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Water and Its Role in the Economic Development of the Northern Territory 1824-2002

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Water and Its Role in the Economic Development of the Northern Territory 1824-2002 WATER AND ITS ROLE IN THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY 1824-2002 Beverley Margaret Sydney James Phelts BA (Hons), Northern Territory University A thesis submitted for Doctor of Philosophy, Northern Territory History, Faculty of Law, Business and Arts, Charles Darwin University. reprinted, February 2006. I hereby declare that the work herein, now submitted as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Charles Darwin University, is the result of my own investigations, and all references to ideas and work of other researchers have been specifically acknowledged. I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis has not already been accepted in substance for any degree, and is not being currently submitted in candidature for any other degree. Beverley Margaret Sydney James Phelts Dated February 2005 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The largest accolade goes to my supervisor, Professor David Carment Although Professor Carment was promoted to Dean during my candidature, he remained my supervisor until the bitter end. Also my thesis would not have eventuated without valuable input from Dr Suzanne Parry, Dr Bill Wilson and Dr Linden Salter-Duke my Associate Supervisor. There was also assistance from work colleagues. Big thank-yous go to Graham Ride, David Hardy, Mervyn Chin, Des Yin Foo, Gary Holmes, Peter Garone, Brian Kunde and Rink Van derVelde of Water Resources Division and Graeme Hockey ex pastoral officer, Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment. Appreciation is extended to Cathy Flint and Francoise Barr of the Northern Territory Archives Service who patiently helped me to find information and provided other leads. The National Archives of Australia in Nightcliff became my second home for some time and I am thankful for the assistance given to me by Katherine Goodwin and Phyllis Williams. Statistics for my pastoral chapter proved difficult to obtain because data was far flung and found in obscure places. Acknowledgment is given to the Northern Territory Cattleman's Association for allowing me access to their records. Indebtedness also goes to Vern O'Brien, John Hayes owner of Undoolya Station and Ross Peatling, manager of Alexandria Downs Station. For information on my agricultural chapter, I thank Ian Hillock who filled huge gaps. Gavin Kahl, owner of Kahl Table Grape Farm, Ti Tree was more than helpful and went out of his way to provide the data I was seeking. Financial assistance from a Northern Territory Government History Award and a Charles Darwin University grant enabled me to travel interstate to undertake further research. I am grateful to the Northern Territory Archives Service and the University for this support. The encouragement I received from friends and those who had tread the long road before me was priceless and no words could express my gratitude. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE List of Maps i List of Plates ii List of Tables iii-iv Abstract v-vi Abbreviations vii Conversions viii Glossary ix-x Introduction 1-14 Literature Review Thesis Structure Chapter 1 Water Supply and its Economic Use 15-64 1.1 The Australian Environment and British Attitudes 1.2 The Northern Territory Environment 1.2.1 Water Supplies 1.2.2 Soil 1.3 Water Supply – its Use and Economic Value in World History 1.4 The Influence of Water Resources on Development – The Early Australian Economy 1.5 The Influence of Water Development on Primary Industry - The Northern Territory and Northern Australia 1.6 The Northern Territory and the Tropical Myth 1.7 British Settlement of the Northern Territory 1824-1849 1.8 South Australian Settlement of the Northern Territory 1.9 Commonwealth Government Attempts to Develop the Northern Territory 1.10 The Effects of the Second World War 1.11 Conclusion PAGE Chapter 2 The Water Supplies of the Three British Settlements 65-89 2.1 Literature Review 2.2 Water and Disease 2.3 Water Supplies, Gardens and Disease at Fort Dundas 2.4 Other Reasons Given by Historians for Fort Dundas’ Abandonment 2.5 Water Supplies, Gardens and Disease at Fort Wellington 2.6 Other Reasons Given by Historians for Fort Wellington’s Abandonment 2.7 Water Supplies, Gardens and Disease at Fort Victoria 2.8 Other Reasons Given by Historians for Fort Victoria’s Abandonment 2.9 Soil Fertility of the Three Sites 2.10 Conclusion - Why the Three Settlements Failed Chapter 3 Water Development and Pastoralism 90-126 3.1 Literature Review 3.2 The Pioneering Years – South Australian Administration 1863-1910. 3.3 Commonwealth Government Administration 1911-1978 3.4 Drought 3.5 Groundwater and Carrying Capacities 3.6 Conclusion Chapter 4 Water Development and Mining 127-180 4.1 The Use of Water in Crushing and Cyaniding 4.2 Early Mining in the Northern Territory – Setting the Scene 4.3 The Arltunga Goldfield 4.4 Literature Review 4.5 Water Development at Arltunga 4.6 Well Sinkers and Wells 4.7 Conclusion 4.8 The 1930s Mining Period in the Northern Territory – Setting the Scene 4.9 The Tennant Creek Goldfield PAGE 4.10 Literature Review 4.11 Water Development at Tennant Creek 4.12 Conclusion Chapter 5 Water Development and Agriculture 181-232 5.1 Literature Review 5.2 Past Commercial Agriculture and Water Supplies 5.3 Water Supply and Plant Development 5.4 First Phase of Commercial Agriculture – Sugar Cane 5.5 Literature Review 5.6 Sugar Cane Cultivation 5.7 Site Selection 5.8 The Delissaville Sugar Cane Plantation 5.9 A Post-Mortem on Sugar Cane Farming 5.10 Second Phase of Commercial Agriculture – Peanuts 5.11 Literature Review 5.12 Method of Peanut Cultivation 5.13 Peanut Farming 5.14 A Post-Mortem on Peanut Cultivation 5.15 Third Phase of Commercial Agriculture – Rice 5.16 Literature Review 5.17 Rice Cultivation 5.18 Site Selection – Land and Hydrological Surveys 5.19 The Rice Farms 5.20 A Post-Mortem on Rice Farming 5.21 Commonwealth Government Investigation into the Northern Territory Agriculture Industry 5.22 A Recent Phase of Commercial Agriculture – Table Grapes 5.23 Ti Tree's Water and Soil Resources 5.24 Literature Review 5.25 Table Grape Cultivation and Marketing 5.26 The Ti Tree Table Grape Farms 5.27 Heron Farm 5.28 Ti Tree Farm 5.29 Kahl Table Grape Farm 5.30 Conclusion on the Table Grape Industry 5.31 Conclusion on Agriculture Conclusion 233-236 Bibliography 237-258 MAPS PAGE Map 1 Northern Territory xi Map 2 Location of the Three British Settlements 65 Map 3 Showing Location of Pastoral Stations 90 Map 4 Warden Mueller’s Map of Arltunga Wells in 1898 141 Map 5 Water Sites Selected by Water Diviner N. A. Frean, June 1935 160 Map 6 Layout of Delissaville Sugar Cane Plantation 194 Map 7 The Rice Farming Area of Humpty Doo 212 i PLATES PAGE Plate 1 Steam Driven Water Pump on Alexandria Downs Station, 1900s 102 Plate 2 Commonwealth Government Well Sinking Party c. 1924 103 Plate 3 Paddy’s Rockhole, Arltunga 135 Plate 4 Arltunga Well 136 Plate 5 Stone Water Tank at Arltunga 138 Plate 6 ‘Dry Blowing’ on the Hale River, 1906 139 Plate 7 The Government Battery at Arltunga 140 Plate 8 Overland Telegraph Line Well (c.1873). Camel Powered Whip, dated early 1920s 146 Plate 9 Defence Farm Adelaide River, 1940s 187 Plate10 Thomas & Roberts Mixed Agricultural Farm 202 on the Daly River, 1912 Plate 11 An American Pump Imported by Territory Rice Limited 221 ii TABLES PAGE Table 1 Darwin (humid zone) Monthly Mean Rainfall levels 21 Table 2 Alice Springs (arid zone) Monthly Mean Rainfall levels 22 Table 3 Average Annual Streamflow in the Northern Territory 23 Table 4 Surfacewater Usage in Australia 24 Table 5 Groundwater Basins and their Water Quality 25 Table 6 Groundwater Usage in Australia 26 Table 7 Northern Territory Soils 29 Tables 8, 9, 10 & 11 Water Use in the United States of America, Turkey, Australia and Greece 33-34 Table 12 Groundwater Use in the Northern Territory 63 Table 13 Cattle and Bore Numbers for Alexandria Downs Station 114 Table 14 Cattle and Bore Numbers for Brunette Downs Station 115 Table 15 Cattle and Bore Numbers for Victoria River Downs Station 117 Table 16 Cattle and Bore Numbers for Rosewood Station 119 iii PAGE Table 17 Cattle and Bore Numbers for Undoolya Station 122 Table 18 Cattle and Bore Numbers for Whole of the Northern Territory 124 Table 19 Tennant Creek Goldfield 1933-1942 – Bore Numbers and Troy Ounces 180 Table 20 Ti Tree Evaporation Rates 226 Table 21 Heron Farm 228 Table 22 Ti Tree Farm 229 Table 23 Kahl Table Grape Farm 229 Table 24 Overall Water Consumption and Table Grape Production of the Three Farms – 2001-2004 table grape seasons 230 iv ABSTRACT This thesis examines the Northern Territory’s economic history from 1824, when the first British settlement was established, until 2002 when the agricultural and pastoral industries had made significant progress. It is argued that permanent settlement and the development of primary industry in the Northern Territory was a long and sometimes bitter process. Between 1824 and 1869 there were five attempts to establish a permanent settlement and it took much longer to create viable primary industries. The thesis examines the influence that water supplies had on the three British settlements and the three primary industries of agriculture, pastoralism and mining. The Northern Territory, like other Australian regions, was expected to evolve into an independent colony and generate economic rewards for government and private investors. The Eldorado dream, however, was a constant disappointment. For most of its history, the Northern Territory remained neglected and branded as a ’white elephant’. The commercial enterprises of agriculture and pastoralism failed to show potential until the advent of the Second World War - more than a century after the first British attempt at settlement.
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