. in the San studios still operating alongside the larger Chicano movement, Clasicos, and Los new with labels Pulido, were Roberto music. their record to created label. Lago the on debuted Sunliners, the and Sunny as pop American with Tejano blended recorded on Joey Records, which Studios, Amen built and labels G Mr. and GC his started is still in operation. today, business in Still recordings. own his release to order in cords Lit Ayala, Ramón Rosa, la de Tony as artists such added label the among Chamacos, Los y Anda De Jaime and Familia, La y Joe tle Studio. Legends the owns and others, - - - and studio a

98 had also San Antonio disc jockey jockey disc Antonio San Flaco’s younger Flaco’s brother, 99 Other San Antonio Tejano Tejano Antonio San Other 96 97 Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham: which 93 Records, Some other early studios in San Antonio 100 Texas) ‘N 94 (Tanner 95 Of Of course, there also were record labels non-Hispanic in the In San Antonio, Manuel Rangel, Sr., with a recording of Valerio Valerio of recording a with Sr., Rangel, Manuel Antonio, San In In 1949, Reymundo Treviño founded Arco Records in Alice, a Arnaldo Ramírez founded Falcon Records in McAllen in 1948. 1948. in McAllen in Records Falcon founded Ramírez Arnaldo were Jeff Smith’s Texas Sound Studios, Abe Epstein Studio, and Studio, Epstein Abe Studios, Sound Texas Smith’s Jeff were to used was also studio Radio/TV KENS Studio. Morris’s Eddie labels. Harlem’s co-owner, E.J. Henke, also had the Satin, Warrior, Warrior, Satin, the a record manufacturing had plant in also the were city, important local Henke, E.J. co-owner, Harlem’s labels. and Wildcat labels. Joe Anthony’s R&B label, Harlem/Ebony, Abe Epstein’s Cobra Abe Epstein’s R&B label, Harlem/Ebony, Anthony’s Joe Records, Jesse Schneider’s Renner Records, and Bob Tanner’s TNT San Antonio area following World War II. For example, the Texas Texas the example, For II. War World following area Antonio San country small a was which Records, Everstate owned Hands Top 1950s. early and 1940s late the in label Santiago, Jr., continues their father’s musical tradition on Chief on tradition musical father’s their continues Jr., Santiago, 1990. in founded he which Records, Lira, and Magda. Grande, labels included Discos making his debut on Rio in 1956 was Santiago Jiménez, Sr.’s son, son, Sr.’s Jiménez, Santiago was 1956 in Rio on debut his making who Jiménez, “Flaco” great the as today known better Leonardo, has recorded on many major labels. Alegre, a Lower Valley accordionist named Armando Almendarez, Almendarez, Armando named accordionist Valley Lower a Alegre, who played in the Louisiana Zydeco style of Clifton Also Chenier, García. Ada singer ranchera and Rancheros, his and Alonzo recordings on Rio, including Fred Zimmerle, Valerio Longoria, Longoria, Valerio Zimmerle, Fred including Rio, on recordings de la Rosa, Leandro Borrayo, Cor Felix Guerrero, Frank Tony rales, Los Pavos Reales, Diamantes, Ibarra, Pedro Los Los Tres Chavalitos, Conjunto Topo Chico, Conjunto San Antonio conjunto accordionist, Juan Gaytan, Frank Cantú, Manuel Val Manuel Cantú, Frank Gaytan, Juan accordionist, conjunto new Other Maria. and Juanita sisters, Mendoza’s Lydia and dez, artists who achieved great popularity made some of their first by Hymie Wolf, who founded Rio Records. Rio had a relatively relatively a had Rio Records. Rio founded who Wolf, Hymie by brief life span, but it recorded many established artists of the period, Rocha, Casiano, Jesús including another Pedro pioneer ing. followed soon was He 1948. in label Corona the started Longoria, increased. short-lived label on which Tony de la Rosa made his first record duets of Hermanas Degollado, Rosita y Cantú, Hermanas Aurelia, Mendoza, Hermanas Segovia, Hermanasand Las Dos for recorded also Mexico, Leon, Nuevo from Musicians Marias. and Falcon Ideal as the cross-border exchange of musical styles Many artists who recorded for Ideal recorded for Falcon, whose Falcon, for recorded Ideal for recorded who artists Many Norteñitas, Las Silva, Chelo Terán, de Alegres Los included roster Lydia Mendoza, Dueto Estrella, Steve Jordan, and the female With several subsidiary labels, including Bronco, ARV, Impacto, Impacto, ARV, Bronco, including labels, subsidiary several With and Bego, El Pato, it became the largest of the conjunto labels. music at the time along with Spanish translations of American pop tunes, went on to a very successful recording career under Fender. the stage name of Freddy roquín starting Nopal Records in Alice, and Betancourt moving moving Betancourt and Alice, pressing in Records Nopal record starting roquín and studio new a opened Ideal Benito. San to Ideal plant in San Benito, where one of singers, the Baldemar label’s Huerta, also helped engineer. Huerta, who recorded regional

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123 Today in the Central Texas Texas Central the in Today 122 What effect this will have on the 124 Other Other albums recorded at the Fire Station include the Texas in began that technology recording in revolution” “digital The marketing medium, is having an even more dramatic impact on impact dramatic more even an having is medium, marketing and radio of advent the industrythan recording major-label the stu dozen few a were there ago, decades three over Just television. studios, 800 than more are there Today, Texas. in labels and dios Music and nearly that many labels, Texas record listed with the studios home private unlisted more many Undoubtedly, Office. exist across the state, and the trend towards releasing music on private labels shows no signs of slowing. Apple Computers has recently announced that a multitrack music production and recording program called “Garage Band” will ship free with all new Macintosh computers. album released in Texas, Doug Sahm’s 1988 Juke Box Music on Music Box Juke 1988 Sahm’s Doug Texas, in released album the won and Station Fire the at recorded was label, Antone’s the National Association of Independent Record Distributors and in 1989. award “Indie” Manufacturers’ the on Grammy a won which (1990), Tornados Texas Tornados’ Warner Reprise label, Tish Indie-winningHinojosa’s albums, Homeland (1989) on A&M Americana and record Villa Lucha a and label, Records Rounder the on (1992) Culture Swing became the Station The Fire in Mexico. WEA International for home of the Sound Recording Technology program at Texas State University-San Marcos in the early 1990s and continues studio. commercial a as operate to 200 studios. over well are there region the 1980s dramatically reduced the cost of professional-quality recording equipment. Many more musicians began building their own project studios and started their own record labels. The rapid proliferation of studios and labels, coupled with the growth of the internet as a low-cost digital distribution and Texas Tornados, courtesy of Warner Music Mexico Music Warner courtesy of Tornados, Texas

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117 Journal of Texas Music History, Vol. 4 [2004], Iss. 1, Art. 4 1, Art. Iss. 4 [2004], Vol. History, Music of Texas Journal 115

116 In the late 1980s, the Hit Shack studio 119 120

By By the mid 1980s, digital recording technology was making Electric Electric Graceyland Studios and associated label Jackalope/ The Austin Recording Studio (ARS) also opened in Studio the early Recording The Austin Odyssey Studio, Odyssey opened Studio, in 1972 by a group of Austin musi Willie Willie Nelson built the Pedernales Recording Studio for his into a multipurpose facility that would include theater and dance dance and theater include would that facility multipurpose a into recorded digitally first The studio. recording a and space rehearsal in Austin. The Fire Station was opened in 1984 by attorney and attorney by 1984 in opened was Station Fire The Austin. in the convert to wanted who Tomblin, “Lucky” Anthony building musician office government city and station fire former abandoned Station Studios in San Marcos, now part of Texas State University- State Texas of part now Marcos, San in Studios Station in recorders multi-track digital first the of one had Marcos, San Studios Arlyn and Houston in Services Digital with along Texas, Hal Ketchum, Ian Moore, Alejandro Escovedo, and others. Escovedo, Alejandro Moore, Ian Ketchum, Hal and such as gains, rapid more labels, major WEA International, Sony Discos, and Arista Texas were recording in Texas. The Fire Jeff Walker, Bill Carter, Chris Smither, Stephen Bruton, Sue Foley, Foley, Sue Bruton, Texas artists,Jerry including made the first of Stephen many albums for Smither, Chris Carter, Bill Walker, Jeff Allen, Terry Sexton, Charlie Brothers, Leroi the Lightfoot, Jerry Hancock, Jimmie Dale Gilmore, Alvin Crow, The Leroi Brothers, Brothers, Leroi The Crow, Alvin Gilmore, Dale Jimmie Hancock, Campi, Ray Wheel, the at Asleep Russell, Calvin McGhee, Wes and Willie Nelson. Rude Records opened in 1978, and has produced recordings for recordings produced has and 1978, in opened Records Rude Butch Carrasco, King Joe , Escovedo Alejandro Rhodes, Kimmie closed in the early 1990s, recorded tracks for Stevie Ray Vaughan’s Vaughan’s Ray Stevie for tracks recorded 1990s, early the in closed Johnson’s Eric and (1985) Soul to Soul and (1983) Flood Texas Ah Via Musicom (1990), in addition to many albums for its label. Records Austin 1970s and is still in business. Asleep at the Wheel recorded several several recorded Wheel the at Asleep business. in still is and 1970s studio. own its building before there songs winning Grammy it before and opened, Studio Sound Riverside 1970s, late the In Jeff Walker, Ry Cooder, Willie Nelson, Shake Russell, Joe Ely, Al Ely, Joe Russell, Shake Nelson, Willie Cooder, Ry Walker, Jeff Band. The Lost Gonzo and Kooper, FreeFlow Productions recorded numerous successful projects for for projects successful numerous recorded Productions FreeFlow closed it before distribution international and release label major Jerry King, Carole by projects were these Among later. years few a sional Recording first Studios). the In 1981, became and Pecan Street South, Studios Studio was renamed again, once modified facility, South Studio the At Southwest. the in studio automated gold records at Arlyn. gold records the Studios, Street Pecan became and remodeled later was cians, Profes of (Society SPARS by recognized be to studio Texas first later built Arlyn at Studios the Austin Opry House complex in the early 1980s. Eric Johnson, Stevie Ray & Vaughan Double the Indigo Girls, and Trouble, Little Joe y La recorded Familia Lone Star label at his estate outside Austin in the mid-1970s, with duets including albums, his of most recorded has he where Frank Sinatra, and at least a dozen platinum records. Nelson Austin until the 1970s, when several studios were built to serve until the studios 1970s, when were several Austin music scene. expanding the city’s This influx There of talent demanded facilities. goodrecording Vulcan the as such clubs, of back the in studios small some were there but Headquarters, World Armadillo the and Company Gas were no first-class commercial studio facilities forrecording in http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 13 ------http:// http:// http://

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, “The Race Labels,” xxix. The Texas-Mexican Conjunto The Texas-Mexican The Texas-Mexican Conjunto Texas-Mexican The The Texas-Mexican Conjunto Texas-Mexican The Conjunto Texas-Mexican The The American Record Label Book Record The American The American Record Label Book Label Record American The , “Depression and Resurgence,” 57-82; “RIAA / Beginning,” Beginning,” / “RIAA 57-82; Resurgence,” and “Depression , dustry (27 January 2004). http://www.riaa.com/issues/audio/history.asp This document was formerly at www.riaa.org/Audio-history-1. 2003). cfm. (17 Jan Richard Schroeder, 1998), 77-78. Press, University Sutton, Alan facturers, 1891-1943 http://www. Music,” Conjunto and Tejano of Roots “The xx; 1994) lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/raices.html (14 January 2003). Texas in Life A Montgomery: “Marvin“Smokey” Dempsey, John Mar Music,” San University, State Texas History, Music Texas for (Center Dempsey, cos); Peña, Peña, All http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border2/ Mendoza, (1946-1970),” Lydia Women Ankeny, Jason 2003); January (14 women.html http:// page the on searching by accessed biography Guide, Music Music,” Texas in “Women 2003); January (14 www.allmusic.com sub-heading Selena, “Texas-Mexican: Lydia, Chelo and Carmen y Laura,” http://www.texasalmanac.com/texasmusicwomen.html 2003). (14 January Peña, All Music Guide, biography accessed by searching on 2003). (14 January the http://www.allmusic.com page Peña, www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/narciso.html (14 2003). January “Norteño Acordeon-Part 1: The First Recordings,” http://www. january (14 lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie/arhoolie2.html 2003); Peña, www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/narciso.html (14 2003). January Peña, www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/narciso.html (14 2003). January “Yo Soy de Aqui,” http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/ac 2003). (14 January cordion/accordion1.html James Manheim, Adolph Hofner, All Music Guide, biographyaccessed by searching on the page (14 http://www.allmusic.com January 2003); Andrew Brown, South 1954-1964 Texas, beauti a is This 27-29. 43752100), Number: OCLC 3897956551, ful large-format book of about 60 pages, but with no publishing has lots of photos, a discography and other informa data in it. It for available is It label. record little great Fitch’s Charlie about tion reference only at the Center for of University American History, at If Austin. you can get there, I recommend that you read Texas this book. and Saunio, Gronow Dixon, Godrich & Rye, Rye, & Godrich Dixon, xxvii. Rust, Rye, & Godrich Dixon, xxx xxvii-xxx Ibid., Rust, Industry Recording the of History International An Fever,”36-56. and Gramophone Rye, & Godrich Dixon, xxx Willoughby, xxxi-xxxii; Ibid., Rye, & Godrich Dixon, http://www.deltahaze.com/johnson/bio. Johnson,” “Robert xxxv; http:// Johnson,” Robert “Remembering 2003); January (14 html www.sanantonioblues.com/articles/RJarticles.htm Luigi see (29 2004). career, January and life Jefferson’s regarding information more For Jefferson.” Lemon Blind of Songs “New Evans, David and Monge Music HistoryJournal of Texas 8-28. Winegarten, Ruth and Sanders Marc Women Dallas Brakefield, ed., 72-73; Tyler, Aaron Thibodeaux,” 791-792; Dixon, Godrich & Rye, Gospel 45. 46. 47. 34. 35. 36. 37. “Narciso 38. 39. “Narciso 40. 41. “Narciso 42. 43. 44. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

, - - - The Light A Guide to , published , http://www. Blues & Gos & Blues (Austin, Texas: Texas: (Austin, Handbook of Texas Texas of Handbook (London, England; (Austin, Texas: Eakin Eakin Texas: (Austin, (Austin, Texas: Univer Texas: (Austin, , Appendix “The Race Michelle,” Deep Deep Ellum and Central (1900-1949) at the Lowie Lowie the at (1900-1949) The American Record Label Record American The The New Handbook of Texas of Handbook New The and , 68, 88-89. Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham: Marcia , 12; Larkin, “Eck Robertson, http:// , 26. Deep Ellum Deep Janis, An International History of the Recording (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1997), 1997), Press, Clarendon England: (Oxford, , 187-188; John Mark Dempsey, An An International History of the Recording In ; xxi,xxii Edison: Blue Amberol Recordings Vol. II 1915- II Vol. Recordings Amberol Blue Edison: Tell Me A Story, Sing Me A Song A Me Sing Story, A Me Tell Texas Rhythm, Texas Rhyme Texas Rhythm, Texas Blues Blues & Gospel Records Etc.: Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing Western of Founding the and Brown Milton ■ The Life Story of a Mexican Immigrant Mexican a of Story Life The

Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Popular Music Popular Popular American Recording Pioneers 1895-1925 The Texas-Mexican Conjunto Texas-Mexican The Texas Rhythm Texas Texas Rhythm Texas Roll, A Guide to Early Field Recording Field Early to Guide A (New York, New York: Wellington House, 1998), 27; Milton Milton Brown ‘N’ , “The Microphone and Gramophone Fever,”36-56; Dixon, Dixon, Fever,”36-56; Gramophone and Microphone “The , (Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press, 2002), , (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 2003). Historical State Texas , (Austin: (Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press, 1998), (Brooklyn, New York: APM Press, 1981), 6. APM Press, York: New (Brooklyn, (New Rochelle, New York: Arlington House, 1978) 214. Arlington House, York: New Rochelle, (New 109-113 Book Track CaryGinell, 68; 1994), 187. Press, of Illinois University Illinois: (Urbana, and Brakefield, Govenar Ginell, Texas of Years Seventy Celebrating Air!: The On Are Doughboys Crust Music “Arhoolie History,” http://www.arhoolie.com/history/index.html http://www.arhoolie.com/history/index.html History,” “Arhoolie 2003). (14 January texasalmanac.com/texasmusicwomen.html (14 January Michelle Chris Shocked, Woodstra, All Music Guide, 2003);biography accessed by searching on the page (14 http://www.allmusic.com 2003). January Saunio, and Gronow dustry Godrich & Rye, Rust, Brian xxxi; xxvii, xxiv, i, Labels,” Alan B. Govenar and Jay Brakefield, F. pel Records 1890-1943 Records pel Appendix “Library of Recordings” Congress Archive of Folksong xii. History, American for Center Files, Vertical Owens,” A. “William at Austin. Texas of University http://www.arhoolie.com/history/index.html History,” “Arhoolie editor, Tyler, Ron 2003); January (14 State Historical Association, 1996), Texas Texas: (Austin, 6 Vols. 214-215. Mance,” 4, “Lipscomb, Vol. “Eck “Eck Robertson, Famous Cowboy Fiddler,” excerpted on Old- http://www. webpage, Robertson Eck Fame of Hall Fiddlers time 2003). (14 January oldtimemusic.com/FHOFEck.html Willoughby, “John Avery Lomax,” http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/lohtml/ 2003). (15 January lojohnbio.html Owens, A. William 1983), 9, 10. Press, Texas of University Rye, Howard and Godrich John Dixon, M.W. Robert 1929 New York, New York: Muze, 1998), “Vernon Dalhart,” http:// www.icebergradio.com/artist/29711/vernon_dalhart.html 14. Willoughby, 36-56; Saunio, and 2003); Gronow January (16 Willoughby, www.icebergradio.com/artist/29242/eck_robertson.html January 2003); Matt Eck Lafferty, Robertson, All Music Guide, http://www.allmusic. page the (14on searching by accessed biography #202, Records County from notes Liner 2003); January (14 com “Music – History & Criticism,” Vertical Files, Center For American American For History. Center Technology Recording Schoenherr, Files, Vertical Criticism,” & History – “Music at Austin Texas of University History, Pekka Gronow and from Ilpo the Translated Saunio, Finnish by Christopher Mosely, Industry Willoughby, Larry 6. 1994), Publications, History; Keeling, Technology Recording Schoenherr, Recording Field Early Dethlefson, Ronald Colin Larkin, acusd.edu/gen/recording/notes.html acusd.edu/gen/recording/notes.html (27 January 2004); Richard Keeling, Museum of Anthropology (Berkeley, California: 1990), xii. California Press, University of Tim Gracyk, (Binghamton, Haworth New York: Press, 2000), 7. Accessed on http://www. records, and phonographs old about website Gracyk’s 2003) (14 January garlic.com/~tgracyk/introbook.htm An earlier version of this article appears in the Music Peña, Manuel 1985), 42, Press, is 45. citing Peña a monograph by Texas sity of Gamio, Manuel of Chicago Press. the University in 1931 by Steve Schoenherr, History Recording Technology http://history. 22. 23. 21. 20. 18. 19. “Rock 16. 17. 15. 12. 13. 14. 11. 9. 10. 8. 5. 6. 7. 4. 3. NOTES 1. 2. music, recording and computer recording software industries seen. to be remains

A History of the Texas Recording Industry Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2004 A History of the Texas Recording Industry 14 - - - - , 187 , 87; Joe Nick , May, 1996 - Vol 1996 - Vol , May, , “Robertson, Alexander , 163; “Music City Limits,” Texas Rhythm Texas , 208 Texas Monthly Texas Floor elevators),” accessed at http:// th , 84-87. Deep Deep Ellum Deep Ellum Deep Texas Rhythm Texas The The New Handbook of Texas The Light Crust Doughboys Are on the Air! Are Doughboys Crust The Light studios listed with the Texas Music Office for Dallas/Fort Worth, Dallas/Fort for Office Music Texas the with listed studios Falls). Wichita and Mesquite Denton, http://www.poweroldies. Texas,” Willoughby, Lubbock, of Tour Holly Buddy “A 2003). (14 January com/buddy_holly.asp “Buddy Holly Exhibition Timeline: 1936-1956,” . buddyhollycenter.org/htm/bhe_t.htm http://www. “Al Perkins Snapshot CD,” Sherry,” (14 http://www.alperkinsmusic.com/articles/snapshots_liner.htm January 2003); T. “Rex http://www.rexsherry-guitarpicker.com/about.htm (14 January http://www.macpug.org/newsletter/archives/98_09/98_09. 2003); 2003). html (14 January (21 http://lloydllove.com/birth.htm Llove,” “The of Lloyd Birth http://virtualub 2003); “Interview Caldwell,” January – Don and http://virtualubbock.com/ bock.com/intDonCaldwell.html there were 38 http://www.governor. studiosTyler); and Texarkana listedSherman, Longview, with the Texas Music Officestate.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/recordingstudios- for listed studios 36 were there 2004 February 5 of (As Station, southeast.htm Bryan/College Beaumont, for Office Music Texas the with and, Huntsville). Galveston and Brakefield, Govenar ed., Tyler, 5, 614. Vol. (Eck),” biography Guide, Music All Vincent,” “Gene Unterberger, Ritchie accessed by searching on the page (24 http://www.allmusic.com 2003). January “Groovy http://www.rockabillyhall.com/JoePoovey. Joe Poovey,” 2003). html (24 January “Bob Kelly,” Http://www.rockabilly.nl/artists/bobkelly.htm (24 2003). January http://www.peermusic.com/artistpage/Lefty_Friz Frizzell,” “Lefty . zell.html Govenar and Brakefield, (Fort Weekly Worth Online, 10 May 2001), accessed at http:// . www.fwweekly.com/issues/2001-05-10/music.html Wilson Frank J. and Smith Bill Major surrounding stories Various and the recording of “Last Kiss” can be tsimon.com/lastkiss.htm found and at: http://www.westex musichof.com/ http://www. artistspages/jfrankwilson.html Music”; andTexas “Newsin Life 2003,” http://www.westexmusichof.com/news.html. Up-to-Date A AugustMontgomery: “Smokey” “Marvin Dempsey, Dempsey, “A Stranger Rides into Town,” accessed at comhttp://www.prorec. prorec/pressrel.nsf68800020FCF2. articlesA5BED4F38BA0D6038625 (20 February that 2003)may Thisalso beis founda srel.nsfc01386b29c5043508625661100009c81/a5bed4f38 atpress http://www.prorec.com/prorecpresrelease 2004). February (2 OpenDocument ba0d603862568800020fcf2? It has biographical information about Glen A Pace. bit more in formation can be found at dallas.com/index2. http://www.audio html. http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ recordingstudios.htm. (As of 5 February 2004 there were 245 day March 26, 1989; Willoughby, Patoski, “Huey Meaux P. – The Crazy Cajun,” excerpted from “Sex, Drugs, and Rock & Roll,” 24, Issue 5, p.116, accessed at http://www.laventure.net/tourist/ sdq-meaux.htm (14 February January 2003); “Group tries 21 to make dream Chronicle, Houston reality,” a museum music local of 2003, can be accessed at musichistory.org/ http://www.american 2004). January mamcampaign1.html (27 Patrick Lundborg, “A Quest for Pure Sanity – The Hall Psychedelic (13 Tommy of Poetry www.scarletdukes.com/st/tm_ausquest.html (23 January 2003); Labels,” – Record Houston Music Texas “1960’s Andrew Brown, http://www.scarletdukes.com/st/tmhou_record1.html at accessed and http://www.scarletdukes.com/st/tmhou_record2.html January (23 2003); “Gold Rush,” http://www.internetv.com/html/ 2003). goldrush.htmJanuary (23 “In Memory of Bert Frilot,” accessed at recajun. http://www.pu 2003). com/frilot.htm (23 January “The History of Robin Hood Studios,” accessed at http://www. robinhoodstudios.com (22 February 2003); “Five (22 February Americans,”accessed at http://www.benmclane.com/5amer.htm WEA, 1996) Liner notes. Records, (MCG/Curb 2003); Blue, http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ were there 2004 February 5 of (As recordingstudios-houston.htm 150 studios listed with Music the OfficeTexas for theHouston area); http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/ studios/recordingstudios-northeast.htm (As of 5 February 2004 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 66. 67. 68. 69.

, , ------Jazz Jazz , , Sun Houston outhwestern outhwestern (New York; (New York; Texas Monthly Texas , xxi. , “Choates, Harry , 56; “New Owners Houston Houston Chronicle , February 1999. Accessed Accessed 1999. February , , “Milton Brown and His , 59, 95. , “Light Crust Doughboys,” Doughboys,” Crust “Light , , 8, 21, 26, 54, 55; Richard Journal of Texas Music History, Vol. 4 [2004], Iss. 1, Art. 4 1, Art. Iss. 4 [2004], Vol. History, Music of Texas Journal Discography of Western Swing and Western Discography of V-Discs: A History and Discography and History A V-Discs: Goldmine , “Roy Head” accessed at http://www. at accessed Head” “Roy , (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Greenwood Connecticut: (Westport, , 173, 262. Texas Signs On Signs Texas An An International History of the Recording An International History of the Recording , Vol. 97 No. 1, July 1, 1993. 1, July 97 No. Vol. , The Sarg Records Anthology The Encyclopedia of Country Music The New Handbook of Texas , Vol. 2 No. 5, September/October 2001), accessed accessed 2001), September/October 5, No. 2 Vol. , Milton Brown Milton The New Handbook of Texas The New Handbook of Texas of Handbook New The , 21 February 2003, can be accessed at http://www.ameri at accessed be can 2003, February 21 , The Sarg Records Anthology Directory of American Disc Record Brands Disc Record of American Directory , 95. 95-134 , “The Age of the LP,”

Andrew Andrew Brown, Reviving Historic Recording Studio,” http://www.allmusic.com to (14 make dream Januaryof local music 2003);museum a Chronicle reality,” “Group tries 2004). (27 January canmusichistory.org/mamcampaign1.html Paul David Kingsbury, 130-131; 1998), Press, University Oxford England: Oxford, Records Starday “The Eyres, Patrice and Callahan, Mike Edwards, http://www.bsnpubs.com/king/stardaystory.html. Story,” Wright,” All Music Guide, biography accessed by searching on the on searching by accessed biography Guide, Music All Wright,” (25 January 2003); page Colin http://www.allmusic.com Larkin, Music Popular of Encyclopedia (25 2003, theiceberg.com/artist/23934/roy_head.html January 2 2004). February Andrew Brown, “Harry Choates – Devil in Familythe Bayou,” Records,(Bear BCD 91; 16355Tyler,ed., BH), linerH.,” Vol. 2, notes92-93; Craig pp.Harris, “Harry 32-37,Guide,Choates,” All Music biography accessed by searching on the page Patz, Patz, “Tribute to Bill Holford and ACA Studios,” http://www. shroomangel.com/shroom/acastudio.htmand Copperloud, Angelwing, the for site web company the is (23This January 2003). companies. record Shroom “Don Robey,” http://www.robey.html Houstonbluessociety.org/don(14 http://web.archive.org/web/20021104171045/www.houstonblues January 2003), (2 February society.org/donrobey.html 2004); Ed now Hogan, “Don mustthe on searching by accessed biography Guide, Music “O.V. All beDahl, Robey,” Bill 2003); accessed January (25 http://www.allmusic.com at page Gronow and Saunio, Industry Model: Feasibility Breadboard Breakthrough “The Davis, D. Paul S Radio,” All-Transistor First the of Development The Quarterly Historical Gronow and Saunio, Industry http://www.rupertneve.com/history.html Brown, (Westport, (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1980), adapted web http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/pennvalley/biology/ at accessed page lewis/crosby/v-discs.htm (24 January 2003); “V-Discs Boosted Morale Troop During World War II,” http://www.recordcollec Stephenson, James 2003); January (24 torsguild.org/v_discs.html http://www.rockabillyhall.com/rabref. History,” Brief A “V-Discs: html Teagarden,” (24 January Jack 2003); to “Hot Lips Page,” “Tributes http://www.jazzdate. 2003); January (24 com/biosp-r.htm (24 http://www.riverwalk.org/proglist/showpromo/teagarden.htm 2003). January Johnny Johnny Loftus, Bill Boyd, All Music Guide, biography accessed http://countrymusic.about. at accessed 2003). Hits, Rig Big Tepper, Jeremy com/library/bigrighitsbg.htm (23 compilation January a 2003). This Hits,” Rig is Big from - Boogie a Drivers’ “Truck for kit press (2001). York New Brooklyn, Records, Only Diesel CD from Sutton, Chuck Miller, “Victory The Music: Story of the V-Disc Record in published originally Label,” at http://members.aol.com/boardwalk7/vdisc/vdisc.html Sears, Richard 2003); January (24 Hot String Bands, 1928-1942 Bands, String Hot ( 2001), vii. Press, Story” Montgomery “Smokey” Marvin “The Schreyer, Lowell Magazine Banjo January (21 http://www.jazzbanjo.com/vol2no5/smokey1.htm at Montgomery. Marvin “Smokey” 2003); Dempsey, by searching on the page http://www.allmusic.com (27 January Tyler, ed., Tyler, 4, 756. Vol. Brownies,” Musical Cary Ginell, John Morthland, “Wills Power” (Dallas, Texas: May 2000); accessed at http://www.texasmonthly.com/mag/ issues/2000-05-01/feature2.php (21 January 2003, 2 The Genre 2004); Swing, Encyclopedia, February ac Cub Koda, Western cessed at http://www.bobsmusicindex.com/WesternSwingEssay. html (21 January 2003, 2 February 2004); “PRMS Spotlight on http://www.75music.org/around/spotlight/wills.shtml Wills,” Bob 2003). (21 January Cary Ginell and Kevin Coffey, Tyler, ed., Tyler, 4, 195; Schroeder, Vol.

65. 64. 63. 62. 60. 61. 58. 59. 57. 55. 56. 53. 54. 52. 51. 50. 48. 49. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/jtmh/vol4/iss1/4 15 - Texas Texas , (New York: Da , 44, 45, 60. http://www.bobsmusicindex.com/

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The Improbable Rise of Redneck Rock , November, 1973), accessed at http://www.texasmonthly. at accessed 1973), November, , “Austin

Music Music Office forAustin, http://www.governor. Dripping 2004); Springs, February Pflugerville,5 Round of as Marcos San and Rock state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/recordingstudios- February February 2004); Greg Beets, “Do the Tighten Up,” http://www. austinchronicle.com/issues/dispatch/2003-05-16/music_feature. 2004). html (5 February Austin in the 60s,” accessed at http://www.scarletdukes.com. 2003). st.tm_assonobeat.html (23 January Kurt Monthly 2003); January (23 com/mag/issues/1973-11-01/feature3.php Wolff, Austin-In-The-’70s-Essay.html. by interview Himes, Chet 72; printing), 1977 c1974, Press, Capo author January 2003; further information on Chet can be found at http://www.homestead.com/garyseven/files/Chet.html. Smithville the at together worked we while him interviewed I ARS. Opry. on Bill can be found recordsdirect.com/ here: http://www.austin and austinrecords/html/artists_folder/bios_folder/bios_index.html here: http://www.homestead.com/garyseven/files/Bill.html. Also for Mullen Richard with working from recollection personal from several years. Richard was the main engineer at Riverside Sound and now recordings. produces His Eric discography Johnson’s is extensive. just has Shack Hit The http://www.hitshack.com. at found be can closed its doors as of this writing, even “So though Marcia Ball’s for nominated been has there, recorded was which Rivers,” Many a Grammy. during this period. Station recordingstudios-austin.htm (195 studios listed with the Texas front2.htm. January 2003); “Production Department,” http://www.ha cien darecords.com/production.htm (14 January 2003); “All About Conjunto,” http://www.pbs.org/accordiondreams/all/index_alt. http://www. Innovators,” and “Pioneers 2003); January (14 html pbs.org/accordiondreams/pioneers/index_alt.html http://el-mesteno.com/stories/9911linda. (14 Escobar,” “Linda January2003); 2003). html (14 January recordingstudios-corpus.htm (16 studios listed Music withOffice for Corpus Christithe as ofTexas 5February 2004). http:// www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ Texas the with listed studios February (11 5 of recordingstudios-brownsville.htm as Laredo and McAllen Brownsville, for Office Music 2004). about.htm (21 January 2003); “Ed Ward on Domino Records,” http://www.salon.com/ent/col/marc/2002/10/21/79/index1.html (21 January 2003); http://www.colorradio.com/Domino_Records. Effect,”Domino “The Anderson, Crawford 2003); january (21 htm from Ace Records The Domino http://216.15.202.119/MoreInfo/ Records at accessed 506, Story CDCHD – / ACE Various Artists: CDCHD506.html (5 February 2004). “Twink Records,” 112. “Twink http://www.drjamespolk.com/at_our_best/ (5 Records: “Sonobeat 2, No. 1 Vol. Away, Fade Not Hanners, 113. Doug Brown, 114. Andrew 115. Jan Reid and Don Roth, “The Coming of Redneck ( Hip” 2003). (23 January 116. http://www.arlyn-pedernales.com/ 117. Jan Reid, interview 118. Wink Tyler, by author January 18, 2003. Wink owns information further 2003; January author by interview Johnson, 119. Bill http://www.kimmierhodes.com/gracey.html. Gracey,” 120. “Joe information more 2003; January author by interview Hudson, 121. Jay 122. Personal observation by the author, who engineered at the Fire 123. http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ “Texas Funk – San Antonio,” http://www.witchsbrew.co.uk/texas/ Antonio,” San – Funk 106. “Texas 107. http://www.amenmusic.com/index.shtml. 108. http://www.freddierecords.com. 109. “History,” http://www.haciendarecords.com/english.htm (14 110. http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ http://www.sonnyrhodes.com/ Rhodes,” Sonny aka Smith 111. “Clarence - - http://

The New New The , 213; “Harmon “Harmon 213; , Conjunto’”,

http://www.kfdi.com/ , “Fuller, Bobby,” Vol.3, Lister,” , 7, 8, 27, 28, 30, 45, 49, 50, , 86 Hickinbotham: A History of the Texas Recording Industry Recording Texas the of History A Hickinbotham: , 59, 72-73; Tyler, ed., ed., Tyler, 72-73; 59, , Texas-Mexican

Bill , 82. the

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“‘Big’ The Texas-Mexican Conjunto Texas-Mexican The ‘Father , “Marroquín, Armando,” Vol. 4 pp. , 516-517; “Marroquín, Armando,” Vol.

2003); The New Handbook of Texas January Martínez

The Sarg Records Anthology The Texas-Mexican Conjunto Texas-Mexican The The Texas Mexican Conjunto Mexican Texas The (21 accordiondreams/pioneers/index_alt.html. was not accessible on 5 February 2004. was not accessible on 5 February 2004) Antonio, San for Office recordingstudios-sanantonio.htm . (As Music of 5 February 2004 there Texas the with listed studios 71 were and Uvalde. Seguin, Braunfels, New Eagle Pass, index_alt.html; “Pioneers and Innovators,” http://www.pbs.org/ htm 2004). get/theranch/page5.asp (5 February Rock & Roll and Related Records, 1951-1964: (5 Index http://rcs.law.emory.edu/rcs/geog/texas.htm “Geographicalfor Texas,” Peña, 2004); February Febru (5 http://www.rockabillyhall.com/BRAB.html Boazman,” ary 2004). 56, 58. Arhoolie Records News Archive, October 30, 2000, accessed at http:// at accessed 2000, 30, October Archive, News Records Arhoolie Peña, http://www.lib.utexas.edu/ 1950s,” the in Peña, Conjuntos 2003); Antonio’s San January (14 benson/border/arhoolie2/sanantonio.html Conjunto Texas-Mexican The http://www.artsandlec Jr.” Jiménez, Santiago “Accordionist/singer tures.ucsb.edu/archive/2000-2001/pr/jiminez.htm (14 January 2003). Antonio San de Accordeon del rey el Jr., Jiménez, “Santiago Ibid.; 2003). (14 January TX,”http://www.bigbilllister.com/history. http://www.santiagojiminez.com Lister,” Bill “Big Coffey, Kevin disc_tejano.html (14 January 2003) is now found at http://www. at found now is 2003) January (14 disc_tejano.html utexas.edu/opa/pubs/discovery/disc2000v15n3/disc_tejano.html http://www.lib.utexas. Music,” 2004). (5 February Conjunto and Tejano of Roots “The edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/raices.htmlhttp://www.freddyfender.com/bio. page, biography Fender Freddy (14 January 2003); html . January 2003) www.arhoolie.com/news/2000october.html (14 www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/narciso.html (14 2003). January Guy H.Lawrence, “History,” page http://johnny-herrera.com/history/ The active. longer no is site This 2003). January (14 index.html can be found on the Internet Archives at http://web.archive.org/ web/20021214092337/johnny-herrera.com/history/index.html , http://web.archive.org/web/20030215184558/ page the from linked http://johnny-herrera.com/ ( 5 February 2004). Jaime Nicolopulos, “Tejanos Corridos,” originallyhttp://www.utexas.edu/admin/opa/discovery/disc2000v15n3/ accessed at Handbook Texas Handbook of http://www.lib.utexas. Music,” Conjunto and Tejano of Roots “The 2003). (14 January edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/raices.html Aurora Contreras, “Juan Lopez – El Rey de la Redova,” http:// www.reyesaccordions.com/JuneLopez.htm (14 January 2003);“Linda Escobar,” http://el-mesteno.com/stories/9911linda.html 2003). (14 January Tyler, ed., Tyler, Music Texas http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ the with listed studios (21 , recordingstudios-west.htm of as Alpine and Angelo San Midland/Odessa, Abilene, for Office http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/ 2004) February 5 and 2004) February 5 directory/studios/recordingstudios-elpaso.htm of , as Paso (8 El studios for listed Office Music Texas the with http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ Texas the with listed studios (20 . recordingstudios-panhandle.htm 5 of as Plainview and Lubbock Borger, Amarillo, for Office Music 2004). February Peña, intDonCaldwell2.html (21 January 2003). (21 January intDonCaldwell2.html 25. “All About Conjunto,” http://www.pbs.org/accordiondreams/all/ About 105. “All 103. http://www.camstudios.com (22 February 2003, 5 February 104. http://www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/directory/studios/ Brown, 101. Brown, site web This 2003). February (22 102. http://www.bluecatstudios.com 99. Country of Discography A – Style Country Rockin’ Gordon, 100. Terry 97. 98. 94. 95. 96. 93. 92. 90. “Narciso 91. 89. 88. 86. 87.

A History of the Texas Recording Industry Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2004