Tide and Time: Korean Fishermen's Traditional Knowledge of Multtae in Gomso Bay
Sook-Jeong Jo Korean Fishermen and Multtae
Tide and Time: Korean Fishermen's Traditional Knowledge of Multtae in Gomso Bay1
Sook-Jeong Jo Postdoctoral researcher, Center for Intangible Culture Studies, Chonbuk National University, Korea
ABSTRACT The tide influences the concept of time and life style in fishermen’s culture. As the West Sea of Korea has spring tides ranging from 3 to 9 metres high, fishermen in this area are highly attuned to tidal changes. Based on ethnographic research at a fishing village on the West Sea, this paper reviews the traditional knowledge of Korean fishermen about tide and time, categorised by the concept of multtae (tide time). I develop the argument in three parts. First, I describe what multtae is, and by what time units the tidal changes are measured. Second, I explain the principles and the folk classification of the 15-day tidal cycle by analysing the native terminology of multtae. Third, I define the unique life of the fishermen both at sea and on land who rely on the tide as ‘multtae life,’ and describe how the knowledge of multtae is used in their daily life. The fishermen’s cognitive system of multtae focuses on the sari (spring tides) and the jogeum (neap tides), with more emphasis on the sari. The fishermen’s traditional knowledge of multtae provides a good example of intangible cultural heritage by showing how systematically a natural phenomenon can be recognised and become a part of local culture.
Keywords marine environment, tide, time, multtae, multtae life, sari, jogeum, ethnoscience, Korean fishermen, Gomso Bay, Wangpo, West Sea, Korea
1. Introduction Tidal changes make a daily difference to the seascape Korean fishermen’s traditional knowledge of the marine and to working conditions at sea. They create the unique environment. rhythm of time in the sea space, controlling fishermen’s access to the sea. Adapting themselves to the marine The three seas that surround the Korean Peninsula environment, fishermen have developed a unique (Figure 1) are called Donghae (East Sea), Namhae (South understanding of time which is quite different from that Sea), and Seohae (West Sea), and have quite different of people on land. Multtae, a folk term conceptualising oceanic conditions. For instance, the spring tidal range of tide and time, is significant to our understanding of the the East Sea is only 30 centimeters, but for the West Sea it
206 Figures 1 and 2 Maps of Korea showing the location of Gomso Bay. Source: Naver, adapted by author.
is from 3 to 9 metres (Hong: 1998, p.18; Koh: 2009, pp.69- Second, I analyse the native terminology of tides to reveal 71). For that reason, especially when studying fishing the principles and the folk classification of the 15-day villages located on the West Sea, it is crucial to understand cycle multtae. Third, I define the unique life of fishermen how fishermen in the area perceive tidal changes. who are affected by the tide both at sea and on land as ‘multtae life,’ and present some examples of the practical I have conducted ethnographic studies on the use of multtae in their everyday life. relationship between Korean fishermen’s culture and their marine environment (Jo: 2012, 2014, 2015). This The material for this paper is based on data collected paper explains the Korean fishermen’s cognitive system during my long-term fieldwork in Wangpo, a fishing village of tides. The development of an elaborate vocabulary to on Gomso Bay in Buan County, North Jeolla Province. I describe the tides reflects their cultural emphasis. I apply first visited the village in April 2007, and did fieldwork at theoretical perspectives from ethnoscience or cognitive the village for about 3 years from July 2008 to July 2011. anthropology, based on linguistic analysis, to discover how I continued to do supplementary research until February people conceptualise their empirical world.2 2013. My informants range in age from their 40s to their 80s. Key informants were born in the 1930s and the 1940s, This paper reviews the traditional knowledge of and started to work in the 1950s and the 1960s. At that time, Korean fishermen about tide and time, characterised by tidal forecasts were not distributed to fishermen. As they the concept of multtae, based on ethnographic research became experienced, fishermen therefore relied heavily at a fishing village in Gomso Bay on the West Sea. The on traditional knowledge passed down orally, and learnt system of multtae is quite complex and has various about the local marine environment from experience. aspects. The discussion of multtae in this paper focuses on the categories of tides observed twice a month. 2. Wangpo, a fishing village on the North After briefly introducing the research field, I will Coast of Gomso Bay examine three aspects of multtae. First, I review how Gomso Bay is located between Buan and Gochang Korean fishermen conceptualise multtae, and how Counties (Figures 1 and 2). The bay is 7 to 9 kilometres they categorise tidal changes using different time units. wide from the north to the south and 20 kilometres long
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from the west to the east, opening to the sea in the west. By the mid-1970s Wangpo fishermen were catching The bay is relatively shallow, 20 metres at its deepest. yellow croakers, cutlassfish, and webfoot octopuses using As the spring tidal range in this area is on average 4 1-ton sailing boats and longlines with baited hooks. At metres or more (Plates 1, 2 and 3), the bay has developed present, they are mostly fishing for webfoot octopuses approximately 75 square kilometres of tidal flats (Koh: and swimming crabs (Portunus trituberculatus), using 1 to 2009, pp.68-69; Chang J.H.:2009, pp.367-368). 2-ton outboard motorboats, nylon gill nets, and fish traps made with large conch shells. They are also catching The area of Gomso Bay in Buan County has only a akiami paste shrimps and purple whelks. Winter is the narrow coastal plain as the rugged mountains of Byeonsan off-season, but a few fishermen still catch elvers, mullet, Peninsula stretch down to its southern coastline (Kim: and oysters (Jo: 2017, p.112). 1988, p.33). Small villages have developed along the long coastline, and the residents have made their livelihood Wangpo fishermen usually go out to sea with the ebb mainly by dry-field farming and small-scale fishing. In tide at around 5 o’clock in the morning. Depending on the the past, local fishermen mainly caught yellow croakers, types of fish, each fisherman sets up fish traps or nets in the best known fish of the West Sea. Wido, an island near multiple lines at sea in advance, and then catches fish by Gomso Bay, used to be famous for a seasonal fish market pulling up alternate lines each day. During the flowing tide, for yellow croakers. Yellow croaker fishing has dwindled at around 11am or 1pm at the latest, they come back to since the1960s because of the problems of overfishing port. After they sell the live catch to wholesalers at their and climate change which have exhausted the fishery houses or at the dock, they fix their nets or traps or do resources.3 domestic chores in the afternoon (Jo: 2017, p.112).
Wangpo is a small fishing village in the bay area. The The fishermen’s working space has expanded slightly name of this village implies that it has a good fishing from the inner side of Gomso Bay to the open sea. In the ground with abundant fish. It is said that a family of the mid-1970s, the offshore fishery resources of this area Gimhae Kim clan, dating back seven generations in the declined, and mechanical boats were introduced to the village, settled here about 300 years ago (Mr Kim B.M., village. Since then, Wangpo fishermen have moved their born in 1937; Yang 1985, p.291). Gimhae Kim is still a main fishing areas out to the waters between Gomso Bay major family name in the village, and most of the residents and Wido. (See the zone inside the dotted oval in Figure are relatives. As of 2009, Wangpo had 38 households and 2). The fishing zone is the sea near the village where the 91 residents (44 males and 47 females). When cultivating fishermen can work by day in their small fishing boats. purple laver, a kind of edible seaweed, was at its height in the 1980s and the 1990s, there were almost a hundred households.
Plate 1 Plate 2 View of Wangpo and Gomso Bay at the ebb tide. Dock at low tide. Photo: Author, November 2008. Photo: Author, April 2007.
208 3. The concept of multtae Tides are natural phenomena caused by the periodic Multtae is a combined word made up from mul (water) rise and fall of sea levels by the combined effects of the and ttae (time). Mul literally means ‘water,’ but connotes gravitational force exerted by the moon and the sun on ‘tide’ in this context. While the folk term multtae (tide the earth. Wangpo fishermen describe these regular time) is a conceptual category including all tides, Korean movements, saying Mul comes in and goes out twice a fishermen also use this term to describe individual tides day. This idiomatic expression implies that the fishermen matched with various time units. perceive tidal changes every 6 hours in a day. The classification of tides comes from their understanding of To grasp the full meaning of multtae, it is necessary tides with a 6-hour cycle.The tidal changes are divided into to observe how the fishermen of Gomso Bay use this three groups by day, month, and year, and each category term in daily conversation. For instance, while fixing nets is sub-divided by smaller time units (Table 1). In this paper or gathering clams together, a person may ask, What I will focus on the category of a 15-day tide cycle observed multtae do we have now? Then, someone will answer, twice a month. Mul is coming in now or We have the ebb tide now, as appropriate. While taking a rest and talking together, if a Table 1 person asks, What multtae do we have today? he expects Time categories classifying tidal changes st an answer like We have the 1 tide (hanma) today or It is 1 day 1 month 1 year the neap tide (jogeum) today. When describing how long 6 hours 12 hours 24 hours 15 days 30 days 4 seasons their work at sea takes, a fisherman might say, we use one multtae (tide time) or we use two multtaes. In this case, one multtae implies an ebb or a flowing tide, which means In fact, it takes 24 hours and 50 minutes until two sets 6 hours, and two multtaes means 12 hours. On the other of ebb and flow are complete. Therefore, the tidal changes hand, in multtae with a 15-day cycle, one multtae indicates do not repeat at exactly the same time every day. The a day, and two multtaes indicate two days. fishermen also know the flexibility of tidal changes, saying The changes are delayed about an hour every day. They These examples show that the folk term multtae therefore have to adjust the time they go out to sea. describes both the status of the water, and at the same time implies the time or date associated with it. They also reveal that for fishermen, multtae is actually a more 4. Principles and folk classification of inclusive concept and is used in a more varied manner than multtae with a 15-day cycle is generally known in relation to a 15-day cycle multtae. In The states of the tides are not the same every day, brief, the division of mul or tide is linked to the division of but tidal changes are recognised as being regular in time. Thus, to the fishermen, multtae has to be understood terms of a 15-day cycle. This category of mul is known as as an overarching concept involving tide and time. multtae with a 15-day cycle, and constitutes the core of the Korean fishermen’s cognitive system of tide and time. When fishermen refer to multtae in daily converstions, it is mostly tide and time related to the 15-day cycle.
4-1. Daily terms for 15-day multtae Different terms are used for each day in a 15-day multtae cycle, describing the status of daily tides. Table 2 shows a set of 15 terms for multtae from hanma (or hanmul) to musim.4 This set repeats twice a month. The multtae cycle is based on the lunar calendar. For instance, the multtae of the 1st and 16th in the lunar calendar are always ilgobma (7th tide), and the multtae of the 10th and th st Plate 3 25 are hanma (1 tide). As a specific multtae is fixed to a Dock in high tide. Photo: Author, August 2008. certain date, fishermen recognise a pair of multtae terms and a lunar date. A tide of a day is counted as one multtae,
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Plate 4 Plate 5 Gathering clams in the morning ebb tide. Fixing crab nets after fishing in the morning. Photo: Author, July 2007. Photo: Author, October 2008.
and for example, hanma (on the 10th) and duma (on the is not known. These days, Wangpo fishermen use both 11th) are called two multtaes collectively, meaning two morphemes. Structurally, three types of multtae terms days. have two parts of numeral terms and noun terms, and the number of each part in each type is different. Table 2 shows the three types of multtae terms collected in the village. First of all, the difference in the The fishermen of Gomso Bay have traditionally used types of the terminology can be seen from morphemes the multtae terms of Type I. Type II and Type III seem to combined with the numerals of multtae names. Type have been used for tide tables printed on lunar calendars I is combined with ma, while Types II and III are used (Plate 6). It was at the end of the 1970s and early 1980s with mul. Ma is a dialect word for mul, but its etymology that tidal forecasts became generally available for Korean
Table 2 Folk terms for daily multtae
Terms of Multtae No Lunar Date Meaning in English Type I Type II Type III 1 25th 10th Hanma Hanmul Hanmul 1st tide 2 26th 11th Duma Dumul Dumul 2nd tide 3 27th 12th Sema Semul Semul 3rd tide 4 28th 13th Nema Nemul Nemul 4th tide 5 29th 14th Daseotma Daseotmul Daseotmul 5th tide 6 30th 15th Yeoseotma Yeoseotmul Yeoseotmul 6th tide 7 1st 16th Ilgobma Ilgobmul Ilgobmul 7th tide 8 2nd 17th Yeodeolma Yeodeolmul Yeodeolmul 8th tide 9 3rd 18th Ahobma Ahobmul Ahobmul 9th tide 10 4th 19th Yeolma Yeolmul Yeolmul 10th tide 11 5th 20th Hangekki Yeolhanmul Yeolhanmul 1st downturn/11th tide 12 6th 21st Daegekki Hangekki Yeoldumul Big downturn/12th tide 13 7th 22nd Achimjogeum Daegekki Yeolsemul Small neap/13th tide 14 8th 23rd Hanjogeum Jogeum Jogeum Big neap/neap tide 15 9th 24th Musim Musim Musim Unchanged tide
210 fishermen (Lee: 2002, p.20). In interviews, the fishermen terms. Type II has II numeral and 4 noun-type terms. Type usually described multtae using Type I terms, but it III has 13 numeral and 2 noun-type terms. In the change was also observed that they use mainly Type III terms in from Type I to Type III, the use of numeral-type terms is everyday speech. That is, the Type I multtae are the old expanded, while the use of nouns decreases. form, but the Type III terms are the ones still in use today. Multtae represents the status of a tide perceived as the In a lunar calendar, months vary between 29 and amount and strength of the water. The 15 multtae terms 30 days in length. Months with 30 days are called a big are linguistic markers which show how the water changes month, while the other months with 29 days are called over 15 days. In principle, the numeral-type terms get a small month. In a big month, the 30th is always the 6th bigger as the height and flow of the tide increases, while tide. However, on the 29th of a small month, two multtaes the noun-type terms indicate that the tides are gradually including the 5th tide and the 6th tide are counted as one weakening. The fishermen of Gomso Bay say The tide is multtae because this month is short of a day and the first alive or The tide comes alive as the height and flow of the day of the next month should be the 7th tide.5 tide increases, and The tide is dying as the amount and strength of the water decreases. Roughly speaking, the 4-2. Principles of multtae and the numeral-type terms are related to when the tides ‘come implications of change: the basis of alive’, while the noun-type ones are related to when the Type 1 tides are‘dying’. The three types of multtae terminology commonly consist of two classes in the structure of the words (Table The following describes in detail the tidal changes 3). One is composed of numeral-type terms (combined based on Type I. The 1st tide is theoretically the first day of with a lexeme, ma or mul), the other is differentiated by the multtae when its tidal height and flow start to increase, noun-type terms. Type I has 10 numeral and 5 noun-type but the change is not noticeable until the 2nd tide. At the 3rd tide, it is finally good enough for the fishermen to go out fishing, and thus it is one of the more significant tides. After that, the tide’s height and flow keep getting higher and stronger. When the 6th tide (yeoseotma) comes, the water level is very high and the water flows very fast. The 6th tide is also called sari, which means the multtae when the tidal height and flow are the greatest. The tide reaches its highest level by the 9th tide, and at the 10th tide, the water is not ‘alive’ anymore. For that reason, the multtae terms following the 10th tide change into the noun-type terms, which indicate the tide’s height and flow are weakening. Entering the 1st downturn tide (hangekki), the tide’s height and flow begin to dwindle, and they drop down greatly at the big downturn tide (daegekki).6
The downturn tides (gekki) are followed by the neap tides (jogeum) when the tidal height and flow are at their weakest. Jogeum consists of two stages. The first jogeum is called the small neap tide (achimjogeum). It is not suitable for fishing due to its weak flow. The second one is the big neap tide (hanjogeum) when the tide’s height and flow drop the most.7 The big neap tide is also simply called jogeum. In the past, fishermen used to stop working at the small neap tide. The day after the big neap tide is Plate 6 Calendar with tide information provided by NACF. the ‘unchanged’ tide (musim), which is the last day of a Photo: Author, April 2007. 15-day cycle. At musim, the tide’s height and flow remain
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unchanged. When the 1st tide returns, the water begins to However, the multtae terminology used by the ‘come alive’ again. fishermen of Gomso Bay has been changing over time from Type I into Type III. We need to pay attention to that Out of the 15 terms for the multtae, the 6th tide change because it means more than just a change of (yeoseotma or sari) and the big neap tide (hanjogeum or words. jogeum) each have two distinct subordinate terms. They are as follows: Wangpo fishermen use both the calendars distributed by Buan National Federation of Fisheries Co-operatives ① Boreum yeoseotma or boreum sari: the 6th tide on (NFFC) and by South Buan National Agricultural Co- the 15th day of the lunar calendar operative Federation (NACF). These calendars have solar ② Geumeum yeoseotma or geumeum sari: the 6th tide and lunar dates, a tide table, and the multtae terms (Plate on the 30th day of the lunar calendar 6). Comparing the three types of multtae terminology and ① Choyeodeure jogeum: the neap tide on the 8th day of the multtae terms on two calendars, it is obvious that the the lunar calendar multtae terms on the NFFC calendars follow Type II, while ② Seumusaheul jogeum: the neap tide on the 23rd day those on the NACF calendars follow Type III. of the lunar calendar The fishermen prefer the NACF calendars to the NFFC The subordinate terms are combined with the lunar calendars. The NFFC calendars provide tide tables for dates when each tide occurs. That is, these terms let us Gunsan, a port city in the north of Buan, while the NACF know exactly where in the two monthly cycles each tide calendars do so for Wido, an island near Gomso Bay. occurs. Fishermen who refer to the tide tables for Gunsan have to remember that the multtae in their region will come The other terms do not have markers to show the one hour earlier than it says in the tables. Probably in the relationship between the tide and the lunar date. Hence, light of this complaint from the local fishermen, since over a month, the 6th tide and the big neap tide are reference 2011 Buan NFFC has provided tide tables for Wido on its points for the multtae with a 15-day cycle. In other words, calendar as well. According to the Korea Hydrographic subdivided terms of the 6th tide and the big neap tide and Oceanographic Agency, tide tables began to be reflect how significant they are in the multtae system. This provided officially in 1953, and the height of the tides has importance is also clearly observed in the folk taxonomy been observed in Gunsan and Wido since 1980 and 1984 of multtae. The subordinate terms of the 6th tide (sari) and respectively. the big neap tide (jogeum) also show that a 15-day cycle multtae is closely related to the moon which changes its These days, tide tables are commonly used. While shape. Looking at the shape of the moon, the 6th tide occurs fishermen still observe the status of the tides for themselves, with a full moon and a dark moon, and the big neap tide fishermen in the past had to rely exclusively on their traditional occurs with a waxing moon and a waning moon. knowledge. This change suggests that fishermen’s cognitive
Table 3 Formal structure of multtae terms by type
Types Structure Type I Type II Type III
① numeral-type terms From 1st tide to 10th tide From 1st tide to 11th tide From 1st tide to 13th tide
1st downturn tide 1st downturn tide Big downturn tide Big downturn tide Neap tide ② noun-type terms Small neap tide Neap tide Unchanged tide Big neap tide Unchanged tide Unchanged tide
①+② terms 10+5 term type 11+4 term type 13+2 term type
212 system for multtae tends to be influenced by what external conditions among the 15 daily tides. Level III consists of information they are exposed to. four categories that are more inclusive than in Level IV, and the four categories are included in the two categories What then does the change of multtae terms from of Level II. The super-ordinate terms show the similarity of Type I into Type III mean? The biggest difference is found the waters that characterise each category. in the semantic structure. The status of waters defined in Level III is closely related The change of multtae terminology can be summarised to the changes in the height of the tide. The reviving tide as the expansion of numeral-type terms and the reduction (sanjim) and the downturn tide (gekki) distinguish when the of noun-type terms (Table 3). The multtae terms for tidal height starts to rise or fall, while the spring tide (sari) two downturn tides have disappeared, and one of terms and the neap tide (jogeum) identify when the tidal height for two neap tides has disappeared. The big neap tide increases or decreases. Considering the primary categories (hanjogeum) remains as simply jogeum. It may be because of multtae, the reviving tide is usually perceived from the the big neap tide is an ideal category of jogeum, and it is 3rd tide, including three multtaes from the 3rd to the 5th tide. also the category which contrasts with the 6th tide or sari, a The spring tide includes four multtaes from the 6th to the 9th very important tide in the system of 15-day cycle multtae. tide. The downturn tide includes three multtaes from the 10th tide to the big downturn tide. The neap tide includes five We should also note that the combined structure multtaes from the small neap tide to the 2nd tide. of numeral-type terms and noun-type terms implies the changing patterns of tides during a 15-day cycle. As According to the principles of multtae terminology, mentioned earlier, the numeral-type terms relate to tides the 1st tide could be considered as the beginning of the which are getting higher and stronger, while the noun-type reviving tide. However, fishermen recognise the reviving ones relate to tides which are getting lower and weaker. tide from the 3rd tide because that is when the change Type 1 shows the principle of the multtae system that the really becomes apparent, and they can go out to sea to tide’s height and flow increase from the 1st tide until the fish. The 6th tide is also called the spring tide (sari), but 10th tide, and then tides decrease from the 1st downturn according to fishermen, water comes in more and its flow tide to the unchanged tide. However, Type III implies that is stronger during the 7th tide and the 9th tide. Too strong a tides increase up to the 13th tide, and only two multtae go tide is not good for traditional longline fishing, so the best down. We already know that, in reality, the tide’s height and time is said to be from the 3rd to the 6th tide. flow do not increase by the 13th tide or achimjogeum. Type III simplifies the multtae terminology by using numbers The category terms in Level II are the spring tide (sari) from the 1st to the 13th tide. This simplification does not and the neap tide (jogeum). These names are the same show the exact tidal changes in the local sea. In brief, as in Level III, but have more comprehensive meanings while the expansion of numeral-type terms is convenient, in Level II. The spring tide includes all the multtaes when even for non-fishermen, making it easier to count multtae, the tidal height is increasing and the tidal flow is getting the more complex meanings embedded in the traditional stronger. In contrast, the neap tide is a category including terms are lost in the new terminology. all the multtaes when the tidal height is decreasing and the tidal flow is weakening. These tides are the same things 4-3. Folk classification of multtae with a 15- that the fishermen express idiomatically when saying that day cycle the Tide is alive and the Tide is dying. In other words, the The fishermen of Gomso Bay do not just distinguish 15 fishermen’s statement that the Tide is alive means the tides water names. As shown in Table 4, they recognise that the are rising (sanjim) until they reach their highest level (sari), 15 multtaes are semantically organised by a folk taxonomy while the Tide is dying means the waters are decreasing built upon a four-level hierarchy. The cultural model (gekki) until they reach the lowest level (jogeum). of tides shows how systematic the knowledge is which the fishermen have on tidal changes. In Table 4, Level Fishermen do not usually go out to sea at the neap tide IV is the primary category in the semantic organisation, because they cannot fish well when the tide is low. The including 15 tide times. The upper levels are divided into downturn tide (gekki) is included in the neap tide in Level a few super-ordinate categories on the basis of similar II, but compared to the neap tide in Level III, the tide still
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Table 4 Folk taxonomy of multtae with a 15-day cycle Level I
(one) Spring tide (Sari) Level II Neap tide Spring tide Neap tide (Jogeum) (Sari) (Jogeum) Level III Neap tide Reviving tide Spring tide Downturn tide Neap tide
(Jogeum) (Sanjim) (Sari) (Gekki) (Jogeum) Unchanged tide 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 Big downturn tide Small neap tide Big neap tide st nd rd th th th th th th st tide downturn tide th tide tide tide tide tide tide tide tide
tide (Sari)
Level IV (Jogeum)
has a strong enough flow of water with the influence of tide and the catch. Also, the fishermen preferred the the spring tide. Thus, fishermen can usually work during spring tide because of the way their sailing boats needed to the downturn tide. In short, fishing periods include the use the wind and tidal currents to navigate.8 They usually reviving tide and the spring tide (all sari in Level II) plus went out to sea using the ebb tides early in the morning the downturn tide (a part of jogeum in Level II). and returned to shore using currents flowing towards the land. The fishermen explain that the tidal current is ebbing Level I is the highest super-ordinate category in the during the spring tide (sari) in the morning time when semantic organisation of terms for the multtae with a they go fishing, while it is flowing during the neap tide 15-day cycle. Sari, the term for Level I has the broadest (jogeum). The spring tide was therefore an exceptionally concept, expanded from its basic definition which means good multtae for fishing activities. the 6th tide. A set of 15 days for the multtae is counted as one sari, and a month has two saris. For the fishermen of At present, the fishermen of Gomso Bay still work at Gomso Bay, the duration of a fishing period is usually four sea in the morning. Using motor boats, they can go out or five saris (that is, two months or two months and a half) to sea and come back to the land during both ebbing and regardless of the type of fish. flowing tides. In addition, by pre-setting nets and fish traps at sea, they can catch fish almost every day during both The terms and categories for multtae reflect the the spring tide and the neap tide if the weather is good. importance of the spring tide (sari) and the neap tide Nevertheless, the catch is still better during the spring (jogeum) in the fishermen’s cognitive system of tide and tide than it is during the neap tide, and the sari and the time. However, the prototype category in the folk taxonomy jogeum still dictate how and what they fish for. of multtae is sari.
The fishermen’s focus on sari can be understood from 5. The fishermen’s multtae life the relationship between multtae and fishing activities. Multtae still has a strong influence on the work of The use of multtae was more crucial in the past when the fishermen at sea. The fishermen of Gomso Bay stress fishermen of Gomso Bay used sailing boats and longlines. that their fishing activities are Multtae il (work) depending Fishermen usually went out to sea during the spring tide on multtae. Multtae influences their daily life on land as because of the relationship between the strength of the well. For that reason, I define the unique lifestyle of the
214 fishermen who rely on the tide both at sea and on land The water temperature is still high during the fishing as ‘multtae life,’ which extends their idiomatic expression season, so the nets that stay under the sea during the neap ‘multtae work.’ Finally, by providing some typical examples tides easily get dirty. If the nets are not cleaned, they may of multtae life, I will describe how the fishermen’s be torn by the strong spring tides. To avoid this, fishermen knowledge of multtae is used both at sea and on land. haul in the nets and dry them in the sun during the neap tides. When the neap tide passes, they set up the cleaned 5-1. Use of multtae at sea nets under the sea again. Usually, they work at sea from As mentioned above, the fishermen usually use the the 5th to the 13th tide, and fix and dry the nets on land from spring tide for their fishing. But fishermen may also work the neap tide to the 4th tide. during the neap tide depending on the species they are fishing for. For instance, small shrimps or purple whelks Fishermen change the way they haul in the crab nets are mainly caught near the coast during the neap tide. The or webfoot octopus traps depending on the direction of neap tide is preferred for species living in shallow water or the morning tide (Plate 10). In Gomso Bay, the ebb moves on the sea bottom. from the east to the west, while the flow moves from the west to the east. However, fishermen usually haul in their Akiami paste shrimps, 2 to 3 centimeters long, are nets or fish traps against the direction of the tidal currents. the main ingredients for salted shrimps which Korean When the tide is ebbing in the morning (namely, during the people use for the seasoning of Kimchi. The fishermen spring tides), fishermen work moving from the west to the usually catch the small shrimps in summer. From July to east. When the morning tide is flowing (namely, during August, it is mainly fisherwomen who catch the shrimps the neap tides), they work moving from the east to the in skimming nets near the coast, particularly during the west. But fishermen work regardless of ebbs and flows neap tide (Plates 7 and 8). during the neap tides because the tide is weak. Before the introduction of motor boats and auto fishing gear, the The fishermen also catch small shrimps from August fishermen caught fish by following the direction of the tidal to September with swing nets on stakes within the bay. currents. According to the old fishermen, if they worked The nets are placed with their openings facing west during against the direction of the tide with traditional fishing the spring tide (Plate 9). tools, their sailboats could overturn. Even today, fishing takes account of tidal currents.
Plate 7 Plate 8 Fisherwoman catching akiami paste shrimps near the coast at the low tide. Fisherwoman carrying a skimming net with shrimps in her hand. Photo: Author, July 2009. Photo: Author, July 2007.
Vol.13 2018 International Journal of Intangible Heritage 215 Korean Fishermen and Multtae
Plate 9 Plate 10 Fishermen hauling in shrimp nets to dry during neap tides. Fishermen catching webfoot octopuses in the morning ebb tide. Photo: Author, September 2008. Photo: Author, October 2008.
5-2. Use of multtae on land February, the members agreed to schedule the group’s Wangpo people often purchase seafood by visiting outing during late February or early March. Because one fish markets in Gomso or Buan-eup, the county seat, or or two people hesitated about staying away from work, the wholesale Fresh Fish Market in Gyeokpo (Figure 2), the leader tried to encourage the members, saying Let’s especially when they need to buy a lot of fresh seasonal go together finding even a day of the neap tides. Then, seafood. Again, the fishing villagers pick the time to visit someone took a calendar off the wall and brought it to the fish markets based on multtae. members. They focused on multtae rather than days or dates. The options were narrowed down to March 5 or 6 One day in May 2011, a Wangpo woman went shopping (February 9 or 10 in the lunar calendar). The multtaes of at the fish market in Gyeokpo with her mother and one of both dates were the unchanged tide (musim) and the 1st the villagers because she wanted to buy a lot of swimming tide (hanma) respectively, one of the neap tides. Finally, crabs to make soy sauce marinated crabs.The fish market the date for the outing was set for Friday, March 6. was crowded, and it was selling a lot of seasonal seafood wholesale. She bought a number of crabs and her mother The fishing village society that Wangpo fishermen bought lots of cuttlefish. It was May 16. By the lunar joined planned a group outing in 2010. The date for the trip calendar, it was April 14, and its multtae was the 5th tide, was fixed for Monday, April 19 for a number of members one of the spring tides. They say that it is better to go to catching webfoot octopuses. It was March 6 in the lunar fish markets during the spring tides rather than during the calendar, and the multtae of the day was the 12th tide, one neap tides when the catch is relatively better and there are of the neap tides. Unlike webfoot octopuses, the catch of various kinds of seafood. purple whelks is good during the neap tide. Because the use of multtae is different according to the species fished The fishermen also take the multtae into consideration for, it sometimes happens that some fishermen cannot even for events on land. Even though they now work join in group activities. regardless of sari and jogeum, the spring tides still provide a bigger catch than the neap tides. For that reason, In addition to village events, some provincial or fishermen tend to schedule events to avoid the dates of the national events are also scheduled based on multtae. spring tides. On Wednesday, November 15, 2008, the 3rd Fishery Conference in North Joella Province was held in Buan On a day in January in 2009, the women’s association County. It was October 8 in the lunar calendar, and its of the village gathered at the village hall to discuss the multtae was the neap tide. In 2011, the National Fishery schedule for the villagers’ group outing that spring.9 Conference, a biennial event, was held in Gunsan City As webfoot octopus catching would start around late from Wednesday, May 11 to Friday, May 13. In the lunar
216 calendar it was April 9 to 11, and the range of multtae was principles and folk classification of the multtae system from the unchanged tide to the 2nd tide. Both conferences with a 15-day cycle. The multtae is organised based on sari took place during the neap tides. and jogeum, and in particular, the spring tides tend to be important to the fishermen whose fishing activities depend Compared to farmers’ conferences which show on multtae. This study also explored how fishermen’s life relatively higher participation than events for fishermen, both at sea and on land is closely related to multtae. The some fishermen said, Our participation is not that good fishermen who rely on the marine environment embody because we have to work following multtae. This statement the rhythm of the waters in their life. Thus, I have defined confirms the importance of multtae in understanding the their routines in fishing villages following multtae both at fishing communities. sea and on land as ‘multtae life,’ extending their idiomatic expression ‘multtae work.’ The traditional knowledge of Finally, there are some religious activities related to multtae provides a cultural insight into how the tide, a food. Jang (Korean traditional fermented food made from natural pheonemenon, could be recognised and utilised soybeans) is a basic sauce that is widely used in Korean by human beings. food. Today, people often buy and eat this fermented food, but it is still considered to be important to Koreans. As soy I have also demonstrated that the folk term multtae sauce is only made once for the whole year, making jang used by the fishermen is polysemous and more inclusive is a very important household task. For that reason, myths than is generally known. This paper has shown that related to making soy sauce have developed in Korean fishermen use multtae to indicate a diversity of categories culture. One of them is a belief about certain days being of tide and time. In future studies, the multtae, which propitious for making soy sauce. In general, it is said to embodies multi-layered and comprehensive concepts, be good to make soy sauce on Mallal (the Horse Day), one needs to be re-examined from the viewpoint of Korean of the 12 Chinese Zodiac Days, which is believed to be an fishermen’s culture in general, to understand how auspicious day. This folk tradition is generally believed by fishermen conceptualise tidal phenomena. people in both rural and fishing villages. This paper has introduced only a part of the Korean However, in Wangpo, a fishing village, the belief about fishermen’s cognitive system about tides, focusing on the making jang is related to multtae, as well as to choosing structures and principles of the multtae with a 15-day an auspicious day without ghosts bringing bad luck. cycle. While the multtae system introduced in this paper According to the old ladies, it is a good multtae to pour is mostly about the general status of the waters, Korean jangmul (salt water) on blocks of fermented soybeans fishermen also recognise the variability of the tides, and during the ebb tide. When jang is made during a rising classify certain tides as special. In addition, as fishing tide, the jang could bubble, and that is a bad thing. In environments have changed, the folk taxonomy of multtae summer, there is often foam on the sea when the tide is also shows some generational differences. These issues coming in (Plate 11). Perhaps the foaming tide reminded will be discussed in future studies. people of the bubbles in soy sauce. Today, women do not all follow this superstitious practice, but some still do. An Fishermen in different regions have developed their old lady said, I knew it is Mallal to make soy sauce when own understanding of different marine environments. I lived in a rural village before marriage. But when I got Coastal and deep-sea fisheries may create different married to this village, I learnt that jang should be made at knowledge about tides. However, marine cultures low tide. This belief is considered a unique cultural taboo related to tides have rarely been studied, and traditional of fishing villages relying on multtae. knowledge of tides has not been acknowledged as intangible cultural heritage. Carbonell (2012) has noted the Catalonian fishermen’s traditional knowledge of 6. Conclusion weather as intangible cultural heritage which showed Based on the fishing village in Gomso Bay in Korea, the close relationship between human beings and their this paper has reviewed the local fishermen’s traditional environment. Like the weather, tidal phenomena also form knowledge about tide and time, characterised by the an important part of the fishermen’s knowledge of their concept of multtae. I have explained the structural local marine environment. Korean fishermen’s traditional
Vol.13 2018 International Journal of Intangible Heritage 217 Korean Fishermen and Multtae
Plate 11 Sea foam on the rising tide early in the morning in summer. Photo: Author, July 2008.
knowledge of multtae is worth paying attention to as Finally, I have highlighted the fact that Korean intangible cultural heritage. These days, an increasing fishermen’s multtae classification belongs to folk scientific interest in the sustainable lifestyles of human beings has knowledge (Casson: 1981) in terms of cultural diversity. emphasised the importance of marine environments and While going through a rapid period of modernisation since resources. Recognising traditional knowledge about tides the 1960s in Korean society, a hierarchy of knowledge as an aspect of human beings’ cultural heritage means rooted in western and modern scientifically-oriented to preserve and defend one of the ways in which people thought has underestimated traditional and local relate to the world around them (Carbonell: 2012, p.74). knowledge, and its sustainability has been threatened. It is crucial to acknowledge that the Korean fisherman’s knowledge of marine environments is also a valuable intellectual property, enriching our understanding of how our experiences are organised.
218 ENDNOTES
1 This paper reconstitutes a part of Chapter 5 (entitled ‘The Folk Classification of Sea Waters: Knowledge of Time’) from my doctoral dissertation (Jo: 2014, pp.182-256). It is also the result of editing and updating the script presented at The International Symposium on the Culture of Haenyeo (Women Divers) in October 2015, and the Symposium of the Intangible Heritage Association in April 2017. 2 For the theoretical approaches of ethnoscience or cognitive anthropology, see, for example, Goodenough (1957), Conklin (1955, 1962), Frake (1961, 1962), Sturtevant (1964), Tyler (1969), Spradley (1972), Casson (1981), D’Andarde (1995), Wang (1996). 3 The fishing of yellow croakers has had a great influence on the fishing culture of the West Sea. Despite the decline in fishing, yellow croakers are still symbolic for fishermen in the West Sea as they are favoured by Korean people, and are also an essential ritual food for ancestral rites (Jo: 2012, pp.265-268). 4 In English translation, 15 folk terms for multtae by day follow a standard pronunciation in Korean. For instance, seoma, neoma, yadalma, achimjogom, and hanjogom in local pronunciation were marked as sema, nema, yeodeolma, achimjogeum, and hanjogeum respectively. 5 Previous studies show that the West Sea area and the South Sea area of Korea have different multtae systems in terms of how they count the first day of the lunar month (Chang, T.J.: 1969; Lee: 2002, pp.34-35; Wang: 2010, p.58, 2012, p.77). Generally, in the West Sea, multtae on the first day of a lunar month starts with the 7th tide, but in the South Sea, it starts with the 8th tide. 6 Han in hangekki means ‘one’, and dae in daegekki stands for ‘big’ or ‘great’. Gekki means to subside. 7 Achim in achimjogeum means ‘small’ as han in hanjogeum means ‘big.’ (Chang, T.J.: 1969, pp.113-114). 8 In traditional fishing with sailboats, the use of winds was also very important in addition to the use of multtae. See Jo (2015) for the traditional knowledge of Korean fishermen about winds and the relationship between wind and tide. 9 In the process of modernisation in Korea, while young people had been leaving for urban areas to look for jobs, most villages in rural areas were struggling with a shortage of labour. The wives of ship-owners therefore began to work on the boats with their husbands in the 1980s, breaking a traditional taboo about not allowing women to board fishing boats. At present, fishing activities usually rely on couples’ labour. These changes have made women important decision makers.
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