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Archived Content Information Archivée Dans Le Archived Content Information identified as archived on the Web is for reference, research or record-keeping purposes. It has not been altered or updated after the date of archiving. Web pages that are archived on the Web are not subject to the Government of Canada Web Standards. As per the Communications Policy of the Government of Canada, you can request alternate formats on the "Contact Us" page. Information archivée dans le Web Information archivée dans le Web à des fins de consultation, de recherche ou de tenue de documents. Cette dernière n’a aucunement été modifiée ni mise à jour depuis sa date de mise en archive. Les pages archivées dans le Web ne sont pas assujetties aux normes qui s’appliquent aux sites Web du gouvernement du Canada. Conformément à la Politique de communication du gouvernement du Canada, vous pouvez demander de recevoir cette information dans tout autre format de rechange à la page « Contactez-nous ». CANADIAN FORCES COLLEGE / COLLÈGE DES FORCES CANADIENNES JCSP 35 / PCEMI N 35 MDS Ethical considerations surrounding Bio-weapons in the 21st Century By / par Lieutenant Colonel André Lévesque This paper was written by a student La présente étude a été rédigée par un attending the Canadian Forces stagiaire du Collège des Forces College in fulfilment of one of the canadiennes pour satisfaire à l'une des requirements of the Course of Studies. exigences du cours. L'étude est un The paper is a scholastic document, document qui se rapporte au cours et and thus contains facts and opinions, contient donc des faits et des opinions que which the author alone considered seul l'auteur considère appropriés et appropriate and correct for the convenables au sujet. Elle ne reflète pas subject. It does not necessarily reflect nécessairement la politique ou l'opinion the policy or the opinion of any d'un organisme quelconque, y compris le agency, including the Government of gouvernement du Canada et le ministère Canada and the Canadian Department de la Défense nationale du Canada. Il est of National Defence. This paper may défendu de diffuser, de citer ou de not be released, quoted or copied reproduire cette étude sans la permission except with the express permission of expresse du ministère de la Défense the Canadian Department of National nationale. Defence. 2 Abstract This paper examines the ethical considerations surrounding bio-weapons in the 21st century. It first establishes an ethical framework that is then used throughout in examining the impact of bio-weapons. It shows the evolution of the various laws, treaty and conventions related to bio-weapons over the last century. It also carefully examines the Soviet bio-weapons program of the Cold War and discusses the dangers associated with bioresearch, whether illicit or intended for peaceful purposes. The paper argues that while Canada was one of the original signatories of the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention, Canada has yet to implement domestic legislation to enforce the convention within its borders, and thus has failed its moral obligation to ensure the safety of its citizens against bio-weapons. The paper also argues that while Canada is prepared to respond to a biological attack within its borders, it has not adequately ensured the establishment of a properly structured international verification and enforcement mechanism that would reduce the threat of bio-weapons. Finally, it argues that Canada has a moral obligation to ensure its citizens’ safety, and therefore it must assume a more prominent role in international efforts to strengthen the Biological Weapons Convention. 3 Table of Contents Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. 3 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 4 Part 1 – Moral and Ethical Framework ....................................................................... 10 Ethics............................................................................................................................. 10 Teleological Theories................................................................................................ 10 Deontological Theories............................................................................................. 12 Moral Rights ............................................................................................................. 14 Virtue Ethics.............................................................................................................. 15 Western/Christian Influence ......................................................................................... 16 Augustine................................................................................................................... 16 Hugo Grotius ............................................................................................................ 17 Part 2 - Just War Theory ............................................................................................... 20 Jus ad Bellum................................................................................................................ 20 Jus in Bello.................................................................................................................... 22 The International Conventions...................................................................................... 26 Pre WWI Conventions............................................................................................... 26 The 1925 Geneva Protocol ....................................................................................... 29 The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention............................................................... 30 BWC Review Conferences......................................................................................... 33 Part 3 - Bio-Weapons...................................................................................................... 41 The Soviet Program ...................................................................................................... 41 The Dangers of Bio-Research....................................................................................... 44 Ethical Issues ................................................................................................................ 48 Part 4 – Canada’s Response........................................................................................... 51 Implementation of the BWC......................................................................................... 51 Canadian Forces’ Biological Research ......................................................................... 54 Canada’s Bioterrorism Preparedness ............................................................................ 56 Canada’s Input in New or Revised International Agreements...................................... 61 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 66 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................69 Books ............................................................................................................................ 69 Journals ......................................................................................................................... 71 Government Documents ............................................................................................... 71 Electronic Sources ........................................................................................................ 73 Video/DVD................................................................................................................... 77 Other ............................................................................................................................. 77 4 Introduction Biological weapons or bio-weapons1 are defined as: Toxic materials produced from pathogenic organisms (usually microbes) or artificially manufactured toxic substances that are used to intentionally interfere with the biological processes of a host. These substances work to kill or incapacitate the host. Biological weapons may be used to target living organisms such as humans, animals or vegetation. They may also be used to contaminate nonliving substances such as air, water and soil.2 Bio-weapons are not new to humanity. In the 15th century, the Tartar army catapulted its own plague-ridden corpses over the walls of the besieged city of Kaffa in an attempt to kill the inhabitants and finally capture the city. A century later, a smallpox epidemic spread throughout Mexico and helped the Spaniards defeat the Inca Empire. Without the help of the deadly smallpox virus and other epidemics, the Europeans might not have so easily conquered the New World. During the French and Indian War in North America, in 1763, the British infected the Indians with smallpox by giving them blankets and handkerchiefs taken from infected patients. Approximately 95% of the Indians who were exposed died of the disease. In World War I, German spies inoculated horses and cattle shipped from the United States to the Allies with disease- producing bacteria. During the Second World War, the Japanese dropped paper bags stuffed with plague-invested fleas over Chinese cities. In 1995, members of an apocalyptic cult released
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