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TI'TL'E Applied Ecology SexiinawTrininq>Manual. INSTITUTION 'Office of Water Progiat.Operations (EPA) ,gCincinnati, Ohio. National Training and Operational Technology 1Center.

[ TEPORT NO "EPA-430/1-79-014, PUB DATE Dec 79

NOTE 203p. ;..Contains occasional light and broken type.: . AVAILABLE. FROM EPA Instructional Resources Center 1200 Chambers Rd.,°,3rd Floor, Columbus, OH-43212 ($1.00'plus.,$0.03 per page).

-EDRE PiXCE HF01/PC09 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Administration;- *Biological Sciences; *Data m Analyses; data Collection ; ,E6ological Factors; 0

, *Ecology; *Environmental Standards; Urine Hidlogy; *Rostsecon.dary Education; *Sctence Education; Water .Pollutioh IDENTIFIERS *Water Quality'

.0 ABStRACT _ g . Presented is material on planning, administering,

collecting, evaluating, interpreting, and reporting biological data. , relatbd.to water quality studies in both fresh and marine waters. Topics include -4uatic ecology, water pollution, taxonomy, 'bacteriology, bioissays, water quality"-sentlaacemet, and administration of water quality standard Each of the. 15 chapters .includes reading material and selected references. (CO).*

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4 , *******************41*****************************A***1**************** *. Reproductions supplied by EDRS ate' the best that can be made * * from the, origj.naldocument.. *********************************************************************** -, 4 United States National Training EPA-430/1-.79-014 Environmental Protection and Operational December 1979 Agency Technology Center I Cincinnati OH 45268 ., Water 16EPA Applied Ecology Seminar Training Manua

U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER lERICI \i/Thisdocument has been feprgiluceti qs received from the person or organization originating it Minor change% have beerrmade to Improve reproduction quality

Points of view or opinions Stated in this docu ment do not necessarily represent official NIE position or policy 6

1 4 2 EPA-430/1-79-'44 December 1979 , .

Applied Ecology Seminar

tt .

o to ct

This1 seminar is for those concerned with planning, administering, collecting, evaluating, inteKpreting and reporting biological data .related to water quality Eitddies in both fresh and marine waters. After suscessfully completing the course,' the student will be able. to better utilize biologicariecludques which are fundamental in water pollution control. He/shviill better-understand the advantages and potential cohtributions of biological data and , investigations to ltdrainistrators, project leaders and 'others. Biologists will better understand the limitations and restrictions .placed on the administrator, aiid the nature of biological data which will be moat useful for the iinprdvemen of water quality.

The training consists of formal presentations followed' by Informal,ig d ussions, a field trip and laboratory studies.

% . .U, S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY .Cffice of Water Program Operations . National Training and Operational Technology Center 4

I-

. . DISCLAIMER 11 . t . Referenge to commercial products,:-trade names dr manufacturers is for purposes of example and , illustration. Such referencesdo not constitute endorsement by the Office of Water Program Operations, U. S. Environmental Protectidn Agency. I

S 0 CONTENTS

( . -Title or Description Outline Number .... Global DeteriorationJ. and Our Environmental Crisis 1. The Aquatic Environment The Laws of Ecology 3 Aquatic Organisms of Significance in Pollution Surveys 4

Biologic4l Aspects of Natural Self Purification 5 .. Significance of Eutimphication 6

Pollutiou'of the Marine Environment 7 f s Water Temperature and Water Quality 8

- Biotic Effects of Solids .4 10 ri 'Effects of Pollution on Fish* Critical Problems in Systematics 1I 17

The System of Biblogical Classification. 12 . The Cycling of Radionuclides in the Aquatic EnvirOnment 13 Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations I 14

Special Application's arkd Procedures foi- Bioassay 16

Using Benthi.c Biotd in Water Quality Evaluations2 16.

. . - 17 The Interpretation of Biological Data with Reference to Water...---- Quality The Physical and Biological Components of th.e Estuarine.Ecosystem 1. andTheir-Analysis '18 Case 1:reparan and CourtroomProcedure 19

1-7 O C

GLOBA ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

I FROM LOCAL TO REGIONAL TO GLOBAL or he must be thebusiness, doctor who PROBLEMS sees the marks of death in a community that believes Itself well and does not want to a be told otherwise, " Aldo Leopold _ A Environeental problenis do not stop at national frontiers, or ideological barriers. Pollution in the atmosphere and, oceans IICHANGES IN ECOSYSTEMS ARE taints all nations, even those benignly. OCCURRING CONTINUOUSLY favored by geography, climate, or n'atu'ral resources. A Myriad interactions take-place at every moment of the day. as plants and animals

1 The smokestacks cd one country often respond to variations in their surroundings ' pollute the air and water of another. and to each other.Evolution has'produceti for each species, including man, si genetic 2Toxic effluents poured into an inter- composition that limits how far that national river can kill fish in a Species can 'go in_adjusting to sudden -t neighbdring nation.and ultimately changes in its Surroundings. But within pollute international seas. these limits the several thousand species. in an ecosystem, or for that matted the B In Antarctica, thousands of miles 'fron1 millions in the biosphere, continuously pollution sources, penguins and fish adjust to outside stimuli,: Since inter- contain DnT in their fat.Recent layers actions are so numerous, they form long Of snow and ice onthe white continent chains of reactions. contain measurable amounts of lead. The increase can be correlated with the B Small changes in one part of an ecosystem earliest:days of lead smelting and com- are likely to be felt and compensated for btistion of leaded gesolines. PCB's are eventually throughout the system. univeAsally distributed. Dramatic examples Ofnhiange can be seen where man has altered the course of C International cooperation; therefore, is nature.It is vivid-1,y evident in his v;a1- necessary on many environmental fronts. intentionedbut poorly thoUght but tampering with river, lake, and other ecosystems.

1 Sudden accidenp that chaotically damage- the environment -.such as oil 1 The Aswan High' am Spills from a tanker at sea - require international cooperation 'both for 2 The St. Lawrence Seaway preventioh and for cleanup: 3, Lake -Kariba 2 Environmental effects cannot b e effectively treated by unilateral action. 4'The, Great, Liles'. be 3 The ocean can no longer. be considered 5Valley of Mexico a dump. . ; 6California'earthquake (Scientific D "One of the penalties of'an ecological .American 3981, p. 333) education' is That one 'lives alone In a world of, wounde.: Much of the tlainagp. 7Everglades and-the_Miami, Florida .infli-bted on-land is quite: invisible to ,' JeVort laymen: An ecologist must:either .harden- his shell and make believe that the conse!-- 8C/Opperhill, Tennessee. (Copper Basin)

% . nt.iencesof.sclence are none of his: . , .9(You may add others) 1 ..`. -r AT. gcoontioL-2fT7.19 global Deteriorarion and Our Environmental. Crisis

.0 Ecosystem Stability 2 Invertebrates -1 The stability of a particuiar ecosystem a Asian Clams have a pelagic veliger depends' on its diversity. The more larvae, thus, a'variety of, hydro interdependencies in an ecosystein, the installations are Vulnerable to sub- greater the chances that it will be able sequent pipe clogging by the adult to compensate for changes imposed clams. upon it.. 1 bMelanian snails are intermediate 2 A cornfield or lawn has little naral hosts for various trematodes .stability.If they are not constan parasitic on-man. and careful.br cultivated, they will not remain cornfields or lawns but will 3Vertebrates . soon be overgrown with a wide variety of hardier planes constituting a more aAt least 25 exotic species of fish. stable 'ecosystem. have been established in North America. 3 The chemical elements that make up _- living systems also depend on cdmplex, b Birds, including starlings d diverse sources to prevent - cyclic cattle egrets. shortages or oversupply. c Mammals, including nutria. 4Similar diversity is essential for the / continued functioning of the cycle by 4 Aqutic plants / which atmospheric nitrogen is made available allow life to exist.This Over twenty common exotic species cycle depends on a wide variety of are growing wild in the United States. organisms, including soil bacteria and The problem of waterway clogging has fungi, which are often destroyed by been especially severe in parts of the 1 pesticides in the soil. Southeast. 5Pathogens and Pests 5 numerical -expression of diversity' 1 is often'used in defining stream water Introduction of insect pests anti tree quality. pathogens have had severe economic - effects. , D Biological Pollution

Contamination of living native biotaa by III LAWS OF ECOLOGY introduction of exotic life forms has been o -r called biological pollution by Lacbner A Four prfncipleg have been enunciated by et tg. Some of these introductions are Dr..13th'y Commoner. compared to contamination as severe as 1 a dangerous chemical release. They 1 Everything is connected everything . also threaten to replace known wildlife else. resources with species of little or unknown Nalue. 6 2Everything must go somewhere. Tropidal areas:haveespecially,kbeen 3 Nature kakisest. ° vulnerable. Florida is referre .to-as biologiCal 'cesspool of introa4ed life." There is no such thing as i free ltinch.t , B These.may be summarized by th'e.principle, cait't do just one thing,pi' G).obal Deterioration and Our Environmental Crisis

W THE THREE PRINCIPLES' OF' mu tagenic (insults which produce mutations, ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL (Wolman) ex., radiation), or carcinogenic (insults which induce cancer, ex.; benzopyrenes) in A You can't escape. effect.Most carcinogens are also mute - genic. For all-of these there are no thresh- B, Yon have to organize. hold levels as in toxicity.Fortunatelylhere are simple rapid testa for matagenicity using C You have to ,pay. bacteria.Tests with animals, are not always conclusive. V LEOPOLD'S PRINCIPLE OF BIOTIC A Metals - current levels of cadmium, lead, CAPITAL and other substances are a growing concern "The releases of biotic capital tend to for they affect not only fish and wildlife but becloud or postpone the penalties of ultimately nian, himself. Mercury pollution, violence". Can you apply this to other fon example, -has become a serious problem, yet mercury has been present, on earth since parts of this onilftie? time immemorial. VI POLLUTION COMES INMANY PACKAGES 4 B Pestidides A The sources of air, water, and land 1 A pesticide and its metabolites may poLlution are interrelated and often move through an ecosystem in many interchangeable. ways. Hard (pesticides which are persistent, having a long half-life in i A single source may pollute the air the environment includes the organo- with smoke and chemicals, the land chlorines,. ex., DDT) pesticides with solid Wastes, and a river or lake ingested or otherwise borne by the with chemical and other wastes. target species will stay in the environment, possibly to be recycled 2Control of air pollution may produce or concentrated further through the more solid wastes,, which thenpollute natural action of food chains if the the land or water. species is eaten.Most .of the volume of pesticides do not reach theintatget 3Cotrol of *astewater effluent may coert it into solid wastes, which m '"be disposed of on land, or by 2Biological magnification combustion to the air...... --- Initially, low levels._ ofpersistent 4, Some.pollutants - chemicals, radiation, pesticides irisair; soil, and water " pesticides - appear in 41 media. .maybe concentrated at every step up the food chain. Minute aquatic B"Disposal" is as important and as costly Organismiland scavengers,: which as purification. Screen water and bottom thud taxing pesticide levels of a few parts per VII PERSISTENT CHEMICAP IN THE billion, can accumulate: lev.els ENVIRONMENT measured in parts per million - 1 a. thousandfold increa.4 Thp sediments Increasingly complex mextufa.cturpg,,processes, including fecal deposits ar continuOuaTy coupled .wit rising industrialization, clreate recycled`bYthe bottom' aththals: greater amounts of exotic wastes potentially ro-xic to humans land aquatic life. a Oysters, for instance, will concentrate DDT 70, 000 times higher They may also be teratogeqic(toxicants in their tissues than it's-concentration responsible for changes in the embryo within surrounding water. They can. respiting birth defects, ex.; thalidomit1e), , 0 A also.partially cleanse themselves in water free of DDT: Global Deterioration and Our Environziental,Crisis

b Fish feeding on lower organisms ignorance, and decision as 'to risks build up concentrations in their involved.. Some advertising slogans now visceral fat which may reach several' have more than an intended meaning. thousand parts per million and levels iri their,edible flesh of hundreds of H Wittingly or unwittingly we have all become parts per million. a King Mithridates. ,And even a fish is no longer a fish: -6 'Larger animals, such as fish- 'eating gulls and otherbirds, can VIII EXAMPLES OF SOME EARLY-WARNING further concentrate the chemicals. SIGNALS THAT HAVE BEEN'DETECTED A survey on organochlorine residUes BUT FORGOTTEN, OR IGNORED. in aquatic birds irrthe Cnadian prairie provinces showed that A Magnetic micro-spherules in lake sediments California and ring-billed gulls were now used to detect changes in industriali- among the most contaminated. . zationindipate our slowness torecogrlize

Since gulls breein colonies, breed- indicators ofenvironmental change. . ing TrOpulation anges can be detected and ratecrto levels of B Salmonid fish kills in poorly buffered clean chemical con mination.Ecological lakes in Sweden. O ?er the past years there retearch.on colonial birds to monitor had been a,suCcessive increase of SO2 in the ,. the effects of chemical,pollution on air and precipitation.Thus, air-borne con- the environment is useful :; tamination from induRtriali;ed European 1 countries-had-a great bifluence on previously C"."Polychlorinatedbiphenyls" (PCB's). unpolluted,waters.and their life. PCB's are used in plastic4ers, asphalt, ink, paper, and a host of other products. t Minimata, Japan and mercury pollution. Action has been taken to' curtail their release to the environment, since their D 01-ganochlorine level,s in commercial and effects are similar to hard pesticides. sport fishing, stocks), ex., the lower Miisissippi River fikh / .D Other compounds which are toxic and accumulate in the ecosystem: E You may complete the following:

1 1 Phalate esters - may interfere with pesticide analyses 2

4, 2 Benzopvenes6 IX SUMMARY Refracto,ry compounds like pentachloro:- Anal and hexachlorophene are poorly A Ecosystems of the world are linked removed by both water treatment plants together through biogeochemical cycles and wastewater treatment plants. which are determined by patterns of ,, transfer and concentrations of substances F It is estima ted that 80% to 90% of cancers in tpe biosphere.and surface rocks. are caused by cheinicals both in the working'environment and totalenvironment. B Organigms determine or strongly influenck) This is shown by high risk industries and cheirlical and physical characteristics of living areas, the atmosphere, soil, and waters. G Most a the problems of persistent and' C The inability of Mantlo adequately Predict dangerous chemicals in the-environent or control his effects on the environment are "after-the-fact". The solution is `indicated by his lack of knowledge con-; obviously is tied to prevention.This is cerning the net effect of atmospheric ' extremely complicated by economic, polluiton on the "earth's climate. Global Deterioration and Our Environmental Crisis

D -Serious potential hazards for man which are all globally dispersed, are radionuclides, organic chemicals, pesticides., and combustion i5roducts. E Environmentadestruction is in lockstep .with our population growth.

REFERENCES 1 Lacer, grnest A. , Robins, C. Richard, andourtenay, Walter R. ,Jr. Exotid' Fishes and Otherliquatit . Organisms Introduced into North . America. Smidisonian-Contrib. to Zool.59:1-29,1970 2 Commoner, Barfy. T e Closing Circle, Nature, Man, and Tecology.Alfred A. Knopf.326 p.1971. 3. Dansereau, Pierre ed.: Challenge for Survival. _Land, Air, and Water for t. Man in Megalopolis, Columbia Univ. Press.235 p. ce"

I 4 Wiens, John A. ed. Ecosystem Structure and Function. Oregon State Univ. Press. 176 p.1972. 4 Leopold, 'Aldo, A Sand County Almanac with Essays on ConservationIrom Round River.' Sierra Club/Ballantine

. .Books,.295 p.' 1970. 6 Whiteside, Thomas. The Pendulum-and the' Toxic Cloud, Thecourse,of Dioxin Contamination. Yale University Press. 1970.

7Butler, G..\C. (editor) Principles of Ecotoxicology.. Sodpe 12.Int. Council of Sci. Unions:J. Wiley & Sons.1978.

This outline was prepared by R. M. Sinclair,.. Natio-AO. Training' and Operational TechziolOgy Center, MOTD, MR): Ohio. 45268. Descriptors: _Enviionmental Effects, !Ecosystems

t,-,"..",-.. '7 r .r,et'e *1 10 e '44 .#

THE AQUATIC 'ENVIRONMENT b Part l: The Nature and Behavior-of W.ater H. INTRODUCTION , forms, but also with living orgn1rns I and the infinite interactions that occur The earth is physically divisible into the between them and their \environment. lithosphere or land masses, and the hydrosphere which includes the oceans, CWriter quality management, including lakes, streams; and subterranean waters; pollution,control, -thus loo* to all and the atrnosphere. branches of aquatic science in efforts - .to coordinate and improve man's A Upon the.hydrospere are based a nunTher. relationship p ,with his aquatic environment.

, of science's which represent 'different approaches. Hydrology is the general. ; . science of water itself with its various special fields such as hyldrography, IISOME FACITS ABOUT WATER . hydraulics, etc.. These in.turn merge into physical chemistry and chemistry. AWater is the only abundant liquid on our planet.It has fnany properties most B Limno logy and oceanography combine unusual for liquids, upon which depend aspects of all of these, and deal nbt only most 'of the :familiar aspects of, the world with the physical liquid water and its about uS as we know-it. ..(See Table 1) various 9.aturally occurring solutions and

:row

t TABLE 1 ' UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER

+.0

Property Significance Highest heat capacity (specific heat) of any Stabilizes temperatures of organisms and s solid or liquid (except NH3) geographical regions ighest" latent heat-of fusion (except NH3) Thermostatic 'effect at freezieg-point Highest heat of evaporation of any substance Important in heat and water transfer of atmosphere

s) The only. substance*at Milts maximum ..Fresitcl.brackish waters have maximum dnatty ast a liquid (40C) density above freezing point. This is important in vertical circulation pattern

In lakes. .

Highest surface tension of any *mid Controls surface and drop phenomena, t important in cellular physiolOgy 5 Dissolves ateifesublaances in greater Makes complexpological system possible. quantitythan any °thee liquid Important for transportation orterials in ohtii6n. .- Purevater lbi'a the highest di-electric . Laid* to high dissociation of Liorgaic constant of any liquid substances in solution , Nary little elehtrolyticdissodiation Neutral, yet contains both II+ II OW% ions Relatively transparent ; Absorbs much energy in infra reti and ultra violet ranges, but little.in visible range. le, Hence "colorless'!,, -'1 The Aquatic Environment d

B Aisles," Factors of Significance TABLE 2' EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY 1 Water substance 'OF PURE WATER AND ICE*. t Water is not simplkHO" biri in reality is a mixture of$some 33 Temperature (°C) Density' different substances involving thf:e,,e tsisotopes each of hydrogen and oxygen Water Ice** (ordinary hydrbgen deuteriumX2, and tritium H3; ordinary oxygen 016, -10 .99815 .93.97 oxygen 17, and oxygen .18) plus/5, - 8 .99869 .9360 known types of ions. The molecules - 6 .99912 .9020 -of a water Mass lens4 to associate , - 4 , 999115 .927.7 % .99970 ,.9229 A themselves as polymers rather than - 2 to remain as discrete units. 0 .99987---- :9168 (See Figure 1) .2 .999P7 4 1.00000 .99997 It86 .99988 10 .99973 SUBSTANCE OF PURE WATER 20" .99823 40 .99225 60 198324 ,80 .97183 160 4,

,* ,Tabular values for density, etc., represent eriltiMafes by various workers rather than absaute`values, due to the variability of water. Regulartice is known as 'rice' I ".Four or more other "forrhs" of ice are known to - exist (ice U, ice etc. ), having densities at 1 atm. pressure ranging from 1,1595 to 1467. 'These wile of extremely restricted ' occurrence and may be ignoredin most routine operations. A

2 Density This ensures that ice usually forms on top of a body efwater I a Temperature and density: Ice. And tends to insulate the,remairi- Water is the only knoWn substancei ing water mass from further loss in which the solid-state will float of heat.Did'ice sink, there, 'on the livid state.: (See Table 2) could be little or no carryOver of ailuatielife from season to seasoh`.`, in the higher latitudes.Fra.zil. needle ice formscolloidaily at ,a few thousandthfpf a degree , below 0° C.It is adhesive and ,may build up on submerge,d Objects' as airdh&ice", but it is typical ice (ice, I), The A suatic Environment

Seasbn.1 increase in solar Mineral -rich water from the radiation. annually Warms hypolimnion, for example, surface wate"-rkiii summer is mixed with oxygenated while other factorsregult in, water from the epilimnion. wintei cooling. The density This usually triggers a differences resulting establish .sudden -growth or "bloom" - two classic layers: 'the epilimnion of plankton organisms. , or surface laypr, and the hypolimnion or lower layer, and - 6) When stratification is preserit, in between is the thermocline hOwever, each layer behaves or shear-plane.. 4 relatively independently, and significant quality differences °2) While for certain theoretical may develop. purposes a "thermocline" is defined as a zone in which the Thermal stratification as 'c temperature changes one desdribed above has no degree centigraVe for each reference to the size of the meter of depth, in practice, water mass; it is found in any transitional layer between oceans and puddles. two relatively stable masses of water of different temper- The relative densities of the atures may be regarded as a various isotopes of water thermocline. influence its molecular composition.For example, the 3) Obviously the greater the lighter O16" tends togo off temperature, differences first in the process of evapration, between epilirtinion and leading to the relative enrichment hypolimnion and the sharper by 016.and the enrichment the gradient ih the thermocline, of water by 017 and Ole This the more stable will the can lead to a measurabarbigher situation be. 018 conte4 in-warmer climates. Also,,;the temperatui;k of water 4) Froth information giver above, in past ge'dlogic 'ekes can be shouldbe evident that While closely estimated from the ratio. the temperature of-the `4 of 018 in the cai-bonate of mollusc hypolimnien rarely drops shells. much below :4° C, thee epilimnion marfange from eDissolved and/or suspended scads 0° &upward. - may also affect' the density of natural water masses (See Table a) 5) When epilimnion and hypolimnion achieve the same temperature, -. TABLE a a `S, stratification no longer exists. 'EFFECTS O? DISSOLVED SOLIDS Thetentire batty of water behaVes ON DENSITY hydfologipally as a unit, and tends tq assume uniforrh chemical Dissolved Solids Density and physical characteristics.---"; (Grains per Ma) (at 4 °C) Eien a lightbreeze may then 0 1.00000 cause the entire body of water , 1.00085 to eircidate:-. S.icti event are -called overturns, and usually result in-- 1.00169 water quality changes of consider- 1.00251 able physical, chemical, and biological significance, 1.06818 3 33 (mean for 1.02822 The Aquatic Environment

(- d Types of density stratification , This isimportant not only in situations' involving the control of flowing water 1) Density differences produc as in a sand filter, butalso since stratification which may be overcoming resistance to flow gen- permanent, transient, or erates h at, it is significant in the seasonal. heating f water by internal friction -from wa e and current action. 2) Permanentstratification Living organisms more easily support exists for example where themselves in the more viscous there is a heavy mass of (and also denser) sold waters of the, brine in'the deeper areas of arctic than in the less viscous warm a babin which does not respond waters 'of the tropics. (See Table 4). to seasonal or other changing conditions. TABLE 4 t" 3) Transient stratification may VISCOSITY OF WATER (In millipoises at 1 atm) occur with the recurrent

. 'influx of tidal water in an . Dissolved solids.in giL estuary for example, or the , 10 30 occasional influx of cold' Temp.0 C 0 5( muddy water into a deep lake® or reservoir. .. . 0 17.94 18.1 18.24 18.7' 4) Seasonal, stratification is-' ,-.. typically thermal-in nature, 15.19 15.3 ,15.5 16.0 and involves the annual 5 establishment of the epilimnion, 10 13.10 13.2 -,- 13.4 13.8, hypolimnion, and thermocline , .., 30 8.00 8.1 8.2 8.6 as described above. 100' 2.,84 ------/ 5) -Density stratification is not limited to two-layered systenis; three, four, 'or even more 4Surface tension has biological as well layers, may be encountered in as physical significance. Organisms larger. bodies of water. whose body surfaces cannot be wet by water can either ride on the surface , e 'A (sonietimes called, film or in some. instances may be "thernial line") may develop at 5 "trapped" on the surface film and be the mouth-of ai,stream. Heavier unable to re-enter the.water. .0! water. flowing into a lake or t 41, reservoir plunges below the 5Heat Or energy ,,lighter_water mass of theepiliminium.- to flowalong at a lower level.. Such Incident solar radiation is the prime a line is'-usually marked by an' source of energy for virtually all accumulation Of floating debris. organic and most inorganic pro.qesses owearth. For the earth as s-lhole; fStratification may be modified,. the total amount (of energy) received or entirely suppressed insome annually must exactly balance that, cases when deemed expedient, by -- lost by reflection and radiation.into means of -a simple air lift. space if climatic arid related con_ : . ditionsare to remain relatively -3-The Viscosity. of water is greater at constant over geologic time. Tower temperatures (see Table 4). The Aquatic Environment-

a 'Fora given body of *ter, significant change in surface immediate sources of energy level is detected.Shifts in include `it addition to'-solar submerged water masses of irradiati n: terrestrial heat, this type can have severe effects O transformation of kinetic energy on thehe biota and also on human AtT: (wave and current action) to heat, water uses where withdrawals ,chemical and biochemical% are confined to a given depth. reactions, convettiOn frcimi the Descriptipns and analyses of atmosphere, and condentsation of many other types and sub-types water vapor. of waves and wave-like movements may be found in the literature. b The proportion of light reflected deperids on the angle of incidence, b Tides the temperature, color, and other qualities of the water; and the 1) Tides are the longest waves presence or absenCe of films known; and are responsible for of lighter liquids such as oil. .the once or twice a day rythmic In general,' as theidepth increases rise and fall of the ocean level arithmetically, the light tends to on most shores around the world. decrease geometrically. Blues, greens, and yellows tend to 2) While part and parcel of the penetrate most deeply while ultra'. same phenoinenori,,it often- O violet, violets, and orange,-reds convenient to refer to the rise are most quickly absorbed. On and fall of the water level as the-order-of 90% of the total "tide, " and to the resulting illumination which penetrates the currents as "tidal.qurrents." 'surface Alm is absorbed in the first 10 meters of even the clearest 3). Tides are basically caused by the water, thus, tending to warm the attraction'of the sun and moon on upper Lars. -water masses, large and small; however; it is only in the .oceans 6 Water movements and pSssibly certain of the larger lakes that true tidal action has, . a Waves or rhythmic movement beim-demonstrated. The patterns of tidalaatiott are enormously.- 1) The best known are traveling complicated by local topography, waves caused by wind. These are interaction with seiches, and other,. effective only against objects near factprs. The literature on tides the surface. They have little is very large. effect on the movement of large 'N, masses of water. cCurrents (except tidal currents) ; are steady arythmic water movements 1. 2) -Seiches- which have had major study only in oceanography although they are Standing wave's or.-seiches occur most often observed in rivers and in, lakes, estuarieET7m=ther 4 streams.They are primarily enclosed bodies of water; but are ,concerned with the translocation of seldom large enough to be water masses.They1 ray be generated observed. An "internal wave or , inteally by virtue of Aensitychanges, ..seich" is an Oscilladon'in a or ex Ornally by wind or terrestrial. submersed mass of water such topogaphy. Turbulence phenomena . as Et hypolimnion; accompanied or ed currents are aargely respon- by compensating oscillation in the sibler lateral mixing in a current. overlying water so that n9 "Theseare of far more importance iri theconoiny of a bodpof water than mereminar Blow. x 2-5 The Aquatic Environment

d Coriolis -force is a result pf inter- To,somewhat oversimplify the, action betireen the rotation of the concept, a series of, adjoining cells earth, and the movemeht of masses might be thought of as chains of or bodies on the, earth. -The.net interlocking gears in which at every result is a...4light tendency for moving other contact the teeth ace rising objects 'to veer to theight in the while at, the alternate contacts, they northern hernisphereAnd to the are sinking (Figure 2). left In the southern hemisphere. While the result in fresh waters is The result is elongated masses of usually 'negligible, it may be 'con- water rising or sinking together. siderable in marine waters. For This produces the familiar "wind example, other factorslpermitting, rows" of foam, flotsam and jetsam, there is a,tendency in estuaries for or plankton often seen streaking fresh waters to move toward the windbloWn lakes or oceans.Certitin ocean faster along the right bank, zoo - plankton struggling to maintain while. salt waters tend to a.position near the surface tend t:4\. intrude farther inland alongthe. collect in the dowrrcurrentbetWeen left bank.Effects are even more two -Langmuir cells, causing such dramatic in the open oceans. an area to be called the "red dance", while the car upwelling water eLa.ngmuir, circulation (or%L.spirals) between -is the rrblue dance". 2 is the interlocking rotation of somewhat cylindrical masses of This phenomenon may be impbrtant surface water under the influence in water or plankton sampling on 'of windaction. The axes of the a windy day. cylinders are parallel to the ,direction of the wind. -.

b r/" b r .b WATER' SURFACE .5,141 03, - )

'WATER WATER RISING SINKING Figuies 2.,langmuire Spirals I b. Blue. dance, water rising. r.Rad dance, water sinking,fldating or swimming objectsconpeihrated. The Aquatic Environment

' 6 'The pH of pure Water lias.been)deter-, REFERENCES minvid between 5.7 anii ft. 01 by' various workers.The.,latter'vatkle i.s.most 1 Boswell, A. M. and Rodebush, W. H. widely accepted at the present time. Water. Sci, Am. April 1956. Natural waters of course vary widely according to circumstances: 2Dorsey; N. Ernest. Properties of Ordinary Water - Substance.- C The element's of hydrology mettioned Reinhold Publ. Corp. New York. t. above represent a selection,a some of pp. 1-673.1940. the more conspicuous physical factors

41. involved inivorking with water-quality. 3 Fowle, Frederick E. -Smithsonian Other item not specifically ment\ioned Physical Tables.Sulithsonian include: molecular structure of waters, Miscellaneous Collection, 71(1), interaction of twater and radiation, 7th revised ed.,1929a internal pressure, aeotigtical characteristics, pressiire-volume-tempOiture 4 Hutcheson, George E. A Treatise on rel3tionships; refractivity, 'luminescence, Lirnnology.John Wiley Company. color, dielectricalcharacteristics'and 1957.. phenomena, solubility, action and interactions of gases, liquids and, solids, water vapor, phenomena of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics in general. 2

Jr .1 TA

rC.

L /./

'1 .9 Part 2:The Aquati6-Environment as an Ecosystem I ,

I 'INTRODUCTION ECOLOGY IS THE STUDY QF THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN Part 1 introduced the lithosphere and -the ORGANISMS, AND BETWEEN ORGA- hydrosphere, ,Part 2 will deal with certain NISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT. general' aspects of biosphere, or the sphereOf life on this earth, which photo- A The ecosystem is the basic functional graphs from space have shown is a finite unit of ecology. Any area of nature that globe in infinite space., - includes living organisms and non,living substances interacting to produce aft This pis the habitat' of man and the other exchange of materials between the' living organisms. His relationships-with the and nonlivint parts constitutes an aquatic biosphergare our coipmon concern. ecosystem. (Odum, 1959) , 1 From a structural standpoint,, it is II THE BIOLOGICAL NATURE OF THE -. convenient to recognize for WORLIYWE LIVE IN- constituentsas composing an zecosystemlFigure A We can only imagine what. this world must have been like before -there was life. a Abiotic NUTRIENT MINERALS , whichoreithe physical stuff of ,'B The world as,we know it is .largely shaped which living protoplasm will be 4! bythe forces of life. synthesized.

1 Primitive forms of life creed organic b Autotr-optiic (self-nciurishing) or - matter-and established soil. 1=, PRODUCER organisms. These- are largely the green.plants 2 Plante/cover the lands and enormously (holophytes), but other minor influence the 'forces of onion. groups must also be included Pee Figure 2): They assimilate 3 The nature and rate of erosidn'affect 4the nutrient minerals; by the use the redistribution of materials of considerable energy, and combine (and mass) on the surface of the them into living organic substance: __earth (topographic cniftges). Heterc4ropec(otliei-notzvishing) 4 -Organisms tie up vast quantities of CONSUMERS (holozoic),are chiefly certain chemicals, such as carbon the animals. Tbey ingest (or eat) and oxygen. andiligebt organic matter, releasing coneiderable energrin the prOde138. 5 Respiration of plants and animals releases carbon dioxide to the d HeterotrophicREDUCERS are chiefly atmosphere in influential quantities. bacteria and fungi that return- .sdbillplex organic compounds back to 6 COaffects the heat transmission of 2 - the original abiotic mineral condition, the-atmosphere7r- thereby releasing the' remaining

chemical energy. - -C Organisnis respond to and in turn affect' :. their environment. Man, is oneofthe 2Froth a functional standpoint; an most influential. ecosystem haatwo pants (Figure 2) _ .

. The Aquatic,Environment

-CONSUMERS 'AP ,

. PRODUCERS RED,UCEIS

NUTRIENT. ir $ . MINERALS, . FILE V

The autcitrophic or producter 2These two groups can be defined on organisms, which utilize, light the basis of relative complexity of energy or the oxidation,otirp- structure. . organic compounds as their sole energysource. a Thebacteria and blue-green algae, faCking a nuclear membrane are b The heterotroilic. or consumer the Monera. and reducer organisms which - utilizes organiccompounds for The single -celled algae and. its energy and 'carbon requiremente. 96t7zoa are Protista. .

3Unless the autotrophic and heterotrophic phases of the cycle, approximate- C Distributed throughout these groups, will a'dynamieequilibrium, the ecosystem be fotinchnost of the traditionalrphyla" and the environment will change. of classic biology-. B Each.of.these groups includes simple, Angle- celled. representative's, persisting IV FUNCTIONING Or THE ECOSYSTEM, at lower levels on the eirolutibnary stems . of-the higher organisms.. (PlgifFe 2)1 . A A food chain is the trariefee of food energy from plants through a series of organising,. 1 .These groups' span the gaps between the with _repeated eating and being eaten. `higher, kingdoms With a multitude of Food chains are hot isolated.sequences but transitiOnaljorms. 'They are Collectively are interconnected,- 1 cared thet PROTIST. aricl.MtiNERA. . /9" .The Aquatic4tEnvirozunent

P.,

RELATIONSNIPS BETWEEN FREE LIVING AQUATIC ORGANISMSt Ener_gy- Flows from Left to Right. General Evolutionary Sequence is Upward r Plf0DUCERS'.-1 CONSUMERS REDUCERS Organic Material Ingest Organic Material Reduced Organic Material-Produced, Consumed by Extracellulargee on Usually by Photosynthesis Digested Internally and Intracellular Metabolism to Mineral Condition ENERGY STORED ENERGY RELEASED ENERGY RELEASED ( Flowering Plants and Arachnid' Mammals Gymnosperms basidioinycetes Insects 'Birds Club Mossbs,* Ferns Crustacesals Reptiles Segmented NVIor,ths Amphibians Liverworts, Mossy Fungi Imperfecti Molluscs Ashes S Bryozoa Primitive Multicellular Green 4 Chordates Algae Rotifers A scomycetes Roundwq(pms . Edhinoderms 'Red Algae Flatworms Coelenterites Higher Phycomycetes Brown Algae' 7. Sponges DEVELOPMENT' OF MULTICELLULAR ORCOENOCYTIC STRUCTURE 4, PROTISTA .. Pr-otozoa Unicellular Gre'ewAlgae Lower t. Amoeboid Cilllated x Diatoms, 1. 14_ Phycomyeetes Flagellated, Suctoria Piginented Flagellates-.. (non-pigmented) , (Chytiidiales, et. al. ) .

4; 'V DEVELOPMENT OF A NUOLEAll MEMBRANE

MONERA ... Blue Green Algae Actinomycetes Spirochaetes I Phototropic Bacteria Saprophytic I Bacterial ChemOiropic Bacteria I Types

FIG1JRE 2 . ECO,.pl. 2a. 1. 69

4. %. 2-11

20 1. The Aquatic Environment

B A.food web is the interlocking patternof D To'l Assimilation food chains in an ecosystem. (Figus3, 4) In complex natural communities,organisms °The EirdAt of energy which flows'through wpose, food is obtained by the samenumber. a troPitic level, is distributed between the of steps are said to belong to the same production of aomass (living -eubstance); trophic (feskling) level. andihe demands of respitittion (internal energy "use by livingorganiem) in a ratio C Trophic Levels of apiirbximately. 1:10. E Trophic4Structure of the Ecosystem 'ILFirst,- Green plants (producers) (Figure 5) fix biochemical energy and The interaction of the fobd chain sxithsi4e bade organic subfitancea. phenomena (with energy loss at each This is primary production . transfer) results in various communities 2Second - Plant eatinlanimals (herbivores) having,detinite trophic structure or energy depend on the producer. organisms for levels. Trophic structure maybe measured and described either in terms food. c. tftfle standing crop per unit area or in 3 Third - Primary carnivores, animals terms of. energy fixed per unit area per which.feed on herbiv-ores: unit time at successive'trophic Trophic structure and function can be 4 Fourth--SOondary carnivores feed on shown graphiqitily by means of ecological primaryicarnivores.. pyramids (Figure 5). ;-; . 5Last - Ultimate carnivores axe the last or ultimate lelzel ofconsumers:

r ea. ' 4

eVcosystem. Basic units are as, follows: ibiotic substantektbasic inorganic and,, Viguie Iliagram of the pora primary -consumers mystic compounds; HA. prodwersrootedvegibition;.I1B, pmtlucenphytoplankton;_ (be:blew:WIN:4ton; forms; 111-,43, ptiirmy coqumers(lterbiwawzoopletroIn II-47recondary consumers (car- xr:.,ecomposirs-1xicieria end fungi of decay. . alvone); III4, tertiary tkinsusiersi(secondag to s. _

4 ) The Aquatic Environment

...... 1'

Nutrient E supply, Phytaplanklo

Bacterial Death and decay action \ / /'

'.7'

tit Mollusks

r, s, .11. "ofo lit I at- - '" .1

.: . . .

4' . . . 4 Figure .4.. A MARINE ECOSYSTEM {After Clark, .1954 and Patten, 1966 , 0

13 * - The Aquatic Environment o f rt

Includes bacteria, algae,, protozoa, and (a)- other microscopic animals, and often the Deconiposers Casrnivore0Secondary) young or embryonic stages of algae andv Carnivores (Primary other organisms that normally grow up Heibivores. to become a part of he kenthos (seb below). Producers Many plailktonic typCs will also adhere to surfaces as periphyton, and some, 1 'typical periphyton may break off and be Collected as plankterp - 3 t O 1 'C Benthos are the plants and animals livg (c) on, in, or closely associatedwith the hottonSi, 'They include'plints and invertebrates,, D Nekton are the community of strong aggressive swimmers of the open waters, -1 often called pellagic.Certain .fishes,- ' whales, and invertebrates such as Figure 5. HYPOTHETICAL PYRAMIDS of ,shrimps'and squids are inbfuded here. (a) Numbers bf indiVittuals, (b) Biomass, and (c) Energy (Shading Indicates Energy Loss)`. EThe marsh community is based on larger. "higher" plants, floating and emergent. Both marine and freshwater marshes are areas of enormous biolpOcal production. 1- Collectively known as "wetlands", they 4 bridge the gap between the' waters and,the a. air' . V BIOTIC 'COMMUNITIES dry lands. .

5. A Plinkton, are the microscopic and VI PRODUCTIVITY microscopic animals, plaints, bacteria, etc:,' floating free in the Open,water. A 4)1e biological resultant of ail-physical .. Many clog filters, cause tastes, odoti, and.chiernicel factors in the quantity of v.d other tronble.. in water supplies; life that may aetually.be peePent. The ~Cggs and larvae of la;;ger forms: are ability to produce this "biomass" isv. often present. often referred'tct as the"productivity" of a body ofWater. 'Mills neither good 1 Phytoplankton Tikes: nor bad per se. water pf low pro- , are the' dominant producers of the 0 ductivItyls a ''poor" water biologically, waters, fresh and Salt, -"the grass and also a relatively "pure"-or "clean" of the seas". . Viko water; hence desitabletas a water supply or a bathing beach. gproductive water 2Zooplanktoir are animal-like. on theother tend may be a nuisance to

. Includes many different animal types, man or highly desirable. , It is anuisance, range in\skze frbxn minute protozoa ',11 foul odors and/or 'Weed-chocked' tovgiganticar.i.ne jellyfishes. waterways result, it is desirable if bumper crops of bass,.catfish, or B' Peritihyton (or Aufwuchs) --The communities oysters are produced. Open oce: s have pf microscopic organisms associated -with. a low level cif productiviin geral. subukerged surfaces of any typevor depth. The Aquatic Environment

g-;.+0.

VII PERSISTENTCHEMICALS IN THE a Oysters, for instance, will con- .ENVIRONMENT. centrate DDT 70,000 times higher . - in their tissues than it's concentration Increasingly complex manufacturing processes, in surrounding water. They can coupled with -rising industrializationte also partially cleanse themselves health hazards for humans and aquatinlife: in water free of DDT. Compounds besides being toxic (acutely or b .Fish feeding on lower organisms chronic) m y-produce mutagenic efifects build up concentrations in their including ccer, tumors, and teratogenicity visceral fat which may reach several iembryo defects). Fortunately there aretests, thousand parts per million and levels -such..as the Amis test, to screen chemical in their edible flesh Of hundreds of doMpokuids for these effects. parts per million. ' . ° Larger animals, such as fish-eating Metals.- current levels of Cadmium,' lead gulls and other birds, can further and other substances constitute a mount: concentrate the chemicals. A survey ing concern. Mercury poll4ion, as at on, organochlorine residues in aquatic Minimata. Japan-has been-fully_slocumented. . birdsin_theCanadian prairie province's showed that Oalifornia and ring-billed . B Pesticides, gulls were among the most contaminated. Since gulls breed in colonies, breeding 1 'A pesticide and itsmetabolites may population changes can be detected and move through osystem inany related to levels of cheMical con.- ways.--Hard..(p des which al-e tamination.Ecological research on persistent, hav ong half-life in colonial birds to monitor the effects The environment des the organo- of chemical pollution on the eniriron- chlorines, ex. , DDT) pesticides ment is useful. ingested or otherwise.borne by the target species will stay in the C "Polychlorinated biphenyls" ( PC B' s ). environment, possibly to be recycled PCB's were usedin-f3lasticizers, asphalt, or-concentratedifiirther through the ink,. paper, and a host of otherproducts. natural action of food chains if the -Action was taken- to ,curtail theirrelease species is eaten.Most-otthe.-voluthe to the environment,`since their effects V: of pesticides do not reach their:target are similar to hardpegticides. HowevSr at all. this doeEin't solve the'problems of- con- taminated-sediments-and ecosystems and 2Biological magnification final fate of the PCB's still'circulating. 311* Initially,low levels a peisistent There are numerous other compounds pesticides in air, soil, and water may hich are toxic and accumulatediliac, be concentrated at every step up the e osystem. food chain. Minute aquatic organisms and scavengers, which screen water and bottom mud haying pesticide levels of a I few parts per billion, 'can accumulate levels ineature'd'in parts per million --a thousandfold increase.The sedime4t8 inaudifirfeeal deposits are continuouSly ..recyclia by the bottom animals.

,e.alat,

.? 4 2-15 The Aquatie-Edvironment

REFkRENcES 5 Odum, E: P. e. Fundamentals of Ecology. W: B. Saunders Company, 444' 1 Clarke,N G. L.Elements of Ecology. Phildelplifa and London. 1959. John Wiley & Sons, New Xork. 1954. 6Patten, B.C.Systems .Ecology.

. 2Cooke, W. B.,Trickling Filter Ecology. Bio-Science. 16(9). 1966. Ecology 40(2):273-291. 1959.. 4 7 "Whittaker; R. H. New Concepts of 3Hanson, 'E: D.Animal Diversity. Kingdoms. Science 163:150-160. 1969., Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.1964. 4 Hedgpeth, J. W.Aspects Of the Estuarine Ecosystem.Amer. Fifth. Soc., Spec. Publ. No. 3:1966:

4 ,

C , -,, / " 1 - -.0 = , i, ,''"q ' 1 v.:, ,l''' '4,.. . ::"'

Part 3.The FreahwatEnvirownent

N , v ,s, ." , , . IIN'TRODUCTION09 i( . '' ..v Dwilti periods of run-off aftera. rain or snow-melt, such a, gulley Ef.a, considered . '-':-"..,' ',The freshwater., eqironinent woul have a flow of water which\, hereinreferif..th thoSe.inlan?rwaters not migh range from,torrential to a . detectabl,y,diluteci by oceanwaters, although merertrickle. Erokon May proceed --.....; the lower pbrtions of rivers areaubjema to. rapidly as there is no permanent. - certaintidal flow effects. aquatic flora or fauna to stabilize streambed materials. On the other, Certain atypical inland waters such as saline .. hand, terrestrial grass or forest or alkaline lakes; springs, etc:, are not growth may retard erosion. WhebN treated, as the main dbjective here is typical . t e" run-off has pasised, however, inland svatiti. t e "streambed" is dry..

N A All waters Mire certain basic biological cycles 2 *outhful streama.-. Whenthe and_types of interactions most at which have streambed is-eroded below-the- already' been presented, hence this Outline ground waterlevel, spring or will concentrate on aspectsssentially seePage water enters, and the ....": peculiar toiresh inland waters.* 'stream becomes permanent:. An ; ' aquatic flora and fauna-develops /and water flows the year round. PRESENT WATER QUALITY AS A 'Youthful streams typically have a FUNCTION OF THE EVOLUTION OF ' relatively steep gradient, rocky beds, FRESH WATERS with rapids, fails, and enail 'pools. Thehiatory of a body di' Water determines `3 Mature stfeams. Mature streams its present condition. .Natural waters have have wide valley: _a_developed- evolved in the cOurge,of geologic time art deeper, more into what we know today'. . turbid, and usually aves warmer .4 water, sand; mud, silt, or clay p Streams bottom materials which shift with increase in floW.In their more, lathe course of their eVolution,'streams favorable reaches, 'streams in this in general pass through four 'stages of condition are at a peak of biological development which may be called: .birth, productivity.Gradients are moderate,/ youth, maturity, and old age;?, . riffles or rapids are often separated .. bliong pools.. - ... '... ..'1'nese,tarms; or conditions...may be ..., .. = es " employed or considered in two contexts: 4 In old age, streams have approached temporal, or spatial.In terms of geologic ..,-.. - geologic base level, usually the a a'given point in a- stream may pass ;- ocean. During flood stage they scour through each 'of the Atagps described below theirbeds and deposit materials on - or: at'an?a giveri.fftne,yilese various. stages. '- the flOod plain which. may be, iery of development -can 13 e loosely identified ,, i broad-and tat; normal flOw ,s irrsuceessi\ye.reache's of a stream traveling, ., the 'channel iiiAtifilled:and znany' from its beadivatere to base level in ocean - .. , -4. shifting birs are-developed; Vieadder,s-- or major lake. . , -' ... -- ,... and.Ox-liOwlakes are often formed.

-(1 Eitablishment or birtit.'- This \ . might be a "dry run" or headwater streambed, before` it had eroded , conin:Io the levercitgrOUnd water. , - -. 2-11,

. - The Aquatic Environment

9 ';

(Under the influence of man this became a lake. Or, the glacierma'y pattern may be broken up, or actually scoop out a hole.Landslides temporarily Interrupted, Thub an may darn valleys, extinctvolcanoes may essentially 'youthful" stream might collapse, etc., etc. 'r--. take on some of the. characteristics of i'matUre" stream following soil 2Maturing or natural eutrophication of erosion,' organic enrichment, and lakes. increased surface runoff.Correction of these conditionsmighlikewiiN be aIf not already present shoal areas followed -by at least a partial-reversion are developedthrough erosion to the ':original" condition). and fleposition of the shore material by wave action and undertow. C Lakes and ReserVOirs 'Currents, produce bars across bays Geological factors which significantly. and thus cut off irregular areas. affect the nature of either a stream Or lake include the following: c.Silt brought in by tributary streams settles out in the quiet lake water 1 T-helgographical location ofthe drainage basin or watershed. d Algke grow attached to surfaces, and floating free as plankton. Dead 2The size and shape of thedrainage organic matter begins to accumulate on the-bottom.., . basin. P

3The general topography, i.e., e Rooted aquatic'Plants grow on mountainous or plains. shoals and bars. and in doing so cut off bays ,and contribute tothe 4 The character of the bedrocks and.. filling of the- soils. .. fDissolved darhonites and other 5The character, amount, mimed materials are precipitated in the,- distribution, and rate of precipitation. deeper portions of the lake in part through the action of plants.

,6The natural vegetative cover of the rand. is, of course, respoive to Eu2ci g When filling is well, advanced, responsible for many of the above mats of-Sphagnum moss May extend factors aiid-is also severesubject outward from the shore.' These to the whims of civilization. mats are followed by 'sedges and is one of the major factors determining grasses which finally convert the run-off.verbus soil absorption, etc. lake into a-marsh: 7 D Lakes have a developmentarhistory which 3 'Extinction of lakes. After lakes reach ' somewhat parallels that of streams. This matunity, their progrAss toward, prOcess is often referred to as natural filling up is accelerated. 'They-become eutrophication. Ait& extinct through:

I,The methods of formation vary greatly, a The doymmitting of the outlet. but all influence the, character and subsequent history of the lake. bFilling with detritus eroded from 0 the shores or brought in by In glaciated areas, for example, \a tributary streams. hugelock of.ice may have beencovered .with till.The glaCier retreated, the c Filling by the accumulationof the ice melted, and the resulting hole remains of vegetable materials growing in the lake, itself. (Often two or three processes may act concurrently) -

4 e

- The Aquatic Environment -400*

III PRODUCTIVITY IN MESH WATERS. 2 As the stream flows toward a more "mature" condition, nutrients tend to A Fresh, waters in general and - accumulate, and gradient diminishes natural conditions by definition have a and so time -of flow increases, tem- lesser supply of dissolved substances - peraturetends to'increase, and than marine waters, and thus a lesser planiton flourish. baSic potential for the 'growth of aquatic organisms. By the same token, they Should' a heavy load of inert silt may. be saidto be more sensitive to the' develop on the otherahand, the addition of extraneous materials turbidity would reduce the light (pollutants, nutrients, etc.) The penetration.and conseqUently the I following notes are directed toward general plankton production would natural geological and other environ- °" diminish. mental factOrs as they affect the productivity of fresh waters. 3As the stream approaches base level (old age) and the time available for 6 Factors Affecting Stream Productivity plankton growth increases, the (See Table 1) balance between turbidity, nutrient levels, and temperature and other TABLE 1 seasonal conditions, determines the overall productiyity. EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE ON STREAM PRODUCTIVITY* . C FactOVa Affecting the Productivity of lakes (See Table 4) (The `productivity of sand bottoms is ' taken as 1) 1 The size, shape, and depth of the' lake basin.Shallow water is more productive than deeper water since Relative 00,, morelight will reach tbebottom to 'Bottom Material Productivity stimulate rooted_plant growth. As . . a corollary, lakes with more shore- Sand,, 1 line, having more shallow wate Mariw 6- . arein general more. productive. Fine Gravel, . 9 Broad shallow lakes and reservoir Graveland silt 14 have the-greatest production pote Coarse gravel 32' (and hence should be avoided for Moss on fine gravel - 89' water supplies).' Fissidens (moss) on coarse 111.

gravel -. C TABLE 2 Ranunculus (water buttercup) .194 ,q...*-4 . Watercress 1-301 'EFFECT- OF SUBSTRATE Elodea (Waterweeki), 462, ON LAKE PRODUCTIVITY * *Selected from Tarzwell 437 (The, productivity of sand bottoms is taken as f)

To be productive of aquatic life;,:a BottorS Material,. Relative Productivity. stream must provide adequate nutrients, , light, a Suitable temperature; and time - Sand 1 forAgrowth to taliplace: . pebble's 4 1Youthful streams, especially on rock Clay' 8 or sand substrates, are low-in essential - Flat rubble 9 nutrients;ir_Mperatureaiti moun- Block rubble 11 tainous regiona-are-usually low,' and ,Shelving rock 77 . the 'steep. gradient); time for groWth is .short..; ''Although ample Seeded from Tarzwen 1937 Iierkt444411atile;;. grOwth,4true-- The Aquatic Bnvironment

iHard waters are generally more IV CULTURAL EUT OPHIGATION productive than soft waters as there are more plant nutrient minerals A ,The general proc =saes of natural This is oftengreatly in- _ eutrophication, o natural enrichment . Iavailable.luenced by the character of-the soil. and productivity= ye beeh briefly out- and rocks in thawatershed and the lined above. . quality and quantity of ground water entering the lake.In gene'ral, pH B When the activities of man speed Up ranges of 6. 8 to 8.2 appear to i?e thgse enrichment processes intro- most productive. ducihg unnatural quantities of nutrients (sewage, etc. ) the result is often called . 3Turbidity reduces productivity as cultural eutrophication.This term is light penetration is reduced.' often extended beyoxid its original usage to include the enrichment (pollution) of 4 The presence or absence of thermal streams, estuaries, and even oceans, as stratification with its semi-annual well a's lakes. turnovers affects productivity by distributing nutrients.throughout the water mass. V CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES AND 1 RESERVOIRS 5 Climate, temperature, prevalence of !- ice and snow, are also of course A The productivity of lakes and impound- important. ments is such a conspicuous feature that it is often used as a convenient means of D Factors Affecting the productivity of. classification. Reservoirs Oligotrophic lakes are'the younger, 1 The productivity of reservoirs is less, productive lakes which are deep, governed by much the same principles have clear water, and usually, support as that of lakes, with the difference Salmonoid fishes in their deeper waters. that the water level is much more under the c ntrol of man. -Fluctuations 2Eutrophi. c lakes are more mature, in water lev I can bp used to de- More turbid, ahciricher. They are liberately increase or decrease usually shalloFer.-. They are richer productivity. This can be demonstrated in dissolved solids;.N,-P, 6.nd Ca.are by a comparison of the TVA reservoirs abundant. Plankton isabundant and whiph practice a summer drawdown there is often a rich bottom fauna.,, .,, with some of those in the-west where '.: a winter drawdown is the rule. s. .3Dystrophic lakes, such as bog lakes, are low in Ph, water yellow to brown, 2The level at which water sip removed dissolved solids, N, P, and Casganty from a reservoir is important to the but humic materials abundant, bottom productivity of the strewth below. fauna and plankton poor, and fish The hypolimnimi may be anaerobic species are N . while the epilimnion is aerobic,; for example, or the epilirintion Is poor in .B Reservoirs may also be-classified as ;nutrients while the hypollinnionis storage, and run of the river. relatively rich: 1 Storage reservoirs have a large. 3 Reservoin discharges also profoundly ' volume in relation to their inflow. affect the DO, temperature, and' - He turbidity in the stream below a dam. -\ 2 RIM of the river reservoirs havea Too einuch fluctuation inIldw may largd flow-through in relation to their. permit seationth ofsithe stream_ to dry, storage value. oriprovide inadequate dilution for toxicwaste. 29 The Aquatic Environment

Acoording to location, lakes and - reservoirs may be classified as polar, temperate, or tropical.Differences in climatic and geographic conditions "N. result-indifferences in their biology. a 1

VI SUMMARY ail A A body of water such as a lake, lareain, or estuary represents an intricately balanced system in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Modification imposed at one point in the systemautomatically results in compensatory adjustments at associated points. B The more thorough our knowledge of the -entire system, the better we can judge whereto impose control measures to achieve a desired result.

REFERENCES

1 Chamberlin, Thomas C. and Salisburk, ° Rollin P. Geological Processes and Their Results. Geology 1:pp i-xix, and 1-654. Henry Holt and Company.'

New York. 1904. eA,

2 Hutcheson,, George E. A ,Treatise on . Limnology Vol. I Geography, Physics' and Chemistry.1957. Vol. IL . Introgluction to Lake Biology and the Limn'oplankton.1115 pp.1967. John Wiley Co, 3 Bynes, H. B. N. TheEeology,of Running Waters. -Univ. Toronto Press. 555 pp.1970.

De,Santo, iobert S. Coqcepts of Applied Ecology. Springet-. Vlag. *1978. 0

1 ,

30 : , 4

-Part 4.' The Marine:Environment and its Role in the Total Aquatic Environment

TABLE I 5 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MAJOR IONS I INTRODUCTION. OF TWO STREAMS AND SEA WATER (Data from Clark,- F. W. , 1924, "The Cciripositiort of River and Lake Waters of the United States", 11. S. Geol. Surv., A The marine environment is arbitrarily Prof. Paper No. 135; Harvey, H.W., 1957, "The Chemistry defined as the water mass 'extending and Fertility of Sea Waters", Cambridge University Press, beyond the'continental land masses, Cambridge> 5.

including the plants and animals harbored' I Delaware River Rio Grande therein.' This water mass is large and Ion at at 0 . Sea Water deep, Covering' about 70 percent of the Lambertville, N.J. Laredo, Texas - earth's surface and being as deep as Na 6.70 14.78 , 30.4

---74niles,The salt content averages - K 1.46 .85 10 Life extends about, 35 parts per thousand, Ca 17.49 13.73 1.16 to all depths. , Mg 4.81 3.03 3.7 B The general nature of the water Ode on Cl 7 4.23 21.65 55.2 earth iswell known._ Because the largest SO4 17.49 30.1Q 7.7 portionof the surface area-of the earth CO3 32.95 11.55 +NC03 0.35 is covered with water, roughly 70- percent of the earth's rainfall is on the seas. C Fb.r. this presentation, the marine (Figure 1) environment will be (1) described using an ecological approach, (2) characterized ecologically by comparing it with 'freshwater and estuarine environments, and (3) considered as a functional ecological system (ecosystem).

IIFRESHWATER, ESTUARINE, AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS " SEA SVR7AC6 Distinct' differences are found in physical, Uwe 1.14Z WATER CT= chemical, and biotic factors in going from 1 a freshwater to an oceanic environment. Since roughly one third of the In general, environmental factors are more rain which falls on the land is again constant in freshwater (rivers) and oceanic recycled through-the atmosphere environments than i,the highly variable (see Figure 1 again), the total amount and harsh environments of estuarine and of water` washing over the earth's surface coastal waters. .(Figure 2) is significantly' greater, than one third of the otal world rainfall.It ?Ja thus not A Physical and Chemical. Factors. surprising to note that the rivers whioh. finally gnpty into the,sea carry, a Rivers, estuaries, and oceans are disproportionate burden of dissolved and ' compared in Figure 2 with reference to 'suspended solids picked up from the land. the relative instability (Or variation) of The chemical composition- of this burden .several important parameters, In Ale depends on the Composition of the ,rocks oceans, it will be rioted, very little change and wile through Which the, river flows, occurs in any parameter, In rivers, while the proximity of an ocean, the direction '"salinity" (usually' referred to as?"diSsolVed of-previiling winds, end-other factors. solids") and temperature (accepting normal This is the substance of geological erosion. seasonal variations change little, the ether (Table 11 four parameters vary considerably. estuaries, they all change.. 23 Environmeht

Degree of instability - Vertical Avail - Type of environment ability Salinity Temperature Water , .strati-. Turbidity and, general diiection elevation _of of water.movement fication . nutrients (degree) -

-.c- , - A Riverine I ,.I -4 . , -

. .

. 1 - . , . . . Eatuarine

. ..

° ...... 1..._ -

- . , . - , . . -- 1 Oceanic .,11 . III ' . Figure 2 .RELATIVE VALUES OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL AND. CHEMICAL FACTORS FOR RIVER, ESTUARINE, AND OCEANIC gNVII1ONMENTS C Zones of the Sea B Biot ic Factors- . . s . 1 A complex of physical and chemical . The nearshore environment is often factors ilete tine the biotic composi- classifiedin relation to tide level and tion of an environmentIn general, water depth. The nearshore and offshore the number of species.in a rigorous, oceanic regions-together, are often highly variable environment,tends to be classified with reference to light penetra- less tkan the-number in a more stable tioh and water 'depth.(Figire 3) environment (Hedgirth, 1966). . r .. 1 Nerltic - Relatively shallow-water The dominantanimal-species (hi. zon w ticti extends from the cligh- terms 'of-total. biomass) Whicl occur tide Mirk to.the edge of the . in estuaries are often transient, continental shelf. - spending only a part of their lives in the estuaries. This results ffi-better

utilization of a rich environment, , 4,, e

. , The A wide Environment f

MARINE EcOLOGY

"PC1. 4.61C *We 41,1%fir 3.4 Sum's- TIC OCCANI.C- 1 Incept Low NW - i epip.t.rt IC - ..o.,

"...... 1-- ,,,,,, I (-< ." /./././17/././7.7././././f/rP3 " Sublittorol--=,--N ./ N..06 t.4 PFLAUli-(Wola) m 00000 /olio Mimic &Hay F1007;e SOO04 l*sopelple 00,1WWk ./111f1./_/:TX -1 Abysm Iles4 SENTHIG lSotIrt mow SupreIi00000I Littoral Um rfiJot) Mot Moms t Palest CI) .10010 14.4 IN hod,. Or aoshipIII C Svbhttotel OWN! tAvOlt..a Inns, !O.N.O.', ON olN110.4 400 Wet Ikthrel

,1461 44 a

BEN TH1C Ito! FIGURE 3Classifieion of marine environments

a Stability of physical factors is '1),,,physical factors fluctuate intermediate between estuarine less than in the neritic zone.

O and oceanic environments. r 2) Producers are the phyto- bPhytoplankters are the dominant. plankton and consumers are producers but in some locations the zooplankton and nekton: attached algae are also important as pro deecer s b :Bathyal zone - From the bottom of the euphotic zone to about c The "animalconsumers are 2Qr meters. zooplankton, .nekton, anci-benthic forms. 1) Physical factors relatively constant but light is absent.. 2 .Oceanic s The regign of the pcean- beyond-the continental shelf., Divided - 2) Producers are absent and into three parts, .all relatively consumers-,are scarce: poorly isopu.lated compered to the ;- nekitic zone.,, . c Abyssal. zone - All Ow sea 'below the bathyal-zone. Euphotic zone"- Wateri4100 which sunlight penetrates (oftenfto the 40- . 1) Physical factorsore con- - bottom in.the neritio zone)-.The stant than in bath1-zone. zone.of primary-productivity often.. extends, f6 600 -feet belOW the surface. 2) Pkeducers absent a a consumers even los abundant tn the bathyal zene. 2*.0 'The A5uatie Environment

- -

IIISEA WATER ANDTHBBODY FLUIDS IV =FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISTRI- BUTIONOF MARINE AND ESTUARINE A Sea water is a remarkably suitable ORGANISMS environment for living cells, 'as*it contains all of the chemical elements A Salinity.Salinity is the single most essential to the growth andsmaintenance cohstan and controlling factor in the of 'plants..and animals. Theratio p.nd marine e bnment, probably followed often the concentration of the major by temperature.It ranges around. salts of sea water are strikingly similar 35, 000 mg. .per liter, or "35 parts per. in the cytoplasm and body fluids -of thousand" (symbol:435%o ) in the language_ marine Organisms.This similarity is of the oceanographer. While variations also evident, although modified somewhat in the open ocean are in the body fluids of fresh water and salinity decreases rapidly a terrestrial animals. For example, approaches shore and proceeds through sterile sea water may be used the estuary and up into fresh water with emergencies as a substitute-for blood a salinity of "0 %o (see Figure 2) plasma in man. B Salinity and temperature as limiting B Since marine organisms have aninternal factors in ecological distribution. salt content Similar to,that of their surrounding medium (isotonic condition) 1 Organisms differ in the salinities osmoregulation poses no problem., On the and temperatures in which they otiVier hand, fresh water organisms are prefer to live, and in the. variabilities O hypertonic (osmotic pressure of body of theseparameters which they can fluids is higher than that of the surround- t olerate. These preferences and ing water).Hence, fresh water animals tolerances often change with successive must constantly expend more energy to life historystages,.a.nd in turn often keep water out (i. e., high osmotic dictate where The organisms live: pressure fluids contain more salts, the their "distribution." action being then to dilute this concen- ,\$ tration with more water). 2These raquirements or preferences often lead to ektenSive migrations 1 Generally, marine invertebrates ard of various species for breeding, narrowly poikilosmotic,e., the salt feeding, and growing stages; One concentration of the body fluids : II . t of this IP that withthat- of--the external-mediumv: -This 7; an estuarine environment is an has special- significance in. estuarine absolute necessity for over half of situations where salt .concentrations all coastal cothmercial and sport . of the water often vary considerably relatedspecies of fishes and invertebrates, in short periods.ofikinze. fOrAither all or certain portions .of their life histories. (Part V.-figure 8) 2Marine bony fish (telecsts) have loWer salt content internally than the external 3The Greek word roots "%ire - *environment (hypotonic). order to .(meaniniwide) and "steno" (meaning, prevent detydratiOn, water is .ingested narrow).are' customarily combined and saltErirre excreted through srieCial 'with such words as "haline" forA.salt,. cells in the gills. and "thermar for teinperature, to give us Heuryhalixie"*as an adjective to characterizefan. organism able to toleratd a Wide range of salinity, for example; or "stenothermal" meaning one which cannot stand much change . temperature."!Meso;." is a prefix indicating an intermediate capacity. . # .1-

The A uaticEnvironment*"

Some well known and interesting N examples of Migratory species which. ..,' C Marine, estuarine,' and fresh water Change their environmental preferences, (See Figure 4-). organisnis. with the life hietostage inelpde the ..., \ shrimp (rdentionebore); striped Bass;-.---. f \ many herrings and?,.fatives, the salmons, and manjothe rs . s Nqne are more ' dramatic tlipsthe salmon hordep which ... "la5; their eggs in freshwater streams ,Migrate far out to sea to feed and'grow, EURYIIALLNE then return to the stream where they hatched t9 lay their own eggs'before. , dying..,. ts. 5 Amo g euryhaline animals landlocked . FAsh Water 'Marine Stenobaline Stenefialine (trap ed), popula onS -living in: owered- :-.----, salini es, often hav asmallermaximum; size thindividu of tile same species 0 Salinity cal 35 living more self.waters., tica: Figure 4. Salinity'r6leranceof Organisms example* the lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), attains a length of'30 - -3e" 1 Offshore marine organisms are, in. in the sea, whine in the Great Lakes general, both stenohaline and the length\is 18 - 24". ' tom : stenothermal unless,. as noted above, they have certain life history require- Usually the larvae of aquatic organisms ments for estuarine.conditions. are more densitive to changes in salinity thaki are the adults.This 2 Fresh water organisms are also. characteristic-both limits -and dictates ,stenohalinet anti (acept for seasonal _- the distribu on and size of populations. adaptation) mesp- or stenothernial.e -.%. (Figure 2) .t PThe effects of fii es on organisms.

3indigenous or native estuarine Vecies 1 Tidal fluctutlItts probablysubject

that nornially,spend their entirefives the,benthicii!..- .intertidal populations . in the estuary are relatively few in to the most extreme and rapid variations number.(See e 5): They are of enirironinental stress encountered . genera y mesa- or eury e halt -hab ieialized- nieso- or eurythermal. bommunities have develop0 in this zone, sortie adapted to the rocky surf 0 zones of the open toast, 'others totke muddy inietd of protected estuaries: Tidal reached-of freSh Water rivers, G sandy beaches, coral. reeTs and " 0 rnangro4le swamps in the °tropics; all cr, their ownflorassind faunas. All muse emerge-and flourish whenWhatever wifterithere ji,f1 rises and covers orto, tears at them,, all must Coltapse or ' 30 35 retract.to-endUredrying,, -blazing 9 Valith2t9y . . tropical surd; or freezing arctic -ice Figure -5. 'DISTRIBUTION OF chWrig the' low tide interval. Such a O1tdANIS1VS-11TAN' ESTUARY CninztrunitY.--is depicted in Figufe.,B; ,

'a :Miry halirT P;:fr.ephiWatir-- -,,,,---" b'. Indigenous, estnarine,. (mesOhalirie)

c Enryhaline, marine -11;ti - . 4'..' k

2-27 ., O -The Aquatic Environment _

04 deo

. : ., c-1:,.:.:- v,..A1: ,,.., ,...),... , .....,0,.....-.....,7,-,,, A.',.,' 0 , ,,t 0 ..,,. 41 ,' ' - -s"''' .S,:, l',".. "; ..

. . re):°:,3e0-9ie. 371::::1:1 xik';.;;'1: : PO 0 4 41 l'Ci"c'A r`..,s: " "4 e'''' ,* SNAILS -(..-4'?7A0..0: : 41'.-.'..ct,617/1:,/,,,Y(' b" '...'(,,:., ,61) A ,, 4....4. O., i'.. 0 ,Ct../.11 6'0 0 ..", Littorina neritoides b-v 6,A- 0,.:- et',' i',....,(..ii. . ,' . .j!.,. :, ;riietr.".F. ,\''''''s 6:r1.5),(1" °0 0 ,;11 'ak rudis, . co) (r,:. j'a' v .J " mt.... ,-... .1;...... t.:1.1::,:vr.1 ' , A 1,:,':',;..;; 0.7.'-'...:%:2- l'c 0 obtusata ,/, v, -.,... ' r..(1 Zzi.- ' c 0L. littorca O -0 to ..vc ., i :),-... . ;,,..-,...(' ,, 4" ' - .'4:1..'''' RNA CLES (./ x'-' ,e(lc" 1.:;,1`.'.1. i s'' It11.4.4.1s".; ,./i.f,p; ;.; in ;1.3. O A). . C:hthamalus stellatus / A Ailb ,.<,71.. ,-:, . ,,,, 9 in v,A1 A 1 ..,, ri J.i 0 Ba,44 lanus balanoides . 7:3:1..(.?" 4>1s \r/ ;. \!1.:1l. ilf4L....4,. O ii, perforatus A J(7,-;/, .s.1-'771,4, .. 'I'j42" 0-171,,* I :-L..\\...°iOl. \s4fi,),i), 7e7,e/Ipligliti iv/if' 1,.A.\-ril);Odie\\;,\\ ,,,,..,./),,y7,;,,,,,,..,,,,,,,/,,,,,,,,,,\\e, 'J)11.,,,,1%.::,--, ii--, tze-,r1Y/.?0, 11,//),a(\;e1,14,,t,v,I.- ., ..-.\\\4\,N Figure 6 Zonation-of plants, snails, and barnacles on a rocky -shore.While" this diagram is based on the situation on till southswest,coast of England, the general idea of zonation may be applied to any temper- atc rocky ocean shore, though the species will differ.The gray. zone consists largelY of lichens. At the left4is the zonation of rocks with expo su rtop, extreme to supportalgaeLatilie_rightona less exposed situation, the animals are mostly obscured' by the algae. Figures at therighttagd margin refer to the percent of time that 0 the zone tS exposed to the air; i. e., the tithe that thetide is out. 'Three major zones can be, recognized: the Littorina zone (above the gray zone); the Balanoid zone (between thegray zone and the laminarias); and theoLaminaria zone.a. Pelvetia ca.naliculata;, *b. Fucus spiralis; c. AscaPhyllum nodosum; d. Fucus selratus; e. Laminaria digitate. (Based on Stephenson) 0

'The Aquatic Environment '

. V FACTORS AFFECTING THE REFERENCES PRODUCTIVITY OF THE -MARINE 'ENVIRONMENT 1Harvey, H. W. The Chemistry anti . Fertij* of *Sea Water (2nd Ed. ). A The sea is in continuous circulation.With- Cambridge Univ. Press, New York. out circulation, nutrients o.ihe 0z:e8m-would . 234 pp.1957: eventually become a tiapt of the bottom and biological produCtion would cease.Generally,2 Wickstead, John.H.Marine Z9oplankton in all ocbans there exists a warm surfate Studies in Biology no. 62.. TheInstitute layer which overlies` the colder water ?nd of Biology.1976. forms a two -layer systerribf persistent, . stability. Nutrient codcentrAtion is usually .greatest in the lower zone. Wherever a mixing or disturbance of these twp layers . occurs biologicb.1 productiOn is g.reatedt.. B The estuaries-are also a nexing zone of

enormous importance. Here the fertility "-4 wearied off the land is, mingled With the nutrient capa?ity of seawater, and many . bf thewould's most productive. waters result. 4 .. -C Whell man adds his cultuial contributions of sewage, fertilizer, -silt or toxic waste, it is no wonder that the dynamic equilibritim of the ages is rudely upset, and the environmentalist cries, "See what Man hath wrought "! ---t-

-e ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This outline contains selected material from other outlines prepared by C. M. Tar zwell,_aaarle s L_._B rown, Jr. , C. G. Gunnerson, W. Lee Trent, W. R. Cooke, B. H. Ketchum, J. K. McNulty, J. L. TaYlot, R. M. Sinclair, and others. QE a

Part Wetlands

I INTRODUCTION B- Estuarine pollution sttidips are usually

devoted to the dynami clkf the circulating . 41 A Broadly-defined, wetlandsareareas water, its chemical, physical,- and Which are "to wet to plough but too biological parameters, bottom deposits, etc. thick to flow." :the soil tends to-be saturated with water, salt or fresh, C It is easy to overlook the intimate relation- and numerous channel's or ponds of - ships whichexist between the bordering shallow ceop9n water are common. marshland, the moving waters, the tidal Due to ecological features too numerous. flats, subtidal deposition, and seston -; and variable to list here, theycomprise 'whether of local, oceanic, or riverine. in general a rigorous (highly stressed) origin. habitat, occupied by a small relatively specializedzindigenous (native.) flora The tidal marsh (some inlandareas also and fauna. have salt marshes) is generally considered to be the Marginal areas of estuaries and . BThey are prodigiously productive coasts in the intertidal zone, which are however, and --many ZOnstitute an aminated by emergent-vegetation. They .absolutely essential habitat for some 5..generally- extend inland to the farthest . 'portion of the life history of animal, point reached by the spring tides, wheie forms generally recognized as residents they merge, into freshwater swamps and of other habitats(*Lire 8): This is .marshes (Figure 1).- They may range in particularly true of tidal marshes as width from nonexistent on rocky coasts to mentioned below. , many kilometers. - C° Wetlands in toto comprise a- remarkably large proportion of the earth's surface, .ancj the total.preanic carbon bound in ttheir. niais.-constitutes enormous a. -4... sink of energy.-,..; D 8tnce our main concern here is with the "aquatic", environment, -primary emphasiis will be 'directedtoward description of-wetlands as the transitional, zorii between the watts d, and, 4.I ,itXI eultUre . how their desecratiOn by human spreads degiadationin both ciirections. es Peat

0 t Blue Cliy . substrate 1 --- a IITIDAI....MARSHES AND THE ESTUARY 1. Spring tide level. 2. Mow high tide. riguie 1. -toostio lit s positive NewLogland estssi7. by Ice . elm.* pool. 9. Ownk at **nine turf deposited . , 2. Amin low tide. 4. Dog bole. 5. lee selgrau (Zosters), 9. Ribbed mussels(media:al- 7. Orpnicoost with associated coausunity, A- ,"There is no-other case. in nature, save` , clink ( o) rmud sos11(ligsg) oomnsukity. 10. Soo lettuce(gni in the coral.. reefe,-"lkhe e .the.-EidjUstment of organic condition `Seen ;in' Such abeau "Way'attire ° balance between-tha growing marshes ,andlthe-tidal streardSby which they are at:Onee'tfouriihed and worn away.."

1886)- . . 2-31 The Aquatic Environment

III MARSH ORIGINS AND STRUCTURES Such banks ar& likely to be cliff-like, andare often undercut. Chunks of A In general, marsh substratep are,high in peat are-pften found bring about on organic content, relatively low in minerals harder substrate below high tide line. - and trace elements.. The upper layers If face of cliff is well above high water, bound together with living roots called overlying vegetation is likely to be . turf, underlaid by more compacted peat typicallyte'rrestrial of the area. tyPe material. Marsh Type vegetation is probably absent. 1 Rising or eroding cpaitlines May expose peat tom ancient marsh 2 Low lying deltaic, or sinking coast- growth to wave action Which ,cuts lines, orlifose with low energy wave into the soft Peat rapidly (Figure Z). action are likely tokhaye active marsh formation in Progreif. Sand dunes . are also, coma on in such areas ( (Figure 3)4 -Gentral cdastal configuration is a factor.,

Figure 2. Diagrammatic section of eroding pest cliff

. , - Figure 3 Development a Massachusetts Marsh smite 1300 BC involVing an 18 foot rise in ter level. Shaded area indicates kand dunes. Note ,meanderh2g ma drainage.. ,Aisf300 BC, Bs 1950 AD. .63 r_32 r \Sy - . The Aquatic Environment 40. a. Rugged or preciQtous coasts or slowly rising coasts, typica14.; exhibit narrow shelves, sea cliffs, 'fjords, massive .beaches, and relatively' less marsh area (Figure 4). An Alaskan fjord subject to recent catastrophic subsidence and rapid ,deposition-of glacial flour shows evidence of the recent encroachment

-of saline waters in the presende of 4 4* recently buried trees and other terrestrial vegetation, exposure of layers of salt marsh peat along the edges of channels, and a poorly compacteji young marsh turf developing at the new high water level,(Figure 5).

4 Figure 4 A Mouth on a Slowly-Rising Coast. Note absence of deltaic development and relatively little marshland, although mud flats stippled are estensiVe.

Shifting flats Tidal marsh Terrestrial .V.)( >

mom.

- 3 et,,?, .4. Figure 5 Some general relationships in a notillern fjordwith a rising water level.1. mean low . water, 2i, 'rnizirman high fide, S. Bedrock, 4.Glacial flour 'to depths in exceits of 400 meters, t, .,c,Shiftiug flats and channels, 8.Channel against bedrock, 7. Buried 'terrestrial vegetatiot.l, OutCropPinge of salt marsh peat. b Low 1g coastal plains- tendtole Deep tidal channels fan out through fringed by barrie'r islands, bioad. innumerable branching and often estuaries and iielt0.s, and broad interconnecting rivulets.' The associated marshlands (f'igur'e 3). intervening grassy plains are ntially at mean high tide level.: T1;4-A5uatic Environment

cTropical and subtropical regions tidal marsh is*the marsh grass, but.very such, as. Florida, the Gulf Coast,' little of it is used by man as grass. and Central America, are frequented (Table 1) by mangrove swamps. This unique type of growth is able to establish The nutritional analysis of several itself in shallow water and move out marsh grasses as compared to dry land into progressively deeper areas hay is shown in Table 2. (Figure 6).The strong deeply embedded roots enable the mangrove to resist considerable wave action at times, and the tangle of roots 'TABLE 1. General Orders of Magnitude of Gross Primary,Productivity inTerms quickly accumulates a deep layer of of DtyWeightOf Organic Matter FizeslAmmally organic sediment.: iVialigrovfts gout/342/year in the south may be considered to (reeme/settaare meters/year) lbs/acre/year Ecosystem' _.. be roughly the equivalent of the Land deserts. deep oceans Tens Hundredi Spartina marsh grass in the north Grasslands, forests, cutiophic Hundreds Thousands as a land builder. Whenlully lakes, ordinary agriculture Estuaries, deltas, coral reefs. Thousands Tan-thousands developed, a mangrove swamp is an 1111141111Ve agriculture (sugar impenetrable-thicket of roots over cane. rice) r .; the tidal fiat affording shelter to an assortment of semi-aquatic organisms such as various molluscs and

crustaceans, and providing access i from the nearby land to predaceous. birds, reptiles, and mammals. Mangroves are not restricted to estuaries, 'but may develop out into TABLE 2. Analyses of Some Tidal Marsh Grasses shallow oceanic lagoons, or upstream into relativeli fresh waters.

T/A Percentage Composition MAUL Mama muornou Dry Wt: Protein' Fat Fiber wafer Ash N-free Extract MAW TRANSMON *MOCKS SALVIONSN ASS00*1 commies Distkhhs splcata (pure stand, dry) , r 2.8 54 1.7 314 8.2 6.7 45.5 Short Spartina ahernillorrand Salkcfnia europaea (in standing water) 1.2 7.7 2.5 11.1 8.8 12.0 37.7 Spartina altemillora (tallpure stand In standing water) 3.5. 7.6 2.0 29.0' 8.3 . 15.5 37.3 Spartina patem !punt stand, dry) 3.2 6.0 21 30.0 8.1 9.0 44.5 . Spartina ahetnillora and SpArtina patens (mixed stand, wet) 3.4 68 1.9 29.6 8.1 '10.4 42.8 Smrthia altemillora (short, ssts.t) 2.2 8.8 2.4 30.4 8.7 13.3 36.3 UNSIPUNNI xew Crimparable Analyses for Hay DiagraMmatie transact onmangrove,sWamp 1st rut 6.0 2.0 36.2 6.7'r 4.2;. 44.9 showing transition from marine to terrestrial 2nd rut 13.0 3.7 285 , 10.4 5.9 38.5 habitat. Analyses perfotmed by Roland W. Gilbert, Department 1 of Agricultural Chemistry, U. R.I.

IV PRODUCTIVITY OF WETLANDS

. . A Measuring-the productiviiy of grasslands is not calm. because today grass is. seldom .'used-directly asesueli by man. 'It is thus usually expressed as production of meat, 'milk, or irithe case of saltine:tithes, t.13e Jo. tstal'crop.of animals that blitainfoodper 41 ...unit of area. The primary produderin a The- A uatic Environment

B The actuautilization of marsh grass is RIP accomplished primarily by itsdeCom positicai and ingestion by micro organisms. . ,(igure 7) A small quantity of 'seeds and , solids-is consumed directly by birds. YOUNoCfrA-17.:*,e

'SOUND' LARVAL OITSITUI "Art ".

STAGES

.12:401141M, O'" o ADULT, EGGS

I Figul'e 8Diagram of the life cycle of -white shrimp (after Anderson and Lunz 1965).

nt 3 An effort to make an indirect. " estimate of productivity in a Rhode Figure 7The nutritive composition of Island marsh was made on a single successive stages of decomposition of August day by recording the numbers Spartina marsh grass, showing increase, in,protein and decreaske in carbohydrate and kinds of birds that fed'on a' with increasing age and decreasing size relatively small area (Figure 9). of detritus particles. : Betv,ieen-700 and 1000 wild birds of 12 species, ranging from 100 least 1 The quantity of micro invertebrates sandpipers to uncountable numbers which thrive on this wealth of decaying of seagulls were counted. One food marsh'has not been estimated, nor has requirpment estimate for three- the actual production of small inaigenous _ pound poultry in the confined inactivity fishes and invertebrate such as the of a poultry yard-is-approximately one top minnows (Fundulus), the mud ounce per pound of bird per day. snails (Nassa), and others., -

2Many fornia of oceanic life migrate into the estuaries, especially thy ..marsh areas, for important. portions ti "''f,theirslifehistories as is mentioned .",elseVhere (Figure 87).It has been 'estimated that in excess of 60% of the marine commercial and sport fisheria- are estuarine or marsh 'dependent in r 1 some way. ".45, arealeyellow legs (left) and black duck

I 'Great blue heron .

r Figure ,Some-Conunon AlarsirBirdti

4 2 -35- " -/ The AquatiC Environment a

, One mdted black bellied plovers and geographic distribution, etc. at approximately ten ounces eabh Included would be the familiar cattails, would, weigh &Abe order of sixty apike rushes, cotton grasses, sedges, Pounds. At the same rate of food trefoils; alders, and many, many consumption,' this would indicate others. nearly four pounds of food required for this species alone: The much C Types of inland 'wetlands. greater activity of the wildbirds would obyiously greatly increasetheir 1 As nited above. (Cf: , Figure 1) food requirements, as would their tidal marshes often merge into .7 relatively smaller size. freshwater marshes and bayous. Deltc tidal swamps and marshes Considering the range of foods con- are ften saline in the seaward. . ,sumed, the.1A. es of the birds, and the po ion, and fresh in the landward fact that at certain season, thouiands areas. of migrating ducks-and others pause tdleed here, the enormous productivity 2River bottom wetlands differ from "oFof such a marsh can be better under- those formed from lakes, since wide stood. flood plains subject to periodic inundation are the final stages of , the erosion of rivet valleys, whereas lakei in general tend to be eliminated .1 V INLAND BOGS AND MARSHES ( by the geologic processes of natural eutrophication often involving . A Much of what has been said of tidal Sphagnum and peat formation. marshps also applies to inland wetlands. Riverbottom marshes in the southern As was mentioned eatlier, not all inland United States, with favorable climates, swamps are salt-free, any more than all have luxurient growths such as the marshes affected by tidal rythms are canebrake of the lower Mississippi, saline. or a characteristic timber grbwth, such as cypress. ° B The specificity of specialized floras to particular types of wetlands is perhaps 3 Although bird life is the most more spectacular in freshwater wetlands conspicuhus animal element iri the than in the marine, where Juncust fauna (Cf: Figure 9), many mammals, Spartina, and Mangroves tend to dominate. such as muskrats, beavers, 'otters, and others are also marsh-oriented. .1Sphagmlmt or peat moss, is (Figure 12) probably one of the most widespead Emila.bundant wetland plants on earth. 'Deevey (1958) quotes an estimate. that there is probably upWards of 223 billions (dry weight) of tons of peat in the world today, derived during recent geologic time from Sphagnum Bogs. Particularly in the northern regiOns, peat moss tends to overgrow ponds and shallow depressions; eventually. ,forming the vast tundra plains and moores of the north.

2Long lists of other bog and marsh plants might be cited, each with its own Special requirements, topographical, . 43 The Aquatic Environment

VI POLLUTION 2 Marsh grasses may also be eliminated by smothering as, fin- example, b? A No single statement'can summarize the deposition of dredge spoils, or the effects 'of,pollUtion on mareilarids as spill or discharge of sewage sludge. distinct from effects noted 41sewhere on other habitats. 3Considerable marsh area has been elinlinated by industrial construction_ B Reduction' of Primary Productivity activity such as wharf and dock con- ,%., structfon, oil well construction and The primary-producers in most wetlands .operation and the discharge of toxic are the grasses and peat mosses. 'brines eh' other chetnicals. Production may be reduced or eliminated- by: C Consumer production (aniknal life) has been drastically reduced by the deliberate 1 Changes in the water level brought distribution of pesticides.In some cases, about by flooding or drainage. _ this-has been aimed at nearby agricultural lands for economic crop pest control, in a Marshland areas are' sometimes other cases the marshes have been sprayed diked and flooded to produce fresh- or dusted directly to control noxious' waterPonds. This may be. for insects. aesthetic reasons, to suppress the growth of noxious marsh inhabitating 1 The results have_ been universally insects such as mosquitoes or biting disastrous for the marshes, and the midges, to construct an industrial benefits to the human community often waste holding pond, a thermal or a questionable.. sewage stabilization pond, a "convenient" result of highway 2Pesticides designed to kill nuisance causeway construction, or other insects, are also toxic to other reason. The result is the elim- arthropods so that in addition to th ination.of an area of Marsh. A rget species, such forage staples as smallcompensating border:of thg various scuds (amphipods), fiddler marsh mayor maycnot develop. abs, and other macroinvertebrates ave,either been drastically reduced b High tidal marshes were often or entirely eliminated ia many.places. . ditched and drained in former days For example; one familiar with fiddler to stabilize the sod for salt hay or. crabs can_traverse miles of marsh "thatch" harvesting which was highly' margins, still riddled with their burrows, sought after in colonialdayb. This without.seeing a single live crab. inevitablyohanged the character . of the marsh, but-it remained as 3 DDT and related compounds have been essentially marshland. ,;,.Conversion- , ° "eaten up the food chain" (biological ' to outright agricultural land,has magnification effect) until fish.eating been less widespread because of the 'and other predatory birds such as herons necessity of diking to exclude the and egrets (Figure 9), have been virtu periodic floods or tidal incursions, eliminated from vast areas; and the and carefully timed, draina.ge, to 4 ' accumulation of DDTinzman himself eliminate excess precipitation. . is only too will known. Mechanical pumping of.tidal marshes ,:has nofteen,,ecOnornital in .this country, although,the.sucaess of the -Dutch and others in this regard - is well known, t,' 1

The uatia Eiwironinent A ,

D Most serious of the Marsh enemiesid_ E Swimming_birds such as ducks, loons,. man himself. In his quest for"lebensraum" cormorants, pelicans, and many others .near the water, he has all butkilled the are severely jeopardized by floating Water4,,strives toapproach.Thus up to pollutants such as oil.

- twenty.percent of the marsh--estuarine area in-various parts of thecountry has already been utterlydestroyed by cut and fill real, estate developments (Figures 10, 11).

Figure 10. Diagrammaticrepresentatitn of cut-and-fill for. real estate development. mlw = mean low`water 'a

Figure IL Tracing of portion pf map of a southern city showing extent of cut- and =fill real estate development. . . - ti The Aquatic Environment

VII .SUMMARY 5 Morgan, J.P. Ephemeral Estparies of the Deltaic Environment in: Estuaries, A Wetlands comprise the marshes,swarm*: pp. 115-120,Publ. No. 83, Am. bogs, and tundra areas of the world. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Washingto DC. 1967. They are .essential to the well-being of our surface waters and ground waters. 6 Odum, E.P. and Dela Crug, A. . They,are essential to aquatic life of Particulate Organic Detfitus in a4* all types .living in the open waters.. They Georgia Salt MarshEstuare are essential as habitat forall forms of Ecosystem. in: Estuarte , pp. 383- wildlife. 388, Publ. No. 83, Am.soc; Adv. AitSci. Washington/ DC.19 1. B The tidal marsh is the area of einergent vegetation borderingtlie ocean an . 7Redfield, A. C. The Ontogeny a Salt estuary. Marsh Estuary. in: Estuaries, 108-114. Publ. N6. 83, Am. As C Marshes are highly piodtictive areas, Adv. Sci.Washington, Po.1967. essential to the maintenance of a well rounded community of aquatic life. 8Stuckey, 0. H. Measuring the Produc Niity of Salt Marshes. Maritimes (Gra D Wetlands may be destroyed by: Sc pool of Ocean., 1.1".R.I.) Vol. 1 (1): " 9-11. )February 1970. 1 Degradation of,the life forms of which it is composed in the name of 9Williams, R. B; Compartmental nuisance control. Analysis of.Production and Decay of Juncus reomerianus.Prog. 2 Physical destruction by cut-an Report, Radiobio..1;*Lab., Beaufort, NC, to Create more land area. Fiscal Year 11968, USDI, BCF, pp. 10- ' 12.

This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson, former Chief Biologist, National Training . REFERENCES I Center, and revised by R. M. Sinclair, Aquatic Biologist, National Training Center. MQTD, 1 Anderson, W. W. The Shrimp and the OWPO, EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268. Shrimp Fisherylof the Southern United States. 'USDI, FWS, BC_ E'. Fishery Leaflet 589, 1966. o 2Deeyey,E.S.4.Bogs. Sci. Am. Vol. a ii99(4):115-122. OctOber 1958. Descriptors: Aquatic Environment, Biological. Estuarine Environment, Lentic Environment, 3Em/ery, K. 0. and Stevenson. ,Estuaries Lotic Environment, Currents, Marshes, and Lagoons.part-II,.. Biological Limnology, Magnification, WaterProperties Aspects by J..W. Hedgepeth, pp. ,693- . 728. in: Treatise on Marine. Ecology .andPalieoecology. Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. 67..Washington, DC. 1957. 4 Hesse, Ri W. C. Allee, and K. P. Schmi.EcOlogical Geography. 'John Wiley & Sons. 1937. , :THELAWS OF,'ECOLOPY

. Law of the continuum.The gamut T' These so-called Laws of Ecology have been collected and reformulated by of ecological niches, in a- regional .Dr. Pierre Datisereau. unit, permits a gradual shift in the qualitative and quantitative compo- A They have a broad range of appli- sition and' structure of communities. cation in aquatic as well as terres- Law of cornering-.The environ- trial ecosystems. mental gradients upon which species B Only the ones which have -strict and communities are ordained either. -- application to fresh water organisms steepen or smoothen at various- times and places, thereby reducing utterly will "be dis&issed. or broadening greatly that part of the ecological spectrurfi which -offers II'The Law;/ Verbatim the best opportunity to organisms of adequate valence.

A Physiology of Ectopic Fitness (1-9) . 8 Law of persistence.Many species, 1, Law of the inoptictum.No species especially dominants of a community, encounters in any given habitat the are capable of surviving and main- optimum conditions for all of its taining their spatial position after .,functions. their habitat and even the climate itself have ceased to favor full 2 Law of aphasy:4-"OrganiC. evolu- vitality., tion is slower than environmental change on the average, and hence' 9 Law of evolutionary opportunity. kl'he migration "occurs. " present ecological euccess of a -species is compounded of its geo- 3 Law of tolerance.A species is graphical and ecological breadth, its confined, ecologically and -geo- pop tion structure, and the nature graphically, by the 'extremes of ofs harboring communities. environmental adversities that it can withstand. B Stratepf Community Adjustment (10-14) 4Law of valence.In. each part of 10Law of ecesis.The resources of an its area, a .given species shows .a unoccupied environment will first be greater 'pr lesser amplitude in - ranging,z,through various habitats exploited by'organisms with high (oicoriimunities); this:- Is 'condi- tolerance and generally with low tioned by its' requireMents and requirements/

The Laws o Ecology

12 Law of regional climax.The °III. related to climatic conditions processes of succession go of the present as well as of the through a shift of controls but past. are not indefinite, for they tend to an equilibrium that allows no ,18 w of vegetation regime.Under further relay; the climatic-topo- a s milar climate,- in different graphic-edaphic-biological bal- parts of the world, a similar ance of forces results in an structural -physiognomic. tunct oral ultimate pattern which shifts 'response can be induced in the .... from region to region. vegetation, irrespective of floristic affinities' and /or historical /ton- ., 13 Law `of factorial control.Al- nections. though living beings reacileholo- cenotically (to all.factors\'of,the 19' Law of zonal equivalence.Witiere environment in their peculiar climatic gradients are essentially conjunction), there frequently similar, the latitudinal and altitudinal occurs a discrepant factor which zonation and cliseral shifts of plant has controlling power through formations also tend 'to be; where its excess or deficiency. floristic history is essentially identical, plant communities will also 14 Law of association segregation. be similar. Association of reduced composition and simplified structure Have 20 Law of irreversibility. Some, arisen during physiographic or resources (mineral, plant, or climatic change and migration animal) do not renew themselves, through the elimination of some because they are the result of a 'species and the loss of ecological process (physical for bilogical) which status of others. has ceased to function in a particuls:r habitat of, landscape at the present CRegi,gpal Climatic Response (15 -20) time.

15 Law ofgeoec ological distribution. 21 Law of specific integrity.Since the' "The specific topographical dis- lower taxa (species and subordinate tribution (microdistribution) of an units) cannot be polyphyletic, their ecotypic plant species or of a presence in widely separated areas plant community is a parallel can be explained only by former function of its general geograpical continuity or by migration. distribution (macrodistribution), since: both are determined by the- . 22 Law of phylogenetic trends.The same ecologi amplitudesand relative geographical positions, (,) ultimately buniform.physiologica/ within species (but more often genera requirem ts." and families), of primitive -and . vanced phylogenetic features are good 16'Law of climatic stress.It is at indicators of the trends of migration. the level of exchange between 'Organism and the environme 23 Law of 'migration.Geographical (microbiosphere) that- the stress migration is determined by pop9ation is felt which eventuallycannot be pressure and/or- environmental changes, overcome and which will establish a geographic 'boundary. 4 Law of differential evolution. Geo- graphic and ecological barriers 17 Law of biological spectra.Life- favor-independent evolution, but- the form distribution is a characteristic divergence of vicariant pairs is not of -regional floras which can be necessarily proportionate to the 'gravity of the barrier or-the- duration of 48 isolation. s

The Laws of Ecology

25talk of availability.. The geo- IV THE LAW OF THE EQUIVALENCE ' graphic distribution of plants OF WINDOWS (deAssis) and animals- is limited in the first instance by their place._ "The way to compensate for a Closed and time of origin. - window is to open anotherwindow."

26Law of geological alternation. Since the port revolutionary periods have a strongicaelective REFVENCES g, force upon the-biota,--highly, differentiated life forms are Iltinsereati,P. Ecological Impact and Human are more likely to develop .cology, in the book Future Enviramtnts. *during those times than chiring ef North America, edited by F., Fraser equable normal periods. Darling and John P. Milton;The Natural History Press, - division tif*'Double day & 27Law ofdomesticatai.Plants Company;' New York, 1966, 1979.

and animals.whosw selection . . t has been more. or less domi- deAsais, Machado, Epitaph of a Small Winner. nated by man are rarely able Noonday Press.1966. to survive without his continued protection. -Hynes, H. B.N.The Ecology of Running Waters.University of Toronto Press.

III THIENEMANN'S -ECOLOGICAL 1?RINCIP LES These three principles apply to stream This Outline was preparedby Ralph M. Sinclair, 'invertebratesand will be noted specif- Aquatic Biologist71 National Training Center, ically during your stream examinations MP&OD, WP'0, USEPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268:- as you compare* aquatic communities.;.

AThe greater the diversity of Descriptor. ccilogy. the conditions in a locality the-J / larger is the number of species which make up the biotic community. B The more the conditions in a locality deviate from normal, and hence from the normal. optima of moat speCies.the smaller is the number- of species - which occur there and the - 'greater the number of individuals of each ...a the species which do occur. , C The longer a locality has been in. the earne- ccindition, the richer is its -bioticconnnunity- and the more 'Stable it is.

, , 4."

C IN POLLUTION SURVEYS . AQUATIC ORGANISMS OF SIGNIFICANCE

I NTRODUCTION c Comprehensive description -11*. Attempt a 'comprehenske,description A Any organism encountered in a suryey.is of the biota. No one. can claim of significance.Our probl is thus not competence to deal with more than -,a to determine which are 'of sipcance one or two roups.' The cooperation but father to decide "what is the signifi- of experts must be"obtained. The cance of each ?" Sniithsonian Institution has a clear- inghouse for this sort of thing. 1 B The first step in interpretation is Lists of expert taxonomists can be recognition."The first exercise in obtained. There will be none for ecology is systematics. " --400ssome groups. Also collaboration- is time consuming. . - C ' Recognition implies identification and an understanding of general 'relationships 31 Fungi: extracellular digestion (systematics). The following outline will (enzynies secreted externally. ) thus review the general relationships of Food material-then taken in through livi ng (as contrasted to fosdil)-orgd.nisms cell membrane where* it ismetab- and. briefly describe the various types. olized and reduced to the ntiheral EcologicallS, Down" as D The ,species Problem condition. . .REDUCERS. ... s , 1 Necessity& identifying species ; E Each of these groups includes simple, -Stfidids .of-Ee-ecoloor of any habitat. % single - celled representatives, persisting require thwidentifiCation of the do sat lo' er levels on the evolutionary stems organisms' found in it.One cannot .r, of the higher organisms. come up withdefinitive evaluations of stress on the.biotat9f a system,,unless,.. ese groups' spaniftgaps between',- we can say what species constitute the 4. higher- kingdoms with a 'multitude biota. Species vary in their responses ',of/transitional forms. They .are to the impact of the 'environment. Collectively called" the PROTISTA.

2 Solutions to the problem 4 2 'Within the kotistd, two principal sub - .groups can:be defined Orthe Evasion - basis of relative complexity.'of ' . Treat the .ecOsYstem.as a "blac k.- aiastructure unit -- -while ignoring the constitution Ofthesystern.,- This a The,' bacteria and blue-green algae, may produce some broad generalizations lacking a nuclear membrane,may more quaistions be considered as the lowe;_,,r, than answeri4A -protieta (or Monera) AY .6 Compromise b 'The single-celled algae and protozoa are best referred to as -*orkotily, with thOselaiconontic, the higher protista. . Categories with` Which one ha -the competence to' deal. 'Describe the F...-Distributed thiloughout these groups will_ biotic.componentaa-atatocenosis be found most .of the; triditional4"phyls." nlifnite'd.iqi'One:or'tWo,-ntf.Merkcally of, classic biology. dominant taxOnorni&CategorieS,, , bearingIn-mind that nurneriCally taxa which-are.ignored rnay,lien' Very :,important to the ecolog of the-eCoiyetein: t . . iki;2c,,16 :15 -.". 4-1 Aquatic Organisms of Significance ^

CONSUMERS

PRODUCERS .11 C1 ES

tzl S

NUTHENT MINERALS Figure l. BASK CYCLES.-OrLIFE Aquajig Organisms. of Strnificance

4 7

II PLANTS 'A The vascular plants are usually larger, A Schizom cetes or bacteria are typically and possess -roots, stems, and leaves. verso' small and do not have an organized nieleus/, 1,4 1 Some typ6s emerge above the surface (emersed) 1 AutOtrophic bacteria 'utilize basic food materials from inorganic substrates. 2 Submersed typed typically do not They may be photo-synthetic or extend to the surface. chemosynthetic. . 3 Floa gtypes may be rooted or free- 2 Heterotrophic bacteria are most , floatin common. The require organic material on which to feed. Algae ge erally smaller, more delicate, less complex in structure, possess B"True fungi" usually exhibit hyphae as the chlorophyll like other green plants.' basis of structure. For, convenience the following artificial grouping is used in sanitary science: IV ANIMALS 1 "Blue- green algae" are "typically small A Lack chlorbphyll and consequently feed on and lack an organized nucleus, pigments or consume other organisms.Typically' are dissolved in cell sap.Structire - ingest and digesttheir food. . . verysimple. B The Animal Phyla 2 "Pigmented flagellates" possess nuclei, chloroplasts, flagellae and a red eye 1' PROTOZOA are single celled organisms; spot.This is_ an artificial group con-. many resembling algae butjacking taming seVeral remotely related organ7 gen", isms, ma be green, red, brown, etc. chlorophyll (crlifustration in ,lecture). - 3 "Diatoms" have . "pillbox "' structure of PORIFERA are the sponges; both rnarini Si02---may move. Extremely common. and freShwater representatives. *Many minute in size, but colonial forms may produce hair-like 'filaments.- 3 CNIDARIA (= COELENTERATA) .Golden brown in color. include corals, marine and freshwater Jelly fishes, Marine-and 4 "Non-motile. green 'alga.-e" have no loco- freshwater hydroids. motor structure or-ability-in mature - condition. Another artificialgroitp. 4 PLATYHELMINTHES are the flat worms a' 'Unicellular reprebentativas may be such as tape worms, flukes,, and Planeria.' extremely small. 5 NEMATHELMINTHEare the round b mtuticetnilardr ,fo,rms may produce worms and include, bothiree-living great floating:mats ofmaterial. forms and many dangerous parasites. 6 ROTIFERS are multiCelltilar micro"- FUNGI scopic.. predators.' Lack chlorophyll and consequently'most are -- 7 BRYOZO4are small colonial sessile dependent'onother;cbrOnisins:,' They forms, marine or freshwater. ..eXtraCe1104. -s.nzyrhed;and:reduceleomPlest rgan14;4i#te simple-compounds they direct)ythroUgh the, cell wall.

4-3 . - 8 MOLLUSCA include snails and,slugs, 7) DECrAP,ODA - crabs, shrimp, clams; muslsels and oysters, squids,. crayfish, lobsters, etc. and octopi. Marine ifid freshwater. , a BRACHIOPODS are bivalved marine b IltISECTA - body divided into head, organisms usually- observed as fossils. thorit and abdomen; 3 paris of legs;

. adults, typically with 2 fairs of 10 4NNELIDS -are the Segmented worms .4wings and one pair.of antennae.. such as earthwbrms, sludge worms and. No common marine speciesi Nine many marine species. of-the twenty-add orders include ,, species with freshwater-inhabiting 11. NCHLKODERMS include starfish, sea stages frrtheir-life history as. follows: urchins and brittle stars. They are exclusively marine. 1) DIPTERA - two - winged flies 2) COLE OpTERA - beetles 12 CTENOPHORES, or comb jellies, are -3) EpHEMEROPTfRA - mayflies delicate jelly-like marine organisms. , 4) -TRICHOPTERA I- caddis flies 13 ARTHROPODA, the largest of all animal phyla.: They have jointed ap- 5)_PLECOPTERA - stone flies Re.:.._zidages and a chitinous exoskeltori. -6) ODONgTA -dragon-flies and damsel flies a CV'STACA are divided into a ' 1, cepnalothoraz andAbdOmen, and ) NEUROPTERA - alder flies, have many pairs `of -appendages, Dobson flies and fish flies. including paired antennae. ) HEMIPTERA - true bugs, sucking-insects such as water 1) CLADOCERA include Daphina - .striders, 'electric light bugs a common freshwater micro- . - and water &Tatman crustacean; syfitn by means of branched antennae, LEPIDOPTERA.- butterflies and moths, includes a few - 2)ANCISTRACA (=PHYLIAPODS) freshwater moths 4 are the fairyshriutps, given c A ACHINIDA - body dMded into °to eruptive appearances in _ ce hafothorax acid abdomen; 4paird" temporary pools. of egs - spiders, scorpions, ticks an mites; Few aquatic repre- .. '3) COPEPODES are myrineAnd ". se' atives except for the freshwater;'4. 4 'freshwater inicrocrustacea-- swirn bymeans of pranced mit s ancrtardigrades. antennae. ^1C CHORDAA '4) OSTRACODS are like micro 1 PROTCHORDATES - priMitive marine scopic ',clams with " formsuch ails-adorn wormia, sea . squirtand'lancelet 5) ISOP'ODS, Are dorsoyentrally coinpreSied; called'iOwbligs. =RATES - all animals which Terrestrial and aquatic, Marine 2 rER have a a'abone 9, . and freshwater. a ^PIC S or fishes: including such 6) AMPHIPORA, known as ,ecuds, laterally compressed. Mskrine' ' for= as ,sharks and rays, ,lam 48, andlitglier fishes; both and freshwater. Mar eind freshwater 0,

Aquatic Organisms of Significance

4 di

6 J AMPHIBIA - frogs, toads, and REFERENCE ) .salamanders -4 marine species rare. Whittaker, R. H. New Concepts of Kitigdoms of Organisms. Science 'c REPTILA - snakes, lizardsand 163:150-160.1969. turtles.. A

d MAMMALS - whales and -other 1. V warm-bloodedivertebrates with This outlite was prepared by H.. W.. ,Jackson, hair. formerly Chief Biologist; Natidnal Training Center, and revised by R. M. Sind*, e 'AYES.- birds - Warm-blooded Aquatic%Biologist, National Training. /enter, vertebrates with feathers. MPOD, OW PO, ERA, Cincinnati, Olf 45268.

peeCI_ Aquatic Life; Systematics, Strearas Surkeys, Stream Pollution ti Aquatic Organismiof Significance

Pima

= 3/4 ....- Sohizomyoetes - Bacteria, free living representatives , . . 1 1

. -( Mo.0j.) )1)1;.41. a k $ 1 re ,r tb,

"V 141' v .*. . Aorobnoter 'RhizObium Azotobaotar I o p.oireA_tos . radioioola

* '''''*".:---,...... -.-) . PhroMfOete8- Salholegnia; A,detail of immature . stages; B, mature oogonium and antheridia, with eggs, and fertili- sation tubes; C, dead'tadpq1W.Witli growth of S. '

04 C Phyoostyoste youtomitud: . this gonna inoluslks pollution Amomyoete Sapoharomyoes,. a toiler/int. speo les. yeast inoluding poll. t011erant' apeoies: A,single oell;Bibudding; 4 C, asooapore formation. 11:11Wii-oksoif

55 GA'

. Aquatic Organisms:Rf Significance

BLUE GREEN ALGAE ° 3/4

Osoillatoria s., filaments (trivhomes) range from .6 to over .1-110,/n diameter. Ubiquitous, 'pollution tollerant.

; .

,--

sp_u., similar to Osoillatoria but has a sheath: Lvnabiq oontorta, reported to be generally intollerant of pollutioni B, L. birgef.

11.

A p.

Aphinitonenon floaouae oolong; B,filaMent Anabaene, flos-aouse, A, alcinete; B,heterooyst

H.W.Jaokson

PLATE II

0 NON-MOTILE GREEN ALGAE: COCCOID (CHLOROPHYCEAE) Aquatic Organisms okSignificance

n 3. GREEN ALGAE: FILAMENTOUS

(Chlorophyceae)

Aquatic Organisms oftignificance

DIATOMS 3/4

.11

Valve view;

4 Girdle views, stylised to show basic diatom. Structure. A tlisooid or oentral A pennate or navionlar diitom"sudh as diatom scoh as eo Sterhanodisou. Fracillaria

A aglow of Prar4.11arig s- `girdle views)

,m.laySIrmaGgh, 4 ,,note/flillr SIX1

A oolong -of Arks ionslls 2232kons (girdleviews) A,valie view; 3,girdle view.

-Diegrai showing progressive 'dinituttion inthe size of certain es tnrough saaoessive oell generationsof a dittos.

11.11.4sakson .

PLATE VI

11 Aqiiatia Organisms of Significance

3/it FREE LIVING PROTOZOA

I. Pligollatiod Protozoa, Olass.Kairtigori

Aithochisli Pollution tolerant Pollutiono rant 6a j 19 -Col couot_Potoriodondra .Pollution tolerant , 35,u

II. Alcohol& Protozoa, ,Clai Biro odium'

Diaastizaamba Z9M,oportodrerant Difflati% Pollution toleran of Pollution tolerant 60-500A __ 10-50/1 pollution, 11.5 III. Ciliated Prdtosoa, 'Class Ciliophora

jpistsiii, pollution . Wild . 12.1221glierPertati Pollutiontolearant to be intolerantof tolerant ,4Colonies olston 20-120/1 pollution, 35 soresooplo. PLATE 8.W. Jackson. Aquatic Organisms of Significance

. o O

PLANKTONIC PROTOZOA ,

o: : O o . e.

Peranema trichophorum

e. Top

Side .

Ar cella vu garia AdtiposphaeriUm

Codonella Tintinni dium . ,cratera' flu viatle !) ;MIINNI' AEIlie IIIIII

C Aquatic Organisms of Significance

FREE iattiiNG,NEMATHELMINT4E,S, OR ROUND WORMS

4 erve ring=

excretorypyre salivary gland renette

intestine

testis

seminal.vesiele Monhystera ?

as deferens ,

ejaculatory,gland

0 octal -gland. 'pulatory spicule gabernaculua. sahabditis Acbromadora ?

PLATE X

Is Aquatic Organisms of Significance

FRESH WATER ANNELID WORMS

t., a 'Phyluin Annalida

...... `posteriorsucker disc

Class Hirudinea, leeches (After Hegner)

anterior end 3.

, :south Pass 014*h/sate3, earthworms ofubifer the slidgewirm (After Liebman) Class Polychaeta , polychietworms

lian4linkia, a minuterrire, tube .-447 tEraiiii7Onm. HW.J,Ackson (After Leidy) PLATE XI ,

1/4..

Aquatic Organisms of Significance

SOME jMOLLUSCAN TYPES 4.

Glass: Calgolopoda: /lipids, octopus, lizelusively marina. cuttlefish The giant squid shown was captured in the! t Atlantic in the early .ninteenth century. (liter Harmer)

Lissz, 1,7mnaee. Calkholoma ; a slug an air breathing snaila wateli.breathing - snail Class: Gastropoda.; snails, and. stog#i. (Alter Buchsbaum)

An4%$...... '.. a ...... : -.IN a .,kf:.' . '''1''' C .. .. , -- , t-. - n.... .

.-. .*. Class: Pelecypoda clamsmussels, oysters:- 2 1900AP#94:-Af,,, ,. it .zioshWiter- clam, showing how foot" is extendi4Othetip ,,,,:intpaiiiiid.; and tha:ansmai 1)410. along to .itsawn.tinchok. (Aftar 4itchs- n 3101),._ 'L.-.., . .., f:!tATE -XII .. A. .

i t

- :1-

. I. . t . . . Sts

014 fd 0. 0 dpp I14 0 .0 610 o 3 t

N O

1 :

4 2, 4 : e

- ?,..fir..

',> O

Aquatic Organisms of Significancecs

Two Winged Flies Order DIPTERA

Adultmidge (Chironqmid)

-1 411.11111PAIMit B Rat-tailed .maggot Adult sewage fly (tristalks), ° (Psycltoda) A, adultF

. sewage fry lame t Midge Puri dge larva Sewage fly pupa' 4 I. ,

' E T.JaCegOli After various'authors rt. att

'19

1 *

' . a ; Aiatic Organismsof Significance

Beetles Order COLEOPTERA

7 upper eye

a ...... ,rt.. O

, body head lower ey

o A

Whirligig beetle(Gyriints)A. Side view of head: of adult gshowing" divided. eye; B, Larva; C. Admit.Carnivorbue.

A diving beetle (Dytiscus) 'takingair at the'Inkrfeee. The riffle beetle (Pmephenne); A, APIA;3, dorsal side of larva; C, ventral aide of larva. Predominantly herbivcirons.

s. A B

Cradlingwater beetle; A;ad.ult;B,larwa.Predominantly . .heriivorous. A:diving beetle (OhisterY. The e. . int-beetlesincludesome, of the largest H.i.Jacklon. After' Antraost !erosion:a of acuitiesinsets. Needham, Pennak,,,Norgan,and others. **A larva* 3 atilt." PLATE XV

;20 a.

Aquatic Organisms of Significance

MINOR PHYLA Phylum Coelenterata'

+Ad

Medusa of/ `: Craspestagusta Hydra with bud; extended, and contracted

Phylum Bryozoa.

Statoblast

vti

46 reehing colony . on rock Massive coldny on- stick

Single iorid;young statoblasts.in tube . .

PLATE,XVI. Jo

-21 Aquatic Organisms of,gignificance

SOME PRIMITIVE FISHES

Ali4110101111111 lailthillnilltallifli iliAgtti7;11.; 41( '4;4 .4^

Altf+t+11otior --**, Claim Agnatha,awiess fishes (lampreys and hagfishes) - Family PETROMYZONTIDAE,the lampreys.' Lampetra aepyptera, the Broltamprey A: adult, B: larva (enlarged)

- .

`.1. Class Chondrichthyes - cartilagenous fishes (sharks, skates,ays) FamilyDASYATIDAE - stingrays.Dasyatis centrotira, the Rou it Stingray 418

Vii( ,Pa..A-osa.

Cltas Odteiehthyes - bony fishes' - Family AtiiiINSERIDAE, sturgeon. Acipenser fulvescens, the Lake Sturgeon A % A

Class Osteidhthyesbony fishes, --Family POLYODONTIDAE, the paddlefishes. Polyodon spathula, the.Paddlefish.A:side view B:top view

.22.. 'APtr.111qVi` --.10.11,:d %MIK us.." r , -- Class Osteichthyes -totiy fishes -'Family LEPISOSTEIDAE - gars Lep1sosteus osseus, the Lohlrmise,Gar

Class Osteichthyes - bony fishes - Family AMIIDAE; bow'fins . 'Anita calva, the Bowfin ; Reprixiticed with permission; Trautman, 1957.

1 1111V- AMU;:,1111111; AN. 11111V.IOW allt 11111' 111. 'Mr 111.

TYPES OF BONY FISHES

/ male...... :-...-:?", .... - k e ,4,c T /,~A,-.-i.;%,--._: -1 :it'k,-,-,...-?'tf,:,-.--,'.;,-:. - ''--.1 ,v;4.,.. ,* .,:r . ; ...... - --.*------i -- 1.,. -,...... -...t , --1t.',.:-.,',';''--'-'..,-, . ,:. , --- '''-'"--,11.-1..4?:=4.1.--_,-'4* -...t -2.+-,:.-1.- .48 ..'`'.-

9=->-, . f? t.,caxs ; Tr . -k, % , Family CLUPEIDAE - herrings !:_r ; . Dorosoma cepedianum - the eastern gizzard shad female krzzvA Family-PoECILIIDAE - livebearers Gambusia'affinis - the mosquitofish

Family ANGUILLEDAE - freshwater. eels Anguilla rostrata - the American eel Family GADDIDAE - codfishes, hakes, haddock, .burbot ..- Lota iota - the eastern burbot 0 C.; .-: rce...-- ox% . ...5"4.'s",Vor.s. ,1 s -s.i...... ,.....,.,,. ,-,-,.--, - z-:$44:4, ;$4.A...i -,.4..r."::-/r-/-%`: ,

, \ z-x-,. -: -,_-.-,- ..,. y - y.., FeMily ESOCIDAE - pikes . k- --",:..-. "_, :t _-- ''';.---.._ ---;."-',: Esox lucius - the northern pike Mit& ./;..- .),?)/4 f:.;.g. Reproduced with permission; Trautman, 1957. A.)

BI. AQ. pl. 9m. 6.60 Family SCIAENIDAEdrums A plociinotus grunniens 7 the freshwater drum,

72 , a BIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF NATURAL SELF PURIFICATION

I INTRODUCTION IITHE STARTING POINT

AThe results of natural,self purification A A normal unpolluted stream is assumed processes are readily observed. Did they -, as a starting point. (Figu-re 1) not exist, sewage (and other organic - wastes),would forever remain, and the B The cycle of life is in reasonably stable -World we kfiCW: 1tóuld long ago have balance. becone,tuiiiihahltable. Physical, chemical, and biological factors are involved. The C A great variety of life is present,. but no microscopic macroscopic animals one species or type predominates. and'Olants in a body of water .receiVing organic wastes are not only exposed to all D The organisms .present are adjusted to the of the various (ecological) conditions in normal ranges of physical and chemical that water, .1. but they themselves create and factors characteristic of the regfon, such profoundly modify certain of those conditions. as the following: B Since toxic. chemicals kill, some of or all 1 The latitude, turbidity, typical cloud of the aquatic organisms, their presence cover, etc. affe0.the amount of light disrupts the natural self purification ' penetration and ;hence photosynthesis. proCesSes; and hence, will not be considered' here. The following discussion is based 2 he.slope, cross sectional area; and solely on the effects of organic pollution nature of the bottom affect the 'rate of such as sewage or other readily oxidizable flow, and hence the type of organisms organic wastes. present deposition of sludge, etc.

C- -This-des er iption-is based-on-the_concept oL 3 The temperature affects both certain a Hstreamusince under the circumstances- physical characteristics of the, water, of stream or river flow, the events and and the rate of biological activity conditions occur in a linear-succession. (metabolism). The, same fundamental processes occur in - . lakes,-estuaries, and oceans, except that 4 Dissolved substances naturally present the sequence of events may become, in the water''greatly,affect, living telescopes or confused due to the reduction organisms (hard-water vs. soft water . or variability of water movements. fauna and flora). D The particular biota (plants and animals, Clean- water zones can usually,tie or flora and fauna)employ41,a,s-Al1istrations characterized as hollows: below are typical of Central .0410 States. _ or equiyalent korcas-odei.ir_in 1 t eneral feattires: simUr circumistariceidn,.Other partsof..- the world. a Dissolved,oxygen high '7E -Thid presentation is, based on an titiptiblish'ed b BOD loW

- . chartproditced-hy DC.M. Tarzwell and ." his co-workers in 1951. Examples from c Ttirbidity low this chart are:eMployed in the presentation. - d Organic content low

V. 1

.;BLECO.nap..50:12;..70, 74 Biological Aspects oNatural Self Purification

.P,igure 1::Relations between variety and abundance (production) of aquatit life, as -organic pollution (dischirged at mile 0) is cam d down a stream. Time and distance, scales are only relative and will befould to differ in nearly every case. After Bartsch and Ingram. 1

75 S. Biological Aspects of Natural Self Purification

e Bacterial. count low well organized events are initiated. --Important items to observe ininterpreting f Numbers of species high. the pollutiOnirSigfifficance-of-stream__ organisms are the following: g ,Numbers of organisms of eachrbpecies moderate or low B -Numbers_ of species present, they tend to decrease with pollution. h Bottom free of sludge deposits C Numbers of individuals of each species 2 Characteristic:biota includes a wide tends to increase with pollution. variety of forms such as: D Ratios between types of organisms are. a A variety of algae and native higher disturbed by pollution. (vascular, orrooted) plants 1 Clean water species intolerant of b Caddis fly larvae (Trichoptera)tort'r organic pollution tend to become' scarce and unhealthy. c - Mayfly larvae (Ephemeroptera) 2 Animals with air breathing devices or d Stonefly larvae. (Plecoptera) habits tend to'increase in numbers. e Damselfly larvae (2ygoptera) 3 Scavengers become dominant

fBeetle's (Coleoptera) . 4 Predators disappear

gClams (Pelecypoda) 5 Higher-plants, green algae, and most diatoms tend to disappear. h Fish suchas:410 6 Blue_green algae often.become f Minnows (NotrOpid types) conspicious - Darters (Etheostomatidae) E The importance of observations on any single 'species is very slight. - Millers thumb (COttidae) - Suntishes_andbasses-(Centrarchidae)IV THE-ZONE-OF-RECENT P_OLLUTI9N_ - Sauger, yellow perch, etc. (Percidae)A The zone of recent pollution begins the act of pollution, the introduction.of -dthera- excessive organic matter: food for ----microorganisms (FigurTe:1; day 0) Organisms characteristic of clean lakes, , estuaries, or oceanic shores might be B There follows a period of physical mixing. Substituted for the above, and likewise in the following sections. However, it a Many animals and plants are smothered; should be-recOgnized4hat no single or shaded out by the suspended material. habitatiwas thorotighly understood-in

this regard as the -freshwater stream. . DWith this enormous new supply of food and other saprophytic be-girr-to-Inerease IIiPOLLUTION, rapidly. _ A With the,introduOtion *organic Pollution day: 0); a succession Of fairly'.

. ( 1,1 ,

Biological Aspect s of. Natural Self-Purification X

EThe elimination of intolerant predatory Dragonflies (Anisoptera) often present animals allows the larger scavengers to have unique tail breathing strainer take lull advantage of the situation. g Fish types, eg: explosive growth of organisms, particularly fungi and bacteria, draws Fathead minnows (Pimephales heavily on the free. dissolved oxygen for promelas) respiration, and may eventually eliminate it.. White sucker (Catostomus G The number of types of organisms diminishes commersonni ) biut numbers of individuals of tolerant types 0 may increase:- 4.4 Bowfin (Amia calva) H Zone of degeneration, or recent pollution, Carp (Cyprinus carpi.) can usually be characterized as follows: 1 Geneial features: V THESOIsIC ZONE a DO variable, 2 ppm to saturation A The exact location of the beginning of the septic zone, if one occurs, varies with b BOD high season and other circumstances. (Figure 1, day 1) c Turbidity high B Lack of free DO kills many microorganisms d Organic content high and nearly all larger plants and animals, again replenishing the mass of dead e . Bacterial count variable to high organic material. f Number of species declines from C Varieties of both macro and micro- clean water zone organisms and adjustable types (facultative) that can live in the absence of free oxygen g Number of organism's per species (anaerobic) take over:: tends to increase giio. D Thpse organisms continue to feed on their h Other: Slime-may appear on bottom bAanza of food (pollution) until it is . depleted. 2 Characteristic biota:. E'The numbers of types of organisms is now a Fewerqiigher plants, but rank heavy at a minimum, numbers of individuals growth Of those which persist. may- or may jot be at a maximum. b ncrease in tolerant green, and blue F The septic zone, or zone of putrefaction green alga e can usually be characterized as follows: c Midge,larvae (Chironomidae)-may__ 1 General features: becoriie extremely abUndant : 'a Little or nWDO during warm Weather d'Back.swirnmera:(Coriiidae) anclviater_ boatmen, (Notoriectidae) oftetrpresent b BOD high but 'decreasing. e :Sludge worms-(Tubificidae) common c Turbidity high, dark; odoriferous to abundant. d .Organic 'content-high but decreasing

77- Biological Aspects -of Na.tiral Self Purification.

Bacterial count high E Photosynthesis by the algae releases more oxygen, thus hastening recovery. f Number of species very low F Sincealglerequire Oxygen at all'times g Number of organisms may be extremely for respiration (like animals), heavy high concentrations of Algae wilLdeplete_frele DO during the night when it is not being h Other: Slime blanket and sludge replenished by photosynthesis. deposits usually present, oily appearance on surface, rising' gas GConsequently this zone is characterized bubbles by extreme diurnal fluctuations in DO:

2 Characteristic biota: HWith oxygen for respiration and algae, Atc. - for food,- general animal growth is resumed. aBlue green algae The stream may now enter a period of bMosquito larvae excessive, productivity which lasts until the accumulated energy (food) reserves c Rat-tailed maggots. have 'been, dissipated. d Sludge worms (Tubificidae and similar Zone of recovery may-uSually be forms): Small, red, segmented -f characterized as follows: (annelid) worms seem to be characteristic of this zone in both freatho.nd 1 General features: salt waters, the world around: a DO 2 Rim to.saturation

e Air breathinf snails (Physa for 1 example) b, BOD drepping_ f Fish types: None c Turbidity dropping, less color and odoi 3 Note: Fortunately, all polluted waters do not always d erate to "septic" d Organic content dropping conditions. e Bacterial count dropping VI THE RECOVERY ZONE fk Numbers of species increasing . A The septic zone gradually merges into the g umbers of organisms per species recovery zone.(Figure-'1, day 4) (with the increase _in ...,_... . . , competition) 4 ...-',13 As the excessive foo reserves diminish so do the numbers of anaerobic organism h Other:4 Less slime and sludge:.: and other pollution tdierant forms. , .r.".. 2 Characteristic biota C As the excessive-demand for oxygen ..- climinishes.-free DO begins toappear and a, Blue green algae t .likewisesxygen'req... ing (aerObic) organisnis. b ToIera.zit greenflagellF4tes and "other rga A D NEr.the 'suspended material is reduCed and available mineral materials increase due, c Rooted, higher plants in lOwer reaches to raidrobial-i.EtiOn;j1gie b 10-'iricree. ". A' often in-great abundance.' d Midge larire (.Chironomids) Biological Aspects of Natural Self Purification

e Black kly'larvae (Simulium) REFERENCES

fGiant water. bugs (BelOstoma spp.) 1 Bartsch, A. F. and Ingranl,_ W. M. Stream Life and the Pollution EnIrdn. .g Clams (Megalonais). ment. Public Works Purigications, July 1959, :Vol. 90, pp. 1041110.* h Fish types: 2Gaufin, A.R. and Tarzwell, C, M+ Aquatic invertebrates as indicators of - Green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) stream pollution. Reprint No. 3141 from PHR. 67 (1):57-64. 1952. - Common sucker (Catostomus commersonni) : 3 Gaufin, A.R. and-Tarzwell,-C.M. , Environmental changes in a polluted - Flathead catfish(PYlodictis olivaris) stream during winter.Am. Midland P Naturalist.54:6-8-88. 1955. - Stonerollerminnow (Campostoma anomalum) 4 Vaufin, A . and, Tar zwell, Q. M. Aquatic macro - invertebrate communities -.Buffalo (Ictiobus cyprinellus) as indicators of organic pollution ,in Lytle Creek. Sewage and Ind. Wastes: 3 Excessiye prodUction and extreme 28:906-24. 1956. variability often characterize middle and lower recovery zones. 5 Hynes, H. B. N.The Biology of Polluted Waters., Liverpool Univ. Press. 4Unfortunately, In, any waters ondelpolluted pp. 202. 1963. never completely recoverY; Re- '6Katz, M. and Gaufin, A. R. The effects pollution is the rule in many areas so of sewage pollution on the fish population that after the initial pollution, clear of a midwestern stream.' Trans. Am. Iroo. out delineation of zoires is not possible. 1952. ' Characterization pf these waters may Fisheries Soc.-0-82:156-65. involve such parameters as productivity, 7Reish, D. J.The Relationship o the BOD, some "index" figure, or other Polychaetous Annelid Capitelld capitate. value not included here. (Fa:bricius) to Waste Discharged of Biological Origin.In:Biol. Prob. Water Pol. - Trans. '1959 Seminar. VII CLEAN WATER' ZONE Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering A Clean watr conditions again obtain when Center, USPHS/Cincinnati, OH. ' productivity has returned to a normal, pp. 195-200; ; relatively-poor" level, and a well balanced '8BiOlogy of Water Pollution FWC4A Pub. varied flora and fauna are present,. CWA-3 creferenceivAth an asterisk (Figure 1, day "10") Conditions may are repkinted in thiSA:mblication. 1967.- usually,be characterized'as follows: k B General features: similar to upstream clean water except that it is now''alarger stream. Co Characteristic biota: similar to upstream clean water -fauna andilora except that This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson, species includethose indigenous to a'. Chief Biologist, National Training Center, largel. stream. DTTB, MDS, WPO, EPA', Cincizulitti, 0 . . OH 45268.

41.

1 1--

SIGNIFICANCE OF EUTROPHICATION

I INTRODUCTION C All natural eutrophication does not necessarily lead to the elimination of Eutropbtiaationsmay be defined briefly .water basins; dther gedlogic processes as enrichment (of the aquatic environs often intervene. !But it is interestirit inentY leading to the production of aquatic to note that 'vast' quantities:of carbon, life., It is part andParc el of the proces s hydrogens and oxygen havg been imtno.: of taturalself=1MrifiCationo bilizedinthe earth's crust as coal and %. peat measures as ,the' ,result ,ofeutro- B Productivity is defined brie* as phication and biological productivity in ability of water (or land) lo..produce a the Calroniferopsilate Paleozoic). crop of living things.t Streams may have a natural produCtivity e resultitig from materials. leachedfrom C.A baseline assumption of the. present bed rock or other materials. discussion is the'absence of toxicity.

III ,.EUTOPHICATION BY MAN II NATURAL EUTROPHICATIOg A Covert (Concealed) .-EthrOphication via A Eutrophiclition may occur naturally in . Soil Seepage, the course of geologic time. 4too ^r 1 This isslow but sure route for much B The classic example is aupOt;liOle!' lake nutrient material deposited in or on forined when a large block of glacial ice the ground to reackhopen_water. (which tad beenburipci in sand and 2 A. limited(?) and unknoWn amount graliel) melted. of production occurs in the subter- .4

1 'At the outset, it was a garr9o-hotle ranean environment. This includes in a vast gravel plain filled viith ice the grOwth of soil bacteria and ;other fungi, or animals, and does,-- . - not generally resultinthe entrain- 2 Life quickly beeanie established as ment of atdditional energy-content bacteria and algaerdrifted in.The. in the biomass (mass of organic) nutrient base attbis time was the substance). inorganicdissolved solids in water: 3 Duet() the generally low rate of water 3 As time wenedn, dead o r gamin seepage through soil, visible eutro- matter began th-p.ccurnulate on the phication of open' bodies of water by bottom as ooze. Rooted vegetation this route is likely to; be slow to crept in around the- Shore.: Leaves, develop, and equally slow to cased- sticks,- and other dead organic matter - pate, should the sourcebe eliminated. 7-acCuniulatdearound- the. Margins tut:: til a mat of sodazidPeafbeganto:i. 4 Examples could be c it e d from buil'd out fro'rh the shores. This over- Florida to Washington and Maine to growth continued wig the.water y4B . « California.Sources of the nutrient closed over and bog reignited. BOg , are generally seepage from agri grew into4toild soiland`tite_lake ,culturaf crop fertilization, or Soil disappeared forever.' 'absorption from individual sewage ,,--k.disposaisystems. The procesSeeigi -:cde therefOre...led to theself=>eliiizfinat on Overt (Open) Eutrophication Of the' lake -by means of organic mutter essentially produced' within 1 Raw waste dri3charges of sewage, its- own confines' and the =immediate dairy wastes, food processing' environs:1 wastes, etc. .

a Likely to be conspicuous, as itually'leads to the develop- . intermittent, and, obnoxious. ment f blooms of plankton organisms causing, tastes and odors, or the b-Often create nuisance zones In develbpmept.of an anaerobic hypo- streainskor lakes during which limnion with accompanying H2S and"- mineralization takes place. other .p roblem s. Environmental etitrophication Enrichment of a fishing lake is' , cannot begin until,rnineratiza: tonsidere'crgood to the point where . tion has proceeded tO a point maximum fish production csn be obi ,- Where basic plant nutrients are tained. available, although vey heavy "consumer" growth (scavenger B Eutrophication exists in many degrees; animals) may result from direct, a little may be good, too much may be feeding on the 'waste itself. " bad.

2 Treated waste discharges C A little natural pro ductivky (eutrophica- 0 a° tion)pfus a little man-made productivity a Generally less environmentally may lead to too much total productivity. traumatic thawraw \taste; nuisance zones 'less. -common. ; D Eutrophication is inexorable and inevi- table. Once the basic ingredients have Conventional secondary treat- been dumped into a body of water, some - ment Tess damaging than pri- where, sometime, they are sure to be mary treatment alone. assimilated by an organism and thus. ° contribute to new growth. Burial in a. c Residual mitnerals and energy sludge bank or alaoharge on a flood content Still inevi.tably avail- simply delays the result in time or able for eutrophication: changes the location.

...**oot. 3 tvert eutrophication genera11y more E Deliberately encouraged, eutrophication -remediable-and-subjsct-to-controi maytonstiMte a final stage in treatment. thari covert. :11 a'Waste fli:4411,7 completely con- CONC LUSION . trollable (bairing accidents), asscompared to diffuse seep- Europhication is neither good nor bad, but age, through soil. thinking makes it so! -(Apologies to Shake-. bq spears) e - A" tb The c4ta.ntity of eutrophic material ti a bodyqw.gter at any give time is finite and degradable.' Given time,' without replenish= REFERENCE merit, it Wt11, be, exhausted. 0 Stewart, Kenton M. and Rohlich, GeraldA. Eutrophication - A Review.Publica- IVSIGNIFICANCE OF EtJTROillICATION tion No. 34, California State Water Quality Control Board p 188.(1967) ,AA point 'of -view suchas a water.quality 3 ' objective; fOr _example,. -is necessary for the,,eiraluation of, eutrophication. This outline was ';prepared by H.W. Jackson, Enrichment of a water supply res- 'Chief Biologist, National Training Center, ervoir is generally considered bad, Office of Water Programs, EPA, Cincinnati, OH 44068;

81 , °- POLLUTION OF THE MAR./NE ENVIFIONMENT

'1Estuaries are:the. hydrologic exit points_ bIt has recently been established for inland lakes and streams and the oeans.-\ that much a the silt in certain are tbas,receiving waters. estuaries is of oceanic" origin.In others it is of river origin. The accuniulated polluttbn load of the entirie -central portion of the country is cliSaRged cBiological ashimilation removes through them., additional material from solution. 1

1 A Estuarine waters are thus essentially B There is, a great (but not inexhaustible) ' "river waters!: near their heads merging capacity, for diltition in the oceans. ,seaward into typically imarine waters. "Mixtures of fresh and salt water are 1 Though we 'will probably never appivach called "brackish." the assimilative, capabity of theeopen oceans as a whole for-the natural B Bays and the open ocean are essentially purification of sewage type wastes, similar in water characteristics but severelocal.disturbances'of the natural usually have distinctive patterns of water ecological balance (pollution) are legion circulation. in coastal areas. -

C Approximately one thirdof the population 2Safe dilution limits for radioactive of the U. S. (over °55 -million people) lives wastes appear to be definitely limited. on estuaries; and seven of the worlds ten 9 greatest cities are on estuaries. ' ,01a The- effects of conditions in abyssal depths on waste storage containers '1141 cvnot currently be predicted. IIMARINE WATERS AS RECEIVING WATERS b Oceanic Water masses are known to 1 turn oveand major currents to A Marine waters are extremely "hard, " as Change-at long or presently unpre- 4 compared to most'inland,;waters. The dictable intervals: total, dissolved solids. content is ineasared , in terms of parts per thousand (Too) c Long half-life radioactive isotopes rather thanigarts per million.' could accumulate dangerously in the . ,biota. ' itWater from the open ocean ranges '`-, from 33-35 parts per thousand of total =.., salinity by weight (33, 000 -35, 000 ppm) t M EFFECTS CAF ORGANIC OR SEWAGE- 2 There is considerable readjustment of TYPE POLLUTIO' theidiSsolvedsolid ,ratios as` inland These materials whiletdetrirnentaf, ;O waters with sc*ater. -eventually be metabolized,by-biological a Some of tsolids, suspended in prodesses. _river water,ay bg'iliasOlved It iihouldlie noted that many brackish water .oceiniowater, easother forma,..p*iipularlY thotie adapted to life irt materials may be-pr brackisAnarshes'and tidal flats, are highly dropped as Silt. There is thus a tolerant of variable conditions,"_ofteri nattirallSP_ --certain ainowitof-linatural"-siltation including high organic content: These then--' Unrelated to man -Made pollution.' i .. might be expected to tolerate moderate ..z 7 0, at - . ,.. '''' -,- 8.27-7-----7------.-;j______,.. :. - ". " ^ :""' ,

. .

T'oItUti'of- the Marine .-Envirbnrnent

amoants of organic pollqtion and could be b As the bivalves feed on the-plankton, 4 libted as "fabultative."- these radioactive chemicals will in turn be assimilated by them. A Mollusts . . c Details have yet to be worked out, s .. but prelimiiia* investigations have 1Oysters (such as Crapsostrea virginica) and.mussels (such-as M)ytilus edulis) demonstrated the basic facts. t. attached and unable to move to _ave. rcoxne 'silt acctitinula:tion.. 4 Some snails haifre knownresponses to Pollution and other ecological a Slow ailtatitink results in upward elongation of dxistirg individuals. a The mud snail'(Nasiaspp.).is often r ° found on shallow tidal mud flats with b Continuous accumulation of silt will high temperatures and high organic prevent the attachment Of young content. -larv&e. - b The European snail (Balla stricta) c Organic pollution is usually sewage is listed as being favored by pollution. which not only eliminates,dysters and mussels ecologically, but also renders Viem unacceptable fort B Annelids ,! sanitary 1-easons. A type of annelid worm Imo as slu dge- d They seam to be able to tblerate svorms,are foundto be fO,Lore bysevere' considerable intermittent oxygen organic pollution, even tAugh anaerobic .conditions may obtain. ,These are repre depletion. sentectin freshwater by such genera as 4 Tubiflex and Lininocirillus and in sea- 2, The term "clam" included such forms ,.. waters y Spio fulginqsus, Capitella as the hardshellclam or qualig . capitata and others. - 4 f 7" (Mercenaria nier,cdnaria)' and the. t ° arenaria) df.the t 1 Due to their possessibn of hethoglobin Atlantic, and razqr clam (Silrqua they are able to extract the last trace' patuld) and geodupk(Panope generosa) *of availa.bleexygen from -polluted 4 Of the Pacific coasts.. water, and there is gooclevidence.that - t:, at least.. some of. them may:utilize' , e '*. . . a Being unattached and naturally active bound ,oxygen under anaerobic conditions. , . burrowers, these eirdsalP'are.,abie . .,.1 - -,:,-.°: - . toovercome sh'eer.silta.tion. variety of anneltSorms often if,- 4 do?ainates the fauna of a polluted area, . .. . -. . ., .,_ " , b Their sensitivitrtwoxygen depletion '1% even when industrial- wastes are reseinkldSthat of the oyster. Prevalent. - kgere" A-fav 3 Members of this group.apparently feed 3Since...caw:his and oysters are plankton- ' actiVelycon the organic mud or sludgq feeder-a', shodd be noted that they 4 are partictilarly!liable-to the aCcumula- ' itself. .tion of radioaCtiv.e ivastes. ;

, -;CFlea313, 4ganiU'Odllution will eliminate the qSome radioactive isotopes are . macrofau.na andllora,,ofe.nefteary :,? . assimilated by certain algae and, ',ocean fi:ont, aBzin a frsithwater river or - phytOplanktOn. lake; largelY. as a testilt...ef oxygen

atite 0681' I - e 4 -

-, 83*-- . . Polluti;m of the Marine Environment oh

Table II - Pollution Tolerance of Marine Organisms '(As reported'by'yon Wilhelm, 1916 and Mohr; 1952) Res onse to Pollution Favored FacultatiVe Int erant THALLOPHYTES Chlamy.dothrix Enteromorpha spp. Ulva_spp PROTOZOA (Ciliophora) Eutreptia VorticellN(Campannla type) Epistylis a "ni,pola E plotes Stylonychia Lacrymaria t. PLATYHELMINTHES Plagiostoma girardi MOLLUSCS Bornia corbuloides Capsa frigilis Tapes aureus Bulla stricta Dirois verrucosa neapolitans Mytilus edulia Cardium edule ANNELIDS Spio fu/ginosits Capitella capitata Arenicola claparedei & A. grubei Hydroides pectineta & H. uncinata. Spirographis salanganifr' Staurocephalua- rudolphi Sternaspis thalassiMoides ECHINODERMS , Asterias tennispina BRYOZOA Bugula avicularia & B. calaieus Bugula purpurotincta .4. CRUSTACEA Nebilia gplatea .--Enalrootussexdentatus Balanus spp. ' TUNICATES t. Clone intestinalis 'Botryllus aurolineatus Boit palpa - indicatis generaldegree of tolerance :orstrongly,fairored

'1:gt

84 A

_.1 Pollution of the Marine Environment.

agY I

deficiency., or the physical accumulation 6Fish suclias tarpon and Mullet have of a.sitidge blanket on the bibttom. Liying been observed to thrive in highly matter, however, is represented by enriched brackish water ponds and ,bacteria and molds. The impoundment bays in Florida and elsewhere. of inactive water over such an area This of coprse is essentially the same hastens this destructive "process. type of situation as a-fertilized fish . pond. - 1. As distance up or dqwn the estuary provides tima.and dllUtion, biological .111 TOXIC POLLUTION oxidation-amil-Mineralizatiort proceeds- to.the poinfOiere some elements of. The physiological nature of the action of tie macrofaunaand flora can live. toxicants on organisms is infinitely varied 'and but partially understood. The adjust- 2 These tolerant species, such as, those ment of organisms td varying salinities noted above, then tape advantage of the may in some cases be related to toxicity,. increased concentration of nutrients through the phendmenon of osmosis., and the lack of competitors to grow in size and numbers far beyond the natural A Organisms may be grouped with'reference production levelt. to their ability to endure salinity changes. (Figure 1). 3This then, is the same expression of .recovery from brgaiitc pollutionfound

in freshwater, namely: super abundance CO of life, but generally restricted variety. 'U LL

D Marine fishes respond to pollution in S-1 essentially the same way as freshwater fishes.

1 Due to their being accustomed to moving about- in larger bodies of water, they have more chance to avoid the proximity of local pollution sources. 10 15 20 25 30 35 Sail 2.,Elimination of bottom organisms tends Figure 1. DISTRIBU'fI0 OF ORGANISMS "1/4, to discourage bottom feeding fish, .IN AN ES ARY although scavengers such as sculpins toadfish, and others may often be a Euryhaline, freshter b Indigenous, estuarine, (metiOhaline) * found in the vicinity of outfalls. , cEtiryhaline, marine 3 Organic sedimentation may. clire,ctly 1 Stenohaline organisms can endure smother, the eggs of bottom spawning' relatively little variation in salinity. fishes st4a as smelt. 2 Eurylialineorganisms can endure 4 Severe. polluqiiin;ifi a river-mouth or considerable variation in salinity. estuarymay also serve as a biocleto sensitiye .anadr_2?mous -fish' Seeking-to Freshwater organibrds having a body '. run upstream to spa Zt containing fluid of a..higher osmotic ?"",,. pressure than thgt,Olthe surrounding . 5 Organic enrichment may.`p,roedegdal?re -nledia must, constantly resist the food and hence increase pr,OaructivitY tendency of tliat Media to penetrate - on the fringes of polluted zones as in, and dirtite theirbody fluidg. . . 0 fresh:Waters. ._ . 8 5 , V- 1,..,AY 4

Polluticin of the Marine Environment.

4 Marine oktganisms having a body con-. a bathing beaCh from an offshore outfall, taining fluid closely resembling the sanitary conditions may quickly become sukiounding.media, is either in intolerable. osmotic equilibrium with Ms surroundings, or may even have to take in extra. B Of major significance -is,the absence of water to prevent dehydration. , a continuous unidirectional current to remove material from the ontfalland 5 Osmotic differences assoqated. - with ''immediately begin mixing -add dilution. the salinity gradient may play a signi- This is of course likewise true of lakes. ficarkt role in determining-the-toxicity of-a giver waste-at- different parts of Oceanic- surface- cur rents- may-be an estuary.Detergent, for example, strongly wind' influenced, or associated habeen found to be more toxic in with tidal cycles. marine Waters than in freshWater. 2 Currents in-bays and estuaries are at best tidal. Use is sometimes rhade of B Outfalls discharging .toxic wastes may this by constructing temporaryholaing often be recognized by Completely denuded basins and then dumping only on environs. selected phases of the tidal cycle. pToxic wastes are sometimes eliminated 3Estuarine circulation patte nk are from the water by complexing on suspended material. When this material ikrdeposited, affected by several factor the toxicants uLay be removed from the a Tides impart an "in anrd out" motions waters; but they are deposited in the . to the water (as mentione else- substrate.Such a situation may often be where). recognized by a p iup erate bottom infauna.. or epifauna, while the overlying water- b ,,Inflowingfreshviater ixap,arts an shows no biological effect.Gradual 4 rout motion. " The.resultant of recovery of the bottoin fauna susually takes these two is known as .the "net tidal place with increasing distance from the outfall, provided there are no complicating drift, rt factors. c Typical/y, cross .SeCtional areas s increase. as the sea is approached. DPollution dilution by sewage. A situatton This reduces the net drift. has been observed where the generally ' toxic waters of an estuary are diluted by d The denser Sea water. tencii3fo flow the outfall of a domestic sewage treatment in underneath the lighter freallAyater plant to such ati extent that a limited fauna, in the mixing process. is able to survive in\the'viCinity of the sewage-mit:fall. e The coriolis effects pulls ractving bodies to the right (in the northern hemiSphera)-; Although this is v SOME-PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS insignificant in most river situations, OF' MARINE AND ESTUARINE.WASiE it results'in generally 16wer spisins; - 'DISPOSAL ties along the right hand (facing .the. ocean) shores of estuaries,whicli A Due to 'the lesser specific gravit,, of are not-too irregular in shape; as.... sewage, it his e strong tendency to the river water ,moves. down, 'and... channel its way to the surface of salt . 'higher salinities along, the left hand water, with relatively little milTing en-... shores as the seawater.moves.in. route unless very well. diffused at the This can be seen In such situations. '

.point of discharge.. On the surface it -113' as the Chesapeake Bay..in-Maryland. susceptible i.ckwind drift.,- IfIthisISOnfo

.. 1.1;74? 1 ^:

Pollution of the Marine Envirorinient

t fIrregularities of bottom and shore 7Pritchard, D. W. A Review- of Our - and wind action all combine to Present Knowledge of the DynaMics . 1:4Ornplicate and confuse the results and Flushing df Estuar,ies.'Chesapeake of these forces. Bay Inst. of the Johns ficrpldns Univ. Ref. 52-:7. i. Tech. Report 4. March 1952. 4 %Careful study of ;local hydrographic :1016 Ja circulation will sometimes reveal .8 -Reishi D.4-. and Winter, H. A. The .other ways in which these.phenomena-' -- :The-Ecology of-Alamitos'__Bay, cancan. be, put to advantage. 'California, with Special Reference to Pollution. California 'Fish and Game. C The physical difficulty of constructing 40(2):105-121. April1954. offshore .oceanic outfalls which will withstand the rigors' of the storm, ice, 9 Ingram, W. M. and Doudoroff, P. 'and shifting sand renders this an extremely Publication on Industrial Wastes expensive undertaking. - Relating to Fish and Oysters. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.. Public Health Service. 'REFERENCES - Publication No.270.

.1'Conference on Estuaries. Proceedings. 10 Von Wilhelm, Julius.Synopsis of-the an Press) Jekyll Island,. Georgia. Biological Examination of Water. March 31 - April 4, 1964. Stizungsberichte der Gesllschaft Naturforschende Freunde Nr. 9. 2Daugherty, F. M. 1Jr. Effects of Same November 1916. Chemic.als' Used in Oil Well Drilling On Marine Animals. Sewage ,and 11Saxton, W. V. and Youne-A.Investigation Industrial Wastes; 23 (10):1292-87. of Sulfite Wastes,Liquor Pollution in. October 19 '51. Fidel& and Padilla Bays. Pollution Control Commission Report. Wash. C. 3Galtsoff, Paul q. , Chipman; Mr. A. , Jr., (Undated)(25 mimeographed pages) Engle, J.B. , and Hasler, A.D. - Preliminary Report on the Cause of the Decline of tlieOister.Industry qEf the YOrk River, Ve., anti the Effects of Pulp -Mill Pollution onOiliters. Bureau of Fisheries InvOtigational . lieport.No. 37.. Vol. II. -1938. 42 pp. Hesignetii,oel W. Treati(s on Marine Ecology, and Paleolcology. Geological SO 'ery Ot-America. Menioir 67.' 1957. pketaium,., Bostwick. H. HydrOgraphic VactOrelpolired-in the Dispersion of TPOilutantstO4uced into Tidal %Tilers BostonSoc. Civil Engineer. 37(4):299;-314.- July 1950.

6 ' i*Ce ; F.F. The'tffe eta'olNira'steS on. tfte--DistribUtionof _Bottoni Invertebrates This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson, is til-San.Frandiiico Bay Estuary Chiefiologitht, National Training Center, . 14., On. 45269, 19`59.- y. Cin I , a.:1 4

MATER' TEMPERATURE AND WATER QUALITY

- / RODUCTION 2Direct solar radiation is the overriding ) Contributor of, thermal energy'to all Temperature is th.e -basic variable in water lands and waters. "climates". . a Total-energy-from-insolation-ont Or_the_ainouritotthermal _'_' spacecraft <,:eaz:tli =-'-i§-:counter- energypresent,' is originally of solar balanced by the radiation of or cosmic origin.Biolo,gical processes I terrestrial energy intosspace. acting over_geologiC time temporarily If the two do not exactlyibaface capture and store much energyin on an annual, basis, the overall organic substance. The"fossil fuels" temperature (climate) of the earth . 4 burn will rise or fall. . (oil, gas, and -coal).which we , today release solar energy captured - in the geologic past, which butfor man b The annual climate:Or heat budget might not have beenreleased until of a given body of wafer is deter- sometime in the geologicfuture. Most mined by its ketagi-b.phic lotation of the sorer energy being capted (latitude elevation, etc. ) interacting .today, is released probably today, with local meteorological conditions, and other factors. with the possible e.xcePtion.of sortie wo unrecolgnized fraction which is pro- `ceeding,into long term storage. . c There is, -thereforp, a natural or normal temperature regimen for . The release ofaton#C energy is of any given body ofwater to which inorganic or cosmic origin, and :the. it will tend to return'if disturbed magnitude and significance of the by yawl. .additional therinifdischarge to the t environment has ye\ to be accessed. d There is, also; a horrnal pi characteristic communit of .One lag Observation Is important aquatic organisms that will tend before turning to the detafIR of water 1 ; to persist. When the heat budget temperature and water quality. ''While or climate of a body of water Is .we.are most criticallyoccupthd with changed, the fanna and flora change. the,.immediate or local impact of a concentrat/ion of thermal energy' released 3 There is great diversity ofopin ion, at a given point in the.environtpent', even among knowledgeable people, as (the ,excess or '`waste" -which man is unable to the effects of thermal changes in to capture and entrain inhis electric waters. Some of thereasons for this trafismisliion lines),. it should be " .follow:. remembered that of every ton of coal a 'Only a continuously maintained or pound.ofmranitnn burned as fuel, temper-ature of 1000 C sould keep nearly 100%,of the .energy contained' a surface water mass'snare. eventual.lyfinds its way. into the general The question .is therefore .not: life or glotlaenvirontnerri.A small no-life; but rather: what kind of traction itrreboundas life is the objective? chemical energy in some "product..".

., .<

.:BLECO;h0w1b; 4'.70 J' Water Temperature and Water Quality,

Aqua 'c life has received more THERMAL E LECTRIC'POW ER attention than other water uses ' PRODUCTION AS A STREAM WARMING because the aquatic organisms ELEMENT cannot escape the water conditions: Production of electkc power by stream c There are certain circumstances in plants involVes the wastage of considerable which a modest rise in temperature quantities of energy in cooling waters. might be considered to be beneficial Approximately 5900 BTU of heat areas for-example: keeping an area of wasted for each kilowatt of-electricity

.a-r-iver-or-aharbor free °fide-for- generated.- (This represents -an efficiency- ,,navigation, or winter fishing: ', .of roughly 40%. There has, also, bee.zi investigation of the use of warmed waters for B It is estimated that approximately 80% certain aspeCts of aquaculture. of-all energy required in the, future will come from steam generating plants .7 d it is therefore, important in discussing the virtues and vices C Weirs and jetties help greatly in"the of thermal changes to clearly dispersal of warmed waters, b*must . t. define or specify the objective or be carefully desigried to eaCh'situation. type of :;*qublic community in mind. 1 ... Li As water tempei4ature -rises, its. value as 4 It is clear .eat the need for more and a coolant diininishes. more power w continue inta:ihe''' foreseealile fu ('Isable 1). ,-: E Heat dissCpItion from a l5ody of water whigi lias been heated ,above its equilibrium B Human activities whichay modify.. temperature with the meteorological con- 'eoeiving water ttmperatures include ditions follows,pewton's Law of Cooling tie following: whicl states that the rate of'cooling is prcportional to the difference between 1 Logging aril other land stripping the temperature of the body of Water, aativitieS, which increase the rate of and the equilibrium temperature for the surface run-off add hence raise or given meteorological conditions.' For lower temperatures of influent waters, _example, an analysis of the Ohio River depending on the season. as at Cincinnati has shown that it would require over 200railes to dissipate 2bRemoval of stream bank shade 99 + % of heat added (Figure 1).

3Erosion which fills in stream bed and . causes water tO be, spread in broad' IIIEFFECTS OF HEAT ON ORGANIC - ...... ,.._,....shallow layer, exposed to sun and WASTE DISPOSAL' vt . . A - 4 Release of cola waters from hypollinnion A Higher temperatures accelerate the rate of deep r seryoirs. of bacterial growth, the optumtern- s . . . perature being.in the range of 300 C g or augmenting flow by dam fi() manipulation. , . . 1 As water, temperatures approach this 8Releasv.g. relgively large volumes of value, the rate of BOD thus approaches

high temperature wastewaters;frOm a maximum. . power production and/or industrial proceeses. I

89 .(1"; 4. Water Temperature and Water Quality

":- TABLE 1'

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES PROBABLY'CONIPATIBLE WITH THE WELL-BEING Or VARIOUS SNEQIE.OF FISH AND THEIR ASSOCIATED BIOTA IN 0 C .4

Or ; Teniperature. Taxa r

, 34 C 'Growth of catfish; gar, white Or yellow bass; spotted bass, .buffalo, carps,ucker, thiceadfifi shad, 32 C Growth of largemouth bass, drum, bluegill crappie .. 'c29 C Growth of pike, perch, walleye, sinallthouth* bass, sauger, California killifish, topsmelt 27 C Spawning and egg development of catfish, buffalo, threadfin shad, gizzard shad, California grunion, opaleye, northern swellfish. 24 C Spawning and egg development of large- mouthed bass, white and yellOw bass, spotted bass, sea lamprey, alewife, striped bass 19 C Growth or migration routes of salm6hoids and for egg development of perch, small- mouth bass, winter flounder, herring 12 C 'Spawning and egg development of salmon and trout (othev than lake trout)

a. 9 C Spawning and egg development oflake trout, walleye, northern pike, sauger, .and Atlantic f salmon

2If the waste assimilative capacitya InvolveLduration of exposure as well a stream is beifig utilized based on a as absolute thermal level. given stream temperature, and the 4 temperattire subsequently raised, the 2Sensitivity to toxic substances -is DO may drop'slow, as to produce fish increased. - kills and other nuisance conditions.

. 3. Lower temperatures' age reqUired in B Higher water temperatures may, also, winter, than-in summer. 4-lead to'-higher concentration of bacteria. p.athogehic to man. B Factors contributing to the sensiti\ offish to heat- - , - .IV EFFECTS OF HEAT ON FISH 4ND OTHER .4p 1 Oxygen solubility diminishes as. AqUATIC LIFE -e ,.temperature rises (Figure 2). A Vulnerability of fish and other 'aquatic9.1ife 2 Oxygen requirements of aquatic life tp hightemperatiiresrepresents a major increase as temperature. rises restriction onethe discharge of cooling (Fiere 3). water._ Water Tqrnneratire and Water Quality

I I

C 0.1ti =1 1.

git

MARRAND DAM' ADDITION OF HEAT

.101 10 20 30 40 50 70

MILES FROM POINT OF DISCHARGE 4 TEMA:MATURE DROP THROUGH MARKLAND P L . OHIO RIVER° Figurek

l ..9- '10 .11 12" 13 14, eta '" . . DISSOLVED. OXYGEN ii.p:m. ' . . . -s , OXYGEN SOLUBILITY AT SELECTED. SALINITIESit

= :inafropi0i) COM110116,1.114NOLOG.Y AND OCEANOGRAPHY. 96e jBLECO.9e.2.08

. , : . 110 . . Figure Z

91,

. :-.1ort .r.17,11.,,,,n1A 1. Water Temperature and Water

4 0 co `Active" ONO . o

/11111111011. °Standard' a 0.

. Scope. e r 5'

t e O. *

al 1 1 I I t I 10 20 30 40 Temperciture °C C

''', a tr. ° *. THE RELATION OFTEMPERATURE TO ACTIVE AND STANDARD. --METABOLTSM IN YOUNG GOLDFISH 'OF AN AVERAGE WEIGHT OF e. 2 GM. From Fry. ancrilart (19413)"

Figure 3 - --) 1 IA

4 - .

Water Temperature and Water Quality 4 0 v , 4' a 1 3The sensitivity of aquatic organisms 6Acclimatization to higher temperatures to temperature levels andachaeges' is faster than to tower.Figr-audi varies with age, size, and size: mated'to warm water are rapidly killed when they swiminto cold water. This,implies that the sudden shutdown a A congtant elevated temperature of a thermal disCharge may be more reduCes the po,teritia of fish to detrimental than a 'continuous porInal reproduce (Figure 4).' discharge.

7- Reduction in DO, increase in COCO2,or thepresence of toxic materials .) so redutei maximum tolerable tempeed- e. , . I tures., GI. 8Species,san be eliminated at less than ao 'ethal temperatures by predatorsT:-----,--- parasites, or diseases which are less

20 1 temperature'lgensitive. .. . 0 '9Some fish dd not seem to be able to. 70 74 73 62 6, icynotaty*WF) avoid killing hot waters, while others

0 do. EFFECTS OF CONSTANT TEMPERATURE ON REPRODUCTION OF A MINNOW N 10 Preferred temperature ranges in (Pialphaleg prQmeko) a li.boratory,tests generally are sow-, Figure 4 . what higher thin in field observations bDifferent speties have different (Figure 6).This may be influenced preferred temperature ,range. by the demands of the natural environment for greater activity and hence a cSeasonarcooler temperatures are need for more oxygen (Figure.,2, Table1). often asentia to egg production and hatchings while warmer summer 11 ,,Temperature can act as a directive temperatures will promOte:faster force in fish migration. 1 grow,th after }latching, up to some,. . limit of tolerance characterfstic of 12 ;The exact physiological mechanismo ' the species. of heat kill are not fully understood.

4Lethal high temperatures- as deter- Fats rather than proteins seem to be ,mined in laboratory tests vary widely ;7 'the rhostoritiCal substance. " for different species, e.g., goldfish; *.t- 107.60 F, pink Salmob: 750 F. . a "Some filiI0.11 die at temperatures - * " of 650 F, lower than. that at which a'Lethal temperatures differ at . proteins usually coagulate. 4 diffegeqt times of the year; as well as for the different life histbry 4,b .Trdpical (or,heatadapted) plants stages figure 5). . - and aninials afar have fats with a , higher Melting point.. tl;hriai:etic *bThis is analogous to a temperature .(or cold-adapted) orgttniems.' of 50OF for man: in winter it feels "warm;."'in summer it is "cool, " . c.Anirgals (such isbgoallits,h)4red high melting point fats g." beef) develop, 5:'S udden changes inwater temperature '. higher meltingpoint bOdy:tatS the- can be fataltQ certain organisms, bOt . .thdse fed on fat?..s. fish And fish food organisms. (suc.ptas ["hey are-oin turn' able to tolerate higher temperatures. r.

Water Temperature and Water Quality

. O .. I °Ff vu . , , 110011 TROUT. ..' .... .- 7 80 a . LETHAL . HO 4t. .

`SAFE ° 46 ' '-'.. 1. , _. J rs 20 .... a i..,.-HATUATION ff,'"Iii INCUIATION FAY GIOWTH u ir, ,nn.1ICT 1-4-11CT 1-1-1111411111-11111114--11111 litIL-4 1F1-4,-'--,-,1111,21^""' . - API I -- -- s -- 00 , 1._HETNAL HO,

.C., FATHEAD MINNOW SAFE as .,

40 . .

20 , 's, MATIMATNI SPAWIllliCUIATION FAY CIOWTH I. SEITINIE13 SEI I-1111# .

KNOW( - .. -UNKNOWN

, ,31-JELI,MAL TOLERANCE OF CRITICAL -LIFE HISTORYSTAGES. "_ 7. Figure 5 al

. . '' . .. -,- . o d Lethal temperatUrea,seemto destroy. 4Warmed waters speedup life cycles :fat 7.alcium Felattsfifships. . and encourage year round emergehce .. of-aquatic insects,. often creating g Effects of Temperaline oxi-FishcFood local nuisance conditioni.$ Organisms °

1.Specigl compo'bitiotandabundance *are... V. MARINE, ESTUARINE, 4ND ANADRO- affecte firways similar to Axe fishes .mous _SPECIES !. as. outline d 'abOve . . AThe general principles of biotic responses 2 Wirth waters encourage blue-green to thermal conditions outlined above apply Some can tolerate as high as as well to sat water forms a's^to dish: 1850 F for lirhited periods (Figure 7). . k . B Salmon do noteed duiing the'spawning . . 3 Atemperature increase of 80C migratioji, hence higher 'temperatures stimulated photosynthesis -frleyrrato- i4orease thelfmAabalic demands ,...... 44ankion in ourS9ries.!of ol; dons, as to deplate their foOereservep before when amhtent vikterienipetatures were spawning-Oen-occur.. A tgermalblock 160 coaeA, ,butpinixtbited photo- tile. mouth of a river (e..g. 21.10,C at.the;'1, '± Spithasfswhen natural waters were mouthof the Okawogan River inVashington) '2130C or wanner: The existence of a can prevent an entire-ppawninertn; diurnal response to thelmalstimulatien was noted:at'9:06A.K.

4,..

' LAB ORATORY STUDIES FIELD 34 OBSERVATIONS

LRAM IS MACROCM 32CYPRINUS &WV" '--r----- M'S 618,03VS MICROPTEOUS tALMO I DES - . 3'bPM.

.u28 CARASSIUS AURATUS M I CROPTERCiS DbLOL I EU 0 M I DINIPTERUS SALMO Iop

1.26 ESOR YEIM41GUL ATVS

1. PERCA FLAYESCENS re 24 Esox ILSQUINONGY tIRELLA NIGRICANS < 22 4 reRoFTE*0 DOLOMIEU PERDAFLAYEIDENS COTA LOTA (YOUNG OFYEAR) PUMA FL AVESCENS 13- 20

N NW 1"' 178 0 .e

*. SALVE el NUS F099! IN/U. IS 16 ) ? Al. 7..\ SALVELINUS FoNT 'HAUS .. . 4. . CNCO,RMYNCHAS NERKe 14./. ONGORNYMMUS KTA i V SALVELINUS HYDR ID COREG ONUS.<.CLUPE AtORM I S 6...... I . 12 otecqKemous TsidOtrAii.4 ,SALVEtINVS Hilfipt (F.X Y. fileDittlYklitiS GOitiuSCHA ..;.*: COREGONUS ILUPEVOID4 .,,- - :r 41:: / / . .. LOTA YEARL I NG. OR/ *. .. Lot* . t ' i . , 46 1 ' - ONCoRtlYNCHUS NtRF4 'OLDER) .4 0 .... rf, .1 11.4..., .4'...1. - .. % 1 . \ 11 .. . .- .,... ,- , . .; 9ki 18,1 .. . . o 7 .;,40; . i °- 4.... . 4.-. -. . .., .,- .., - .,. .,, e , . .% I1, ,. ...:. ,,, . **.s. 41,..* p...... 0,,, 'NC?. . : . 4.'_.:;',...:4:,i.-..*%..,:g. si,:,. f;.,: 4t boratory-studieti -- 4.;vg, 'A A Left. A eomRailsokt,.61varioastina,l.. prefererlda as fouscrby, ,* o , d- ' g se * RightA copparISCM of field:obsetiv09ns wit4.,.labdor3r re uts for' Ilitirsizier:of.:kitiecx ,....J,0.--'''-t ,;9...... 9 .- -'' AP.4 '1.9 ' ' .. 4 A 6 .. . ' ... .-.-- / ...... 6. * .* Ak !1144 . . 9. ''' .-.:'-' % o 9 qi 6 a .... :.10 " -4 ..

'6* -I.-- s 7t, I. 9. Ai.

A " 0, 4 . Water Temperature and Waterr Quality I

.. , , . E, The distribution of manybenthic ,', .., invertebrateorganisrs is temperature ,...dependent (See Table 2). - . O . P I. . .., -..41111 r 'ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE RANGES;- OF SOME MARINE INVERTEBRATES - DIATOMS k G., Ess., GUMS r d Table 2 telV 6. -0 Taata- -72Tet'np. Ameriban Oyster- European Oyster 0-20

95. 104 'Opossum Shrimp, 0 -'31 - TEMPERATUREIFF) . I a t Tk A ,. 4,- T V . ^ c, 4 r. EFFECT OF TEMPERATUR.E ON TYPES s F Ob servatfons° in MMiami; Plori.4" indicate 3.; OFRHITOPLANKT-bN 4. .* that 'the followin scoups of larger plants ,,may show temporary or perinanent ° changes lapwing thermal discharge:

4 11 4. The del. grass Thalavia an itaportant, 9 ,, a,,. .-, habitat for inyertehriates and stabilizes of the substrate. " .1* The American-Oyster Cra8tostrea i -. tak. ,, . .- -... -.4, z' 'tI %;,,.. Virginica may. Spawn, depending on its' -- . -, , 2 . IIIA' condition*,zat temperatures from -1 eertainp3acr.o-a4gae kt , ,s. -: ;af ... 4 . 40 340 .C, tipawriipdbeing :triggereali' . -,) ,v., ..., ti o. -44\44a rii3e.in temperature, ..-.-..--.- ° 1' ,,, . e ILurencia, Fucus, Lamlna...Via, "IF i." . ' ,,, .. ; °.. , Macrocystis,-Halimeda, and' ..'.". a. . I.. 2 The dhore crab ,a..x.ckcied Maenas thrives;.*4,, "' A itetabularra) a I . .-, ' '4 . a butt4e13.abtbreeetAinenfR _atures Y r 11 ' , . koiren alut c.. erg-ding, Canfir 3 l'The giro nkten (she e-Figure 7).;° _& , irlta*ke place.outsidethe heated area. 4 '. . ' ' '...1"c: ,z-ia,'... . " ., 4'...... T.Jje 4iphytic micro algae-- -. 1...,'.' C -Fieth,tri the estuarine environment and more ./ t: a susceptible.- to temperature'cittriges.thn 5 _The benthic microllgite .: ! , .14. ,"those in fresh water. However, wiser - ranges a tolerance between spfecieS exist. The upper limits of therinartolerance for. °

. ...I, . V two species. of copepods -from Clie,stilieake. D Most sllfish (iri_thebroad Bay were found to:4De near the: normal ca and crustaceans) are-relatqely temperature of the habitat duping the V or highly stenothermal (tmadaptable to suffirner.The addition of cellorineto the. -*; rapid temperature changes). Some are, Cooling water killed all copepodsipassing44,,- stenothermal for one ,stage' (e. g.spavrning),, tiiitigh the system temperatureS and eury-thermal for others (e.g: gr&irig) the upper ortherm'al tolerance. -

Preliminary observation, also, 'indicates - Dry weigh -of total estuarine epifiva.,,' that heat stress may stimulate oysters to rothiction averag6k2. 8-times greatetiy- ,aCcumillate copper (a.s,gther-etressful -.."-in the discharge:canal than in the intake:.. factors-are known to do);iviehoidlieing,a area over a 5: year ;period. in Another' study., -direct killing agent:" . 4 ° elit, .et Water Temperature and Water Quality

V_ I SiJMMARY 6 FWP,CAPreserLions,ORBANGO Engineering Committee, Seventieth The various environmental factors, cannot be:' Meeting, Terrace Hilton Hotel, I J. considered as isolated entities, oriarlitsnls .Cincinnati, Ohio.September lb, 1969. '.,respond to the entire.environment. Tem- , o perature criteria thus inust be based on the 7Heibrun, L. V.Heat Death, Scientific requirements of the entire aquatic population, American. ,pp. 70-75.Apr 1954. and an the life history, requirements for r different Seasons of the year. 8 Pennsylvania State of. Heated ti

Discha.rges. Their -Effect on Streams , Pub. No. '3, Div. San. Engr., Bur. REFERENCES Enviroiunental, Health, Dept.' oft-lealth. Januhry 1962. , 1",-,o '1 Berger, Bernard B.Does Broduction,of Powell Pollute our Rivers? Power . 9 T4embley, F. J.Research Project on Engineering.March 1961. Effects of Conden%er Discharge Water on Aquatic Life.Progress ,Report. 2C4rnes,J... Jr.,Effects of Increased Inst. of Research.Lehigh,Univ. Temperature on Aquatic Organisrus, November 21,,1960. Indutrial Wastes. ,Vol. 1 (4): (I 150-152: ,1956. 10 Chesapeake Science. --'Procee,ctings of the 2nd Thermal Workshop of the U. S. 3Clarks and Snyder, GrR:Timing International Biological Program. 'gild Extent of a Flow Revsal in the Solomons, Md.Vol. 10 (3-4). 1969:

,Lower .Columbia River. . `Jour. Limn, of Ocean. e Vol. 14.November 1969. I ". 4 FWPCA., pater Quality Criteria Section \ , -..110E,' Fith, Other Aquatic Life,andand ' Wildlife.ildlife. 1968. -- .,, ,-- . This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson, 5 -PWPCA, Northwest Water Laboratory. Chief Biologist, National Training Center, Industrial Waste Guide an Thermal Water Programs Operations,. EPA:, Cincinnati, - Pollution.'Revised 1958: "NU . OH 45268 c, t. BIOTIC EFFECTS OF SOLIDS

ISedimentation of rivers, lakes, estuaries B The organic fractionincludis--auch and adjacent coastal water should be con- setteable materials as greases, oils, sidered as a special case of pollution tars, animal and-vegetable fats, feed resulting from deforestation, overgrazing lot wastes, paper mill fibers,' synthetic and faulty agricultural practices, road plastic fibers, sawdust, hair, greases construct pn, `tuld all other land management from tanneries, and various settleable abuses. materials from city sewers. Deposits containing organic materials may deplete A Good f rmirig practices can do a great bottom oxygen supplies and produce ,s,deil to prevent silt from reaching streams hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, or other noxious gases. an lakes441 i. B Road buildin' and housing, development C The inorganic components,include sand, projects, placer mining, strip mining, silt, and clay originating from such coal and gravel washing, and unprotected sources as erosion, placer mining, mine road cuts are important-.sources of tailing wastes,-- strip mining, gravel . turbidity that can be reduced with planning, washing, dusts from coal washeries, good housekeeping, and regulation. loose soils fipm freshly plowed farm lands, highway, and building projects.

IISetteable solids include both inorganic an d D Some,settleable solids may cause damage organic materials which may settle out by mechanical action. O rapidly, forming bottom deposits of both inorganic and organic solids., E The biota of streams ids limited by the type of substrates A Ther'may adversely affect fisheries by covering the bottom of the stream or lake 1 A depositing substrate generally with`a blanket of matprial that destroys contains fewer types and may be --.-- the bottom fauna or the,spawning grounds dominated by burrowing forms. of fish (Figure 1 from Ingram, et al). f 2 An eroding substrate has a charac- 'ter'istic fauna' of sessile attached and foraging members, such as bryozoans, stoneflies, nonburroving mayflies, and net-spinning caddis flies.

3 The additionof solids over an originally eroding riffle substrate will produce pronounced changes in thetiological community all the way from diatoms to fish.The following are common macroinvertebrata of this new "trickling filter" commtihity in contrast to E 2 above.

101 a Oligochaetes

NOTE: (SOURCE OFPawn& maw GLASSSANO WASTES) Alderfly larvae (Slabs)

scal.c IN 1111.L$ 0 * t I cMidge larvae (Chironomids)

/All 1(17. Filson 1 Vedic° bar graphs, superimposed over a map, used to show.

. total genera and individuals of bottomanimars per unit area WP. 13d. 10.75 98 . Biotic Effects of Solids .0

.1ll 'Turbidity, color, and transparency are 2 . In monk-coastal: waters, the principal closely interrelated phenomena in water. cause of turbidity is the discharge of They must be observed sinwltaneously silt carried out bthe principal rfvers. because transparency is a functipn of tur- Secchi disc 'readings show that the biclity, water color, and spectral qualitrof transpaiency of water at the mouths transmitted light. of large rivers .during flopd stage may be reduced to a few centimeters. At Ay.A Turbidity is an-expression of the optical normal river stages, the disc may be property of i'sainple of'wateF which. at several meters below the caused liglet to be scattered and absorbed surface. , rather than transmitted in straight lines , through the sample. / 3Dredging/of bays and tidal rivers for imprbve ent pf navigation occasionally B. Turbidity is caused by the presence of present serious problems. Benthic suspended matter such as clay, silt, comm tiet3 in the area near dredging finely divided organic matter;bacteria, operations may be destroyed or plankton, and other microscopic damaged by spoil deposition, increase organisms. u water turbidity, release of toxic substances accumulated in the mud 1Algae, turbidityfrontsilts and clays, of the polluted areas, and by changing and color.ofthe wafer all affect one the patterzkin the dredged area. environmental factor of major imporr tance in the'productivity of aquatic wildlife habitat--light penetration of the ry PHYSICAL DAMAGES F. Water. SILTATION I s --; - Excessive turbidity reduces light A Silt and sediment aretipartipidarly enetration in the water and, there- damaging to gravel and rubble-type re, 'reduces photosynthesis-by bOttoms.. The sediment fills the` inter- ' phytoplanktbn organisms, attached tstices between gravel and stones, thereby . algae, and submersed.vegetation. eliminating the spawning grounds of fish and the habitat of many aquatic insects b The results of many of man's and other invertebrate animalksuch-as activities, including agriculture, mollusks, crayfish, fresh water shrimp, -industry,navigation,channelization, etc. - cliedging, land modification, and edtrophication from sewage or B Accumulation. of 'silt deposits is de- " fertilizers; often reduce'light trans- structive to marine plants, not only by mission to the degree that aquatic the Associated turbidity, but by the angiosperms of value to wildlife creation of a soft, semi -licl*d-SUbstratturr cannot grow. itycdecitiate for anchoring the roots. Back Bay, VAriinia and Currituck Sound; c Mixed effluents from Various North Carolina serve as examples of the industrial pleas and domestic destructive nature of4ilt deposition. sewage .increase the turbidity of Approximately 40 square miles of bottom receiving'water.It is difficult to are dove-red With soft, semi - liquid silts distinguish betweenthe effect of up to 5 inches deep; these areas, con:. 'the attenuation'of light due to sus- tituting one - fifth- Of the total area, ,tended particles, and the direct produce gay 1 percent.of the `total aquatic plant productiOn. . effect of the-particles In suspension on the growth phYiliology, of aquatic -41 7.--organisms.' . C R ,99 1.= 1 Biotic Effects of Solids

V SILTPOLLUTION INCLUDES NOT ONLY 2 Atmospheric. drift is also an important PURELY.PHYSICAL EFFECTS, BUT . factor in the transport of a variety of ALSO MAY INCLUDE COMPLEX MATERIAL. pollutant's to the aquatic environment. 1 , A Po later-11i the estuary may be derived 3Organochlorine compounds frorrsources from Contamination hundreds of miles -- other than pesticides applicationd are upstieam in the river basin or it may be involved in foOd webs and biological of ,purely local origin.Silt plays a major magnification in remote polar environ- role in the transport- of toxicants, especially ments. pesticides,' down to the estuary. 'D 'the data on water pollution; however,, are 1 Agricultural jthemicals are adsorbed less encouraging. Among other things, they on silt' particles. Under door farming indicate that land runoff from fS.Ernsansi practices, as much-a,s 11 tons of silt even urban land, as opposed to discharges 'per acre per year may be washed by from cities and factoriesthas a much greater surface water into a drainage basip. impact on water pollution than we realized. In all types of river basin& the -concentration 2 ,Surface mining and deforestation further of-'nutrients which can eutrophy our lakefb, accelerate the process of erosion and is increasing. These dair Indi,cate that while _permit the transport of terrestrial wg carry on our major efforts to clean up chemicaLdeposits to the marine pollution from municipalland industrial environment.. sources, we must increasingly turn our r attention to land runoff-of nutrients, fertil- B Oil that settles to the bottom of aquatic izers, pesticides, organic Materials, and habitats can blanket large areas and the soil particles thatoften transport the destroy the plants and animals of value others. 11-we fail to do so, our expenditures of waterfowl. for water quality will not achieve maximum improvement. " Council oil Envisronmental 1 Reportedly, some oil sludges on the Quality. e --bottoms of aquatic habitats tend to concentrate pesticides, thus creating. a double hazard to water owl that would pick. up these cont ants in their normal feeding proc ss. 'REFERENCES 2 Observe rcinogenic Cairns, John.Suspended SolidsStandards compounds foun ted water for the Protection of Aquatic Orga- and on affected be re biog- nisms.Proc. 22, Ind.Waste Conf., ically significant, sin y may be Purdue Univ. Ext,__Ser.' 129:16.1967.'`` concentrated-by com Lally harvested bivalv , 2, FWPCA Southeast Water Lab.Role-of SOils and Sediment in Water Pollution C Much of tbe tonna aerially appned t optrol.Part L; Athens, Ga. icidea fails toach the designated 90.pp.1968..- sprayareas and the presence of4g/1 of DDT in:presumably untreated Alaskan 3 FWPCA Missouri Basin. Region., ;Second rivers indicates the magnitude-of this Compendiuin on Animil Waste facet of the pollution problem.'', :- Management.USDA, ,Kansas City, Mo.256 pp. 1969. '., 1 The continuous presence` bf 5 14/1 of - , DDT in the marine environment would 4Hall, James-D. ',Aisle Water'shed Sttidy decrease the growth of oyster Populations - (To, determine the, effects -of logging by nearly 50 percent; on aquatic respurCes)., Depth FishA

< 'Wildlife:" Oregon State. Univ.11.pp, 1967

9-3'

1. 4

,# Biotic Effectsrof Solids 14

5. Isom, Billy G.The Mussel Resources 9Council on Environmental Quality. of the Tennessee River, Malacologia. Environmental Quality, The Third Annual Report. Aug. 1972. . ._..7(2-3):397-425. 1969. 6Manheirn, Frank T., Meade, Robert H., 10 Humby, ,E. J. and Dunn, J. N.Sedimentary- and Bond, Gerard C.Suspended Processes within Estuarieg and Tidal. Matter in Surface Waters of the Inlets.Pollution Criteria for Estuaiies Atlantic Continental Margin from Pape (ed. Helliwell and Bossanyi) Halstead Cod to the Flbrida Keys. Science 'Press. -John Wiley.. 1975. 167(3917):371-376. 1970. 11 Morris, James (ed. ).Forest Land Uses *7 Weidner, R. B, Christianson, A. G., Weibel, andStream Environment., Oregon-State . 5, F. a`nd,..F.tobeck, G. G. Rural Runoff as e a Va ctor in StreamPollution. JWPCF, University, Corvallis, Oregon. '1971. 41(3):377-384, 8 Patrick, Ruth.'Effect orSuspended, Solids, Organic.Matter and Toxic This outline was prepared by R. M. Sinclair, Materials on Aquatic Life in Streams. Aquatic' Biologist, National Training Cdnter, Water, & Sewage Works.115:09. 1968. MPOD, OWPQ, EXA,, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268. Descriptbrs: Aquatic Life; Benthoi, V Degradation, Turbidity, Runoff, Water Quality .1)

a 8

0 tnCTS OF POLLUTION ONFISH')

. '

IINTRODUCTION the bodies of fishes by various routes. We aregenerally not aware of their A By what means do pollutants exert their presence unless..they: effects? . 1 1 Cause an observable effect on the fish, B Wtat is the relationship between water quality and-water use 2Cause an effect on man by imparting off-taste -or' odor to fish flesh, What is the reaction of fishes to domestic sewage? 3 .Are ,sought for and detected, e. g.; radioactive substances, DDT, .mercury. D Is there any noticeable change in species composition of the.population following We can only speculate as to their pollution? °I) undetected effects.

E there genetic or environmental selection in favor of pollution 'resistant IIIENVIRONMENTL RELATIONSHIPS strains? BETWEEN WATER QUALITY AND WATER USE BY FISHES F Nearly any poThitant, 'given sufficient concentration and time, can kill as a., A Freshwater fishes sometimes spend their direct toxicant. We are primarily; con-. entire lives in a single body of water. cerned here with sub-lethal or chronic Pollution of that body of water therefore levels of pollutants.(Acute toxic levels impinges on them at every stage of their and physiological mechanisms are life dycle, and at every point in their treated elsewhere.) various ecological relationships4 such as, seeking food or escaping enemies. 13 Migratory fishes on the other hand feed and IIMECHANISMS OF DETRIMENTAL ACTION grow up in one body of water (the ocean for ana.dromous.speries,*freshwater for A Inert silt may the catadronous eels), then travea*gra- don route (usually a river) to another oody 1 Clog gillE1 and smother eggs and fry, of water where they breed.

2Blind sight feeders and eliminate Pollution at either end of the route,or a . hicling.ilaces,. pollution block along the migration route, may 'eliminate the spec?es; J. 3 ..Smother food orga.nisms, C What will affect one species adversely may 4. Reduce oxygenation by smothering be favorable rO'r another. algae. 11Cold water species, such as. various B Irritants may' trouts, might be killed or eliminated by warmed water from a power plant which 1 Act as repellents, Yiroulin turn.perinit the survival of warm , /. water species, such as certain basses, .2 Cause excessive inneouspsecretion,and, sturashes, etc: Upset osmotic balanbe.. 2 Benthic apecies,(such as catfish, sculpins, C Sub-lethal quantities of a host of enViron- or stickers, which live near the bottom) mental inaterials, are-constantly penetr.attig might be eliminated by a smothering

xs 5.111 ;4 10-1 Effects of-Pollution on Fish 11 ./

blanket of inert material which would .V NATURAL SELECTION AND nit affect limrietic species inhabiting ACCLIMATIZATION TO POLLUTION the open'water are (such as white and yellow bass, giszashad, or A Know*n biological mechanisms for selective ,walleye). The limnetic species on the breeding of pollution, resistant strains other !land might be inhibited by a dense operate in nature among fishes as among turbidity which would.hide their prey, . other organisms, .sul3press the growth of nutritious plankton, or clog their gills; this in turn 1Studies of population genetics indicate ; being relatively harmless to the benthic that after some finite number of genera-' group-: tions of populatiOn stress, (e.g.,; expoSure '-, to a given pollutant), permanent heritable 3Likewise the shoreline hugging littoral resistance may be expected to develop. forms (like pumpkinseed or bluegills) and profundal species (such as lake 2If the environmental stress (or pollutant) trout) might respond selectively to Such is removed prior to .the time that factors as temperature or transparency. permanent resistance is developed in the population, reversion to the non- , resistant cOndition,May occur within a relatively few generations. IV RESPONSE OF FISHES TO SEWAGE AND SIMILAR WASTES 3 Habitats harboring population:3 under diress in thismanner are often marked A These wastes in general are not toxic in with the dead bodies of the unsuccessful themselves, but exert their effects on individuals. fishes directly. 1 B. Individual organisms on the .other hand can B Oxygen Depletion, over a period of time (less than one life cycle) developa limited ability to tolerate . 1 May lead to death atwarious stages in different conditions, e.g.; pollutants: . life history depending on circumstances'. 1 With reference to all categories of 2, May lower resistance to disease or pollutants,,both relatively facultative increase sensitivity to intoxication. and obligate 'species are encountered (e.g. ; euryhaline vs. stenohaline, 3 May reduce ability to capture-food or eurytherma-1 vs. stenothermal): swim against current. 2 This temporary 'somatic acclimatization C May smother or kill normal food sources,,. is not heritable. D May increase normal fish production C A given single-speCieS co- lleetion or sample through eutrophication. of living fishes may.therefore represent one or more-types of pollution resistancS: E. Usually change's normal population balance by driving out predatory types and en- 1 A sample of an original population which, couraging scavengers. has been acclimated to 5._given stress in totot . F' Reported to cause osteological and other

pathological manifestations,- such att*,he 2 A sample of the surviving -portion . knothead condition ofcarps in the Illinois an original population; which has been . River: "selected" by the ability to. endure the -stress.' The dead fish, in a partial fish kill are that portion of the original population unable to ehdtVe the stress" ) Effects of Pollution on Fish \C

3 A sample of a sub-population of the REFERENCES: original species In question which has 7-- k in Coto over a period of several genera- 1,California, State of.Water Quality tions-developed a heritable stress Criteria, 2nd ed. Resources Agency resistance. of California, State Water Quality Con- 1 trol Board Publication No. 3-A.1963. given multi-species field collection normally contain species.illustrative 2Forbes, S. A. , and Richardson, R. E. Some 'of one or more of the conditions outlined Recent Changes in Illinois River Biology. above; Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Sur., 13(6) 1919.

3 Jones, J..R. Erichsen. Fish and River Pollution.Butterworth'is London, 'POPULATION COMPOSITION RESPONSES pp: 203. (1964) TO POLLUTION 4Katz, Max, and Gaufin, A.R. The Effects A SeWage pollution generally results in a of Sewage Pollution on the Fish Popula- ,reduction in the predatqry types and their tion of a Midwestern Stream. Midwestern replacement by scavengers. Regions of 5ttream.Trans. Am, Fish. Soc. 82 :156- severe oxygen depletion may be devoid of 165.1952. dish; or inhabited only by rough fish email as gar or carp. The general concept of a 5Moore, Emmeline. Stream Popirtion and reduction of-variety coupled with an in- 01. Its Effects on Fish Life.Sewage Works crease in a.bundEince in certain regions is' Journal.4:159.1932. as valid for fishes as for other groups. Aj' 6. Naegele, John. A. Head, Pept. of Env iron- tion responses to toxic pollution are mental Sciences, Univ. of Masse, unpredictable except that reduction in Waltham Field Station,. Waltham, Mass. variety is again alrn9st sure to result. Personal Communication. 1965. '

7Trautman, M.B. The General Effects of Pollution in Ohi9 Fish Life.Trans. Am. Flesh. Soc.63:69-72.1933. Ick

8Mills, Harlow B.; Starrett, *. m C. ; 4 and Belir-08e, Frank C. Man's Effect on_the_Fish and Wildlife of the Illinois River.111. Nat.. Hist. Surv. Biol. ,Notes No. 57. 24pp.1 4 -Warren, Charles E. Biology and Water' Pollution Control. W. B.Sat,indelits Co. 434 1971. -a\

, This outline was prepared by H. W. Jackson) Chief Biologist; National Training Center, 'EPA, Cincinnati; 452 6,8.

a 4

r '10-3 wer, /

ilN

I FROM MONAliTO MAN C Historically, concepts in systematics are three-phased. A. Van's desire to classify has always been strong. Consequently this area received 1 Alpha - Descriptive the early attention of philosophers and theologians. 2Beta: Relations' hips B Classification and taxonomy provided a 3 Gamma - New Syntheses and Future foundatiori an stimulus for biology. Systems Some areas of biology were, yirtually dominated,as systematics became a science in its own rights. ' III THE SPECIES PROBLEM C Definition of terms A Necessity of identifying species Systematics;"The scientific study of the kinds of diversity of organisms and of any Studies of the ecology of any habitat . and all relationships among thein. " require the identification of the c-p ; . organisms found in it.One cannot Classification;"Tfie ordering of organ- some up with definitive eyalnations of ismsinto groups (or sets) on the basis of stress on the biota of a system unless "their relationships; that is, of their C we can say what species constitute the '24 4 4ssociations contiguity, sirnilarity biota.Species vary in _their responses or both. " to the impact of the environment. . Taxonomy: "The theoretical study, of .B Sqlutions to the problem classification, including its bases, principles, procedures, and rules." 1 Evasion Identification: "The use of a Key (or Treat the ecosystem as a "black key flubstitute like an expert) to place an box"--a unit - -while ignoring the unknown. organism into a specific taxo- constitution of the system. This nomtc iank." may produde some broad generalizations and will certainly yield more questions__ than answers.

IICHANGINS CONCEPTSIN SYSTEMATICS 2Compromise The basiciimuidations were laid by .1"Ohn Work only. with those taxonomic Rayln'the 17th 'century. categories, With which one has the

- competence to !deal.Describe the 13 In the 18th century, Linnaeus established biotic ctiponeht ,a taxodenoSis the t3ystem_of natural classification anti one or-two numeri9ally, binominal nomenclature in use today. ''dominant'dominant taxonornic categories, His syste,mutilized:much of Ray's work. bearing in mind that numerically _Basic categories added since jAnnasus taxawhich are ignored may be very are the fa r and phylum.... His. Systems -important to the ecology of the ecosYStem-. .,Nattirae(10th- ed'..-1258) is designated as the official beginning point for nomenclature. 3Comprehensiv'edescription 4

BLAQ. 20c. 10. 72 _I._ 105. , 114 - 4 Critical Problems in Systematics

Attempt a comprehensive descrip- -2 Splitters conversely desribe ,those tionof the biota. No one can claim systematists that see minor variations competence'to deal with more than as valid grounds for species separation. one or two groups. The cooperation The splitters would recognize as a of experts must' be obtained.: The species each shell type, however'minor. Smithsonian Institution has a-clear- inghoude for this sort of thing. 1 Lists of expert taxonomists can be. -N--.) obtained (2a,b, c)(3).There will' 'V SYSTEMATICS AND AQUATICBIOLOGY be none for some groups. .Also a collaboration is time consuming, A How far does the aquatic biologist go in .ysteinatics? f The aquatic biologistmay or may not IV PROBLEMS IN SYSTEMATICS be a systematist or specialist in a .1 limited taxon. t. AA critical problem inizlassification has been the arbitrary assignment o :2Some aquatic biologists have Specialized characters for definition and separ on in a particular taxon with good results. of characters fbrdefinition and separation of taxa.Specialists in a limited 3 Granted a fine degree of 'competence taxonomic plant or animal group may in one taxon, he will probably have sharply disagree over which values only limited acquaintance withother should be employed. taxa.

The subjective nature of this approach 4It should be obvious that no one can to systematiCs has not always been c. specialize in more than several taxa. recognized, B the' Non- Biologist. Should: . B Specialists working with restricted plant, or animal groups may be urfable 1* Be acquaintedwith the basic biological communicate with specialists-in 'other" system of natural classification and areas due to terminology used. some basic terminology.

C As a result of the subjective element, 2Realize the limitations of both the pendulum-has 'swung between the` systematics and the aquatic biologist "lumpers" and '!splitters. " handling systematics.

1 Luinpe'rs is a term used loosely 3Understand that adequate and usable to describe systematistathat taxqiipmic treatment of all plant and .deemphasize minute. variations animal groups proceedsjt varyin iri Populations ofinaviduals. The `rates. Many groups (example: midges) 'snail species Pleuroceis are still in the Alpha phase. canaliculata has upstream and down- . reaforms (shell types). The C Facing Problfras with the Systematic lumpers-insist that a great number Literature 44 of thes*forma are only varieties or ecotypes of a-single highly 1Identification of aquatic organisms is variable species. complicated_ by:

,6 a Keys may be available for only one of the life. history stages. Critical Problems in- Systematics

-1 b Reproductive phaies or type of C Systematic Relationships are Recognized egg depbsition may be involved - in corredt.icientification. 1 Phenetic - based on Overall . similarities c Seasonal changes in the organisni may frustrate identificatlort. 2 Cladistic - based 9n common lines of descent '2 The literature is difficult to retrieve. ,- 3CI-Foul:stip - based on timerelation D How important is the correct identifica-; . amongevolutionary branches tionteQ species with an aquatic organism? For example:

1 A test organism in a bioasSay vu CONCLUSIONS procedUre , . Numerical taxonomy Le gaining in . 2 'The sludgeworms in a bank of sludge techniqu'es and application,. below gross organic pollution . There will be new syntheses in the E Current Problems in Identification. . field of systematics. 1 Fewer students going into systematics" C ' The applibatioUs of computer. classification and identification in the field of aquatic . 2 The mar}ied reduction in our native biology are'unlimited. flora and fauna due to man's activities. Many endemic "species and groups * ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (especiarly.molluses) have be-en . . -% extirpated. `REM,RENES / 3 -. Trend toward "lumping" in recent 1 r...... haCkwelder; it. E.Clasalfication of the . monographs Animal Kingdom. ,Southern Illinois trniVtPreas.. 1963. New syntheses in systerhatics 2 Federal Council for Science and Technology. 5 Numer ical taxonomy Systematic -Biology. A Survey of Federal ProgranaCand Needs. .15anel on 6Stereo sOanning and conventiOnali Systematics and Taxonomy of the 'electron croscopy Federal Council for Science and - aokak Technology. USGPO, .166 pp.' 196a. $1. 25.- /, 4 . VI THE NEW SYSTEMATICS - FROM 3.Gier, L. J. Principles of Taxonomy. ', TO SCIENCE - Gier. .94 pp. 1965. . 4 I : - I A The new' systematicsirbludiiig,the tool , Grepne;,Jfihn C. The Death Of Adarhs. - of nUmerIcal-taxonoy, 'is constructed ", Mentor:.382pp. 1961. upori,the oi1d but,peelsls to Oreate ;.'iew , O syntheses along with increasing -Heywood, V. H. and Jr. utilization of compuler techniques. Phenetic and Phylogenetie Classification: A i;t Systematics Assoc..;164 lip.1964.. "B One elemellt it seeks tod iSplaCeis the A ) subjectiv, which' has ,nide Itakonomy 6 Ingram, William191. , Mackentun, K. M. more of'Mi art than a science,. and Bartsch, A.F. Biological . Investigative Data for Water Pollution SUrVeys. U.S. Dept.- of.theInterior. FWPCA Pub.- WP-13. 139 pp.1966.

2 gv 0

CriirCarProbleins in-SyStematiCs

1 7Mayr, Ernst. Systematics and the REFERENCES: THE SPECIES PROBLEM Origin of Species.Dover. 334 pp. 1964. 1 Sm- ithsonian Oceanographic Sorting 4 ,Center, Smithsonian Institution, 8Mayr, Ernst. Population,. Species, and Washington, ISC 20560. Evolution: Harvar.d Univ. Press. . - 2 a Ibid , ,) 1970. ,

, . 9Mayr, Ernst, Linsley, E.G. and b Psammonalia.: Newsletter of the Usinger, L; Metho,ds and .Society of ,Meiobe.hologists Principles and SystematicZoology. k McGraw-Hill.3288 pp.1953. c 15olychaeta: A Newsletter of !vt Paychaste ikesearch: 1 I. 10Savory, T. Naming the Living World: An Introduction tolhe Principles of Secretaries of learned societies Zoological NOmenclature. -Wiley. specialtzing in particular ,taiconSmiC 128 pp.1963. categories, such .as. American Society, of Ichthyologists .and Herpetologists 11Sokal, Robert R. NumericalTaxonomy. American Malacblogical Union, etc..- Scientific American. 215(6)1106-116. . 1966. 4Blackwelder, R. E. aid Blackliv'elder, utPe Directory of Zoological 1. 12Sokal, R. R. and Sneath, P. H. A. Taxonomists of:the World. Soc. yrinciples,g NumerYeal Taxonomy: Sysi. Zool. 404 pp. .1961: Freeman,. 350 pp.19$3. 4 13SV:iggins, Glenn B. The Critical Probler3. , of Syisteni.atics in Stream Ecology in * Cart portions of this outline contain 4 Organism- Substrate Relationships.in material from a prior outline by Dr. Henry Streams.Pymaturiing Lab. of Ecol. Kritzle, Professor of Biological Oceatto- spec;_'peub,,'Nci: 4:52-58.1966. graphy, Florida State University.

i° '1. This outline wasp epared by R. M. Sinclair, Aquatic Biologist, National Training Center, Cincinnati OH 4526.. o i; , 4. . 0- .1.

f a _

r . r

THE SYSTEM OF BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

). IINTRODUCTION Society; amphibians (sal.manders and frogs)American Society of ,. There are few majoroups of org= isms Ichth ologistiand Herpetologists. that are either eXclusive errestria or generally aquatic. The folio g rerks D The system of biological 'nomenclature apply to both, howeVer, primary on is regulated by international congresses. will be directed to aquatic types. \kIt is basedorrasystem of groups and sup'er groups, of which the foundation IICLASSIFICATION (which actually exists-in nature) is e species. One of the first questions usually posed about an organism.seen for the first time 2 The.ta:xa (categories) employe d are is:,"what is it?" usually'mearling, "what is as foliow its-name?" The naming or/classification of biological organisms is a science in itself. The species is the foundation (taxonomy). Some of the.principles involved (plural:species,) need to be understood by anyone working with organisms however. Similar species are grouped into genera (singular: genus). Names arethe "key'riumber", "code designation ", or '-'file referaces." Which Similar 'genera are 'grouped into We must have to find infoimation about families. an unknown organism. / . --_;$4,rni/ar families are grouped into B Why are they so lode and why intrst they. be in Latin and Greek:?' 'File references z.-4 in large systerns, have tirbatong in order Similar orders are group6d into

-ta 'designate the many diVisiOnkand sub- classes. f -divisions:There are aver. a million and a half items (or species), inCluded4i-the . Similar, classes are grouped into system of-biplogicalnomenclatury (very phyla (phylum). few"libraries haVe as many !Ifs a million books to-classify). . Similar phyla ere grouped into ,kingdoms.. C Common are r-arely available, for _ mbst invertebra and algae.. Exceptions` G, Other categories such as sub - species; to this are common ainong the mblhiecs, -variety,strain,division, tribe, etc. many of which have common- Harries which. are employed in special circumstances. are fairly standard for the same speCies through oft its range.This may be due D The scientlfic name of an organism is its to their Itatus:as a commercial harvest generic name plus its speCies- name; ' or. to the activities of devoted groups of This is analogous to our systeni of amateur collectors.Certain acientifib surnames (family names) aid given goctetes hivelso assiinedt"official" names (Christian names). " r'e.orn. to particular species; ' for exampler qiiatic weeds - Am' rim* 1 The generic (genus). name is always ,/ Weed Society;', fishAmerican Fi herie's capitalized and. the species name 1 written;with a small letter.They

. 109 The Systern. of Biological Classification

1/4Si

ti should also be underlined orlprinfea aExamples of ,the Classification 'of . in italics when used in aIechnibiki' animal and a plant:' sense. For, example: Homo sapiens - Jusentiens) modern man Kingdom P lanta e Animalia Homo heidelbergensis ,theidelbSrg man Phylum Crlirysaphytal Arthropoda r . e Homo neanderthalis - neandertlial man 7-7Class Bacillariophy ceaeInspcta Order P ennales Diptera Oncorhynchus gorbusclia - pink salmon Family Gomphonema c ea eChironomida Oncorhynchus kisutch - ,coho salmon Genus Gomphonema Chironomus olivaceum riparius Onoorhynchus tshawytscha - chinook Species

salmon ti 1 bThese sever babic levels of 2 Common names do not exist for,mo t organization are, often not enough of the, smaller and less familiar for the complete designation of organisms: For example, if we wish one species among thousands; to refer to members of the geniis however, and so additional 0 Gomphonema (a diatom) wemust echelons of terms are provided simply use the generic name, and: by grouping the various categories

into "super...," groups and sub- , Gomphonema olivaceum dividing Them into "Sub... " groups as: Gomphonema parvulum Gomphonema abbreviatuin Superorder, Order, Suborder, etc., Still other category names such three- distinct species-which have as "tribe", "division"," variety", different significances to algologists "ra:ce", "section)/ etc.; are used interpreting water quality. on occasion.

3 A complete list of the various cAdditional accuracy is gained by

categories to which an organism citing the name of the authority. belongs ist known as its "classification". who f4st described-a species For example,Jhe classification of .a (and the date) immediately type of diatorri and a midge larva or following the species name. "bloodworm" are shown side by side 'AuthOrs are alsO ofteh cited for belbw. Their scientific name0 are genera or other groups. Gomphonema olivaceum and Chironomus

A The System of Biological Classification

a A more complete classification of eIt should be emphasized 45t since the above midge, follows: all categories above the species' level are essentially human con- Kingdom Ariimalia cepts, there is often divergence of opinion, in regard to how certa% Suierphylum Annelid 'organisms should be grouped.'-' Phylum A rthropodar" . Changes result as knowledge Class Insecta growt. Order,Diptera. f The most appropriate or correct Suborder Nematocera names too are subject to chAnge. O. The species itself, however,, as .Family Chironomidie an entity In nature, -is relatively, timeless and so does not change_- SubfaMily Chii:onominae to man's eye. Tribe Chironomini This outline was. prepared by H. W. Jackson, Genus Chirortomus Chief Biologist and R. M. Sin4in, Aquatic' 1 Speciei riparius Meigen 1804 Biologist, National Training Center, Water Programs Operations, EPA, Cincinnati, OH 45268.

t. THE CYCLING OF RADIONUCLIDES IN THE AQUATICENITtIRONMENT

A IINTRODUCTION: as phosphorus metabolism, the element - may be Concentrated considerably out of' The desirability of lankton (tiny dispersed propdrtion to the available phosphorus plants and aniinals)'as objects of radio.- ° in the aquatic environment. biological investigation arises from a number .. ,of points: D The Concentration factor is the ratio of the activity of the wet weight of washed A Their widespread occurrencSin man); algal cells (disintegrations per minute, kinds-of aqilatic 'fiabitate. per gram) to the activity of the aquatic solution in which the organism was .1 B Their ability to take up .and to concentrate lading (disintegrations -per minute, per, radionuclides, which may be injected, milliliter).13y using'concsntra.tion metabolized, and stored by higher organ- factors, planktonic algae may be com-, isms, including humans. pared for abili(y to concentrate radionuclides. C Producing potential health hazards from 1 ionizingradiations at the higher levels E A succession of organisms,*beginninct6. .of concentration irom radioactivity. with those having photosynthesis (producers), and proceeding to her- bivorous, -omnivorous, and carnivorous

PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND .organisms (consurders), each serving CONCEPTS as a sustenance for the next, is 'called a food chain or cycle., Type& of orga- A Radioecologytof plankton and the food nisms are found at the bottom, middle,. "chain,they begin requires a knowledge and the top of each of these gains.

of physiology for the metabolic. aMivities -,.. involved in the uptake of radioactive isotopes, as well as certain physical la IIIPhYtoplankton (algae) take up and concentrate many kinds of isotopes, both . for the passive (dead) uptake of radio-' stable and radioactive. The amount taken up nuclides, i.e., diffusion, imbibition. of each isotope may vary with the age of the cells, the concentration of the. dissolved -B Some isotopes may be passively and or ionized isotope, and the pH. A rise in instantaneously absorbed on the.surface temperature may increase the diffusion, of the, cells and are.not taken into the but could slow., down the metabolism, which _ 'cells.Cells of Carteria remove *yttrium in turn would tend to decrease the active from the aquatic environment by (respiratory) uptake of the isotope. adsorption on the surface, while the same cells take calcium and a similar ,A Algae are noted for their ability to take substance strontium into the cells by up and tO4concentrate certain dissolved absorption. These cells cannot, however, minerals from great dilutions in their substitute strontium for -calcium in their metabolisrn, because cells 'withotit enviromnent. calcium do not divide. 1 Concen4ationof nessenyal" minerals \ (macrenutriAnts), e. ;1"C HOPKINS _C 'In Shine cases,_ the concentraion *ratio will vary, directly with the coentration CaFe Mg NaCl; ". of isotope in the water-, thibeing.a V 2Concentration of trace minerals linear function.In other cases, the (micronutrients) such as Cu, B, Mn, isotope wilt be concentrated only to the extent that it is.ueed.- In still otl4r-cases, Zn, and Mo. 112 BI.RAD,8a,4,8$ Al

The Vycling,of Radionuclides in the Aquatic grivironment

. 3Accumulation of nonnikabolicsubstances B During periods of elaboration of large planktonic populations (blooms) peaks of radioactivity will occur near the surface . B 'Because 'of their minute 'phytoplankton with the algae.Consequentle, this radio- present a great deal of surfii.ce fOr exchange activity may bemanifestect. as a surface with ions and substance's insolntit5n in ...phenomenon moving down Stream; however, ,water. 1 t in_bodies of water with little or no current . / (lakes,and pondst the,radioactivity may 1 At times, algae occur in massive e concentrated with the algal blooms, in quaritities'(blooins).'Under these a Stationary position._ conditions; they may selectively , exhaust (take up) dissolved 'substances C On degradation of the dead algal, cells, (phosphates, nitrates;_ and eatbonates). .the detritus formed from the algae may carry some of the radioactivity tothe 2 From inorganic substances are -* bottom in the forth of silt making "hot" synthesized organic substances° which conditions fo'r bottom-dwelling organisms.. become assimilated as protoplasm, or a nonliving cell walls, etc. I) In a flowihg stream, the specific activity will diminish along the fbod Oak' 6. 3 Because they selectively take some subeitancesout" of solution, plinkton have been used to decontaminate a METHODS OF COLLECTING INFORMATION water supply of known unwanted ABOUT POSSIBLE RADIOACTIVITY.OF -dissolved substances,' or to,reclaim PLANKTON AND THE FOOD CHAINS valuable dissolved Minerals.c ' THEY COMMENCE . . 4Algae frequently concentrate subitances' twithout any known role. to metabolism, A Take a sample of plankton from the stream e. , cesium, rubidium, iodine, bromine, and Measure its radioactivity. v strontium,, and yttrium. -two . , : B Control culture the plankto' n with the t medium dosed with known, concentration@ IV .Plants with phOtbs'Ynthesis are atthe Iage of radioisotopes, so as to calculate .the (beginning) of the food chain for all aquatic concentration factors for each radionuclide. , life. C Add plankton-feeding .animals to an aquarium containin hot" algae to - A In photosynthesis, plankton use radiant measure the amount of radioactive uptake energy, CO2, and 1120 to begin the from-the feeding of the animals on the elaboration of many complex organic plankton. compounds "which are present in the web of aquatic life (biosphere). Radionuclides D Vary pH, temperature., time of exposure, tied to these, organic compounds inay age of dulture and cells and note large accumulate to concentrations dangerous to changes in the concentration factor. metabolism all along the food chain, de- ' pending on the selective habits of the herbivordus and predaceous animals. VI SOURCES OF RADIONUCLIDES A "hot" fish may be radfoactiire from having fed on caddis fly larvae;. -Which 'in Itirn4ed on,"hot" algae. The relative A Naturally Occurring - position in the foo&pyremid determinea _ _ ,concentration of the radioisotope?- 1 In soils, rock, etc. (uranium, 'radium) 2 In bicitimostlyK4° -, . 'PhCycling of BadionAides in the Aquatic.Environinent

B 'Nud arTestixig B Sediment

css 1 Air C Biota 3 2 Ground n 3 .Water and 0. VIIIMETHODS OF BIOLOGICAL CYCLING OR RADIONUCLIDES 2' a. 4Beneath ground A Uptake and Retention 0 C Thermonuclear Wars 1 Active (metabolic)

D Disposal of Radionuclides' 2Massive (adsorption) and simple diffusion 1 From power reactors

Activation of material exposed to ne- utrdn IX METHODS OF QUALITATING AND Aux. Fission products QUANTITATING RADIONUCLIDES FROM AQUATIC HABITATS 2 From widespread use of radioactive isotopes in medicine and industry 6: X CONCLUSIONS 3 .) Nuclear powered submarines, surface ships and aircraft A 'Food Chajns 4Burial B Cheniical,1Physical and Biological . Factors In the oceans; in'abandomed bale nines; etc,, in space C Need tor Continuous Monitoring -., D Use. of Indicator 'Tissues and ,VII, RELATIVE DISTRIB TION OF RADIO- for Specific Radionuclides in Food"Chains. NUCLIDES IN AQUA 'IC ENVIRONMENTS A Water 'The Cycling of Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment

.7 4 TABLE Ii UPTAKE OFCESIUM.113BY SPECIES OF ALGAE . ,, 1, . $ 0 ppm Days after Concentra- , . '1. Species -.0 -of k Dosing -NitionFadtors ; \ Ri4oclonium hieroglyphicum 1 5 1530

.opiumOed4rnium vulgare 1 3' "' 790 .,,1 Spirt, a ellipsospora 1 2. 341 Spirothi, Oomm With . 13 54, 220 Gonium 0366torale 10 2 138 Y Oocystis elliptica 10 10 - 670 ChlamydorriOnas sp. 8 5 52 ,Euglena interniedia 8 14 706. ...

Chlorella pyrenbidosa . 8 11 154 ' . / . . . Uptake by dead-Stormalin-kilied) cells: 1 . ..,. Chlorella.pyrenaidosa 0.3 3 , 96 Euglena intermedia 0..3 3 (\ 16' 1

TABLE II, \ ONCENTRATION OFCESIUM13.7 INEUGENA

., . , CELLSItral\ , CONCENTRATIONFACTORS 'BEGINNINGAT 40*RS. 18 HRS: 40 HRS.-096 HRS., -11 144, 000 146, /94 3. 4 8.2, 62 86,000 113, Etobk, $.4 41..,3 58

36, 900 . 60, 000 . 4.6 15. 4. 28 °21,000 68, 300 t-; 9 17.0 26 i 18, 000 55, 500 6.4.. 19.4 19 14, 400 27, 700 -45.3 11.0 16

"L. G. Williams" Afr I

t 13;4 Cycling of Radionuclides

FIGURE. 1 'f "i* V

'. r . 1 1 1 I ...... NET PLANKTON 1 SESSILE ALGAE ' / Stigtocloniin) // / SPONGE _ , ($ponglt1o) W A C. DDIS FLY LARVAE ( dropsycht) 4 1 AILFLESH (Stognicolo) 4 . _ FISA , (Richordsonius) A CRAYFISH (Astacus) 1 I 1 , 0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 .+ RELATIVE LON C.P32 J RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF P32 IN COLUMBIA RIVER ORGANISMS

FIGURE

RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS I%) 0 Ui /tgriSLANKtOir

ST wzzzzzez,gA SPONGE 1 SPONGILLA CADDIS LARVAE //r HYDROPSYCHE MAY FL*NYMPHS 1 OARALEPTOPHLEBIA VllittgF4rce! ew7/ZOZAKERSSUC CATOSTOMUS SHINERS RICHARDSONIUS , M CRAYFISH ASTACUS A P WATER t

Dais and Foster. "Bloaceumulation or Radiolsotopas through Aquatic Food Chains." Eeoloa 39., 330-533. 1958: "R. F. iiiater" ,t

Cycling of Radionuclides.

. , IGURE3,

. e"- I I I . I 1 I I I 1 I 4100- . a. :;...... ----ve---PLA KTON ...... 0 -'- z - \ FISH ,- iz' -I, a \ ...'...... s,.. a- 1 Z / 0 10_ \ Z /w. / X 15 14 O _ ./... \ e. _ TEMP. _-101 W _ ,\ , - \ - 1-- ( N :..--- 6 4 I .. , w ' . cc \ . - '1-- I 'i I 1 I '1 -1 , 1 1 1 1 JAN FEB' MAR APR MAY JUN.JUL AUG* .SEP 00i.,NOV.-DECT e MONTHS1. e' 11, SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE tIONGENTRATION OF P32 IN.COLUMBIA RIVER PLANKTON -AND' FISH

FIGURE 4

I I .. WATER / / , . /. NET PLANKTON / .f / / - SESSILE ALGAE // ,,,,..// X ,f-

g0;li ,

CADDISFLYLARVAe ' . , .' . SNAILS /

- . . , FISH z = - ______t- _ ._____ - CRAYFISH, - . ' r 1 r 1.- 5 10' 15 20 30, p3I SPECIFIC ACTIVITY 'OF COLUMBIA RIVER ORGANISMS

>= I r Foster" O . Cycling o Radionuclides

r , mem I I, '1 . ..,,, , Pol\bluegill,fingettagrraveragIng two ria of displaced water each were fed Di hat m made radioactiyeby feeding on Et_gank groans, which _ 12,000 was ra oac ye froM growing in a culture dosed with cesium-137. Each .fiah was whole body gamma counted in a tube containing 2 ml of distilled water at 48-hour.interwals fol. 20 days.Tile fish were fed nonradioactive D41mLa every 72 tours. t,10,000 - 1, t% to ,..,, . .:, . 6. :0e '41 C.) ee -i .....' = 2 8,000 ' . ,. 0

6,000

o. 4,000

2,000

I 1 I 48 96 144j 192 240 288 336 384 432 480 .4" 1101.1RS*i0M'HIGHEST ACTIVIt'f bFICsI37-

`FIGURE 5 e O-

MAN . (100% uptake)

ATS Yir M MILK WATERFOWL FLESH 50% of oral8 - 12% .SUNFISH FLESH FROG MUSCLE CARP MUSCLE dole of oral 2,000 - 8,000 9,000 11,000 3,400 . i

LIVESTOCK MAGA= PREDACEOUSI)tSECTS (moose, deer) 800

. SNAILS ."."-ft ANPHIPbos TADPOLES le600 , oo 0,000

morspimT ors purrs SUBMERGED SEED PLANTS ALGAE '30 - 800 400 - 1,000 1,300-4,006

1;ATEi cnnitair,, ...... ;_...... " DEIST0U0S00ANO em. . , . solution . 4 - . 'Food web' through which cesiumlnicould,/ reach man.' Numbers (above) are concentration factors. Concentration factors:Cal"7 concentrgtioh it organism , . .,.74 ,. Cal" concentration in 'water .. ' a - "L; 1960" .

:118. , TheCyCling of Radionuclides in the Aquatic Exiviionment-

o FIGURE 7

10.000 . , C . I r 4.350c . .

ALGAE.(WET)BAGGED 100sm RuCs .. 550 Om

*.) St , , . ; III il a FFLUENT i 100ml . 1 . -21 cpm i Cc a( ,`t. .

1 .

R Cs FISH-BULLHEAD . (GROS'S)964gm.

-- FILAMENTOUS <,. ALGAE (WET) . -. i00 gm . r . I 1 - K -INSTRUMENT8AdKGROUNDC . . . *

I I 1 1 1 1 #4 10 0.4 40.8 1.2 1.6;2.0 2.4 2.8 CNERGY-Mw

Uptake of radionuclides fronii the MohawkRiver, New Yoi-k, at 17"C. in September,106,fter 72 hours,' by Pithophora in perforated polyethylenebags, compared with activity of fish6ullh ad) aan indigenous by Pithophora filamentous green alga, Cladophora, taken from the river.jlptake of these radionuc a. lionmetabblAc, since-the. alga had been kilted withchlorine. , $ "L. G. 4 A--

- t The Cycling of Radionuclides in the Aquatic Enviimunent

FIGURE 8

EUGLENA 045 11.'t 45 42 3 . 2. 0 34 CONTROL-7 f 33 Or .001 M NaNOs _ - i 27 ifit 24 a El E .001 KNOs 4 0IS DOI M NaCI

MI S X _ 0--- .001 M C5NOs 7) 3 .001 M NaCI 00 0 2 3 4 5 7 DAYS FROM DOSING WITH CESIUM"?

- FIGURE 9 . - 4

CHLORELLA

%RADIOACTIVITY IN CELLSSpETRITUS ED % RADIOACTIVITY IN SOLUTION

f*- CATABOLIC UND CESIUM - UNUSED CESIUM

4I r 45 S 10.5 I 5 10. i5. Op; i f 10ps 15 lOpf I5 10. 10 100 'I 5 ION I H,' ',DAYS 7 DAYS WDAYS IS DAYS JO DAYS IS DAYS 34 DAYS DAYS, FROM DOSING WITH CESIUM/s! /

11.4 G. Williams"

120 The dyclineof Radionuilia9:7irs the AquaticEnvironment -

ckering, Quentin. REFERENCES - 6Williams, Louis .G. and . Direct and Food-Chain-lIptalie of 1 .Cornar,.Ct'L. Radiorsotopes in Biolo Cesium -137 and Strontitim-85 in and Agriculture. :McGraw -Hill Book Bluegill Fingerlingi.Ecology. Company. 1855. 42(1):2051N266.1961.. Davis, -J. J. and Foster, R. F. 7' Williams, Louis G. and Swanson,, H. D. Bioaccumulation of Radioisotopes Concentration of Cegium-137 by Algae. Through Aquatie Food Chains. Science.127:187-18e.1958. Ecology.39:530-535,1958. 3 Straub, C. P. Problems of Radioactive Waste Disposal. Sewage and Industrial Waste,s.- 28(6).:787-794.1956.

4 Williams,o udi G Ittit aokfoufeCesium d-137 Cells Chlorella. Limnology and.Oceanography. 5(3):301-911:1960. Thi outline was prepared by W. A. Brungs,Jr., 5 . Williams, Louis G. , Howell, Michael, and Forr AquaticBiologist,' Fish Toxicology Straub; C. P. Packaged Organic Materials, Activities and Louis G. Williams, Former as Monitoring Tools for Radionu Tides. Biologist, Research and Development, Science.132(3439):1554-1555:, 19 O. Cincinnati Wafer Research Laboratory, FWQA, SEC; -

I O rf

7RROCEDIJRES FOR FISH KILL INVESTIGATIONS.

- 4 I. 'INT ION Minor fish kill-considered here as NO fish kill and reported sO; Fish kill= in natural waters, °though un- 1 - 100 dead or dying fish confined fortunate, can in many instances indicate , J. to a small area or stream stretch. pOOr wate quality' leading to investigations Providing this is not a reoccurring ikhickroa improve water qualiMi Prompt or periodic situation. For investigations should be organized and example, near a waste Outfal in conducted ifo that the resultant data implicates which Stream dilution plays its, the' correctl cause. Fish kills tend to be: part 'and nullifies the effect 'of the highly controversial, usually involving the deleterious material. If thit is a general pub c as well as a number of reoccurring situation, it could be agencies. herefore, the investigator can Of major-significance and, 'there- - dings to be disputed, quite fore, investigated. ,expect his f possibly incourt of law. 4 2 Moderate fish kin.: 100 -' 1060 The folkwin procedures are presentckas dead or dying fish observed. In a a working gu de for investigatingand' re; stream has had the .°porting fishlls as developed by the chance to p isto role involving 1 personnel ofhe Lower-Mississippi River- .- a mile or Sorj:111rearti, a number Comprehensi e project (FWPCA). of species are affected; and apparently normal ,fish can be IIITYPES AN) EXTENT OF FISH KILLS, -.collected immediately'doWnst(ream from the- obierved,kill area. °A Natural 1VIrtalities - Those' which are causedthrugh "natural phenomena such 3 Hearty fish. kill:10, 000 fish or as; acute tmperature change, storms,- more observed dead or dying. -= ice and-sn cover, decomposition of I n a stream where dilution has- 'natural, maerialS, salinity, change,' had-the chance tb'play -its part, spawning rtalities, paraSites, and but ten miles'or more of bacterial oviral epidemics. ,4 stream are involved, many O :species of fish are affected.and _ . . B .,,Man caused fish kills - Produced by dying fish may still be obserired environmen I changes through, man's donnitream. ' activity,`an may be attributed. to . municipal w stes,. industrial wastes,. -. agriculturalactivities and/Water Control III PREPARATION FOR FIELD #-- activities. . INVESTIGATION . / , d -C One dead fi h ina-strea'm ma, be called A Secure maps of area to be nvestigated. a fish kill;°Weyer, hi a practical sense" so minimal- range in nuMber of 1'-4 6. U.S. Geological Survey maps dead fish eryed ad.difional . - :., . ) "qualific.44tioneshould be Used in repOrtini 1/2.50, -Q60 scale for general .ilandClaserifyirig fish,144-investig4-tions.- '1 f , location',

6 TheIcillowing; definitions should=Ved " used as guidelines in reporting, 1/24 000. for accurately -InvestikatiOnd. These -qualifications . defininethe kill area:n the ari.b,sed"ori:a.' stream approximating ,'- 266feet in width and 6 feeyhi depth. For other size streams, adjustments ` Navigatibn=maps (anirpriate shOullbetinade. "°- -agency). ., .-., £_ -. 4, 4 ,g . . . .1:31.71.0d..9. 72 122 14..1 ..4

Procedures for Fish kill Investigations

3 Other sources of "Standard Methods" for specific physical and chemical equipment 'From the data received from the . required for collecting, analyzing, .;reporting agency, locate the kill or preserving samples .possibly area on the map. containing the suspected causative agent.

a ' Determine best access points. Form an investigating party b locate possible known industries, .municipalities, or other a'. If only one man is available potential sources of pollution. to make the investigation, ,preference for Choosing the o Estimate the possible area to man should be in this order be traveled or inspected on . 1)Specialized professional 1). water personnel, such_as, engineer,' chemist, or 2) land biologist who is experienced In. investigating 3)both fish kills and who is capable of adequately B Secure sampling equipment and deter- reporting the technical niifte site of investigation team needed. aspects of the investigation. Standard equipment to betaken on 2) A non-specializedpro- all investigations (a standard ' engineer, checklist with space for special chemist, or biologist who equipment will often save- has little or no experience, embarrassment in the field.) in 'fish kill investigations, but.who is ca.pable of a Thermometer adequately reporting the technical aspects of the b Dissolved oxygen sarnpler investigation. 44.v c D.O. bottles 3) A technician who has considerable field d Winkler D. 0: test 'kit experience lepollution and fish kill investigations e' .Conductivity test meter and 1,1 ho is_capable of reporting some of the Jf pH test meter orchernical kit 'technical aspects of the investigation. g Samplebottles 4): An office technician or h,,.Pencils and notepaper other personnel who has had limited field work in i',Current edition of "Standard pollution investigationd. '.Methods for the'Examination, ea. 7..c. of Water dicti Wastewater b If two or more meri are .needed for the investigation, -the party 2-I If preliminary information is should include at least one available on the pOssible cause of person under category (1) the consult the latest' editio above. Preferably, the team. should ,include: 123 , Procedure's for FiKill Investigations

1)A biologist to make a 1 Obtain anyadditionalinformation t- survey of the biological which might be helpful which was changes. \ not reported previously. a. - 2)An engineer tO make.an 2 If possible; retain the reporting evaluation of;the physical partyas a guide or invite him to condition of the fish kill accompany the investigating team. area and to make an investigation of an industry B Make a reconnaissance of the kill area. or a municipal wastewater o treatment ,plant if needed. 1- Make a decisio as to the extent of the kill and iflegitimate kill c If a fish kill is observed in its really has occurred. initial state,in.the field by any one of the people listed under 2 If a legitimate kill e ists take steps the classification in Section to trace or determinehe,cause. B. 3. a. , the project -office should be informed immediately a Always perform the following (after working hours the project physical or chemical tests, director or deputy director during the initial steps of the should be informed) so' hat an investigation: adequately equipped, specialized investigating party can be 1) Temperature formed if needed. 2) .pH C Contact personnel of the laboratory or laboratories which will participate in 3)Dissolved oxygen analyzing samples.If possible estimate the following and record on sample form 4)Specific:conductance No. 1. ,.While none Of these factors The number and size of samples to may be directly involved in be submitted the kill these tests are per-. formed simply and rapidly in 2 The probable number and types of -the field and can be used as a 1 analyses required .baseline or starting point for rolYr isolating the cause (s) of the 3 The dates the samples will be kill. received by the laboiafory Record other physical 4 Method of shipment to the laboratory observations such as':

rol 5 To whom the laboratory results are 1)Appearance of water, i. e., to be repOrted turbidity, high algal blooms, 'oily, unusual 6 The date the results are needed appearance, etc. '2)Stream flow pattern, i. e.,. IV MAKING THE FIELD INV4TIGATION, high or IOW fIow, stagnant or rapidly moving water, A -Contact the-local lay person or official tide moving in or out, etO. who-first observed the kill, and repdrted' If possible obtain reading it. .from stream gage if one is near kill area. I Procedures for Fish Investigations

3) Weather conditions pre- 3) The streain immediately veiling at the time of the below the outfall investigation and information on weather immediately 4) 'Other points downstream prior tothe kill needed to trace the extent

of the pollution , 3 Make a rough sketch or define the kill area on a map so that sampling b The sampling should be ex- points, sewer outfalls, etc. can be tensive enough that when a accurately located on a drawing to the data is compiled no queetion be included in a final report. will exist as to the source of the pollution which killed the 4 Take close-up and distance fish. photographs of: c The number of eamples to be a Dead'fish in the stream'in the collected at a given cross polluted area. section Will depend principally on the size of the °stream. b The streambiOte the polluted area. / 1) Streams less than 200 feet wide, not in an industrial c Wastewater discliarges. area usually can 'be adequately sampled at one Photographs will often show a 'point in a section (Figure [1). marked delineation between the. wastewater discharge and the 2) Streams 200 feet or wilier natural flow of water.PictUres generally should Abe taken at a'relatively high' elevation, sampled two or more (a bridge as opposed to a boat or places in a section from a low river bank) will shOw immediately above and more and be more ofctive. (below the pollutional' INiColor photographs a° e o more discharge; where the effective in showing physical con- io4iitional waste has ditions of a stream in comparison. Adequately .mixedi:vith the 0 to black andwhite prints. stream flOw one sample may suffiee. C ' Sampling Procedures - The extent and method of sampling will depend upon 3)A number of samples in a klocation and upon the suspected cause of - cross section may be .. the kill. . . required on any size of , . stream. to show that the 1 , Stream and wastewatersampling. suspected p011utional ' discharge is coming from a-Sample the following points when a source located inn the pollutional discharge is industrial or, municipal coming front a well-defined complex (Figure 2)./ outfall. . I . 4) EXtensive cross :sectional 1) The effluent dischargel sampling on, rivers outfall ° . greater than 200 feet wide t will be required for kills 2)The stream at the _closest inyOlving suspected paint above theoutfall.which, agricultural or other'types is not inflitenced by the of mass runoff. . .waste .discharge I.

Procedures for Filth Kill Investigations

Stispected source of o. .a

, pollution.

k Direction of

flow. - S 80

Area of dead fish and/or Bridge obvious pollution discharge.

Figure I Minimum Water Sort;lingPoint On Stream' 200 Feet - Or Less Wide irivolving An isolatedDischarge. 6

Discharge -sources relatively close to suspected source ofpollution

I "le ail... 1 1 1 Q awl Bridge

Direction of. flow. as 0

I55 OEM Ho..,..... "---- ;Suspected' source of, pallutlbn.

I Figure 2 Minimum ,-Water' SompiiiigPoints On A Striam Running Through AnIndust OrMunicipal' Complex. - PLATE I -REI$TIONSHIP OF FISH KILLS TO SOURCE OF TOXICITY

s 126 . , Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations

b)-Sample depths -. On streams 2 Biological sampling 5 feet in depth or less,: one mid-depth sample per a `min every investigation of fish sampling locations. For or wildlife kills the paramount,. streams of greater depths, item should be the immediate -; appropriate sampling collection of the dying or only- judgment ,shciuld be used, recently dead organism. since stratification may be This may be doe by anyone, pr,esent. sampling and reservation is as follows: Explanation of Plate I lf, Collect 20 plus drops of 1) Collection point 1, Figure blood in a solvent rinsed 1 and points 3 and 4, vial, seal same with Figure 2 should be collected aluminum foil; cap and as near to the point of freeze. pollutional discharge as possible.TheSe points 2) Place bledcarcass, or will vary according to entire carcass if beyond stream flow conditions; the bleeding stage, in plastic pollutional discharges into bag and freeze.In case a slow sluggish stream no method'of freezing is usually will have a cone of available, icing for a influence upstream of the short period prior to outfall; wiiered.s, a swift' freezing may be acceptable. flowing stream usually'will Labeling of both blood and not. carcass isimportant.

2) Collecting,in upstream Controls -live specimens control sample from a of the affected organisms bridge within sight of the should be obtained from pollutional discharge an area within the same would probably be sa.tis- body of water which had 'qactory in Figure 1 but not been influenced by the .tiefinitely not in Figure k causative, agent. Once obtained theise speciVens 3) Figures 1 and 2 are given should b, handled in b.. for illustrative purposes like manner.' only and should be used only as a guide for sampling. The number of individuals Thought-inust_be 'given to. involved and the species each individual situation affected should lie enumerated to insure adequate, proper in some manner. At most sampling. While too many these will be estimates. , samples are better than Depending on the given situation t68 few, effort should be such as area or distance made not to unduly over- involved and pefsonnel available load the laboratory with enumeration of fish kills may samples collected as a approached fir One of the result of poor sampling following ways. procedures. ltt '

__Procedures for Fish-Kill Investigations- ...mwm=vomosTWomill,.. .

1) For large rivers, establish b Other aspects of the biota observers at a station or -which should be considered -stationa*(e. g., bridges) are the aquatic plants.In lakes and ponds-floating and rooted 1' and count the dead arid/or dying fish for a specified plants should be enumerated

, period of time, then pro- and identified,The collection ject same to total time of plankton (rivers and lakes) involved, should be taken in 'order to deterMine the degree of bloom, 2)..For, large rivers and lakes, which in itself may cause fish 'traverse a measured kills because of diurnal DO distance -of.. shiireline, levels., count the number and kinds -Cif dead-or dying fish. c Both aquatic plant's and tnacro, Project same relative to invertebrates .,may be preserved total distance of-kill. in a 5% formalin solution. ,

3) For lakes and large ponds, 4 Bioassay count the number andditec/ies within measured areas, and Static bioassay techniques as out- then project to total area, linedin Standard Methods may be involved. effectiyely used to determine acute toxicity of wastes as well as 4). For,smaller streams one receiving'waters.. may walk the entire , stretch involved and count a In situ using live boxes obierved number of dead 'individuals' by species. b Mobile bioassay laboratory

3- Biological sampling Macro- c Samples returned to Central Invertebrates: Lab for toxicity tests a Sampling of benthic organisms PA. after the more urgent aspects V DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SOVRCE of the kill investigation has been OF POLLUTION completed- can'prOve to be- rewarding.relative.to extent and" AsSeven' general Categories under which cause of kill.since thisleneral causes of kills can be grouped are: form of aqiiatic life is somewhat sedentary by,natare any release 1 Industrial waste discharges of deleterious materials to their#. envirAment will take its toll. 2 Waste discharges from municipal Thus by making.a s'eries of sewerage systems collections up and downstream, tht affectadstretal of stream 3 Water treatment plant,disc4rges may be delineated when the benthic populations are compared 4 ,Agriculture and related activities to those froth the control area. Also the causative agent may 5 Temporary activities ,bereailied when the specifics of the benthic Population present 6, Accidental spills of oil and other are analyzed. hazardous substances :* ein:

Procedures for Fish Kill Investigations

.1* 7 Natural 6auses contacted.. This may be a sewage ,tratfirent plant operator, city . B IndUstkal Waste Discharges engineer, Public 'works supervisor", a subdivision' developer, etc. -.1. Upou locating the outfail sources collect a sample immediately if a Obtain information about the poSsible at the point where the operation of the system. . wastes leave the company property. b If the causeofthe kill was the 2 Make an rn-plant inspection if result of an industrial waste possible., discharge to a municipal Sewer and thence to a stream a Contact the plant manager or information should be obtained person in charge. from a municipal official aboiit the industry and the problem. b Request a brief tour of the An inspection of the industrial facilities. plant may be desirable. Generally, this should be done c Obtain general information only in cooperation with a concerning the products municipal official.

manufactured; raw materials; . . t manufacturing process; D Agsr4culture and Related ,Activities quantities, sources, and .characteristics of wastes; and 1 Pollution capable of causing fish waste treatment facilities-if any. kills may result from such Possibly the company may be agricultural operations as crop able to supply a flow diagram dusting and spraying fertilizer, . or brochure of the plant applications, and manure or other operations. organic material discharges to a stream. Request specific information concerning the plant operation 2 Generally, kills related to these immediately. prior to the start factors will be associated with of the kill.. high rains and runoff.

CWaste discharges from a municipal or 3 The source or type of pollution domestic type sewerage system may be difficult or impossible to locate exactly. *It may involve a 1 Discharges from, this source- may large area. Talking to local be domestic sewage and industrial .residents may help pinpoint the wastes combined with 'domestic specific problern area. Runoff sewage. These Wastes-May be fromfields, drainage ditches, and subjected to 'treatment of a municipal small streams leading to the kill treatment plant or may be dis- - area are possible sampling places

cbarged,directly; untreated' ,t9 a .which may be used to .trace the stream. cause.

it . .. . 2. Generally, the. municipality or E Temporary'Activties owner of 61 ewerage system is 41 held responsible for any4ischarge - 1 Causes of kills may result froin /xi such.. a system*rs consequently, such temporary or intermittent after collecting sampieS',. the owner, activities as mosquito spraying, or a tspreisentettiiie of the owner of constructionactivities 4nyblving the sewerage. system 'should be .11 chemtCals, oils,. or other toxic 29 . 141.8 ,r

- . Pi"crcedtires 'for Fish Kill Investigations

a. substances, an&weed spraying VI CASE HISTORY. M I 4 .A The Lower Mississippi Endrin kill is an toxiclo fish such as arsenic: excellent example of the investigation of ,, a major fish kill.Bartsch and Ingram 2'As with gricultural activities, %1-. ".. give the following summary (See Table 1). tracing the 'cause of these kills is difficult and may require Oftensive sampling. TABLE 1

3 Accidental spills frpm rUptured ELEMENTSOF INvE0f6iiiimig,-_ tank"cars, pipelines, etc., and --* .' dike collapse of industrial porids IExamination of usual.environmentkit are frequently sources of fish kills. factors n ' en Elimination of parasites, bacterial or F'Posliible Natural Causes of Fish Kills viral diseases and botulism as causes of mortalities *

1 Types of natural causes III Considerations df toxic substances: Examination and'prognostication of %, a Oxygen- depletion due to ice and symptoms of dying fish. Autopsy, snow cover on surface waters Iiaematocrits and white cell counts b Oxigeti depletion at night because of plant respiration or at any- Kidndy tissue study time ,during the day because of Brain tissue assay for organic natural occurring organics in phosphorus insecticide' f the water Tissue analysis for 19 potentially toxic Metls ° c Abrupt temperature changes _Gas chromatographic analysis of tissues, including blood, for chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides d Epidemic and endemic diseases, parasites, and other natural IV Explorations Tor toxis.subeiances: occurring biological causes ,Bioassay witb.Mississippi River water A. e Lake water inversidn during , Bioassay viith extracts from river vernal or autumnal turnover bottom mud which results in toxic material 4Bioassay with tissue extracts from or oxygen-free water being fish dying in° river-water and brought to the surface, ".`" bottom mud extracts Bioassay with endrin to compare .f InterAkseiche rnovemetiVin symptoms and tissue eXtract whiell'a toxic or low DQ analyses with those > ot, dying fish in typolimnion flows up intsv bay all bioassays . or bayoU for a limited period 0- V Intensive ahemical analysis for, of time, and litter returns to P pesticides 'in the natural. environment, noirne.1 vg1 , experimental environment, river fish, and experimental animals 'o*.

2 Fish Allis in rivers below high cianis 7 - immediately following the opening,. - VI Surveillance of surface,WEiters for . geographic range and intensity of of alate permitting hypolininionio pesticide contamination water follow down the stream (as in TVA region) . VII Correlation-and interrelation of findings ,. 4

TM Ihmettptor abool4be }were 1(99 . PM Oat moues* beehey fish nil be dam[Mthopste Nestle la their bloodetSsethe (a %nook sod SMesshel. Thus thee* may b sieeml tectote 'evolved 1e hi* toortellttmh all tivetkilmiy oh }sere the primary muse or merle. ' Procedures 'for Fish Kill Investigations

f. ThddnvestigatIon Was designed to cort- 3Bullock,. G4L. and Snieszko, S.F.. sider and eliminate potential fish-kill Bacteria in Blood and Kidney of possibilities that were not involved and Apparently Healthy Hatchery Trout. come to a point focus on the real cause. Trans. Ameridan,Fhheriei It was found that the massive kills were Society'98(1):268-271.1969. - not mused by diseaa5 heavy Metals, organic perphorus compOunda, lack of 4Burdick, E. Some Problems .in the dissoIvAioxygen or' unsuitable pH. Determination of the cause of Fish Blood of 'dying river fish was 4ound,to Kills.Biol. Prob. in Water have concentrations of(endrin equal to.or. Vollution.uspHs Pub. No..999- greater thanlaboratoryfish killed with WP:25.s-oo. 289-262.°1965. this pesticide, while living fish had lesser, concentrations. Symptoms of 5 Fish Kills-Caused Pollittion In bcith groups cif dying fish were_ identical. ._ 1970.11th-AnnuRenort 21 p. Itwas concluded from all datasobtained 1972.

theit these fish kills were caused by `1, endrin poisoning.- , B Recent investigations in Tennessee have 6 .Mount, Donald I. and rutnicki, George J. O ,' Summary RerSort of the-1963 shown that the leaking of small amounts Mississippi River Fish Kill of very toxic chemicals from spent Investigation, 31st North American t L. pesticide-containing barrels used as floats fOr piers and diving rafts in laies Wildlife and Natural Res. Conf. and reservoirs can-produce extensive ,-11 pp. 1966. fish kills. The 'particular compound used-to control slimegrowth in manu- e. , StRithr L. L. Jr.; et al;Procedures for Investigation of Fish Kills facturing processes, contained two (A guideor field reconnaissance primctry chemicals lir solution .t (phenyhnercuric acetate and 2, 4, and data co ection).- ORSAfiCO, 6-trichlorophenol):The fornier:com- Cincinnati, QH.24 pp. 1956. pound which breaks down to farm? a diphenylmercury was found to-be more S Tennessee Wiley Authority., Fish , toxic to aquatic lifothan the latter. ' Kill hi Boone Reservoir. TVA Water Quality Branch, Chattanocta 0 TN.61. pp. 1968. REFERENCES 9Tennessee State Game and Fish T.'. -4, ; '1 American 'Public Health Association, ,Commission.Field Manned for, Standard Methods for'the Exatnination _Investigation of Pollution and Fish of Water and Wastewater. Pention 231 Kills. WPD 3-0351-65 Bioatsay, ExtilitinitioivofTalluted Grcant). 71 '-pp.undated. Waters,Wastewaters,,Effluents;- Bottom 0 Willoughby, -L. G.SalMon Disease in_ = 'Sediments,nd SlUdges.. Thirteentp. Windermere and 'the River Leven; . Isle* York:, -2971. 'TRife FungaAspect. Salmon and . Trout 186:124-130Y 196$ 2 Bartsch, and:Ingram; William N. . 11Muncy,'130;ert 'Obsefvations on.the 'Biological Analysis of Water Pollution Factors nvolvedi with Fish Mortality -.in North America.International.- Result of-Dificiflagellate "Bloom`! 1966, ,Verein Liranol..16:786:800. - a-Fie shiviiter Like:-.1-PrOcr -17th.-. . Afln. Conf.. Southeastern-Assoc. of : . i ...1Gante sit-Figh-COMMiasioners.'pp.-4. . . This outline was prep.arici by Jack Geckler, ResearchaAquatio Biologist, Fish Toxicology ctivitiit, EPA, ,Newtown, OH 45244 o

xProject Personnel Contacted:

a.Name , b.Means of troisie Contact. .c.'Date & Time

1.Reporting source

' a.Agency , ( 1) address

(2) Phone (s) .: [ . b. -Individual

O [ .

(1)- Address [ , (2) Phone

(3) Fish KillNetwork yes no c.Other Contacts (1) Address (2) Phone ..

(3) Fish Kill Network yep no [

2.Data furnished by reporting Source a.Location of Kill b.Dates of Kill Dying last observed c.Kinds of organisms . . .. cL.,Approximate}number killed e.Cause of kill (if known) .1- I.

..f.SuspeEted causative sources . . .. g. Measures taken c ... . h. Other Agencies contacted (1) Date and Time

& 3., Action requested .° 1. a. Field investigations . . _ . : b.Laboratory-arialysis * - .. 4. Assistance fo Project a.. Provided by

b. Personnel',. c.Equipment_ d. Transportation facilities .44 , a -) SPECIAL APPLICATIONS AND PROCEDURES-FOR BIOASSAY

. IINTRODUCTION. ° of each of six bluegill sunfish, a single fish per rank, is recorded A The report of the Council on Environ- every hour throughout a test except mental Quality (1970) repeatedly stresses during the simulated sunrise and the need for the development of predictive, sunset when an additional record is simulative, and managerial capabilities made on the half hour.- Each day is to combat air and water pollution. 'Title divided into four intervals; first last capability depends on the first tiyo. half day, second half day, first half night and-second halt night, (Table I). ,B The standard static jar fish bioassay,. Before any statistical analysjs can which uses death as a response, -enables He performed,. recordings for day one to predict the koxicilw of a particular 1 must bescompleted. After the' waste to fish. 'One limitation-of this cumulative movement for day 1 is -. procedure is that it uses a grab sample recorded, statistical analyses are which represents the quality of the waste performed after.the completion of- 'at only -one point in time. The water -each designated time interval. For Used to make the dilutions is also taken- example, the cumulative movement ; at one pciintin time.. At the actual .recorded hourly for eacliAlsh during 'industrial site, the. quality 6f the waste day 1, first half day values are 'coMpared sand thet:iver water vary through time. , to the cumuIttive, movementrecorded tk A compolite waste sample partially hourly for each fish during day 2, first 'overcomes this lithitatipp, but may mask half day values. variations that, are biologically important. . 2 Based on the results of 20 laboratory C One could put fish in a continuous flow of experiments "stress detection" is ' 1 waste diluted with river water, but then 7-'defined-dathe'pr,esence of two or there is one further. limitation of the more abnormal movement patterns standard bioassay: death is used as the recorded-during thesame time. iriteLval. response. In order .to prevent damage to organisms, itis necessary to have an B Fish Breathing early warning of dangerous conditions, I so that corrective action can be taken. 1 Breathing tiates may be determinedlro In other words, symptoms of illhealth, polygraph recordings of breathingliknals. which occur before death, 'must be detect - a The fish are tested in plexiglas tubes - ecNf there is to he time for dia_gnosis and through which dechlorinated tap water treatment. or some toxic solution is metered at a flow rate- of approximately 100 ml /min.- Breathing signalsare detected by three Platirimn_wite eiectrOdes placed inthe -.7 II METHODS AND MATERIAL water; an active electrode?an indifferent

lectrode, and a gropnd. The teat , A Fish MovementPatteins chambers and methodir.of acclimating - the fish are described inmore detail . .1Fish inoveinent patterns' can'bemonitored by Cairns,. et al.(1970) The photoperiod using the techniquT6f light,beara.inter - 'is the same ,as that:. for thefish movement ruption described indetaill:T,Cairns, study. al:41974)-.s-lkiiVii, and chisk.iire annulated by a Moter-driVen dimming 2 The fish are placed in test chambers unit, which graduallYinereaseethe 6:00 p. m. afidthe recordings began at .intensity :of the' ro6milight oVer 6:00 a. the next day to allow the half-hour- period 'starting at 6:30:, a, m, recover Overnight from Handling; -. and gradually-decreaieithe intensity Toxic solutions are introduced at 10;V.a. in. Period'itarting after the seiperirrientalfish have been - -at-6:30 p,in; The cumulative movement "exposed.to Water containing no added . 4 ' " IA BIO:Met; 22: 3:'174 a .f4 . a . 0 and Procedures for Bioassay: . . . -.

'toxicant for periods% of one to six days. III RESULTS each experimental fish thus serves as its own control.In addition, one or AFish Movement Patterns two fish are never.exposed to the toxicant and serve as controls through- 1 Table 1 shows the results of:One out each experiment. In one experiment, continuous flow °experiment carried using zinc as the toxicant, reported out for 20-days,- During this experiment in Table VI, six control fish were fish were exposed to zinc oa day 7 exposed to tv.ater Containing no added from-1:00 p.m. until-7 - :03 p.m. at ;,zinc for four days. which time the flow was returned to . normal dilution witer. The zinc a Preliminary exidence suggested that concentrations reached their maximum the data could 6p- analyzed by separa- 'at 7:00 p.m. and atomic absorption., ting the experimental day into four . analyses oneffluent samples. collected periods; a perfod from 6.:00 to 8:00 a. m at thiti time showed the following wh'en the breathing rates changed .concentrations: tank one, 13.32; maritedly, a period from 9:00 a. m. tank two, less than 0.08; tank thtree, 'to 5:00 p.m. when the rates were . 11,39; tank four, 12.72; tank five, cbmparativel,t_high, --another period 13:32; and tank six, 12.59 mg/1 Znr-r. Of rapiekliange from 13:00 to 8:00 p. m.., The results show that these concentrations . and a night period from 9:00 p.m. to of zinc'developing over the six hour 5:00 a.,,rn,..vhen the rates were.compar- interval of exposure were insufficient atively low (Sparks, et al.., 1979). to 'cause a detectable change in the' . Movement patterns of the fish. By b Bluegills inii,!ease their breathing 8:30 a. m. of day 8 the effluent zinc rates when exposed to zinc (Cairns, 'concentrations were less than 3.30 in et al., 1970). An individual fist; was. * all cases. thus considered to have shown a response each time ftp breathing rate _2To determine the percent survival and, during a time period exceeded the recovery patterns of the fish once Stress maximum breathing rate observes detection-occurred, zinc flow was during the corresponding period of the reinitiated at 1:00 p.m. on day 13 of first day;betore any zinc was added. this experiment. Between0. 8:03 and. response was scored for each value- 9:00 p.m. on day 13 th6--Ainc concentration on the second day that was higher tho.n tithe effluent reached p. Maximum of: the- first day maximum for the Compar- 7.51 fof tank one; less than 0.05 for, able_period.The-cdntrdl periods. tank two; -7.49 for tank three; 7.52. for (before any. zinc'was added) icadlthe tank four; 7,49 for/tank five; and 7.54 mg/1 experiment 'where-;nolinc, was added for tank six. The concentrationeremained at all were treed to determinehownitny. near.the above values until the statistical false detections thii3 method of analysis analyses `showed 'ustikess'detection4,.. would produce. The experimental during the first night values on day. periqd..5-(after zinc was added), deter- '14 (Table 1). As48 soon as stress detection mined how, quickly'the method of .occurred the'flow was returned to normal analksis could detect zinc cOncentratiOns dilution water. At 10:00 a: m. on day 15 Ingwater. . zinc analyses=showed all effluent concentra- , tions to-be less than 0.70 rngil Zn++. cZinc concentratiyts were determined StressLdetection continued to be registered daily byatomicsorption spectro: for two consecutive time intervals following - phclometr51.. the initialrdetee4on,' bill: after that .no stress a detection waa registeed, and the frequency_ of abnormal patterns returned to prestress "levels within 48 hoursi' In this experiztent

7 '134 , =1 se cialAEplicatioxis and Procedures for Bioassay

. a:s..with all others in which dilution After the zinc was introduced, all water containing zinc was replaced with four of the eiposed fish showed responses dilution dater minis -Zinc at that time simultaneously on five occasions, and of stress detection alllish survived! _three fish showed'responses during the

u1.1, same time interval on 19 occasions./f 3 The results from the series of experiments the criterion for detection of Water at progressively lower zinc concentrations; conditions potentially harrrifiil to fish indicate that the lowest detectable con- were two or more responses during the centration is between 3.65 (Table II) acid same time period, then three false . :2:93 mg/1 zinc "(Table III) for a 96-hour detentions would have occurred before exposure. any zinc was added, and 4.16 mg /1 zinc would have bebn correctly detected eight B Fish Breathing. , hours after ft was introduced.If the /- detection aril-dation were three or more r- -1Table IV shows the breathing rates of responses during the,sarhe time period, five fish on days 1, 2,. and 7 of experiment then no false detections would havef '8. 'The first four fish were exposed to a occurred and.the zinc would still have 'measured zinc concentration of 4,16 mg/1, been correctly detected after eight hours. beginning at 10 a.m. on day 7.The fifth

. fish served as a control and was not 3 The lowest zinc concentration tested was exposed to any addedzinc. The amplitude 2.55 mg/l. Tieing a detection criterion of the breathing 'signals decreased every of simultaneous response's by three fish, night: and the breathing rates 'for fish 2, this concentration was detected 52 hours . in particular, could not be determined after the zinc was-added, with no'false during some portions of the.dark period detections 'occurring during the four hours (7:30 p: m. - 7:00 a.m.). The maximum before zinc was-added (Table The breathing rates for each fish during each responses,oi six control fish that were period of the first day are circled'.The exposed todilution-water containing no rate of any fish during a tiMe ,added zinc are also shown for comparison.. r rind of day 2 or day 7, which is greater, Note that therawas no tendency toward than themaximum breathing rate recorded increased-breathing rates through time in' for that fish during the corresponding the control fish, and that, no more than one period of the first day has a ectangle control fish showed an increased breathing

drawn around it.The total number of rate444., kduring one time period. fish showing increased breathing is given at-the bottom of each column. On 4Table VII summarizes information on day 2, fish 2 showed increased breathing three experiments that indicates the On just two occaiions: In contrast after ? effectiveness of the SCM method of -zinc was added, on day 7, three and four analysis when different. criteria for experimental fish at a time showed . -detection are used. Changing the criterion increased,breathing. for detection from one to -three responses per time:periOd generally increases the 2 Table:V;t3gihmarizes the,resu lts of lag time and decreases the number o, sucCessikre corinkrisons of the first day false, detections: The lag time is the maXinia breathing rates to breathing time -from the addition of zinc to the first, rates on subsequent days (SCM method. detection. A false detention'i one.oneurr-.7 of analysis), for experiment 8.During ing before any zinc is added to the Water: the control period before any zinc was added there were 15 occasions when Single exiierimentallish resprinded,

.and'three -occasions when two experimentalIV DISCUSSION 0 fish reeponded "af,the same tirrin:At no . lime e-during the control,period did more .A The experiments deseribed above Eihow Oat,. than two fish show responses together. the ninvements'and breathingrates .. ..., 15-3'

0 -I .1

.. . , , ..e .. . . . , dial a ILI...cations andProcedurbs for Bioassa 01,.... lor , ....w1 . =m1 . .. I ''', ... . *. . .. , '4` k suniish-can bu.aqd to detect sublethal re The rate .of; iilata acquisition .and analysis.- concentrations of zinc. ,The Cl-iterion % could be greatlyspeeded up if the for,netection.is n certain number of fish Monitoring system were automated as showing an Etrbitrarily defined response ,.)shown in Figure 2. 'the sampling rate in breathing rate or activity during one would be'Controlled by k minicomputer

time period. ,,which Couldreceive data froimthe 3 ,* movement monitor and the polygraph B In-choosing a specific criterion for Aria a multiplexer as often as every minute. ',detection, the risk of not detecting stressful The minicomputer would be prOgrammed conditions soon enough Must be weighed. to perform 'statistical analyses every 10 -against the risk of falSe detections, and minutes, for example, and output the' the choice would probably-be .determined .. results on a teleprinter: by the nature ofthe pollutant.If O. pollutant is easily detected by the 'biological monitoringE Figure 3 shows how the fish Monitoring system,..is slow-acting, and if thet6xid, units would be used at an actual industrial effects -are_reversible, then the criterion site. A monitoring unit would be located for detection might be responses by 3/4 - . on each waste stream in the plant and of of the test fish, to avoid the false detections the combined waste-stream. The expe en- that would'necessitate 'expensive remedial tal fish in each unit would be exposed' to,'i* action or,''a temporary shut -down. On the waste diluted with water from the river other,hand, an,,industry that produces an above the plant, Auld control fish would be efflUent containing a fast-acting toxicant exposed to upstream water,alone (Fig. 4'). whose effects are irreversible would The information from each Monitoring probably use a:criterion that leads to rapid unit could be analyzed by a central data detection (responses b7 1/4 to 1/2 of the_ processor, and whdn there Was a warning test fish), and would have to go to the response,' the industry could tell which expense of installing holding ponds or waste stream was at;fault.If the problem recycling faeilities to accommodate a 1110 was outside the plant, the control fish elatively high number of false detections. would show responses..'- . A ternatively, a safety factor could be . , int oduced by metering proportionally F Figure 5 shows him 'the in-plant monitoring inor waste into the dilution water delivered systems would be integrated into a river to the t fish than is delivered to the management system. The in-plant monitoring, stream. The safety factor could b units are shown as squares, and in addition determined by growth' and reproduct on to supplying information to each industry, experiMents with fish. the monitoring units also inform the control center.In such a system, there are severala an actual industrial situStion water and alternative damage prevention measures -waste qualities are apt to vary unpredictably, that could ,be used, in addition to whatever 'and it would certainly le desirable to have measures,`- such as shunting waste's to a a redundant detectioLastem.It is conceiv- holding pond or recycling wastes for further able that some harmful combination of treatment, are available to each industry. environmental conditions and Waste quality . If the monitoring units at Industry 2 indicate, would .be detected by monitoring one biological that toxic waste conditions are developing, function, but not by monitoring another. then the control center might have Industry 1 It is also possible that excessiv bidity hold its waste until the danger of combining Would disrupt the light bea,ma ofe movement wastes' fromIndusfry -1 angl 2 in the river monitor, and not affect the breathing monitor; .were alleviated by control measures. at ,pr that an excessive concentration'of electiv- Industry 2.Alternatiyely, the'control centei- lytes'tvould affect the electrodes of the breath- might call for 0,, release of water iron]. the ing monitor, but not affect the activity monitor. -upstream dam to dilute the effluent from Therefore, the activity monitor and the) -industry. breathing irionitor have.been combinediwev . labOratory for ftirther eXperinients

C 15.4 -. + aecial Applications and Procedttres fict Biolway -

-G It is likely that "fish sensors" in 7Mount, D. I. and C. E. Stephan.1967. continuous monitoring units at industrial A 'metled for establishing acceptable sites can warn of developing toxic conditions toxicant limits for fish--Malathiorr in time to forestall acute damage to the and the butoxyethanol ester of 2, 4-D. fish populations in streams.. In conjunction, ,Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 96(2) :185 -193. with .stream water quality standardi for chronic exposure,' such biological monitoring 8Sokal, R. R. and F. J. Rohlf.1969. systems should make it poseible for healthy Bioznetsi.W. H. Freeman and Co. fish populs.tions to co-exist with industrial 776 pp.

water use., 1 9Sparks,. E., W.T. Waller, J. Cairns, -Jr. and A. G. Heath. 1970. Diurnal variations inthe behayior andIstlysiology of bluegills ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (Le...pamis macroChirus Rafinesque). - The ASB Bull.17(3):90 (Abstract). . This research was supportbd bygrants 18050 EDP and 18050 EDQ from the Water Quality Office, 10Sprague, J. B,.1969.. Measurement of Environmental Protectibn Agency. pollutant toxicity to fish I.Bioassay methods for acute toxicity. Water Research. 3:793-821. Literature Cited 11 Cairns, John Jr.; Sparks, R. .E. ; and Waller, W. T. "A tentative proposal 1 Brungs; W. A. 3..969. Chronic toxicity:Of for a rapid in-plant biological moni- zinc to the fathead minnow, Pirnephales toring system. " in Biological Methods omelas Rafinesque. Trans. Amer. for the Assessment of Water Quality. Flab. Soc. 961241272-279. . ASTMSTP 526, American Society

6 for Test. and Mai. , 4973, pp. 127 - 147`x' -2Cairns, 4., K. L. Dickson; Sparks, and W. T. Waller. 1970. A preliminary report on rapid biological information

= systems for water pollution control.Jour. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 42(5):685-703. ' I

1;;4. 3 ' Eaton, Si%G.1970,. Chronic malathiori :toxicity to the blttegill (LeRomis macrochirus. Rafinesque), 'Water RegeaFeh. 4:673684..

4 MC.Kim, J. M., and D. A. Benoit.1971. outline was prepared by John Cairns, Jr. Effects ofIonip.terzriexposures to cooper and Richard E. Sparks, Center for EnViron.--- on survival, growth, andrreproduction mental Studies and Department OtBiologY; of, brook trouti,(Salvelinus fontinalis) Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State J.Fish. Res. firbana.-da28:655-662. . University, Blacksburg, VA 24061

1 5Moore, J. G., Jr., Commissioner.1968. Descriptors: Water Criteria.Report; of the = Environmental control, Bioassay, Toxicity, National Te chniC.al- A dvisory ,;Committee to the Secretary of the Interior. ;U.S. Fisehavior,Fish B Fish, Monitoring deVirt-..Printing-Offiae.,234.pp.' *ifiars 6 Mounts. 1968.. Chronic.toxicify of cooper to fathead minnows (Pimmtia. les

zromelas Rafinesque).Water Research. OP- 2:215-273. 4 4

firs FEEDING' INLET TUBE TO POLYGRAPH

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OUTLET PHOTO-. RESISTORS

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Figure i.Test chamber forMonitoring system, showing the electrodes for iecording4tish breathing and theflight-beam system.forrecording

?). fish movement. -MI UM IMO

18 CHANNELS t

TANKS

MOVEMENT MONITOR

M.Wd1PLEXER 6 CHANNELS

.POLYGRAPH TELEPRINTER

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J 4

UPSTREAM INDUSTRY OA

WASTE of.

WASTE 'WASTE 2

IN-PLANT MONITORING'UNIT.

LS IN - STREAM MONITORING UNIT

DOWNSTREAM COMBINED WASTE. A- 'A'

Figuie 3.Arrangement of 'fish monitoring units' at industrial site. -v 143 rt a 112

r fir; 111111 IIIII Szeckl.Amlicationd and Procedures for Biottati. t

IN - PLANT MONITORING UNIT

UPSTREAM. WASTE WATER

-MIXING

TESTS CONTROLS

MOVEMENT

MONITOR

BREATHING

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. o ..Td CENTRAL ,PROCESSOR'

. DRAIN Figt*e-4;Detail, of a- single fish monitoring unit, showing-liow the -..experimental.fikh are exPoied to waste diluted with upstream- water and the. control fish are exposed to upstream water alone.

I gl 144- 15-9; ,4 '-"` ""` .7; , ":--! " , '..,;74-:74

4 MIXED INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL AREA

A A A .4, . A A A 4 INDUSTRY S A CITY A

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A 13 IN-PLANT MONITORING UNIT A <1 IN-STREAM MCMITORING UNIT A A a

A Figure 5. Useof in-plant monitoring units in a river management system. ___ ., ...?, . s . --,1 . 4

116 . ,-,:.

, . , as as or asI. . .

USING 13ENTHIC.BlOyA IN WATER QUALITY EVALUATION

I BENTHOS ARE ORGANiSiVlBiGROWING Os, Meipfauna ON OR ASSOCIATED PRINCIPALLY WITH THE BOTTOM OF WATERWAYS Meiofauna occupy the interstitial zone (like between sand grains) in benthic Benthos is' the noun. -and h3ipOrheic habitatt. They are.intey- mediate in size between the microfauna Benilionic, benthal and benthic are (protozoa and rotifers) and the macro- adjectives.' fauna (insects, etc. ). \They pass a NO. 30 sieve (0.5 mm approxiMately).In fresh - II THE BENTHIC COMMUNITY.- water they include nematodes, -copepods, tardigrades, naiad worms, and some flat f A Composed of-a wide variety of life worms. They are usually ignored-in fresh- fortis are related because they water studies, since they pass the standard occupy "co ground " -- substrates- sieve and /.or sampling devices. of oceans, lake , streams, etc. Usually they ar attached or hale 6 'Nfacrofatma,(macroinvertebrates):,130''' relatively weak powers of locomotion. These life forms are: Animals that are retained on a No. 30 mesh*" sieve (0.5 mm approximately).. This grOup 1 Bacteria includes the insects, worms,. molluscs, and occasionally fish,.Fish are not normally' A widevariety of decomposers work -considered as baithos, though there areqattom on organic materials, breaking them dwellers such,as eculpins .and darters. :`down to eleinental or simple com- . pounds. .t,, B Itis a self-contained community, though there isAnterchange with' other communities. For .example: Plankton Settle-alb it, fisli,"prey on 2 Algae' it' and lay their eggs there, terrestrial detritus Photosynthetic plants having no true leaves are added to _It, and, many aquatic insects 'roots. stems, and leaves. The basic migrate from it to tie terrestrial environment producers of food that nurtures the for their mating .cycles. animal components of the community. C- It is stationary water quality monitor. The -low mobility of the biotic components requ 3 Flowering Aquatic Plante(Pondweetis) that they "life withrthequality 'changes of th ,- - over -pas singitraters. Changes -imposed-in-the The largest.flora, composed of long-lived components remain.jdsible for r.> -complex:and:differentiated tissues. Maype emersed, floating, -sub- extended' periods, .even after the cause has heeneliininated. Only time will allow a cure mereed according to habit. , 'for.;the community* drift, reproduction, and ret7 4 .Microfauna , 1 ''Cruitment from the-llyko'rheic zone. 7 Animals that pass through a U.S. D Between4the benthic zone' (sUbstrate/water Standard Series No. 30 sieve, but _interface) and the-underground water Wile are retained on a No; 100-sieve. is the hyporheiczone. There, is considerab]a Fixampies: are ,yaiite re, and Intel-Change from One zone taanother. Cruiftaceans-,,-,Sopneiforn*have.. i. organs 'for -aitaChinenftii* ii"tibstrated;" it% M III 1-116TORY OF BENTHIC OBSERVATIONS while OtherE(,...burrow414. materialt,- . -e:Or ocCiipt,th'-interatiCes-betweeprockst,A AnCient literature records the Termin assoc ate d fouled. waters.' VA 4:1

14.

v. Benthic Biota Ii Water Quality Evaluation \: r AV: , B' 506 -year- ofd fishing literature refers 3 Consumers , to animal forins that are fish foodald, a Detritiirsores andISacteriaf feeders used as bait. - C The scientific literature associating b +Herbivores biota to water pollution. problems -is over 1001years old (Mackenthun and c predators Ingram, 1964). C Economy of'Survey D Early this century,' applied biological investigations were initiated. 1 Manpower 1 The entrance of state boards of health. 2 Time into water pollution controlzactivitie.ti 3 Equipment s " . '42 Creation of state conservation agencies. . .1 D Extensive Supporting Literature 3 Industrialktion and urbanization. . ) E Advantages.,ofthetlacrobenthos 4 Growth of limnological programs at =lye s itie 1 Relatively sessile A decided-increase in-benthic studies 2 Life history length occurred in the 1950's and much of today's activities are strongly,influenced 3 Fish food organisms bydevelopmental work conducted during this period. Some of the reasons for this 4 Reliability of Sampling are: 5 Dollars/information 1 Movement of the universitiesfrom "academic biology" to applied 6 Predictability pollution programs . 7 Universality .2 Entrance of thefideral government° a 4 into enforcernexit Aspects of water F "For subtle chemical changes, pollution control.! unequivocal data, and observations , suited to some. statistical evaluation will_ 3 A risingeconon4and the development -' be needed. This requirement favors the of federal grant systems._ macrofaa as A-parameter. Macro- inverteb ates are easier to sample 4 Environmental Protection Programs reproductively than-other organisms, are,a.current stimulus. numeriical estimatesare possible and taxonoy needed for\synoptic investi- IVWHY,THE BENTHOS? gationts within.the.reach of a non-; speciist. " (Wuhrmann)

.AIt is a natural monitor

, B The corfununity contains 'all'of the G/ 'It iself-evident that for a.multittide of _components of an ecosystem; non-identifiable though biologically active changes of chemical conditions in rivers, 1 Reducers ,..tor small organisms with high physiological a batter* erentiation are Most responsive. dTiii#'us the small- macroinvertebratee (51. g. insects) are doubtlessly the most 2 Pr'Oducers (plants) . sensitive organisms for demonstrating -,. e , *11= Using Benthic Biota In Water Qu

unspecified changes of water As water quality improves, these chemistry called :polliition' . tend to reappear in the same order. Progress in knowledge on useful 1 autecological properties of .13 The Number of Surviyqrs Increase% organisms ,or of transfer of such knowledgeinto bioassay practice Competition and predation are reduced has been very small in the past. 4 between different species. Thus, the bioassay concept . (relation of organisms in a 2 When. the pollutant is a fold (plants,- stream to water quality) in ` -fertilizers, animale, organic materials). water chemistryr ' has brOUght not much more than visual demon- C The Number of Survivors Decrease stration of a few overall' chemical effects. Our capability to deriVe 1 The'materiaradded is toxic or has no chemical conditibns from biological food value. "observations is, therefore, almost , on the same level as fifty years ago. 2 The meter* added produces toxic In the author's 'opinion it is idle :to conditions a byproduct-of decoin- expect tauch more in the future because position (e:g., large organic loadings 1 of the limitations inherent to naturalbio- produce an anaerobic environment .assay systems (relation.of organisms resulting in the production of toxic in a stream to water qtality). (Wuhrmann) sulfides, methanes, etc: )j . D The Effects May be Manifest in Com- binations YREACTIONS OF/THE BENTHICMACRO- I INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY TO PERTURBATION 1 Of pollutants and their effects. A Destruction of 0 ganisin Types .2 Vary with longitudinal distribution (Figure 1) .._ , 'in a streara. N. 1 Beginniniwith the raost sensitive * form§ pollutants kill in order of ''` E Tolerance to Enrichment Grouping Oa. sensitivity until the most tolerant form '(Figure 2) . is the last - survivor. Thisresults in a reduction of.irariety or diversity .of.' . Flexibility must be maintained in the . , establishment of tolerance lists based organisms. . . . . on the response of organisms to the environment because of-comple relatfon--;- 2 The generalized order .ofmacro- -. --' invertebrate disappearance on a ships' among varying environmental( sensitivity scale below pollut on conditions. Some general tolera6ce 2 . .1 ,Patterns can be established. 'Stonefly' sources is shoivzi in' Figure and mayfly nymphs, ,hellgrarnmites,

. and caddisfly larvae represent a grouping Water , . StOne.flies ater Quality, 'Mayflies atlitY ____,(sensitive or intoldrant) that is, generally mproving _quite' sensitive to environmental . peteribraW CaddiiitLies, ji, changes.Blackfly 'larvae, scuds, sow- .A.Mphipods2; . '. isoyods e'bugs, snails, fIngiernail clams'," dragon- Midges fly and damselfly naiads,- and most 04gochaetes Idnds,of midge larvae ire facyltative A (or interrnediate)- in toleilante. '. Sludge-worms, some kinds of.rnidge larvae (bloodworins), and some leeches

-A Using Benthic Biota In Water Quality-.Evaluatioh

DIRECTION ,OF FLOW ÷ are tolerantstocomparatively heavy loads of organic. pollutants. Sewage mosquitoes and rat- tailed maggots are tolerant of anaerobic- environments for they are essentially. air-breathers.

. . F Strudturai Limitations .5 1 The, morphological structure of a m species limits the type of environment 1 it may occupy. a Species with complex appendages p- and exposed complicated respiratory t, -structures, such as stonefly w I :,, nymphs, mayfly nymph's, and 3 I . caddisfly larvae, that are subjeCteci.' .. c to a constant deluge of setteable ---. .,.... particulate'matterit oon abandon the polluted area becausa 8i the . I constant preening fiqhlr'Ori,ta maintain mobility or respiratory func- TIME OR DISTANCE tions; otherwise, they, are sodn smothered. 'NUMBER OF KINDS NUMBER OF ORGANISMS b Benthib animals inepositingiirgs; zones Mas,SLUDGE DEPOSITS may .lsqbe burdened f"sewage .lour basicres of bottom 'animals to fungus" growths including stalked; A. Organic wastes eliminate the sensitive bottom .. als protozoans. Many of these stalked and provide food in the form of sludge* for the survivin;ler ant forms. B. Large quantities of decomposing org...,.-rites protozoans are host -specific. eliminate sensitive bottom animals andthd exce, quantities of byproducts of organic decompalition the tolerant. 2 Species 3krithoyt complicated external with natural stream purification water quality structures, such as bloodworms and improve, so that the tolerani forms can flq ; the sludgeworms, are not so limited in sludge; toed. C. Toxic materials eliminate.e sensitive adaptability. bcittorii- animals; sludge is, absent and food Is reiti at naturally occurring in the -stream, which limits the number tolerant surviving lorms. Very -toxic materials may eliminate- a . rm, for exa an r all organisms below a waste source. I). Orggnic Sledges With . burrow in' a, deluge of particula toxic materials reduce the number_ of kinds by eliminating 'sensitive forms., Tolerant survivors do not utilize the .orgcmiq org.knivitiatter and flourish the sludgelsheamse the toxicity 'restdcis their growth. . ...abundance of "manna.'' Figure 1 b Morphologyalso - determines the species that. are foued inriffles, on' - fi - vegetation, on the.bottozn Pf -pools;' 'or 1i..bottom deposits. 'Wine Benthic Biota In Water Quality Evaluation

. VI- SAMPLING PROCEDURES

A Fauna' The Surber sampler is designed for saraginrriffle areas; it requires

1, sampling detelmines the 'moving water to transport dislodged variety of species' occupying an area. ozjiganisms into its' net and ialianited Samples may be taken by any method to depthsof two' feet or less. that will capture representatives, of the special `present. Collections from . Kick samples of one minute duration will such samplings .indicate changes in th usually yield around 1,000 macroinvert- environment, but generally do not ebrates per square meter (10. 5 C a one accuratey-reflect.the degree of cha minute kick= organisms/me). .'Mayflies, for example, may be reduced from 100 to '1 per square meter. 3 Manipulated substrates (often referred to Qualitative data would indicate the as "artificial substrates") are presence of both species, but might not \ placed in a-stream and left for a specific necessarily delineate the change in pre- ,' time period.Benthic macroinvertebrates ,dominance from mayflies to sludge- readily colonize these forming a manipu- worms:. The stop net or kick sampling" lated community. Substrates may be con- teslInique/te often used. etructed of natural materials or synthetic; / may be placed in a natural situation or 2 sampling is performed to unnatural; and may or may not resemble observe changes in predominance. the normal stieam community. The The most comni3n q0.ntitt.tive sampling point being that a great number of envi tools are the Petersen, E man, and Ponak ronmental variables are standardized and grabs and therber stre in bottom pr- thus upstream and downstream. stations :-='-'44-.4 square-foot sa pier. Of these, the' may be legitimately compared in terms--of Petersen grab samples the Vf West variety y water quality of the moving water column. of substrates. The Ekman grab is liited They naturally do not evaluate what may -to fine-textured and loft substrates, such or may not, be happening to the substrate aq, silt and sludge, unless hydraulically . beneath saidrnonitor:The latter could operated. easily be the)inore:' important. . , REPRESENTATIVE BOTTOM-:DW E LUNG MA CROANIMALS Drawings from Geckler, 3,, K. M.Mackenthun and W.M-.---.Ingrain, 1963. Glossary of Commonly Used Biologicaland Related Terms in Water and Cincinnati, Ohio, Pub. No. 999-WP-2. Waste Water Control, .DHEW, PHS, .4 (Spimeriidae) A Stonefly nymph(glecoptera) IFingernail Clam Mayfly nymph (Ephemerbptera) JDamselfly naiad (Zygoptera)- .B. (Anisoptera) C Hellgrammite or Dragonfly naiad Dobsonfly larvae(Megalopfeis):..; LWoodworm or midge (Chironomidae) D Caddisfly larvae(Trichoptera) fly larvae' EBlack. fly larvae. MLeech (Hirudinea)s Scud (Amphipoda) N.Sludgeworm (Tubificidae) Aquatic' sowbug(Isopodd) 0'Sewage. fly larvae (Psychodidae) G Rat-tailed maggot(Tubifera-Eristalis) H Snailh (Gastropoda).- P .

KEY TO FIGURE 2

, ° 1 ei r' :16-S

;! . MI 'NM11111 AIM MO, or 'Am um am.

444 5

. t ' or Iliting Benthic Biota In Water Quality Evaluation

. . 4 Invertebrates which are part of the B Flora be.nthos, but under certain conditions become carried downstream in 1Direct quantitative 'sampling of natti-- appreciable numbers, are known as rally growylg bottom eliae is difficult. It is 'basically one of collecting algae - Drift. from a standard or uniform area of the, . Groups which have members forming bottom. substrates without disturbing a conspiciioui part of the drift _the delicate growths and thereby dis- include the insect orders Ephemeroptera, tort the sample. -Indirect quantitative Trichoptera, Plecoptera and the sampliitg is the best available method. crustacean order Amphipoda. ,2Mahiriulated substrates, such aswood Drift net studies are widely usedand blocks, glass or plexiglass slides, have a proven validity in stream briCks, etc., are placed in a stream. water qrialify studies. Bottom-attached algae will grow on these artificial substrates.After'tivo or more weeks, the artificialsub- 5 The collected sample is screened With strates are removed for analysis. a standard sieve to concentrate the Algal growths are scraped from the organisms; these are sorted from substrates and the quantity measured. the retained material, and the number Since the exposed substrate area and of each kind determined. Data are then exposure periods are equal at all of adjusted to number per unit area, the sampling sites, differences in the usually to number of bottom organisms quantity of algae can be related,to per square meter, changes in the quality of.water flowing over 'tile substrates. 6Independently, neither qualitative 'not quantitative data suffice for thqough analyses of environmental conditions. VIIANALYSES OF MICROFLORA A cursory examination to detect daniage may be made With either method, but A Enumeration a combination of the two gives a lnore ,4eaa precise determination.If a choice must 1 The quantity of algae on manipulated be- made,' quantitative sampling would substrates can be measured in several be best, because it incorporates a ways. 'Microscopic counts of algal, partial qualitative, sample, bells and dry 'weight of a algal inater- lal are long established methods. 7 Studies have shown, that a significant. number and variety of macroinverte- -2Microscopic counts involve thorbugh. brates inhabit-theihyporheic zone in streams. '; scraping, mixing and suspension of As much as 80of the macrbinverte- the algal cells. From this mixture brailes may bebelow 5 cm in this - an aliquot oftells is withdrawn for hyporheic zone. Most samples and' enumeration under a microscope. sampling techniques do not penetrate Dry weight is deterinined by drying_ the substrate beloW the 5 cm depth. and weighing the algal sample. -then All quantitative,studies must take,thia igniting the sample to burn off the and other substrate, factor's into account algal materials, leavingineri'inorgazilOI when abfiolute figures are piresented on materials that are-again weighed., standing crop and numbers per siluare The difference betweenAnitial dry eight:: -meter, etc.- . and weight after ignition; is attribtittO algae. / . 3 Any, orga nic sedlinents, however, that settle okthe substratealOng with the algae are- processed' also.

16 -7 =Ash -free Wgt(mg/m2) Thus, if organic wastes are present Autotrophic Index appreciable errors may enter into Chlorophyll a (mg/m2) this method.

Chlorophyll .Anikysis

1 During the past decade, chlorophyll . analyeiehas become a. popular Method v111'MACROINVERTEBRATE ANALYSES "S. for estimating algal growth. Chloro- phyll is extractedlrom the algae and A Ta.ximomic is used as an index of the quantity of The taxonarnie level to which animals are algae present. The advantages of identified depends on the needs, experien e, chlorophyll analysis are rapidity, and available; resources. However, the simplicity, andvivid pictorial results. taxonomic level to which identifications = re 2 The algae are scrubbed from the carried in each major group should he artificial substrate samples, ground, constant throughout a. given study. then each sarriple is steeped in equal volumes, 90% aqueous acetone, which, B Biomass extracts the chlorophyll from the algal Macroinvertebrate biomass (weight of cells. The chlorophyll extracts may organisms. per unit area) is a useful be compared visually.- quantitative estimation'of standing crop. 3 Because the cholorophyll ektracts fade with time, colorimetry should be used C Reporting Units for permanent records. For routine .'records, simple colorimeters will- Data from quantitative samples may be used..,, suffice. At very high cholorophyll to obtain: densities, interference. with &Joni- m'etry occurs, which must be corrected 1 Total standing crop of individuals, or through serial dilution of the saniple biomass, .or both per unit area or unit or with a nomograph. volume'or sample unit, and Autotrophic Index 2 Numbers of biomass, or both, of individual The chlorophyll content of the periphyton taxa per unit "area or t volume or sample isioused to estimate the algal biomass and unit, as an indicator of the nutrient content . (or trophic Status) or toxicity of the water 3Data from devices Sampling,a unit area and-the.taxculomic composition of the of bottom will be reported in grams dry community. ,Reriphyton growing in sur- weight or ash§free dry weight per square face water relately free ,of.organic. meter_ (gm/ m ), or numbers of ixidi-- pollutioncOnsislargely of algae, .viduals per square meter, or both. rwhich :contain approximately' 1 to 2' percent chlorophyll a,by dry weight.. If dissolved 4 Data froM multiplate samplers, will be or terticirlatei organicmatter' is present reported in terms of the total surface itihigh concentrations,, large populations area of the plates ingrams4ry weight offilanientotis bacteria,, stalked. protozoa, or ash-free dry weight or numbers of 'and other rionchlorophyll bearing micro-, individ0.1e4er square meter, or both. organisms, dielop-a40,i.ik-"pei.centage of chlorophyll is then, reduced.. the 5 Data from rock-filled basket samplers biomass- chlorophyllrelatiOnSliip- will *reported as grams airy weight is expressed as a ration4the;.autotro.- 'or numhers of individuals per sampler, phic;index);-,:valueS greater :than 'IA or both. ;;:1,ne.S±; rgsult: from organic pollution (WTO*r andmpii:a.444:0;: 1969i Weber;:

Nr 154 tsiniBeitthic BiOta In Water Quality Evaluation

IX FACTORS INVOLVED IN' DATAINTER- "reasons, the bottom fauna of a lake or PRETATION impoundment, or stream pool cannot be directly compared with that of a flowingl Two very important factors in data evalua- stream riffle.' tiOn are a thorough knowledge of conditions t. under Which the data were collected soda D Extrapolation critical'assessment of the reliability of the 4.". data's representation of the situation. How can bottom-dwelling macrofauna data be extrapolated to other environmental A Maximum- Minimum Valued components? It must be borne in mind that a component of the total'enVironnient The evaluation of physical and chemical is being sampled.If the sampled com- data to determine their effectsqn aquatic poi-lent exhibits changes, then so must the organisms is primarily dependenton othet interdependent components of the maximum and minimum observed values; environment. For example, a clean stream The mean is useful only when the data are with a wide variety of desirable bdttom relatively uniform. The minimum or organisms would be expected to have a maximum values usually create acute wide variety of desirable bottom fishes;

conditions in the environment. v when pollution reduces the number of bottom organisms, a comparable reduction would B Identification be expected in the number of fishes. More- over, it would be logical to concluile that Precise identification of organisms to any factor that eliminates all bottomorgan- species requires a 13pecialist in limited isms would eliminate most other aquatic taxonomic groups. Many immature forms of life. A clean stream with a wide aquatic .forms have not been associated variety of desirable bottom organisnis with the adult species. Therefore,one inould-be expected to permit a variety of who is certain of the genus but not the recreational, municipal and industrial uses. species should utilize the generic name, not a potentially incorrect species name. E Expression-of Data The method of. interpreting biological data on the basis f numbers of kinds 1 Standing crop and'taxonomic composition and numliei'd of organisms will typically suffice. Standing crop and numbers of taxa (types or kinds) in a.community areihighly C L ake and Stream Influen* sensitive to environmental perturbations resulting, from the introduction of...contam- Physical.'characteristteS --of a body of inants.These parameers, particularly water also affect animal populations. standing crop, may vOry'considerably in ,.Lakes or impoundeci-bo.clies of 'water, unpolluted habitats, where they may range supp5rt ,different amal associations from the typically high- standing Crop of from rivers, Thenumber bf kinds littoral zones of glacial lakes to the Prebent in klake,they he less than that sparse fauna of 'torrential soft-water fotind id a stream because of a more streams: Thus, it is important that uniform habitat. A lake--is,allpoOl, comparisgns are made only between truly but a river id. composed-of bolhpools comparable environments. and iifflets;'ThendnhOviiiik, Wale r, of #slake exhibits amore complete Set- tlintof pargatgiti organic matter that nattirallk'ditgoits.ahigtier-populatioit Of detritus consumers. For, these . 04.- 'Using Benthic Biota In Water Quality-Evaluation

: . 2 Diversity /----Nif adetit4tte background data are available to an experienced investigator, Diversity indices are an additional tool- these techniques can prove quite useful for measuring the quality of the environ- v. .particularly for the purpose of demon- ment and the:effect of induced stress on .__strafing. the effects ofsross to moderate the structure of a'cOmmuniti of macro- organic contamination on the macro - invertabliites.Their use is based on invertebrate cornmunity. To detect the generally observed phenomenon that more subtle 'changes iri the macroinvet- relatively undisturbed environments tebrate community, collect, quantitative support communities having large data on numbers or biomass:4,2f organisms. numbers of species with no, individual Data on the presence of tolerant and species present in overwhelming intolerant taxa and richness of species abundance. 'if the species In such a may be effectively summarized for evalu- community are ranked on the basis of ation and presentation by means of line their numerical mhundance, there will graphs,, bar graphs, pie diagrams, be relatively few species with large histograms, or pictoral diagrams. numbers of individuals and large numbers of species represented ty"Oftli X IMPORTANT ASSOCIATED ANALYSES a few individuals. Many forms of stress tend to reduce diversity by making the A The Cheinical Environment environmentyunsuitable for some species or by giving other species a competitive **. 1 Dissolved oxygen aantage. 2 Nutrients 3 aicator-oivanis'in scheme (rat-tailed maggot studies) 3 Toxic materials a For this techtrique, the individual 4 Acidity and alkalinity taxa are chiSsified on the basis of their tolerance or ,intolerance to 5 Etc. ' various levels of plitrescible wastes. Taxa are classified according to B The Physical Environment their presence or absenCe of different environments as "deter- 1 Suspended solids mined by field studieit. Some reduce' data based on the presence 2 Temperature or absence of indicator organisms to a simple numerical form for ease 3 Light parietrai9n in presentation. 1 4 Sediment composition b .it Biologists are engaging in fruit- , less exercise if they intend to make 5 Etc. any decisions about indicator organisms: by operating at .the, XI AREAS IN WHICH BENTHIC STUDIES

generic' level of macroinvertebrate CAN BEST BE APPLIED , iden.tifications." (Resh and Unzicker) ADamage ASsessment or Stream.Health 4 Refeitence station methods If a stream iksuffering from abuse -the Comparative or control, station methods biota will so indicate. A biologist can compare the qualitative characteristics determine damages by looking at the of the fauna in clean wate-riabitats with "critter," assemblage in a matter of those of fauna in habitats subject to stress. minutes. Usually, if damages are not Stations 'ai9 compared' on .the bili of found, it will not be necessaiy to alert richness of species. the remainder of the agency's staff; . '3

Using Benthic Biota In Water Quality Evaluation

pack all the equipment, pay travel and per 4 Mackenthun, K, M. The Practice of diem, and then wait five days before Water Pollution Biol9gy. FWQA. enough data can be assembled to begin 281 pp. 1969. evaluation. 5 Stewart, R. lc. , Ingram, W. M. and B By determining what damages have been Mackenthun, K. M. Water,Pollution done,' the potential cause "list" can be Control, Waste Treatment and Water reduced to a few items for emphasis and Treatment: Selected Biological Ref-, the entire "wonderful worlds" of science erences on Fresh and Marine Waters. and engineering need not be practiced with FWPCA Pub., No. WP-23, 128 pp. 1966. the result that much data are discarded later because they were not applicable to 6 Weber, Cornelius I.,Biological Field the problem being investigated. and Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of Surface Waters and C Good benthic data associated with chemi- Effluents.U. S. Environmental Pro- cal, physical, and engineering data can tection Agency, NERC, Cincinnati, be used to predict the direction of future OH. Environmental Monitoring Series changes and to estimate the amount of 670/4.73. 001 July 1973 pollutants that need to be removed from the Waterways to make,,them pro4uctive_ Keup, L: E. and Stewart, R. K.Effecti§ and useful once more. of Pollution on Biota of the Pigeon River, North Carolina and Tennessee. U. S. EPA, D The benthic macroinvertebrates are an National Field Investigations. Center.35 pp. easily used index to stream health that 1966.(Reprinted 1973, National Training . citizens -may. use in stream improve- Centei-) - mentprogramS. "Aidopf-a-stream" efforts.have succes4:ulay used simple 8 Wuhrmann,. K., Some Problems and macroinvertebrate indices. 4 Perspectives in Applied LinmolOgy- A Mitt. Internat.Verein Limol. 20 :324-402. E The potential for restoring biological 1974. integrity in our flowing streams using macroinvertebrates has barely been 9Armitag, P. D., Machale, Angelu M., an touched. ,Criap, Diane C. A Survey of Stream: Invettebrates in the Cow` Green. Basin REFERENCES (Upper Teesdale) Before Inundation'. FreshwaterBiol. 4369-398.1974. 1 Hynes, H. B.N. The Ecology of Running *Or . Waters.Univ. Toronto Press.1970 10 Resh, VinCent H. and Unzicker, John D. Water Quality Monitoring and Aquatic 2 Keup, L. E., Ingram, W.M. and Organisms: the JWPCF 47:9-19.1975. Mackenthun, K. M. The Role of BOttorn Dwelling Macrofauna in 11 Macan, T..T.Running Water.Mitt. Water Pollution InVestigatioris. USPHS . Internat.Lin;nol. 20:301-321.1974., Environmental Health Series Publ. No. 999-Wp-38,. 23pp.1966. This outline was prepared by Lowell E. Keup, thief, Technical. Studies Branch, 3 Keup, L.'g., Ingram, W. M. and Div. of Technical Support, EPA, Wash-' Mackenthun, K. M. 'biology of Water ington, C. 20460, and revised by. Populations: A Colledtfan-of Selected R. M. Sinclair, National Training Center, Papers on Stream Pollution, Waste MOTD; OWPO, USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio Water, and Water Treatment. 45!268. Federal Water P011ution*Control Administration Pub. No. CWA-3, Dei3Criptors: .AqUatic Life, Benthos, Water 290 pp.1967., Quality, Degradation; Environthental Effects; TrOPhic Level, Biological Communities, Ecological Distributions - - 1:64:11

4.A . THE INTERPRETATION OF BIOLOGICALDATA WITH REFERENCE TO WATER QUALITY

IINTRODUCTION To many animals and plants, maximum summer temperature or maximum Sanitary engineerslike to haie.data rate of flow is kiat as iiiipiirtant'a:s. presented -to therirlii a readily assimilable minimum oxygen tension. The result form ,and Some of tlfeimseem a little is that inland waters provide an impatient with biologists who appear unable enormous array of differenttdom- to provide definite quantitative criteria a: binations of conditions, each,* which applicable to all kinds of water conditions.. has its own community of plants and I think the-feeling tends, to be,thatthis is animals; and the variety of species the fault of. biologists, and if they would' involved is very great. Thus, for only pull themselves out of the scientific example, Germany has about 6000,n, stone-age all would beweil..I wilLtry:to species of aquatic animals Miles 1961a) explain here why I believe that biological and probably at least as many 'specied. data can never be' absolute nor interpret- Of plants. Yet Europe has a rather -.able tithout a certain amount of expertise. restricted fauna because of the

e In this respect biologists resemble medical Pleistocene ice age; in most other 14men who make their diagnoses againsta, . parts of the world the flora and fauna complex background of detailed knowledge.' are even richer. ' Anyone can diagnose an open wound but.it dkeS a doctor to identify an obscure B Distribution of-Species and Environ- isease; and although he can explain how mental Factors he does it he cannot pass on his knowledge in that one explanation.Similarly, one W9 Imow-Somethi,ng about the way in does not need.an expert to recognize gross which species are distributed in the organic pollution, but only a biologist can . various habitats,' especilly in the interpret more subtle biological conditions relatively mush studied continent of - in a water.body;,and here again he can Europe', but we have, as yet, little .explain how he does it; butthat does not idea as to what factors or, combination

. niake his hearer a biologist. Beck (1957) of factors actually, control the individual. 'said something similat\at a previous species. symposiuni in CincirmatLin 1956. 1 Iffipbrtantecological factors C II 'THE COMPLEXITY OF BIOLOGICAL` Thus, it id-possible:to list the . REACTIONS TO WA TER.' CONDITIONS groups of organisms4hat occur in

swift Stony upland river- km:, 3 A Complexity of the Aquatic Habitat (rhithron in the sense -of:Illies; 1961b) and to contrast-"thern with The,aqUatic habitat As complex. and those of' the lower srliggish reached consists not only' qt. wat e rfiirt of.the (PotaniOn)-.Sithilarly we know; substratabeneath it, whibii-may.be more or less, the different floras --;;C". only indirectly; inflikeripSdby the quality and faunas we can expect in of the, water.' MOreoirer, ih, biological infertile (oligar.ophic).and fertile terms; water quality includes such , (eutiTophic) lakes.' We are, how,ever, features of flOwrand- tempera- much less infOrmed as to. just what ecological factors Cause thege 'ture2regirne,.which:are, notconsider901. of direct importance by the chemist. differences. We know they include temperature and its yearly

17-1 40.., he InterPretationof Biological' Datawith Referenae to Water Quality

amplitude; oxygen, particularly at c-Oxygen levels and non muddy minimalleyels; plant nutrients, -substrates. such as nitrate, phosphate, silica, and bicarbonate; other ions in One then finds the typical solutipn, including calciuni, chloride, outburst of sludge wornisso `:and.possibly hydrogen; dissolved often cited as indicators of organic matte, which is necessary pollution'.This does not for some tacteria and.fungi, and happen if the same oxygen - probably for. some algae; the nature . tension occurs over sand or .of the substratum; and current. rock, however, as these are not suitable substrata for`lhe 2 Complexity of interacting factOrs. worms.' Many such examples could be given, but they would We also knov,r.these factori,can only be ones we understand; interact in a complex manner and there must be a far greater thattkeir action'on any particular number about which we know organisin can be indirect through nothing. other membeiVof the biota. - d One must conclude, therefore, a. Induced 'periphyion growths that quite simple chemical changes can. produce far-. Heavy growths of encrusting reaching biological effects; algae induced by large amount's that me. only understand a of plant nutrients or small proportion of them; and bacteria induced by ample the* they are not always the supplies-of 6r-0111a-matter, same. can eliminate or decimate populations of lithoPhile insect's 3. 'Classic examples simple Mechanical:inter- ferenee. But thechange does This seems like a note of despair, , not stop there, the growths however, if water quality deviates theinseives provide habitats too far from, normal, the effects. far the animals, suChea' are immediately apparent. Thus, Chironomidae and Naidid worms, -- poisonous substances.eliminate which cduld not otherwise live ,manyepecieirand may leave no on the stones. --animalb (Hynes 1960); excessive quantities gestalt remove all Oxygen levels and depositing leeches, amphipodw, and most substrates .insects and leave a fauna consisting largely,of Ciiironomidae, -*If oxygen conditiong'over caddis worms, and oligochaetes -muddy bottom :reach levels Vilbreaht 1954) and excessive juit low enough to he intolerable- antounts of dissolved organic -to leeches, :tubificid-worms, .; matter give rise to carpets Of which the leeches normally;, sewage fungui, which never occur hold check; -are able to build naturally, riere.no gre4fhiologi- up to enbrmoui 'numbers Cal expertise, is needed, and there especially, as, some of their IS little difficUlty in the competitors Ce4. g. Chironoinua) `communication of: results, . when effectslare'Slighter and more. are alsO 4trriinated. ", .. subtle that biological findings

169- 6/

TheInterpretatiOn of Biological pattiAlith Reference to Water CliuLity

t . become difficult to transmit -e The European Saprobic System intelligibly to other disciplines. In Europe, the initial stress was primarily, on microorganisms and IIITHE PROBLEMS IN PRESENTATION results were first codified in the BIOLOGICAL RESULTS ; early years of the century by Kolkwitz-and Marsson. Inhis Because of these difficulties various "Saprobiensystem, " zones of organic attempts have been,made ta simplify the pollution sitnilar, to those described prepentation of biological findings, but to .by the American workers were defined inirid none ofthem,is very successful and organisms were listed as charac- because of the'complexity of the subject, teristic of one Or more zones; EarlyattemptsatsYsternatization developed almost independently on the two sides of the Atlantic, although they hadsome TABLE '1 similarities.

-A Early Studies' in the United States SAPROB ENSYSTEM - A European system (Richardson and the Illinois River) , of class ying organisms according to their response to the organic pollution in slow' In America, there was a simple division moving streams.(22) into zones of pollution, e. g: degradation, septic, and recovery, which were Alpha-lViesosar*Obic 4one- Area of characterized in broad general terms. active decomposition, partly aerobic, This simple, textbook approach -is 'partly anaerobic, in a stream heavily summarized by Whipple al. (1947), polluted with organic wastes. and serves fairly well for categorizing gross organic pollution such-as has -been Beta- Mesosaprobic Zone. - That reach mentioned above.It was, however; of stream that is moderately poluted soon found by RichardSon (1929) during with organic wastes. his claeSical studies on the Illinois --River that typical "indicators." of foul Oligosaprobic Zone - That 'reach of a conditions, such as Tubificidae and stream that is slightly pollutedWith Chironoinus, were not always; present organic wastes and contains the -where they would be expected to occur. mineralized products of self- This was anearly indication that it is purification from organic pollution, hot the witer quality itself that provides but with none of the organic pollutants suitable conditions for "pollution faunas, " remaining. but other, usually associated, conditions. * in this instance ,depobits of rich organic _Polysaprobic Zone - That area of a mud. Snob conditions may, in fact, be grossly polluted stream which contains preseritin places wh-eie water quality the complex organic wastes that are in'no waykriesembles pollution, e. g., ecomposing primarily by anaerobic upstream Orweiriii.in trout Streams processes. Where autumn leaves accumulate and. g decay and cause the development of biota typical of organically polluted A relent exposition of this list-is 'Water,: therefore be givewhy Kolkwitz (1950).It was then ludged againsa backgrOnndof biological claimed that with a list of the species Richardson wasvfully aware voc_urring'at a particular point it was . othisand waii=iii-riO -doubt-about the- pOssible to allocate itto a saprobic cbndition of the s ver even in .zone.This system early met with -places where his, samples Showed, few -criticism for several reasons.First, ':Or'nOpollutiOn'iridiCatOra.

'4i6g cre "

TABLE 2

SAPROBICITYt LEVELS A CCOR.bING'TO THE! TROPHIC -STRUCTURE,OF THE COMMUIsilTXES OF ORGANISMS.

aSaprobia/ty, Level Structure of the Communities of Organisms . I 13-oligosaprobie Balanced relationship between producers, consumers and destroyers; the communities of organisms are poor in individifals'init there iss'a moderate variety of species, small biomass and low bioactivity.

a-oligosaprobic Balanced relationship between producers, consumers and destroYers;,communities of organisms are rich in dividuals and species with a large biomass and high b °activity.

13-me sosaprobic Substantially baAnced relationship between producers, consumers and destroyers; a 'relative increase in the abundance of destroyers and, accordingly, of the consumers living off them; communities of organisms are rich in individuals and species with a large biomass and .high bioactivity. IV a-'mesosaprobic Producers decline as compared with an inease in consumers and destroyers; mixotrophic and amphitrophic forms predominate among the producers; communities of -organisms rich-in individuals but- poor in species wiih'a latge biomass and extremely 'high bioactivity; still only few species of macro-organisms;. mass development of bacteria bacteria-eating ciliates. V 13-pitlysaprobic Producers drastically decline; communities of organisms are, extremely rich in individuals but poor in species with. a large biomass and high biOactiyity; macrofauna represented onlYby a fewspecies of tubificids and chironomids; as in 'IV these are Ii great abundance; mass development of bacteria and baCteria-eattng ciliates. VI a-polysaprobic Producers are absent; the total biomass1is formed practically solely anaerobi,c bacteria-and fungi; macro-organisms aretithaint; flagenates,outntimber a-- r, ciliates amongst the protozoa.

A'A

Saprobicity - "Within the bioactivity Of a body of water, Saprobicity is the sum -total of allihose metabolic processes which are the antithesis of prirnary_production; It is, therefore the sum'stotal of all those:. processes-whicILare:aCcompanied'py a losS of pdtentialeliergy. " ., Part I, Prague Convention. , ;, 'I , ' .. t

c 161 .fiki.r. c. ... J J*, .-

' ' .2- A .-..q -.. - . '.. A . r A.,' 41 0' '.',:..4;,- ' `',-"--' Zr;.`":',1 '4 The Interp.retation of Biological'Data with Reference to Water Quality 40'

ry .; - al-the organisms h ted bccurred'in importance of extrinsic factor's,' n-atural'habitats-:-they. were notevolVea*, suchEls current, nor. that the in polluted Waterand there was 'much system can only apply to Organic doubt as to the placing of many of the . pollution and that different types - speCies itz the,lists.;_ The system, how-_ , of organic pollution,differ in their. , didserVecto codify.ecolOgica/ " *.effects;- e. g., carbohydrate solu- knowledge about-along list of specieit tions from-paper. works produce 'aiding an extended)trophic scale.Iti -different results from those of weaknesses appeared to bemerely due Sewage, as they:--contain little to lack of knowledge; such a rigid_ nitrogen and very different sus- syStem took far too little account g the * pended solids.: Other worker's

complexity of the reaction of organisms ' olD (S3adecek 1961 and references to their habitat's. .For instarce, many therein) have subdivided the more organisms cakbelound, albeit rarely, 'pollitted zones, Which now, instead , hi a wide range of conditions and others_ . of being merely descriptive, are may occur inrestricted zones for. mg' considered to represent definitp reasons that have nothing to do with . ranges of oxygen content, HOD,. water quality: We often do not know if sulfide, and even E. coli populations. organisms confined to clean headwgtera Every water chemist knows that , 8. e kept.there.by high oxygen.contertt, BOD'andoxygen content are not low summer temperatures; or inabiiity directly related and to assume that to Compete with other specie-s Wider either should be more than vaguely other .con,ditions.In the swift waters of related to the complexities of ,Switzerlandthe system broke down in biological reactions seems to me / that some organisms *appeared in more,. to indicate a funda.mentar lack of polluted zones than their positionein the' ecological understanding:- I also lists would inclidafe.Pre-surnably, here think it is damaging to the hopeof r the cohtiplling factor wa,s oxygen; whi`th mutualunderstanding between the was relatively. plentiful in turbulent cold various disciplinei concerned with water. lip recent series of experiments,, . waterquality' io give the impression Zimmerman (1962) has proven,that. that one carwexpect to find aclO'ge and rigid ieS.,#,ionship between - current alone has ,a. great influence on O the biota; and identically polluted water water qualgximeasurements as flowing at different speeds produces assessed by'different sets of . biotic communities characteristic of , parameters.: ,Inevitably these different saprobie levels. He finds this- nelationshi svary with local con- surprising; but to me it seems an ditions; wh t applies in a sluggish expected result, for the reasonS,given river in smer will certainly' not above. apply to a mountain stream or even . to.the sa e river in the winter. C Recent Advariee.qn the Saprobic System Correia on of data, oven within one disdipline, needs understanding, knowledge, and judgment. 1 Pethaps Zirnmerman!s surprise v. reflects the deeply rooted entrench-_ t.) ° ,went Of the Saprobiensystem in ,Caspisand Schulz (19601' showed ) Central t urope.Despite its bbvibus that tie failure of the system to . shortcoinings It has been revised dist ,guish between waters that are and -extended. Liebinann (1951) na rally productive and those O ically enriched can leackto 'introduced, the .concept'of consider- ar ing nuni>er as well as occurrence aurd results. They studied a and qry rightly pointefi,out that the' nal in ,Hamburg, which'because community of organisals is what f its urban sttuation can only be matters. rather-hari Mere speCies regarded as grossly-polluted. lists, But he did not stress the Yet it develops a rich plankton,

17-5 c c - * t . s- The Interpretation of-tdological Data with Reference to 'Water' Quality

the composition of-which, according authors -in the assignment ofecies to to the system, shows it-to be the different levels.Thefore, one Ai:Wally clean. gains a number or a fire that looks precise and is easiunderstood, but D -Numerical Application of the saprobic it is balled on v dullious foundations. System < ' F. FComparae North AmericanSystems Once the Saprobiensystem was accepted it was logical to attempt to reduce its Si r systems are indigenous to findings-to simple figures or graphs for, ortbAmerica, but were independently presentation of results. Several such "bled. methods vreradeveloped, _which. are . described by Tumpliiig-(1960), w-l-tb also 1 Wurtz (1955) and Wurtz and Dolan - gives the 'original references. In all (1960) describea, system whereby 1- these methods, the abundance of each animals are divided into sensitive-, species is recorded on some sort bf lo-pollution and non-sensitive logarithmic scale (e. g.,l. for present, (others are ignored), and also into 3 for frequent, 5 for common, etc. ). burrowing, sessile,- and fdraging The sums of these abundances in each species (six classes). saprobic level are plotted on graphs, - the two most polluted-zones showingaN BSFPBSFP BSFP. BSFP pSFP BSFP BSFP BSFPEISFFr,, negative and others as positive.. Or, the _ ti various saprobic levels are given 12 1515 297 k, numerical values [1 for oligosaprobic (clean), 2for .13-mesosaprobic, etc.] .b000 arid the rating for each species is 00 Mtiltiplied by its abundance pm-L*4'r. The sum of all these products divided P 4 19 11,-1411 ).1/4 N-i by, the sum of all.the frequencies gives M-2r a "saprobic index" for the locality. k 011-P; 40-% : Clearly the higher this number,, the 4 RAD. worse the water .quality in term's, of .6' 60 organic p011ution.- In a similar wary the gt so-called ;'relative Belastung" (r.tive ea.,* load)rt calculates by, eXp,ressing,:tlre sums -Of, at the abundances :14f qrganiallms a SLOW --r .characteristic bf .the inost -pvlInted '..;" 190- " 2 ,.z.oz(es aea,percistage of tire-atm of-all SEPTIC r 'ercent is al-tnda.nces. 'T 6100 Figure11Histignifiss;based op( selected Argonisms, Illustrating: stream . cOmpletelipolluted'xat., aind,slean satchel of clean, dissimulation, soli*, and naivety conditions [offer localities viillipaara'145W, *umbel': b wYriz K229- , et. Yefealmestips of the 'Srqb4.,pystem , , . ,1 4,Nurbbers Of theie species rep- - ,1-, There are vastaus-Is'' elaborations,.. of-these kesented are plotted for each Ettatibn - , metlids; -sucli'ds -slykinikof species 'as six histograms on the basis of r -': - - . . b,etween: zones,and;Ia.r1g a cowititaf, et C4 .flercentage of total nurnber-,of .c4angesi4;.base-line'art:orie Pai;aes C- :epeCifiti3.., If the constitution of the dpwnstream. Ahern; !.however; fauna from. control stations or from , similag 10rslities is`knowrt,,,- it is ,Aliminateti the basic weakneei3eaof-the _ --- '-. s YsteMnor-the,fe.Ct.thia-;4its, Casper! poesible.to vipress numerically and SChnik1960)- poi):ii..outit there is- ..."biolOgical depression'"(41-4.;

. -,- pe'ecentage reduction in total litt.10.grpementtfbetweeritlie.-Varibfus4 -.' .. - ,

'16 3- .1. . . The Interpretation ot-Bioldkical. Data with Reference to Water Quality

.k,

,numter of 'species), "bioldgicar'' distortion" (changes in proportions of tolerant and non-tolerant ISO 250 .1 species), and "biological skewnes&' 200 zoo (changes in the.ratios of the three I 110 habitat classeis): Such results must, 100 . of course, be evaluated, and the 20 definition of tolerance is quite 11 nl ni V 'VI VII It 111 IV V VI VII dubjtve; but the method has the HEALTHY SEMI-HEALTHY 4- advan ges of simplicity and depend- .. ' ence on control data.Like the Saprobieneystem, however, it can 200 200 N. have no universal validity. It also 150 150 v- suffers from the fact that it takes 100 no account of.nuMbers;,a single 00 specimen, which may be there by 50 50

VII accident, carries as much weight III IV V VI VII 0 1 II Ili IV V VI POt,U1TED VcRY.POLLUTED as a dense populatioti. ripri2,, Histograms, baied on seletted-Organisnfs, Illustrating healthy, semi - healthy, 'polluted, and very pollutedotatIons In Conestoga Basirlyant after Patrick J(22 ) .. 2 Patrick (1949) developed a siinilar system in which seVeral clean stations ,on the water body being ,TABLE 3-4CI a ssiflatio n at Grou ps investigated are chosen, and the of Organisms Shown In Figura ., i s. average number Of species is deter- CROUP ORGANISM seVetr-is!;' , rflitted occurring in each of. Blue-green algae; green sltioeof the genera Stigtoclonium, Spi groups _of _taxa chosen, because 'of rogyro, and inlionemoilhe bdelloid rotifers plus Cepholor/eils megolocyphola Ond Proolis decipiens their supposed reaction to. pollution: Oligochaetes, leeses, ancpulmonote snails . These are theitplotted as seven Protozoa Diatoms, red clap;rind "mbst elle greet algae" columns of equal height,. and dats:%,, An rotifers not irlclurled in 9roup I, -clams, gillbreothing snails, ondiriclodid tripworms from other statipns Are plotted on . All insects and cstoceb e S the. same'scale; it,i.a-a.s,atimed that All fish stations diffeinerriirkedly from the A controls will show biolcigibai imbalance in that the columns will be of-IVery unequal heights. Number is . Beal (1964),' another author, indicated by double widthin.a4Y--- recognized the need for aconciie. column contairiing species with an 4 expression'of poliutioh bised on unusual nurrit;erof indiViEluals. biologicalfifformation: Toward I have 'already questioned the 'use- thi/ s end, he developed a method of fulnesg:Of this mettiOd of piesefitation . biological scoring which is based on° Alynei 1960), and doubt whether it thelrequency of oecurrence of iiiies,atiy more readily assimilable certain macroscopic invertebrates .t data than simple tabulation;. it does obtained from 6 years of study on however, introduce the concept pf one river.; It will be noted ;that the 4 P 44 ecological imbalance,,' - BiologicaLScore is a, modification ' - , sic k. and egpansion of Beck's BiOtie

Index. %

tom. I ° I . - ;',., . , The Interpretationof Biological Data Nith,Reference to Water Quality ',

The indicator organisms are 4 It has long been known that divided into three categories: ecologically severe habitats con- Group I contains the pollution- tain fewer speciesthanliormal tolerant species; Group II comprises habitats and that the few species those specie's whichare facultative that can survive the severe with respect to pollution; and ditions are often very abundant as Group III contains the pollutiow- they lack competitors! ,Examples intolerant forms. Each group is of this are the countlesssrhillipps rassigicif a weightedscore that can of Artemia and Ephydra in saline be allotted to fielddampleson the lakearid the Tubrfex tubifei in rowing basis: -foul mud. This idea has often been expressed in terms,of diversity, ac Normal complement of Group III -which is some measure bf numbers scores' 3 points.' ' of species divided by number of . specimens collected.Clearly, b Normal complement of Grob such a parameter is:larger the; scores 2 points. greater the diversity, and hence the normality of the habitat. c NornialZomplement of Group I Unfortunately, though as the scores' 1,point. number of species in any habitat is fixed,,,it also decreases as The scares aFe additive; thus an sample size increases so no index unpolluted stream will have a of diversity has any absolute value Biological Score of 6.. If only (Hairston 1959).If a definite pollution-tolerant forms are founjg` sample size is fixed, however, iii the score will be 1.Jf no organisms respect to numbers of organisms are found, the score will be zero. identified, it isthossible to arrive Furthermore'', a score .of,1 or 2 . at a constant index. points could be allotted to Group I ti when less than'tke normal cam- plement is present. Group II could be -treated in a similar manner. This scoring dexice correlated well with the biological oxygen demand)- dissOlved oXygen, and solids 'content of the receiving water. 'Beak also related his scoring deyice to the . ° fisheries' potential. This relatiotf-' 10 sitip is litho.wz in table -4] Miles from source

.. ,,,-, Figure 3.Zooplankton*Species diversity - .. TABLE4 . per thoudand individuals encountered in TiNTATIIJE RELATIONSHIP OF THE BIOLOGICAL SCORE marine systems affecte'd by waste waters . l'O.THE FISHERIES . Panin./AL (after Beak, 1904) (30). 0 - from petrochemical industrial wastes. -. the,vertical lines indicate seasonal PollotilaA5ttt% Biotic index-' Fisheries potential 'variations. (30);. . :6` tittliOlititact; " . 6.. -All notnormal fislieritffor typeof ; '- water well developed - ,alight: to moderate Rojlution 5 or 4. Most .sensitive Et species reduced' in numbers .or plAfodersiOollotion . 3 Only coarse fiitieries- maintaine0 :AI Odeirste to liariollutiau . 2 . If fish,present, only those with high toleration of pollution

-,,liesyy pollution- . 1 Very little, if any, fishery .6V 'Severe:pollution;usualiy toxic, .- -0' No'lisb -- . . The Interpretation of Biological Data with Reference tolgater Quality

5 Patrick et al. (1954) in effect used exposition. IHere, again; I would this concept. in a study.of diatom suggest that tabulated data are just species growing on slides suspended as informative. Indeed I would go in water for fixed periods. The further and say that ta:bulated'.data identified 8000 'specimens per are essential in the prepent state sample and plotted the results as of our knowledge. We are learning number of species per interval as we go along and if the details of against number of specimens per the basic findings are concealed by species on a logarithmic scale. some. sort of Arirnetical manip- ,This method of plotting gives a ulation they cannot be re-interpreted truncated normal curve for a wide in the light of later knowledge, nor variety of biotic communities. are they pteserved.in the stoce of n ordinarily diverse habitat the human knowledge. Thispoint 1raode is high and the curve short; becomes particularly clear when Many species occur in small one examines some of tlie early numbers and none is very abundant: studies that include tattles. In a severe habitat the mode is low . Butcher 41946).requotes a con- and the curve long; i. e.,there are sider4ttre amount of data he feW rare species and a few with collected from studies of various large numbers. This, again, seems English rivers during the thirties; to me to be an elaborate way'of they are not only clear and easy to presenting data and to involve a lot follow, but they are also informative of unnecessary arithmetic. . about the geWalities ofpollution in a-way that-data quoted only within the confines of some particular-system are not. 0 25 7 Examples Of tabulated data(Table.5)

A: Ncnpolluted stieam 515 -Simple tabulati6n of biological data Polluted stremn in reVation to water -quality, either 10 z in terms of number of organisms, percentage composition of the Biota, some arbitrary abundanbe scale, / ----- 24 4-2 2-16 1642 32 -U 61-1U 128-25-;42-1C74- nt4&. 40"15- or as histograms, has been 256 512- 1024 2.1.18 40.50 8192 e. effectively practiced in many parts. Number ofil4ivvituls perspecies of the world: in America (Gaufin and Tarzwell 1952, Gaufin 1958), gi.gure 4. A graphic comparison of diatom Africa (Harrison 1958, and 1960; Communities from two different environ- Hynes and Williams 1962), Europe. ments.(After Patrick et al., 1954) (30) (Albrecht 1954, Kaiser 1951, Hynes 1961, Hynes and Roberts 1962), and New Zealand (Hirsch . 6' DiVersity indices vs tabulated data 1958), to cite a few, These tabu.: lated data are easy to follow, are .4nan$611 ( 1961) has applied this inforMative to the expert reader, method to the invertebrate faunas and conceal norfacts. AlthoUgh the of streams in SOuth4arica and as non-biologist may find them.tedious, shOvvn, as has Patrick for diatoms, he need only read. the explanatory that the lognormal curve is flatter, paragraphs.. If is asi delusion to - sand longer for polluted stations; think that -it -is Poseible to reduce 1. the difference, however, is 'not Eko biological datalto simple numerical -Apparent that it does nottieea levelEi, At best,Z1-theiie'an only be produced for limited situations and

th*

17 -9 The Interpretation of Biological Data with Reference to Water Quality

nature of substratum, etc., TABLE 5 sufficiently similar to act as a base-line for data.Neverthelesb, . z 706, tenor 7 tut .705 sn- COGAN1018 WIail2141.1 LIN 441.4 4141st Int,ail NUM. basically, these systems can be uotrirruri 7 4 used to compare stations and thus Oftirasor C 7 r 'win* brims A to assess changes in water quality. .1744864444861114, 11677. C ... C In doing this, they can all 136 used thd.44atitla 0444414 7 A (1014710710re 14444 04 7 I A A more or less successfully, but I 044H12 .18.-1441 5 2 8 4 6 IA 19 maintain that a table is just as-use ttreatill pa411.12 C C C C 7 7 7 188111061144 ort1488142.4 C 7 I' 7 7 4. fnierles13A maltar C ful as an eMorate analysis, and 1 I believe that the table should be ZU*441011m1s 1 1 7 284.4414 inc'uded with whatever is done. 18.141.61:12846 144.01 1 114:444424.nat 1bsocir I 2 . For a.particular situation, however, auldlomo pactipeata 1 it is often possible to distilrthe data '2447444444.44 AA. A 31 47 9 117 65 1 26 8 C7144.4.046.4 814/84taa 1 118124441,111446 78681,44.1.1 . 1 into a single figure as a measure of lareacbla et, A 5 2 29 2 1 8 Teaglota 8.2.0.44 1 15 2 1 'similarity between stations. % 11441144.0 saketea 59 11 16 7 12 7 1 3 701724411144 U. I 1 clopoolct" 404160 .. 2 ..- 5 1 80 3 1g9 101 12740870,804. 1 1 1 1 9 Coefficients of similarity Sumer 1 44242140 2 At12100444. 2 708,4471A Ilan 81 88 19 131 238 Burlington (1962) and Dean and Bur- 771.7.7o. orris 181. 17 2 3 11 Ownoldeo408.4 1 8 5 43 30 1? lington (1963) have recently proposed P474.8444411.2.4 041.44 A 51 22 21 , 30 3% 92 11 193 21 LItIsina verve.* 1 an entirely objective means of doing /11440.441.4 .Nat'l 8 33 7 5 19 444042414 4p. 1 1 this, which involves simple arith- Qintre1A taberealsta ' . I 2 . C4444241s nada. 8 1 5 1 11 1 77 7 metical manipulation.In his system, ' 59243. 15290 56 ,2d/72v$1 180 575...,111,. en _ 1,153 a "prominence value" is calculated - f m r C - 4ows Aaralikat for eachsspeoies at each station. Benthos from Pickwick Tailwater(35) This is asproduct of its density and somefun,ction of its frequency in samples, but the details of this calculation cane altered to suit any partidularituation. Then a even then they need verbal exposition; coefficient of e milarity betwe,en at worst; they give's. sphrious im- each pair of stations can be calcu-. preision of having absolute yalidity.' lated by diAding twice the sutra of --- the lower prominence values :of taxa Coiriparieon of stations that the two stations have iii; common by the sum of all the prominence My final point in,this section con- values of both stations:Identical Jg. cerns comparisons.It is claimed Stations will then have a coefficient that the Gernian system, in effect, of similarity of 1:00; this coefficient measures an-absolute state, a r will be lower the more the stations definite level of water quality. We "differ from one another.This is an. have seen that this is not a te4ble easy way to compare stations in an claim.In the other systems; by entirely unbiased Way, and as such and large, the need to establish may satisfy the need for numerical 0. local control stations at whiCh to exposition;. however; it tells one measure the normal:or "natural" nothing about why the localities are. biotic conditionsis accepted, and different and like au the other more \."then_ottier areas are *compared with br less numerical methods of pre- this supposed norm. This is, of senting data has no absolUte-value. -course notalways possible as there Moreover, it still leaves unanswered' May reMainno unaffected area, or 'the fundamental question, of ho no.unaffebted,arewthat is, 'with different is "different? 11 ,respect to such faCtors as current, The Interpreta:tiop. of Biological Data with Reference to Water Quality

TABLE 6

1 '41-Clean- Types of BIOTIC INDEX N/Total,Number of GroliPs Organisms Present Present Variety Present 0-12-5 6-10 16+ Bio Index Plecoptera' More than one species '7 8 10 nymph - present Onespecies only 6 7 9

Ephemeroptera More than one species 6 7 8 nymph

present One species only 5 6 7 8

Trichoptera More than one species' 5 6 larvae present pm One species only 4 4.' 5 6 7 Gammaridae All above species absent .3 4 5 6 7 present

Asellus and/or All above species absent 2 3 4 .S 6 Lirceus present t

Tubificid worms, All above species absent 1 2 3 4 Tendipes, and Cricotopus bicinctus (one or more of these groups) a ------, All above types Some organisms such as absent Eristalis tenax not requiring dissolvea oxygen may be present 0

*Stenonema nepotellum excluded 10* main stream reservoirs and west Tennessee'streams Stenonema nepotellum (Ephem.)is counted fn this. section for-the purpose of classification.

..%/ ONE FOR EACH KNOWN SPECIES IN THESE GROUPS:

Platyhelminthes Hirudinea Mollusca Crustacea' Plecoptera Diptera (excluding specific ones listed beloO Coleoptera Neuroptera

ONE FOR EACH GROUP, REGARDLESS OF NUMBER QF SPECIES, ETC.:

Annelida'excluding Naididae Naididae Each Mayfly genera (excluding Stenonema nepotellum)

Stenonema nepotellum , Each Ttichoptera family, ChirOhOmidae. (excluding specific ones listed.be101) Chironomd riparius and plumosusiandCticotopus bicinctus.

1 Family Simuliidae- adaPted-from Trent River Board - Tennessee Stream Pollution Control Board8/66 RMS ,

11 168, The Interpretation of Biological Data With Reference to Water Quality

W THE PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING , with. it.Thii3 point has also been, made by other *biologists,e. g: ,Patrick (1961) -The systems outlined above are all based on who stresses the need for skilled and the assumption that it is possible to sample thorough collecting even for the deter- an aquatic habitat with some degree of mination of a species list. accuracy; this is a dtibious assumption, however, whed applied to biological data. B Non- Taxonomic Techniques , From what bas been said about the com- .***, plexity of biological reactions to the various Alternatively we can use the less factors in the environment, and from the expert man when concentrating on only o bvious fact that rivers especially are a part of the habitat, using,say, micro- mosaic of microhsbitats, it is clearthat to scopical slides suspended in the water achieve numerical accuracy or ,even to study algal growth.This method limits of confilience considerable numbers was extensively used by Butcher (1946), of samples need to be taken.Indeed, even and Patrick et al. (1954) who studied in so apparently unvaried a habitat as a diatoms in this way.This gives only single riffle, Needham and Usinger (1956) a partial biological. picture, but is showed that a very large number of samples useful as a means of monitoring a would be necessary to give significant * stretch of water where, it is possible numerical data.. that changes might occur.It is a Useful short-hand method, and as such A Representative Sampling is perhaps comparable to _studying the oxygen absorbed from potassium There is a limit to the number of sam- rmanganate instead of carrying out ples that'san reasonably be taken and, all the usual chemical analyses on water. anyway,it is desirable to sample many A short method of this kind may serve different types of habitat so as to get very well most'of the time, but, for as broad as possible an estimate of the instance, would not be likely to detect an biota.This is the more recent approach insecticide in concentrations that could of most of the workers in Central, Europe, entirely elitninate arthropods and hence who, have _been content to cite abundances fishes by starvation. on-a simple 'relative but 'arbitrary scale and to convert this to figures on some C Monitoring

sort of logarithmic scale for use in -"" calculations.An alternative is to ex- It is possible to work out biological press the catch in terms of percentage moirgrring Systems.,for any specific composition, but this had the disadvantage purpose.The simplest of these is the that micro- and macro- organisms cannot .***acage of fish, which, like a single type be expressed on the same scale as they of chemical analysis, can be expected are obtained by different collecting tech- to monitor only one thing the ability niqueS.- Also,. of course, implicit in of fish to live in the water with no this approach is the assumption that information on whether they can breed .the. sampling is reasonably representa- ' or whether there is anything for them tive-... Hereagain v.ri run into the need fOr to eat.Beak et al. (1959) describes a knowledge and expertise.In collection as neat way in which the common con- well as in interpretation, the expeit\is stituents of the bottom fauna of Lake essential.Biological sampling, :unlike Ontario can be' used to monitor the tbe simple, or fairly simple, filling 9f efflirenis from an industrial site. ' bottles for cherlical analysis or the Obviously' there -is much room for such 0. monitoring. of 'measuring equipment, is ingenuity in devising biological systems a highly, skilled job and not one to be for partidular conditions, but this is ,handed over to a couple of vacationing perhaps outside be scope of this .meeting.. undergradtiates who are sent out with , a Surber, sampler and told to get on

_ '169 The Interpretation of Biological Data with-Refer enceto_Water _Quality

V CONCLUSIONS B Varying LeVels of Complexity It may appear from the previous sections !The study of growths on glass slides is that my attitude to this problem is entirely reasonably skilled work, but can easily obstructionist.This is far from being so., be taught to technicians; like chemical Water quality is as much biological phenom- monitoring, such studtpeeds to be' enon a'sit is a cheMicaDor physical one; done fairly often. Samplitg the benthos often what we want to know about water is is more difficult= -and, as explained almost exclusively biological -- will it smell above, needs expert handling; unlike nasty, ig,it fit to drink, can one bathe in it, most other monitoring programs, etc?I suggest, therefore, that it is desirable however, it need be done only in- to organize water monitoring programs that . frequently, say, once or twice a year. will tell one what one wants to know. There. Inevitably sampling methods Will vary is nooint in'ineasuring everything biolog- with type of habitat; in each case, the ical, just as there is no point .in performing question will arise as to whether it is every possible chemical analySi; what is worth looking at the fish also.It is measured should be related to local conditions. here that the biologist must exercise It would be a waste of time to measure judgment in devising and carrying out' oxygen content in a clean mountain stream; the sampling program.., we know it to be high, and it becomes worth measuring only if,we suspect that it may . C Data Interpretation have been lowered by pollution.Similarly, there is little point ih studying the plankton Judgment is also needed-hi the inter- in guch a stream; we know it only reflects pretation of the data.It is for this - the benthic flora.In aAake or in a slow reason I maintain that it shouldall be river, on the other hand, if our interest in tabulated so thatit remains available the water lies in,its potability, records of for reassessment or comparison with the plankton are of considerable importance later surveys.If need be, some sort as changes implankton are, in fact, changes of numerical format can be prepared in the usability of the water. from the data for ad' hoc uses, but it should never become a substitute for A Periphyton and Benthos Studies tabulations. Onl'in this way can we gO on building up our knowledge. For long-term studies, especially for Perhaps some day we shall be abre to the recording of trends or changes pass all this information into a corn - induced by pollution, altered drainage, puter, whith will then be able to agricultural poisons, and .other havod excise better.judgment than the . wrought by man, one can expect in- biologist.I hope -this will happen,' as formative results from two principal' computers are better able to remember techniques: First, We can study . and to Cope with complexity than men. microscopic plant and animal growth It will not, however, pension off the with glass ,slides placed in. the water for biologist. He will still be needed to fixed ,periods; secondQye can obtain 'collect and identify the samples. rdndom samples of the benthic fauna -I cannot imagine any computer we'.'ting.., The algae and associated microfauna abOnt on rocky, riffles nor persuading .-tell_one a good deal about the nutrient outboard motors and mechanical grabs 4, Condition of the water and the changes to operate-from the confines that odour in it, and the larger benthic of/small-boat-a. We shall stillneed 3rnt fauna reveal changes' in the trophic flesh and blood biologists .long after the status, siltation due to .soil erosion, advent of the hardwarewater chemist,, effecte'of insecticides and other poisons' even though, with reference to my etc. earlier analogy, a Tokyo University The Interpretation of Biological Data with Referenceto Water Quality

computer recently outpointed 10veteran 11Ferdjingstad, -E. Taxonomy and . rnedicals in diagnosing brain tumors and Saprobic Valency of Benthic Phyto- heart disease.It should be pOinted out, microorganisms.Inter. Revue dir however, that the computer still hadto-be Ges. Hydrobiol. 50(4):475-604. ed with information, so we are still- r9.65. long way from the hardware general, 12Ferdjingstad, E.Pollution of Streams practitioner.I believe though thttt he is Estimated,by Benthal Phytomicro- likely to evolve before the hardware organisms'.I..A System Based on biologist; after, all, he studied onlyone animal. Communitie of Urgantsms and Ecological Factors.Int. Revue ges. Hydrcbiol. 49:63-131. REFERENCES ' 13 Gaufin, A. R. The Effectsof Pollution on a Midwestern Stream. Ohio J. 1 Albrecht, M. L. Die Wirkung-der Sci. 58 :197 -208,. Kaliabwasser auf die Fauna der 1958. Werra and Wipper. Z. Fisch,N. 14Gaufin, A. R. and Tar7zwell, C. M. 3;401-26.1954. Aquatic Invertebratesas Indicators of Stream Pollution.Pub. Hlth. 2Allanson, B. R.Investigations into the Rep. 67:57-64. ecology of-polluted inland waters in 1952. the Transvaal. Part I.Hydrobiologia 15 18:1-94. Hairston, N. G.Species Abundance and 1961, Community Organization.Ecology 40 :4Q4 -15.1959. 3Bartsch, A. F. and Ingram, W.M. Biological Analysis of Water Pollution 16 Harrison, A. D. The Effects ofSulphuric in North America. Verh. Iriternat. Acid Pollution on the Biology of Verein. Limpol.16:788-800.1968. Streams in the Transvaal, 'South Africa.Verh. Int. Ver, Limnol, 4 Beak, W. , de Courval, C. and 13:603-10. Cooke, N:\E. Pollution monitoring 1958. and prevention by use.of bivariate 1.7Harrison,-A. D. The role of RiverFauna control chalk. Sew. Industr. in the Assessment of Pollution. Wastes 31:1 83-94.1959. Cons. Sci. Mr. Sud Sahara Pub. 64:199-212.1960. 5 Beck, W. M., Jr. The Use and Abuse of Indicator Organisms. Transactions 18 Hirsch, A. Biological Eva1114i. of a Seminar on BiologicalProblems Organic Pollution of New Zealand iriWater Pollution.Cincinniti.1957. S1t9r5eamr s. N.Z. J. Sci; 1:500-53. 6Burlington, R. -F.Qup.ntitative Biological Assessment of J. Wat. 19 Hy es, H. B. N. The Biologyof Poll. `Contr. Fed. 34:179-.83. 1962. lluted Waters.Liverpool,1960, 7 Butcher, R. W. Th Biological Detection 20 Hynes, H. B. N. The Effectof Sheep- of Pollution. st. Sew. Purif. dip Containing-the Irisecticide BHC 2;92-7.1946. on the Fauna of a Small Stream. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 8Cairns, John; Jr.et al.. A Preliminary 55:1.92-6. Report on Rapid Biological Information 1961. Systems for Water PollutionControl. 21 ,Hynes, H. B. N. and Roberts, F. W. ANA JViTtF. 42(5):685-7Q3.1970. The Biological Effects of Detergents in thelliver Lee,' Hertfordshire.' ". 9 Capers, H. and Schulz,H.Studien Ann. Appl. Biol. .50:779:-90. zur Wertung der Saprobiensysteme. 1.962. -40 Int. 'Rev. ges. Hydrobipl. 45;535-65. '22 . 1960. Hynes, H. B. N. and -Williams,T.. Fr; The Effect of DDT on the Faunaf a Central African Stream.. Ann. Trop,. 10 Dean, J. M: and Burlington,.R.- F. Med. Parasit. -56;78-91.1962. A Quantitative Evaluation 'of Pollution Effects on,Strearit,Communities. 23 Mies, J.Die Lebensgemeinschaft des Hydrobiologia 21:193-9.1963. Bergbaches. Wittenberg-Lutherstadt. 1961a. 0- 17-14 171 .?"

The Interpretation of Biological Data with RefrenCe to Water Quality A .

Mies, J.41vVersuch ether allgemeiner. 38Patrick, R.,Hohn,-M. H. and Wallace, biozonotischen Gliederung der J. H. A' New Method for Determining Fliessgewasser.Int. Rev. ges the Pattern of the Diatom Flora. Hydrobiol.46:205-13.1961b. Not. Nat. Phila."; Acad. Sti-:259. 12 pp.1954.' 25Ingram, W. M., Mackenthun, K. M., and Bartsch, A. F.Biological Field 37 Patrick, Ruth.Benthic Stream Com- Investigative Data for Water Pollution munities. Amer. Sci. 58:546:549. Surveys.USDI, FWPCA Pub. WP-13, 1970: 139 pages.1966. 38 Richardson, R. E. The Bottom Fauna of 26 Kaiser, E. W. Biolgiske, biokemiske, the Middle Illinois River, 1913 -1925; bacteriOlogiske samt hydrometriske Its Distribution, Abundance, Valuation undersogelser of Poleaen 1946 og and Index Value in the Study of Stream 1947.Dansk. Ingenforen.Skr. Pollution.Bull. Ill, Nit. Hist. Surv. 3:15-33.1951. 17:387 -475.1929. 27 keup, Lowell E: ,'Ingram, W. M.and 39 Sinclair, Ralph M.:, and Ingram, Macktnthun, K. Biology of Water William M. A New Record for the Pollution.USDI. FWPCA CWA -2, Asiatic Clam in the United States- - 290 pages.1967. The Tennessee River.Nautilus. 74(3) :r14 -118.1961. (A typical 28 kolkwite, R.Oekologie der Saprobien. benthos faunal list for a large inland Uber die Beziehungen der Wasser- unpolluted river,,, with an eroding organismen zur Uranielt.Schr. substrate. ) Reihe ver Wasserhyg. 4:64 pp. 1950. 40 Sladecek, Vladimir. Water Quality 29 Liebmann, H. Handbuch der Fkschwasser System. Verh. Internat. Verein. und Ablkasserbiologie.Munich.1951. Lirnnol.16:809-816.1966. 30 Maciel, Norma C. Levantamento 41Sladecek, V. Zur biologischen hipotetico de urn rio cOm rgde Gliederung der hoheren Sabrobi- Ott Surbert*Inst. de Engenharia Sanitgria, tatsstufen. Arch. Hydrobiol. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Pub. No. 58, 58:103 -21.1961-. 96 pages.1969.(,Zones of pollution in.a Brazilian river. ) 42Sladecek, Vladimir. The Ecological and Physiological Trends in the Sapro- _31Mackenthun, K. M.. The Practice of biology: Hydrobiol. ,30:513-526. Water Pollution Biology.USDI. 1967. FWPCA. 281 pp.1969. 43 Tumpling, W. V. Probleme Methoden 32 Needham, P. R. and Usinger, R. L. und Ergenbnisse biologischer , Variability in the Macrofauna of a Guteuntersuchungen an Vorflutern, Single Riffle luProsser Creek, dargestellt am Beispiel der Werra... . Californiaas.indicated by the Surber 45:513-2,34.1960. .- 24:383409.1956. ,. 44 Whipple, G-.'C.1Fair,---G. NI. and 33Olson, Theodore A., and Burgess, F. J. Whipple, M. C. The Microscopy of Pollution and Marine.Ecology. Inter- Drinking Water. New York.1947. science PUbliehers. 364 pages.1967. . 45 Woodiwiss, F. S. The Biological System 34 Patrick, R. A Proposed Biological. ' of -Stream Class ication used by the Measure of Stretunicondiiions, based -* Tient River Bod.Chem. and Ind., on a Survey of the Conestoga Basin, pp. 443-44'7. rch 1964: . LanCister. County, - Pennsylvania. . . , Proc. ACad. Nat. ;Sci. ?,-, 46 Wurtz, C. B. and Dolan, T. A Biological J.01:277-341.1949. Method-Used in the Evaluation of Effects _ of Thermal Discharge in the SchuYlkill 35 Patrick, R. A Study of the Numbers and River.- Proc. Ind. Waste COnf.' Purdue. Kinds of Species found in Rivers in 461-72.1960. Eastern Unitcd sta*- proc1;,,,Acad. - Nat. Sci. 113:215-58.1961. 0 The Interpretation of Biological Data with Reference toater Quality

47 Zimmerman; -`P.Der Einfluss auf the This outline was prepared by Dr. H. B.N. .Zusammensetzung der Lebensgemein- Hynes, Chairman, Department of Biology, schaften in Experiment. Schweiz. Z. University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Hydrol. 24:408-11.1962. 48 Hynes, lig B.N. The Ecology of Flowing Reprinted from: _Symposium Environmental Waters in Relation to Management. Measurements Valid Data anti- Logical' JWPCF. 42(3):418-424. 1970. Interpretation, July, 1984, PHS Publication 49 Hynes, H. B. N. The Ecology of Running No. 999-AP-15, pp. 289-298. Waters. Univ. of Toronto Press. 555'pp. 1970. Figures, tables, additional references, and 50 Scott, -. Ralph D. The Macro-invertebrate headings are editorial-changes by R. M. Biotic Index - A Water Quality,Measure- Sinclair, Aquatic Biologist, National Training - merit and Natural Continuous Stream Center,. MPOD, OWPO, USEPA, Cincinnati, Monitor for the Miami River Basin. Ohio 45288. 17 pp. The Miami Conservancy District, Dp.yton, OH 45402.1969. Descriptors:. Aquatic Life, Benthos, Water 51 Cooke, Norman E. Stream Surveys Qualityk Environmental Effects, Biological Pinpoint Pollution.Industrial Water Indices 6 Engineering.p. 31-33. Sept. 1970.

1 73 em,

THE PHYSICAL AND BItiLOGICAL COMPONENTS QF THE ESTUARINE -- ECOSYSTEM AND THEIR _

ITHE BIO'T COMPONENT 1.3Environmental Classification :of Biota ESTUAR ECOSYSTEM. Plankton . A The Problem cel'axonomy..- - .7.4: All motile aquatic organisms, plant Necessity of identifying species - or animal, whose powers of locomotion are too feeble to resist the set and Studied:Of-the eccilOg-i,of any habitat drift of currents are classifiettas require the identificatioq.orthe , plankton.,!* organisme found in its -One cannot c. come up with 'definitive evaluations of aPhytiplankton stress on the biota. of, an estuary unless--- we can 'say what siieciesconrititute the_ The term phytoplankton is usually biota.Species vary'in their responses. applied to acellular (unicellul-ar)'' to the impact of the environment. floating plants but strict adherence to the foregoing definition should -' 2SolUtions to the problem include all floating cellular plants such as Sargassum. Representative a Evasion phytoplankters are' ihown in Fiiiire 1. Treat the ecosystem aa.a.211ilack b Zooplanlgton box" -- a unit --whileitnoring the constitutiordirthe system. The animal plankters are zooplankton. This may produce' some lirtO,a' d Some kinds of plaifiRion are generalizations-ad will certainly equivocal in their:Conforming to the yield-afore qUestiOns than answers. requirements for classification as plants: or animals.Typical -zoo- bComproMise plankters such as may be found in estuaries are shown in Figure 2. Work only with those taxonomic categories with_which one has c Holoplankton the competence to deal. .Describe F, the biofic component as a- _. Organismityhichere classified ea- taxocenosis limited to one or two . -plankton_atiall Stages of their life numerically domintint taxonomic cycles are-,Callesi holb>niktoni-z-Th- categoriesl.bearing,in mind that._ term is applied both to phytoplankton numerically taxa which are-ignared and zooplankton species which con- May be very important to the ecology formto th&s;definition.All-of the of the. estary. species shown iir.XAgaresrAind..2 dare oplarikters.

c Comprehensiliftlescriptibn . eroplankton , Attempt a-comprehensge desCrOp", tioitiotthebiota. No one can-Claim' l planktonic =reproductive stages. of - competence to deatiiith species which iriAhet-stages of the one or, two groups. lifecyofklive-On4heihottom or are of experts must, be obtained: The strong', siiiMniers are-balled iithsoiian institution-has .a- cle meraplanlitont igi.herite are eggs, inghousef or thitikiortIliingh.-, lar vae,:swtiroinfstakesPjuve , Lists of exiierilaifaWriiets, can be or ,aexurElteriiatesrit0iagetative obtained ,(2' b,"C),A3)._ .There siagek;ofhOst'Ofarifieplants and none:for sonie groups. ,Also animals:, ankterow CiillabOraitoli-fa.tiiii,er.do ape shown

(-1 .---- .

. 0' C The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem

. . e Tychoplankton conventional plants irPappearance than like animals. Other epifauns. ." Small, weakly motile, bott _creep about on the bbttom.. Figure 3 dwelling oyganisms-.which are shows typical epifauna and flort . -.accidentally swept into suspension by turbulent water motion are cInfauna

. called' tYchoplatikton.It -is easy to A see that many of the planktonic Animals which live buried ihie species in turbulent estuaries are unconsolidated sediments or in likely to be tYchoplankters. burrows in soli&substrates are called infauna.Fixed infauna are 2 Nekton5 those which live in permanent burrows while burrowing infauna. Organisms which remain suspended in move aboutilisplacing sediment as . the water and whose powers of locomo- they go or by creeping or swimming" tion are great enough to resist the set between the 'sand grains.If they and drift of currents are called nekton.. progress by displacing sediment Only three major taxonomic categories particles, they are called megafauna. are represented in this classification- - If ally are adapted to creepingintne the fishes, the cephalopod molluscs - interstitial ,spaces, theytre called (octopuses and squids) and certain meiofauna. Organisms which are so ° _crustaceans (shrimps and swimming small that they can float or swim in crabs). Many of thege, bebause of the interestitial spaces are called strong affinities for the bottom, may microfauna. juSet as easily fit in the benthos (Seeic). Typical estuarine nekton are shown in dInflora Figure 4.Bottom dwelling or reproduc- ing nekton species are called dermersal. 'Macroscopic plants are uncommon on Those which live and reprodtice sus- bottoms consisting of. unconsolidated pended in the, water are'calleaTelagic. sedime'nts. The big exception to this 65. rule are the sea "grasseS. " Micro- 3 Benthos scopic:, plants are abundant either% fixed to sand grains or lying about Organism which asi.adults or in the op or between them. bacteria are sessile stages oflhei life-cycles, abundant,on.all bottom surfaces and live on the bottom are called.bentho,s, in the spaces between sediment grAins. as, of course, are all whose entire A variety of mega-infauna are shown life cycle is spent there. The benthos in Figure 6, while Figure 7 shows .a May also be Subdivided. number of meio- and --and- inflora. a Epiflora ors. IA -C Ecological Classification of thBiot6: Plants, cellular or aceIrI u aX-;---macro- tpr micro-, which live attached to or Classification of any sort is a matter of living on the bottom are called convenience to enable us to pigeon-hole epiflora. items with which wedeal. Ecologists vr-'' have found it convenient and useful to be bEpifaunaa able to pigeon-holeaqiiatic organisms particularly those or esluaries where Animals.Which live-on,the bottom-, normal environmentaLCOnditions vary are Calledieiiffauna. Many repre- ii707, both spatially and temporally-- sentatives' of the epffalma,are according to the 'tolerances of those 6 permanently attached to -the bottom,. organisms to ranges$Sevariations in a phenomenon which does,not occur environmental properties. Thus we have, in the terrestrial environment; as anexample, a classification of estuarine Many' of these are colonial, ,Vhich organismsbased on tolerance to,salinity is-to say, consist -pf,groUPs of changes.. ..ritidividuard'incorripletelyLseparated 6 7 from one anOther like Siamese' 1 salinity Tolerance . twins. A result isAhe'evolution of As mentioned elsewhere -salinity in a -life- forms -which are-more-like true estuary ranges from that bf

16.4 41. % J f.

The Physical-and Biological Cornponen

freshwater at the head to that of sea- imposed by variation iri.environ- water at the mouth. Few organism's mental salinity., Tjiisis character- are toLerant of this entire range. istic of many polychaefes, most Salinity tolerance limits are imposed estuarine fishes, end many crabs. by a species ability to compensat-for osmotic stress imposed by variation eMItrine stephalitle in the salt content of its enyirO.nrnent. *- Species adapted to litling at t )ie aLimnettic mouth of the estuarYwhere salin- -itids' range from 25 Soto those of Limnetic species are freshwater the ()Pen sea are called marine ones characteristic of the river ,, stenohaline- Most ,echinaderms . which empties into the head 6f the which one finds at the mouth of estuary. They Can tolerate salt Ors`tuaries are stenohaliiie. The content up t'o 0.5 parts per thousand. gribble,litiny crustadean which destroys dock pilings.is stenonaline. b Oligohaline .Many of the common Oyster's worst enemies are stenohaline. ,,,O ligohaline species are those derived from freshwater but which fMixohaline have become adapted to living in the head of the estuary where salinity The few species which tolerate the ,ranged from 0.6-to 5.g ,parts per full range running from freshwater thousand,' e ,tthe sea are.called mixohaline. The blue crab,_Catinectes sapidus c True- estuarine is a notable example of this as well as all-the migrants such as the Truly estuarine.. species ere those sturgeons, salmon, striped bass, which'caThTE"irvive in waters ranging and river herrings-whicpass from 5. 0,to 330.-0 parts ;Salinity per through the entire range on their thOusand. These may. be spedies annual reproductive journeys. whose'tolerance is Ptilely passive, ,/ which is to say, not based on, re- 2 Temperature tolerance, sisting osnictit stressi. or species which do possess mechanisms for In, estuaries, where. environmental 011"oamo-regulation. Theyre species >> temperatures vary much more widely which are really typical of estuaries than in the/ sea, organisms may-also being unable to tolerate salinities beclassilied-accorcling_toteraperature aalow as those of the head of the tolerance in the same manner. Thus estuary or those of the sea itself. we have oligothermal, eurythermal, The oyster, Crassobtrea virginiCa and stenothermal species. is a goodZexample. Some prawns 4, of the genus f'alaemdnetes are also truly estuarine. IIESTUARINE HABITATS d Marine eurybains A habitat-is the kind of:place inwhich one. normally expects to find a given kind of The great majority of estuarine ,organism.It may be supposed that, because species. are marine species tolerant Of the wide variety of assemblages of physical 'of salinities- ranging from 5. 0% Yo conditiond and biotic communities, estuaries those characteristic of the. pen sea. contain a dumber of distinct habitats which Passively eurtalinespeciesare will be roughly proportional to, the variety those, which t eratfluctuatiotis in. `of conditions. .salinity without being'able to actively adjUdt., In- dilute, waters, they swell A'GeOmorphological Classification of or-lose, salt;.*-more ealine-Aivaters Eatuaries8, 9 es _`_tey shrink or passively. accumulate _,salt. ,Mantimollifscs,and WOrilis are 1 .:Positive 'estuaries' passively eurilialine, -A-CO-AV euryhalineSpecies litiv able 'to con-, Positive estuaries are those in 'which_ trol theSalt concentrations_of`their the influx of freshwater measurably body fluids despite osmotic stress exceeds,evapoiation,,producing the '41**** gradient referred. to in-the 'ptece'ding.,, ; section. 18-3 ,t O t The Physical anerBiOlogical Componetits of the Estuarine Ecosystem

6,10 aDrowned river valleys' \:B Clas4ficati n of Estuarine_ Environme,nts Many of the estuarie s-on the East Many-au ors have proposed sUbdivisiOns Coast of the United States fall.into of he Sea into environmental Categories; 1,,1 this category.. Chesapeake Bay is Tse have been-summarized by Hedgpeth ...." our largeSFAmerican,East Coast In estuaries we have --'drownedriver Pelagic - environmental subdivisionsf b Fjords: - of the water in estuaries; fnhabited by * _, Fjordaere canyons formerlyfilled l and platikOn- and nekton. carved out by mountain glaciers. They, a Neritic - the water overlying the too, are drowned by rise of Sealevel edges' of the sea from .a depth of although their bottoms mOby never have about 100fathorns to the shore. been above sea level- Fjords are found The Watery environment of all, on the Coasts of None/ay, Greenland, -estuaries except the deeper parts of some fjords and tectonically pro7, Britialh Columbia,- Chile, and eliewhere. , -°' duced estuaries is:neritic. -c Bar-built estuaries . 'b , Oceanic-'seawater,Vhichis more Bar-built estuaries are drowned than 100 fathoms deep in oceans by river valleys or points-of egress of as) definition. . freshwater to 'the sea which have been partly bloCked off by the build- B enthic environmental, subdivisions up of barrier tslanas or spits.; The ,of the bottom of the sea including its; North Carolitfa Sounds and the°Texas farthest landward influence. lagoons are examples of barlbuilt estuaries. -/ aSupralittoral d: Fault or graben produced estuaries This is a..z one between, the truly marine and the truly terrestrial (or Where differential lowering of the freshwater) invided by seawater land occqnsilong the coastin only when sform'surges-push the tectonically active regions,- rising tide higher than_predicted, - estuaries -aie formed. ...Toni-tiles Easy to define on open 'coasts, -it is ; Bay north of Safi Francisco, which not easily detectableenthe bottoms ks-situated in the Sall Andreas fault of estuaries. The'supralittoral is, .ar Zone is such an estuary,San however, Clearly defined in-the Francisco Bay idenather. The small beaches, rocky headlands -Gulf -of-Californih-and-therted-Sea and-manmade structures and the are similarly forined,, but of these, salt marshes which border estuaries. only the former could be called an estuary:, bLittoral 'Neutrjil estuaries: The littoralls the intertidal.It is sO the bottom-which is alternately estuafies are 01.;those ) in which coVered and .exposed by the spring :::;'evapdiatfon-inore orless equals inflow tides if not by the neaps.Large Of,freshY/Eiter, so salrnitles remain 'areas, of the shores and bottoms of eilentially'the gkate as that or the shalloVe-estuarles fall in the littoral. adjacent seawater. Alligator Harbor, In estuaries characterized by little Ii t neat-here .is pitch as -estuary. turbulences the rising tide enters the main channel as an underlying -41:3 "Negative estuaries wedge of dense saltwater, planting the lighter, \freshwaterup. There Negative estuariesare those`in which is therefore, \a Very interestingsbut, evapOration so much exceeds fresh or hard,to deteet intertidal zone, Which- is never expOsed seawater, influx that salinities exceed , those, of the adjaCent gee, The uppe reaches of the Laguna Madre ofhe cSublittoral Texas CeasliS-a hypersaline lagoon of -negative estuary." The sublittOral, by definition, extend's from the lowest low water i84I rb.

. ^ir e Ptc ysical-and-Biolorkcal-eo

*marks to the depth of 100 fathoms. .1),I3eaches . k f It is that portion of the estuary which iotlss; yalwthayersectosvearA bayspeeoaraiater: Baches normally are associated with the Open coastas they are. _ .eStuarine portion of ,the .bott'OM dependent for their existence. on 'Which Is covered by seawater ,diltited,-, wave action and longshore ctrrrents.: . as a result of turbulent_miking with 13u1 the shores of large estuaries freshwater coming in from the -other may have small beaches whicti 'have the same physical and .biotic properties as open coast. C' EStuarine liabitatsg beaches; Because of constantly shifting sand, this is a veryt.' 1.Pelagic, lirpiting ha).,..ttat:fprAsoft bodied megafaunebut a-safe haven fOr.. Because of the 4linity gradient that meio and rnicrofaund. " develops in a positive estuary characterized by reasonable mixing,' there 2)pocky intertidal develops also a series of pelagic habitati which, are more .easily Especially in estuaries°, the A deteited by the presence of typical rocky' intertidal (apd other hard organisms 'than by other properties. surfaces) will be charactrized by a great diversity of organisms a Head, which occur ih zones depending on their ability to withstand pro- a This is the low salinityhhbitat of longed periods of exposure to the 0. 5, to 5. 0% occupied by the oligo- atmosphere. '. haline species. . .2) gland flats and shoals. b Upper, middle, andlower reaches . Fouhd in the middle and' lower 7"-- These are zones with salinities reaches and mouth of the estuary, ranging from 5 to 18, 18 to 25, and sand flats and shoals which owe- ,25 to 30% .Not all truly estuarine. their existence to tidal currents species nor all.marineleuryhaline without the wave action which -44004,064*-* species are found throughout the makes beaches are habitats for entire range: 7 Many:Will be re- , a tremendous diversity of epiflora , - stricted to, or find best grot.fth in and fauna and of infauna. The greater stability of the 'Sediment :--one-ofLthese-reaches______' permirs the'arstence-there .of c Mouth rooted plants and many kinds df megafauna. This is the zone with marine salinities. ranging from 30 to 40% , .:1) Mud flats and will be Inhabited by euryhaline well as 13tenohaline marine In the upper reaches and other places_2mected from currents species. .and)waves, mat flats develop. 2 "Benthic ...With a very high organic content, .w . 'anaerobic. conditions prevail below SUpralittoral the top two or three millimeters _. a Occept where oxygenated water As noted, rocks and other hard is entrained by-burrowing .surfaces (like - bulkheads, dock organiims. ,The surfacet,is pilings, etc '",,,marshes and characteriked by intense biological beaches viiThave a zone of4ransition between the truly marine and thp truly terrestrial which is wet only 5) Oysfer bars loYplasli or storm surges. -40.1), In positive estuaries where ledi- b Littoral and sublittpial tittign precludes e'stahltshment

. vZ4.1,0`,,,, '1 '11

7,',-. 11. '8..sl. 4'..:. is /3,ti:,-5. --is.."4.4,-. fs -4--1- 4 4'`:."4- .4, ''.''4X 4C''',74 ''t.' ThePhysiCal andBiolOgical Components of the EstuarineEcosystem k

s t . 4 of oyster -colonies, in the Zones . on turbulencefoi percolation of estuarine salinity, oysters of oxygenated water it has-a can grow only near the mouth greater diversity of organisms where salinity-is high enough to on and near beaches. support oyster predators,', The . oysters then thrive only in tile intertidal:;4nd produce large .IIITHE ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM12 a. reefs-exptased by the falling tide.' The term ecosystem implies that not only ..* 6) Mangroves; ....,. , , is a,particurar habitat required by a partic- i . ular assemblage of organisms but also that Along the ''sores of teOPical. , the assemblage or community modifies and I. _estuariefOgreat_thickets.of_ _ _.. s,to a certain extent creates the habitat:. The mangrovis_provide a pectiar root of the tennis perhaps best defined!by_ TYp- :of intertidal and subtidal TNatil,t whosays that, "A system is ad ha tit.Tlieprop roots- of the° interlocking complex of processes charac- red 'mAngroke provide substrate terited by many t eciprocalpauee-effect . for many benthic species and pathways." The interactions between the shelter for many pelagic ones. biota and the physical properties and among therhselves are the ptocesses. Ecosystems 4 7) Submarine meadows . vary in size. Theoretically, at least, each . could flourish with an input of energy only. The botfomg ofmany estuaries a$ are covered with extensive' ' A The Physical Components groWths of marine "grasses" . which are seagoing relatives of Substrate some of our ponci'weedstt They provide a habitat for a gireateri . The substrate is that portion of the . assemblage of species than.-ady °° pbOical environment on or within other marine habitat except the , whith organisms live.It is the ground, .- porat reef. the sediment, the rock or other surface.11 It provide'S purchase, food, shelter, 84111111SSt.-1 and Par naellrbtja or attachment. f.4 4 :On firm, peaty, intertidal bottoms 2 o temperate and boreal estuaries, ;

"... 'extensive b,e'ds of the blue mussel. ThO'neltun is ,the fluid which bathes and of berndcles,forr4 a special the oigathisms. Por us it is the kind, of -habitat. atmosphere. For estuarine organisms j4 ; ' `' keXcept when the tide is out) it is the I 9)Salt Marshes t Water.It is the medium through and r. with which individuals exchange matter 2 On the sides apdshores of the and energy, . Upper, middle and lower reaches . of drowned rii7ei (alleys and on. - 3 ,Enery sources, the shores` of bar bitilt estuaries,. salt Marshes will be found. Every ecOsystemmust have a primary Dominated 1Sy asingle species of energy source.For'terrestrial.ecti- grhsi but inhabited by a very, systems it is ultimately the sun., or it limiteadc.v.aetY of animals; they small' circumscribed systems on vie _inprctivity-:withlowa d. earth, the energy input comes as :cornfields, `nourishing net only chemicarenergy. prom "Most, eco- th irthibitahts,-liut also many Systems most of the input energy is or nisMs entloiver lost aSbeat, in a very' short rune- e- ego rtiOnS :of 'the esItiar ie -`- all of it ultimately. ; . - The interstifial The Biological Component--The Community . Theridterstitiai habitat oo space betWeerothiTgrafria# 1, Definition:. edi ent occupied by' the:"rneio- cfmlero-(nfauna., Dependent_ A biological eommutiity an.asse,mblage ,,' . , 7 onnteracting popullitions of;species, .

c- .1 , . 5i4F "..s: : , ; ^$ tei 4

,6, - :47 ' 1 . The Physical.and Biological COmpOnents of tlEstuarine EcosyStem

.T.N 1

.ell moreor less dependent upon each and, utilizer of energy.It takes energy, other for their individual and collective as it comekto the ecosystem, in the survival. 4 form of light, converts it to b. tsable. forms- -the energy of chemical bonds 2 Mega- and micro- communities and in so doing makes more4ife. Its units grow and reproduce.Dl e energy' The biota of ati entire estuary, sea, or bearing ma er'changes hands repeatedly. ocean may be considered a community, All the whit greater or lesser portions justas' may be the biota found on a of the atiergare lost aheat which- single, blade of turtle grans. The ultimately isradiated oout (resuming essential thing is that the assemb its original journey frothe sun) into is. so-integrated that-by mutual-suort- - space -as- infrared radian on from the- -- -and dependeneelts-constituente could- -' -dark ide-Of-the-earth. In-each corn- -*- survive without outside input other -unity there are ditceble levels than energy in some form. between which matter a d energy are .exchanged. 3 Commfmity succession a Trophic levels a Spatial The initial trophic rocessor of Jubt as the gradient of water prop- energy-bearing mater) level is erties extends from head to mouth that of the primary producer. Most of the estuary, so also May be of these are photos, thetic plants roun-` a succession of different which make new U g matter bottom'types inhabited by distinct (complex chemical energy-bearing and recognizable assemb s organic 4tompound ) from nonliving of species. Thin rs sp matter (simple inganic compounds) . succession. the extra energy r quired for this - coming in the forof light. b Temporal Primary consume s are veg tarian At any one point or station in the, animals which (pdon the redundancy) .estuary, a succession of different eat plants. They .o this because they assemblages of species may be are dependent for energy entirely on -found with the passage of time. that of chemical onds, except for This is partidularly-true4 pelagic what energy they an pick up by species and epifaunal and epifloral sun-bathing. Th y cannot use light organisms and on a seasonal basis. for essential life processes. This This is temporal succession. is true of all oth r consumers as well. IV ECOSYSTEMDYNAMICSIa' 14 Secondary Bons ers are the meat eaters or carnivre's which eat A Energy Flow and the Cycling of Matter herbivores or ofer carnivores. The esdentiaattribute of ecosystems is DecOmposers the Molds and ' change, the :result of the constant -cycling bacteria whichreak down organic and recycling of matter{ accompanied by - substances intohe inorganic which the degradation and one way passage of the primary prucers' used in the energy. Energy enters-the system from first place. 'Ts

- and, cst,rialiily the niosf,effielent captor- special terro- -aprotroPh--tothe, L. ... de c oirif Oiser,s.

,2* 184 The-Physical and Bioloacal Components' of the EstuarineEcosyste I

b Food chains and food webs c Dispe sal Because particular consumer species Dispe sal is the rate at which become adapted to cpnsuming, indi duals of a species population particular primary ioroducers and, spre d through the habitat from a they in turn are peculiarly esteemed Point of entry, either as immigrants as articles of diet by especial species or a newly reproduced recruits. of carnivores, there appear in comtmities more or less obligate d Grovth and age at first maturity inter dpendencies which are called - food chains. Because these chains Thisis the average size and age of the become joined by oross linkages, the tion when the individuals first trophiestructare Of the commimity cominto reproductive condition. 1-takes-on-the-appearance of-a-webbf- e Reruitment . .'interactions. '42 T he Eltonian'tyramid and the second Re ruitment is a rate also--the law ratat which new individuals are ad ed to the population. In most organisms, most of the food consumed is used tip maintaining the. fMOrlality,vs survival status quo. Only a fraction appears . as a growth or reproductiveincrement. Mdetality is the rate at which It therefore-requires a far greater individuals are removed from the gross input from any trophic level to population, by whatever means. achieve the net at the next above.This The survival rate- is the reciprocal step by step reduction in realized of mortality.. . living matter is called the Eltonian pyramid. - Figure 8 shows a theoretical' gFrequency food web. The three littoniag pyramids i shown in Figure 9 demonstrate the F4equency is t he rate at which ,different results obtained whenthe _.(inaividuals appear in samples, pyramids are erected on the basis of e ,ressed'as a percent.It is the b;oznass as weight, and ntimbkLof individuals divided by energy content. . the number of sampling units (see below) multiplied by 100.' 16. Pbpulation and Community Dynamics151 h Fidelity Populations are assemblages of individuals i of oae gpecies.Communities are assem- Fidelity is a measure ofe extent blages of interacting populations. Both td which-one may eveto find a populations and communities have ineasur- species in a sample o' the habitat. - able properties peculiar to their respective ; levels of .organization.Such properties p2Properties of associ ns of may be used to estimate the effect on populations'? Aeither of stress in any form. aPopulation pairs piirs of species) i 1 Welevant population :properties 1 Affinity is a Measure of the extent to which a species is a normal .z Dens'ity I . constituent of another's environment. Density is the average or meannurn- 1.".r of individuals per unit ares.or. 2)s Dominance vlurne of the environment. Dominance ia measure of the extent to w ch one of a pair of b Dispgrsidn. . . . species dominates the other. `Dispersibri is the pattern of pa distalburion of indivisivals in the 3)1 Relative abundance ; . .habitat. 'It may be aggregated, Ai I Relative abundance is' the number random or regkr. of indilLidbals cif. a populaMon. reiitiVb tb the numbers of ". ' A- *.t :go :,,.-

The Physical and Biological Components of th" Estuarine Ecosystem

. individuals of other populations' 3) Homstasis which have been demonstrated to be significant parts of the Homeostasis" is the capacity of a first population's environment. community to survive in the face As a population property, it is of unusual stress.It is a function also useful to develop ideas of diversity. "about-the structure of the community. e V EVALUATION OF CHANGE IN AN ESTUARY 4) Concordance A Criteria _ ConcordanceIs.a_Property of liairt-oirtpecies.-0-ii-measures -1Conimunity-composition the extent to which they agree that the environment in which they are If the normal species composition of found is a good one to live in. one.or more communities is known, . Much less useful is the simple, even qualitatively, it may be used as a correlation coefficient. means of estimating the effects of change in environmental conditions. t All these are kuriferical properties. They are definedin terms of num- a Indicatorlcommunities bers-the signfficanceof which can 0 be tested objectively: The identification of peculiar cpm .munities with particular assembIes b Assembiges of populations - of physidal enviromhental conditi ns comm ties May be used to indicate the develop- . a a ment of such environmental conditions 1) Divesity as a result of natural or man-Made change. . .. Diversity is a measure of the- 4.0 Complexity of the biotic portion b Indicator species of an ecolsystem.The great the diversity the'greater the The same concept set forth in the number of ecological niches, or preceding paragraph may be applied "occupations," occupied by to particular species. species population's. T.he magnitude of diversity of a:Community 2 'Population propeities is a function of time and the st tY of the environment- - The numerical prOperties.of populations g for the evolution, in situ, of species known to be obligate inhabit- of niches and of immigration of . ants of estuaries may be used as more species from without. This objective evaluations of change resulting I property, which may also be from alteration cif the 'environment. donned Mathematically, is at --- once a means of identifying the 1'NProductivity community, and a means of cor- s relating its structure with the Productivity IS a measure of _the rate stability of the environment: of production of ,living matter by a spbpulation, a community, or of an A -12) Speciesabundance curves entire ecOsystem. AlthOugh it is not easy to measure, it Is an attractive If as one takes successive sample criterion upon which to estimate the units from the habitat he plots the economic potential of a-habitat, or of number of species against the any of the, constituents as well/as the . natural logarithm -ofof the number effects upon that potential of alterations of individuals he a curve 'in.the environment. which is a measure of the density of the community.It hat been a Primary. or antotrophiC,productivity_18 19 demonstrated that a bzeakin the curve.r rsay be interpreted at This is the rate of produCtion of new invasion by the simpler into the. liyindniatrgr from inorganic sub-. , habitat of another,domrinunity. et. stances chiefly by ptiotosynthesining . plants. As will be kecalled from otir, - . 18-9 . - The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem -

4- 4

discussion of trophic levels, we 2 ,Seasonal effects have always to distinguish between gross primary production and net, An obvious reason for basing eValus- the differencd being the consumption ' tion of change in an 'estuary on of thg product by the producer itself. observations made periodically over a long period, of time is that the normal 134,' Consumer 9r heterotrophic b effects of seasonal climatic_ change proauctivity'°s 41. have to be taken into account. 24 This is the rate of production of 3Succession . living matter by herbivores and carnivores, ln species Where One Of the effectsvf seasonal climatic populations-are easy to,samplei change is the annual succession of is not too difficult to do, populations and communities of organ-- isms in those parts of the estuary cProductivity of the estuary22" Where periodic changes are greatest. One community will arise, .prosper and From an economic point of view fritter away to be supplanted by another. it becomes eminently desirable to Other forms of stress bring this about. be able to estimate the capacity of Catastrophic change, as for example the estuary, as an ecosystem, or the complete covering of an area of of any part of it, through the bottom by flood borne silt will establish activities of its inhabitant species, the basis for the beginning of a new to yield living matter: Obviously, .- Succession.. introduction of hard sur- 0 the-description of the estuary as an . faces into the envirpnment, or hurricane ecosystem- -its physical properties destruction- of grass beds or c6,ster bars -.and biotic communities - -must be will dolikewise. Knowledge of normal -athand in,order -to use this criterion. stages of succession is 'essential to reliable evaluation of change. 4Microbiological assays it the capacity of the water or of the VI THEORETICAL ASitteS OF SAMPLING Jediment en ttie bottom of any or. all ,:parts of the-estuary-to support_life Necessity of Sampling and ecqnpmically desirable produc- / tivity is known, then the effects of 1 Excision ol Sampling units changeSxm these con,stituentsothe environment can he evaluated by. micro= . In orderto estimate properties, describe biological assay's.This,. put simply, . 'the bioth,,,, or whatever; it -is in Most- 0 means assaying the capacity, of water cases necessary to sarople-7to remove or sediment taken from the estuary to portions of the habitat to see what's in it. support growth of populations under Only rarely can one enumerate Reins in controlled laboratory conditions. - -situ, leaving them tintouched by the I "process. necessity of Continuing Periqdic 2Impracticalitfr of whole counts .0csefvations . a " c , ---- .- IL. Correlation versus regression EvenEv- where-it iS possible to count I) .. ": . individuals ill situ in the habitat, -it . If only spot measurements 'of physical .,,.is generally physically andreconotnically and biotic properties -of the estuary_are impracticali. so, we to make dd with . made, one may be lucky enough to sainples., . - 'obtain significant correlations, but if periodic measurements are made; BNecessity of .PrOgraanmed,sampling25,, ,ridt only will correlations be more .4 acceptably significant, but also..one 1 Accuracy andpreCisionj___ maybe able tovOlot regression curves, -/'` by which chang,din biotic properties a In anyJcind of.ensuration, it is Nv nray be linked.vigh, combinations ok eminently desble to do it, accqrately./ 7. Accuracy isa m sure;of. our con- physical pr pemitiesiand their vaiigions % t fidence that the sampling method we offer a'perio i of tinie., c

1.8-16' .e" 183 v o v-,04t a.

The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine-Ecosystem

employ is free of error, representa- I)Sampling for Population or Community tive of the. population we are. samp- Properties t; ling or that the methods subsequently employed to analyze the4sample will 1 Necessity for control of.bias yield. acceptably close estimates of. the properties of the populatiop we Sampling for numerical properties have sampled. demands freedom from bias.. Bias is a measure of inequality'of the chances b Precision is a measure of the of individuals_ being picked up in the confidence we have that methods sample. Freedom from bias is a employed once will yield unswerv- measure of the equality of opportunity ' ingly- reliable- estimates.- -This-is- of_ every individual -being taken- in -the- _that_welar e-dependent_on_ 'samPle, This is one of th- e criteria precisibn in order to make for accuracy. comparisons._ - 2Sampling patterns C Simpling for Community Composition ,aRandom sampling 1 Systematic sampling o Random sampling may be achieved When we are Only tryingo sample fbr by laying out a grid, for example, qualitative data--to determine what . numbering the intersections of he kinds of things we find in the habitat" gridin a systematic manner and and especially when we have a lot of taking sample. at intersttions territory to cover, it is best to lay whose nurnbefs are orde ed by the down a geometricailyregUlarly spaced sequence found in a table of random . pattern of stations at which ti take numbers or the last two or three sampling units. digits in a series on.any page of the Manhattan telephone book. Random 'Limitations sampling gives Maximal freedom froin bias.lint it is difficult and Systematic sampling is linlited to sometimes unconomical to do. the making Of surveys:It is the -method oforeconnaisance.It is b'Stratified randi rn Sampling' ,s biased and therefore useless or at least very unreliable'for the estimate A pattern of stripling which is easier of quantitative properties of to do and still giyes a sample almost populations. ..as free of biat as a° razdom sample, 6 is stratified random s; ispling.In b Advantages . this case, for example, one may . select regularly spaced areas in a Systematic pling is the method habitat and excise units on a random of choice vrI,time and money are pattern within each. limited and orily qualitative data- are required.It is the niethod of 3Sampling,unit and sample size. redenuaisance. . _ The size of the "chunk," for excise cSpatial and temporal systematie . from the habitat as well as the number sampling.. of' chunks influence the representative- --ness of the sample.Irthe former is In an estuary spatial systeniatic too smalin relation to thepattern of sampling may be done at the-inter- spatial distribution of what you are sections of a grid or at -intervals on ' Ifainpling you may get a sample which transeets, or merelyat regularly will suggest clumping even though the spaced intervals on a midline or even species is uniformly distributed.If it with the center of the main channel is too large you may get an erroneous 90 running froin the head to the mouth.. suggestion of uniform' distribution. A Temporal systematiC-sampling way in-which both birds can be killed means taking a sampling unit at with one stone is to sample what seem regularly spaced-intervals in time to.be significant- species, using three at the. same point in space. . or fourhamplinR unit sizes. As successive lots of the sampling units . -- R.

.1W g * ,184 The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem

a. are takeq, the cumulative mean is' VII PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN ESTIMATING plotted on the ordinate against the POPULATION OR COMMUNITY number of units on the abbcidsa. For if*, PROPERTIES an unrealistically large sampling unit, the curve will be level from the A Methods of Collecting beginning. For an unacceptably small 4 unit the curve will fluctuate wildly and 1 Plankton4, 27, 23. never level off .) For an optimally sized unit, the/curve will fluctuate a Nets ' (or deviate) on either side of a certain -. value at which it will level off. The Qualitative plankton nets are funnel intercept with the abscissa of a line shaped devices, closely resembling dropped from the point of leveling off the airport "wind-sock" with a con- giveerthe-optimal-number-of sampling tainer-on-the em- units, or sample size. Thepoint of made of monofilament nylon' cloth of leveling off gives as near -a representa-* varying mesh sizes. 'They may be tion of the true population mean of the towed hokzontally, vertically or species as passible. obliquely. Even the finest,does not a catch all the plankton. Quantitative 4 'Estimates of accuracy._ plankton netware equipped with opening and closing devices and with lb Section B,', .1 above we defined- . meters which make possible an accuracy asproperty of method.It .estimate of the amount of wa,ter which May also, course, be defined as has been strained. a property 4 the result.In this case ft it is a meast.6-of the closeness of an b Pumps 1 .7 estimate to t e trite value.Minimizing ., sithe varis4aFehich.is the basis of the - - 'Pumps are preferable 'to nets be- method dese Ad in the preceding -Ouse one can be certain that all the paragraph ilearactical wait of ensur- '' wateripf the sample goes through the ing.0.mean whi h is acceptably accurate: . net, if that is employed to filter out Obviously, the ,arger the sample, the r the plankton. Within the limits im- smaller the averge deviation from the °. posed by the lowering of hose; one 6 mean. This" is a practical way of eyal- can know Vie exact, depth from which uating the accuracy of a determination. a sample is obtained. The bulkiness , Another rulA of thumb is not to accept of hose is a disadvantage. an' estimateiwhfch is less than 2.5 4mes.its standard deviation. c Traps

5Estimating - precision Plankton traps are devices which , cut off a volume of water, isolating Precision has been defined as an attri- . the plankton in it.The many kinds bute ,which is achieved when acceptable . ofwater bottles used by aquatic Accuracy is obtained in a succession scientists faWinto this category. , -- of samples of the same population. 28 . Estimate of precision may be made. by 2Nekton . the method of testing to determine the a probability that:a greater differerfce, Nekton means fishes as a general rule. between the means of twd-sample Being nekton they, must be captured by could be obtained.. If an acceptable conventional fishing methods. probability is achieved and may assume' I that the method is precise and that the a Tagging two samples are drawn fromthe same' pop don.' A number of methods for*estimating .. population properties of fishes are based on the prindiple of the effect ". of the whole population diluting the 4

-.; The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Vcosystem

... concentration of marked, individuals: how many fishes were caught by . A result is the develoliment Ofa commercial operators, but also variety of tags with,whieh live fish who went out when and with what are-marked and returned to the kind of gear. invtronnaent% 3 2) Sales slip 4't"1".ist riglear , In some states and countries, \1) Hook and line there is requiied bylaw, that all who sell fish relay to the Conser- -Mazes:. vation Department one copy of - everyrecord_of sale A NrIzes 'range fkom hoop or fyke- dets to huge stationary fish traps. 3) Vessel landings 3/Y" ,Entangling nets Fishery statistics maybe accumulated by obtaining from middle- Typical entangling nets are' men the records of vessel landings. trammel nets which consist Of three netsrin one -two outside , 4) Log books ,ones with large meshes and one inside one with small meshes. 5) Daily delivery sheets the fish swim through the large, -4 mesh on one side, push the fine 6) Fixed gear records mesh through the large mesh on the other and make a pocket,from These are the records of fish which they cannot escape.Gill taken out of fish traps and pound nets are made of mesh of such a nets. size that the fishes push their heads through but are stopped by 1) Sport fishing records the dimensions of their bodies. Retreat is impOseiblehecause Valtuable fishing statistics -can be their gill opercUla hang up. obtained through angler's organ- izations and the operators of sport 4) Encircling nets fishing lodges, marinas, boats. and the like. r These are theseines by which fishes are surrounded and hauled 3 Benthos29 out on the-beach. Purse seines . are constructed so they can be a Gear drawn together on the bottom. '1)Dredges 5) Towed nets . Dredges are rigid box or net T-he most widely used towed net like. structures :dragged along the is the°`oter trawl which is bottom blipping off the epifauna- funnel shaped netwhose mouth ih Or digging in Slightly to remove kept open by paravanes as they the most superficial infauna. are towed through.thesiater. 2)"Grabh - 6) Peilon Grabs are dOices whin bite out. In circumscribed, small boles single chunks of the bottom. Of water fairly accurate whole '3) Sieve, shovel, tongs, "rakes counts of the fish populations can , be Made- by poisoning the water ith rotenone. On bottom which may be reached with tools operated by hand, or cill:thing statistics 'N.. on which a person may wade, any of-a.variety of devices may be used 1) Annual canvass to samPl :the benthos. . Thif is an annual Survey con- f ducted to determine not-only liOw 2

. Esi

The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine Ecosystem d.

. b Fishery statistics '44- .usually' require careful sorting or .sieving to separate them from zedi- For inforMation concerning benthos . ment or other-trash. populations which are explbited . commercially, fishery statistics CDeterminations of Quantitative Properties . of the sort outlined in the s ction 1 on nekton may be useful. 1 Plankton 4k .8 Processing the Collections Density

1 Plankton23 Den- sity is given by 4!- it; which x is the number of individuals in -Plankton caught in conventional nets each sampling unit and-N is the 2 usually need to be diluted to achieve number of sanif)ling unita_eipressed concentrations which are workable as units of area or volume.- The . . in the small containers used on micro- values of x may be determined by: ' scope stagy. Plankton caught by pump or -in traps usually have to be 1) Direct counts of aliquots concentrated. $ Sniall plankton organisms may be Filtration counted on counting chambers of the sort used in blood counts; Smaltvolumes-as-from-water- larger kinds may be counted in bottles can often be quantitatively Sedgwtck- Rafter cells or any 'filtered on membrane filters,he other small or container counts and identifications being which may scrlbed or calibrated made when the membrane is trans- to facilitat ounting. , ferred to a slide for microscopic study. Ths planktonmay be stained 2) Cultures and the filter cleared with c8dar oil or with Kato syrup. . The population_clensitieS of phytoplankton spedies may be estimated b Sedimentation by such Methods as the dilution technique. As filtration often damages delicate organisms, dilute samples may be 3) Estimates of chemical parameters allowed to settle out in vessels etipecially designed for the purpose, Determination of the chlorophyll, , the collectionthen being examined particulate carbon, "organic" preferably by an inverted microscope. phosphate or carbon of samples may be used to estimate popular ..oCentrifugation tion density. 21 A high speed centrifuge of apprQ- 2Nekton I priate design will concentrate all but the tiniest plankton organisms. a Determination of meristic characters. Because the smaller sizes are lost through the meshes of Bets and in Meristic characters such as the centrifuging, filtrations and sedi- number of vertebrae;- the number mentations are preferable. and distributions of scales, and A , certain body proportions of fishes ekton have been shown to'be related to r . environmental influences. The Fishes need only to be preservel! This I important thing 'to remember is that requires injections. of.preservative into ' one should be quite rigid "about Making the body cavity and exposure to appro.- lib counts in the same places.' priate concentrations of -the 'staff long enough to inSure complete infiltration. b Age determinations. . 3 Benthos, The age of fishes can be deterinined . , , ow, by any of a number of means. Most benthic organisms are-small and collections taken by dragging or grabbing

. : , . 18-14 a - D - r The Physical and Biological Components of the Estuarine&system

1} Scales b) Agefiequency7

The scales of'borty fishes have Here one accumulates data . annual rings which-may be on the frequency with which counted. age groups appear in the aatch. 1k An age-frequency curve is .2) Oto liths l plotted. From this we get n`-estimate of mortality-the Otoliths are concretions foun d rate at which individuals in the-auditory labyrinth of are being removed from the' fishes. Thesuccessive layers population. We then.get an are _laid down aiulually, estimate of totil,popujeionT -"--section-s-orthesestructures' density-ty-dividing-thelotal reveal the fish's age. catch by the mortality rate. 3) 'Vertebrae c) Capture-mark-reCal3ture . , Similar annual concretions are Assuming that tagged fish ..found in the centre of some behave like untagetrniembers- ' 'fishes' vertebrae. of the population in all`respects, that loss of tags is proportional, A) Spines and rays In different years, and that . there is no variation in fishing Annual increments of growth can d activity, population density can -"'be detected in the bony. spines be estimatedurr the basis of -- and rayd found in fishes' -fins. 4 dilution of a proportion of tagged fish by the,population asp 5) Tagging. a whole. The .sirnplestequation for this method is By capturing fishes, tagging . them witp date-bearing devices P =NX-11- and releasing them, recapture giVes an accurate determination in which P equals the popula- t' of agsincesthe date of _taming. ,tion density, N is the total iif fishes known to be in their catch for the season, M is first year are so tagged, the age the number of fishes originally in years is of course knovnl marked and released, and R completely, ,, is thenumber,of these which ) are recaptured.' There are 3 0 Length - frequeney., 1- More elaborate mays- f doing this when the above as ptions For many fishes-40arhicularly break dpwn.. - exploited species 'Which occur in ;estuaries= -the average length 41) RegresSion achieved at particular: ages is kniarn. The frequency wit1L, This method is based on the '!which a certain length appears fact that the decrease in the, in a sample can thus serve as- catch per:mat effort 'which . anesItinate of age. results from depletion of the 28, 30, 31,. populatioa, is a function of . wecr-B,stimates of properties the extent:ofthe depletion.It is assumed, that there is no 1) Density migration in or out of individupla of the age. group in question. a);Aroea density . 2y Growth and age at first maturity This is the number of individ- uafs per unit area, given, as Thil property is determined by. we-ave seen above., by correlating the length of fishes' t X "with the appearance of some . :tielfet°- -14 structure or state of develop/neat

. 11* .."' , .1-... -.--e---.-.. . C../

. . - ',The Physical and Biblogical,Corapaents of the EstUarine Ecosystem

, , of some part of the reproductive D 'Properties of Pairs of Species systern taken to indicate the Significant Associations' onset of maturity. 1 Determination of significant - 3) Recruitment. associations , Estimates of recruitment depend a Indices of affinity not only on tabulating the proportions:of age-groups in the catch,. One way of estimatingaffInitY is n-th c ch.including with the 2' X 2 contingency talge the recruits. which will give the expected . freigieifeywitirwhich-yotuyillget _Sampling_unit awith A a lone, __B alone, A and B, and neither. This, as we have seen, depends Comparison of the expected with the on determining the proportions obser\red is done and anApropriate in the total catch of different age test for the probability that you -will groups. A plot of thd decrease get a greater difference, orthe in numbers of individuals per age _.probability that the 'differeng_g:ta group with the passage of time, due to more'than chance gives you givei3 a survivorship curve. an indet of.affinity.There are The reciprocal of this is the others, 34 mortality. b Correlation coefficient 5) Frequency A positive correlation coefficient, Frequency is a statistic which is the,f ormula for which can be foulid useful in estimating the status of in any good statistics text, gives a populdtion in the community.. an estimate of the necessity for A It is the number ef times the being'a part qf B's en

ta, 1. The Physical and Biti)lcigiCal Components of theEstuarine Ecosystem

beeniiudedin the summation, Speciesabundance curves when it reaches the value ofhalf the total munber of individuals Species abundance curves are presept in the unit are the numeri--- obtained by plotting the number of, cal dominants of thennit; _ species against the logarithni of the frequency. Of this ddminance is an , number of individuals..as sampling, important- estimate. Of the significance . = units accumulate.- For any one of the species' prehence ine community, a curve of this sort 'conununity.. 'Other ways of com= should be a constant. rioting gomizande areoffered by ° Fager,473 'a% VIII ESTIMATION OF PRODUCTIVITY lc 'Concord'ance A Primary.or Autotrophic Productivity .,. As already Stated, conco rdance S- 18 an estimate of the ,extent of agree-. 1 Phytop ankto melt between speelei3 as to whether A.,I or not the habitat in which they are Light and dark bottle method found is a good one in which' to live. ' --- -7------The method by whicjit it computed Replicates of three glass stoppered is given by Kendall'. While not bottles are filled to overflowing -with partlettlarly difficult, it is a bit too e a phytoplankon suspension. Two elfiborate for, inclusion here. are clear; the third is coated all oven with light-proo paint.The- 2 Properties based on affinity and I dissolved pxygen in one of the clear diversity ones is, determined.- 'The,other two are exposed to light for four hours . -'ra Alfinit* and,..the dissolved oxygen in'each-. -. a determined. Since oxygen is a pen-' 'One.lof the most effective ways in. duct' of photosynthesis and the amount -which to determine from distribu- is proportional to carbohydrate. tional,data what species found in, a produced, the increase-of-dissolved.., sample are significant members of oxygen in the second cleciehottle the community isFageri $34 deter- corrected for the decreaseln the orrecurrent,groups. dark bottle .is a measure of photo- ., is -based on the ?1,,,contingendy synthesis hence 'productivity. type, of index of affinity. -to -. ;,...- !- .. j? C14Metheala .too difficult and is invariably ,. .. 4' repeatable by any successionof . persons who follow the rules. . 11measur ed amdtint, of radioactive COA14 as bicarbonate is added to a -4- ," -,, .. , Diversity se es'of replicates of bottles fitted At,* ,./to"Overflowing,with a phytoPlanktOn 'A number ofbinclices of diversity suspension. 'After a period of - whiCh are, used as a means' of dis- exposure to li ht; thetontents ire, tinguishing betWeen:comraunities. filtered throwmembrane kfiRere; I lit have been devided,, An index based -, The radioacti of the latterls a --, 'on the relationship of'the number of ,meaditre of the COg tatter: up by the,, phytoplanktczn. _74.11e.tQ2,is propor-,, species to the logarithm of the ., . area trom whibh they weFe pollecte6 tionat tO the carbohydrate produced-. was-proposed by Gleason, .30 .'. by photosynthesis. , .- ! 4t!t^ Derivatives of this have likqn pro- fligher aquatic plants . posed by others. ' Sanders"- . - -- o. gab dqvelciped SOY 2, , ,38 , se.- .* which* carmot.be:usedlairdiatin eh- a Change,iii bioma 7 - tietweerf Cornmunitleebut An increase in.bionfasa. as welight . uffed,to 'estiinatelke-relation of reprigentati$,samples of_the between:diversitS? and' environmental7 higher plants time sties ; , . is a-rhea-sure eproductivity, , . -

.18 0:47 . . . ,., . ..;., The Physical and Biological Components of the EstuarineA. Ecosystem

a 39 b Digsofved Oxygen 4 Hardy, A. The Open Sea: Vol. I.The World of Plankton.1958. Houghton- In,narrow, shallow estuary,-___ Mifflin, Beston.a, B, 1) (VII, A, 1) changes in the oxygen content over a twenty-four hour period of the' 5Hardy, A. The Open Sea:Vol. U. 'iFish water-fltnving over a grass bed can andFisheries..1959. Houghton be used alkan estimate of the bed's. Mifflin, Boston.(I,B,2) productivity, ' ). : 6Hedgpeth, J. W. A Treatise on Marine 3Sali-inarshes4°, Ecology Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir 67. 1957.. RI 693.a,C,1) B) - a Grass productivity. 7Kintkep0. The'-Effecte-of Temperature The productivity of the marsh and Salinity on Marine and Brackish grass over a period of time is best WaterAnimals. Oceanography and estimated on the basis of change in Marine Biology, 2._pp.1481-342.p64. biomass. . (I, C, 1) 1------hDetritttg_productiyity 8Russell, R. J.Origins of Estuaries in Tata, G. H. (ed.) Estuaries. Publ. Periodic collection of detritus AAAS,Washington.pp': 93-99. carried off the marsh by the falling- 1967, tide may be used as a basis for.- f estimating by weight, the amount 9Carnkii, M. R.EcolOgy of Estuarine of detritus prOduced by the salt Invertebrates:A Perspective.- Ibid. marsh. PP. 432-441.1967.(II, A, 1) (l, C) B Consumer or Heterotrophic Productivity 10 Heagpeth, I. W. Classification of Marine Environments..In a Treatise on Marine Consumer., or leterotrophie prodactiVity Ecology (J. W. Hedgpeth, ed. ) Geol. ?Cannot easily be routinely estimated by Soc.' Amer., Memoir 67. pp. 17-27 laboratory procedures. We are therefore (l, B) I; 6 dipendent on population statistics. °brained by sampling protrarris or from the Watt, K.E.F: Syptem Analysis in Ecology,. fisheries. Ch, 1, pp.. 1-14. Academic Press, .4- Ne&t.Y.ark.1966.(III) 6 . ,REFERENCES. 4-...., Macfadyen, A. AniMaf tcology. Ch, 17. PitmEul,,-London.1963. (III) Note: The references are listed in the order, 13Lurdiman, R. 'L. . in which they appear:, by naber, in the - 7. The trophic-dynamic outline. Thesymbola enclosed in parentheses, aspect of ecologic geoloq, 23:pp after",,each of diese 1-eferences show the'posi-.,,' 3b9-41.6.19.42.(IV,A). t tion 1nthe 'autline. aQ.vhfeb the refe4tfiee is .1 4 -`,4, rnalle. 4 14 -0bum;,E7 P....Fundamentals! of geology: . 40.4'.;so . Ch. 2.Saunders,Philadelphia. _'195$. '1 "SznithsonfEm"t, Qdeanigrailtie Sdrting .' `3.Cconteh, Arithsoniati InstitUtton, 4 4, 'Ntfashingkan; 20560.,(A,2,6) s, -Slobodltin, E. B.. Growth '''alliRegulajion of Anirnal,Populations. t) New Yarg., ' ". 2 'aIhicl J '5 *, Amy* 4964. (W, = % , s..46 b Psa.mmonalia NearslNier of-the kat 113 *Mee; W. C , ENeerson, 14;4. Societf.bi Meinobenthologistii. Park; T. an bmitt, lc. P.., . ...of.;Animat Siapvietei, cPolyeh441:.A Newsletter of POISTclaqtg PhifelielOda,i'Secfion 449,, I. Rse*fir. 41%. , -(4, a0 t' . a. .0 .4 . t% . 3Secrethries learned apateties 4",..`117F*agehsfE. W'.4istrimunitiesof Organisinh iiingpardealar taionomic categoria trrH11141...! (ed. ) The Sea. "' 9 such 'ar.s Atherican Societyof Ichtlwolb- IntercilvaioN. Y._ B, ,1) k gists, aridelierpetolOgiats MalacolOgical 01(VII,.E41,,a) :1063, - Societyetc:"4 * 0.; 181.8 .t. ; ( 6 o--" as 1 ."., 114.

ThePhysical and BiologicC OMPOneiltS of the Estuarine Ebosysteata . 'I. o o: tt

o. 18 Goldman, C. R. (ed.) Primary 30 Benerton, R. 3. H.-and SI:7J. 'Productivity in Aquatic Envftesnments. On'the Dynamic's of EaqyloitedFish Univof Cal. Press, Berkeley, 1966: Populations. 'Fishery 'Investigations. (V, A;" 3, a.) Sky. Vol. XIX.1957." C, 2, g)' . . i 19 Yartsch,... S.Piliaary Prqductiona Hancock, A and A. C. Simpson. Oceanography and Marine Biology Parameters of Marine Itivertebrate .1, 157,-,16.1988: -(V,A,3,a) Popislatiohs.' In Te Creu, and . 'M. W. Holdgate (eds..) Tlie Exploiter . 20 Raybsont, J. Ei G.Plankton. and Pro-. 'tions ofiNaturaLAnitnal Poputatlidna - ductiVity inthe Oceans.MacMiltazi. ..Witey, New Yak. 1982.. (Ara C, 1,b) ° Varm,4-y-s,4%.,, - -. . 32- Kendall, M. G.Rank obrielii on se -*. -'21Reid, G. 'K.Ecology ot Itaxid Waters I , Methods (2t1d ed.Griffin; London.,ndon. and Estuariek Recnho d, New York '1. ''. 196 pp.1955:.(VIl, D, 1, C) o ....v," 1981.(V,A,3,b) i . I 33' Sanders; H. L. Benthic Studies in , Cushing, D. .H. On the Nature of Buzzards Bay III.The Structure of' .Pructien--in the Sea.'' Fishery . '',-- ' : the Soft Bottomed CciramunIty. , Inveptigatio,naLondoitSer. g, Limniol Oceaboge. 5, 113431153.-- 1960. 1 ., VoL '22, No. 8. ,1959.(V,A,3, c) . (VII,E, 1,a) 1 ' - . , . . , .. . .23' _Wood, E. .1. F. *Maxine MiekobialEcorogy. 34 Feager DeterMinistiOtiand'Analyeiks'. 142eirMld, New 'York. 1965, of Recurrent Groups: Ecology 38. '"

(V,A, 4)' (VILA, a (VII, b;1) - (V11,,E, 10 a) - '586-.595., 1957 , _ - - i --.; 24 Margalqf R. Temporal SuceeSsion and. 35 'Gleason -,- H. -A-:- 011,the_711e3;stipn,s between ," ,,,' Spaiarail Heterogenerty In. rhyte7 : I Species -and ,r`ea,,, `EC logy 3. 158162. plankton.In Birzzati Traner§o. Ag-A. : 19227 (VII, ye*. ,,., - t.-.. .. v . ) PbrsPectivea.in Marine'Bibidgy. : i ...... U. of 'Calif. Press, Berkeley. 4980. ' -36Sandeste;,,H L. ,'Mariiie'lleithlo,'Dwersity:, ' , . (V4', B; 3)1 . A CofbpsrativhStudy.Mn. -Nit. 10; % -* a` ' a'(,925).- 2443-282. ,1988:' (VIE, BN,b)-"i- : - :,..., 1 ,-; -rt ,,4 s: 4 25. 6bchitan,* Ni d. Sattpling Techniques ,,% IS a 4 ; -._:Witey, New Y,ork.r1953: (VI, B)1*"'' . 37Westlake,, ),F..1-Boe me 33abhDati,tPr° rrf ,Investigaliens bf tbe-Vitsdintivitys3f. '"..28."Sokat,'R. R. aqd V; 'J. Rohlf: Biometiiv "Aqnktic:Mkrophytes., VOldrnan,,. , asf:Ciali Vrancisect190, ', s1* grimary*io4uctkvity inAquatic . tio nvircip,rnents... :- :''' . 4. i fresse; : . W1:0 't '; ; _. 'I -. . 4 .4'$3, elty. 1966,.',(V132,7s,'2, , ,'' * 'yiinrsennYcirrS. Ths PlankAois ef the 't s' ., . Sea., Eisevier,4New`York.1966., -- 38 etze16,},'RG. -Techniques:and Probleios % . e 4 ....A -0 (VII. A, 11 $ , ofPrimal"14.rodisOtivity Meaturemenle . in Higher Aquatic-Plants and teripleyr ' 5' to. v 28 (itoftniefell; :G. A.' and W. it.'EVerhart:-. ";,- 1988; (VIII, A; 2, ES) .-_. 'Fithery:Soience; Wiley,=41ew York. _ " " 11153.(VII, A, 2)(VII, C, 2)f-4111, C, ,39"-Owens, M. -7-862rie PactirsInvolvtd in the, k ' 'It'Use of Dissolved-OxygenDistributions, 29 Holme, .N. A'.Methods of..p4nipling . in Streams_tiS Deterniine Pro,ductiVitY. the Benthos. Adv. Mar. Biol.2.' Ibidt 1966 'AVM, A, 2,'b)` 171-280. .1964.(VII,A,3) - . Odwn; P. anet'A -A de la evigt. "I' ':Partictilate Organic..Detritits hi a , Georgia islt.Mel-sh -Estuarine Ecosititem.. hi Tauff, G. H. (ed,) arEstuaries,' AliAS Washington:. ,1967.

= ,- 'Thie outlinb Was preparetiby Dr. Hen.ry-- Kritzler; Pr,ofessbe Of 33logical Opeanok-' graphY,.Florida - State UvV.r8it

4 ° :10;

ed 18-19 I \---CASEPhEPARATION AND-COURTROOM PINFEDURE

C ITYPES OF PROCEEDINGS'IN WHICH b Discharges from specific industries WATER, QUALITY EVIDENCE MAY k BE USED, Littering A Adthinistratiie Proceedings d Discharges harmful to fib, and/on, crustaceans 1 Rule making e .Discharges harmftil tospe cificr aSetting up of regulations-EiVing types of receiving waters general application, e.g., stream olasSifications and implementation f -Discharges of poisons ..plan target dates NOTEIn some of these .situatiozis b Factors of safety and absolute doing the act may constitute prohibitions may be appropriate the violatiOnrin others ° proof of intent or knowledge .2 Adjudications of effects may also have to be provdd. ...--.anieterminations by agency having egpertiSe With reswct to particular 3 Private actions for damages or discharge or dischIrger, e.g., .,4-- to compel action. .**approval of plans and specs and time schedule ofparticular a-- Alleged harrn.to plaintiff, e. g., discharger pollution of stream killing animals /3- Court Actions 0 C Procedural Matters

- 1 Civil in-behalf of state or federal 1 See Attached sheet "Administrative . government and Court Proceedings" on Burden orproof, fact finding, and methods of a Actions.to compel.. actin or Eitis - `..-presentation of evidence. pension of action - nuisance, health hazard, etC:, --including court D Classes of Evidence - General Rules . action folloWing federal conference .-. --heaiing pfacedure 1 Facts.- direct N bViolations of Water Quality Standards a The material was floating from

% the outfall. . . . cViolations of Efflu4nt Standards, or discharge permitS 2 Derived values - expert testimony # ., - test results and/or opinion as to . . d Tort pr contract actions relatingto effects desigii and/or operation of treatment facilities . a Th. D.0 1was zero; -the waterway '419 - --- -, --.."--- was polluted; the plant can be built i" Criminal' i'(dependent on _Content of in 6. months. o applicable- statutes). lip 3 Hearsay Discharge of specific materials, i -.4 aJoe told me

A 6 . W, -Q, le. 4. 3.174s Case Preparation and Courtroom Procedure

FAdmissibility of Expert Opinion on 4 Relevancy Causes and Effects " 5 Admissibility vs. 'weight 1 Who has special knowledge - and of a Even if admissible, theweight to be what particular areas? given is up to fact findercredi- bility. . 2Indicators

E Admissibility of Results of Sampling 3Significance of numerical determin- and Testing (Numbers) ations or observations I

1-Samplif4 4 Consistency with own prior publications and testimony aChain of custody 5 Have underlying facts been or need to bTags, etc. be provedfirst hand information of this and/or comparable situations. --, cContain rs . 6 Use of treatises d Place and time G Conduct on the Witness Stand eRetention of samples (Pro Ving that the .sample reprethents what is at .1General issue in the action (relevancy),that ti there has been no opportunity for' a On direct - know what counsel will 4 tampering; and availability of oe ask and let him know' generally portions foranalyeiS by other side what you will answer, but don't (non-transitory criteria)-.). make it'sound rehearsed. 2 -Analysis b Use layman's language to extent possible. a Who performed (Can. identity of each partiCipant be shown?) cListen to question and answer it' to beastof your ability. b Admission through supervisor' custodian., d Speak )so that court reporter,'judge, jury, and cbtmsel can hear you. cScientific acceptance of method. Is there a particular method required eSpeak in language that willte to be used by the agency? understoOdi don't,talk down. d Propriety of conduct, fAnswer only what you are asked --don't volunteer; however, answer eRetention of bench cards and other with precision.* indicia of results.. (Your attorney can make arrangementeio substitute, g There is nothinglwrong withasking copies fOr, origiiia113). to have 'a question repeated or rephrased. 3 Tests h4Th---e is nothing wr ng with saying doniparison with actual .conditions t a you consulted with your attorney .6 efoy,e-fou' testified, but - Mathematical models - how can a beware of tife question "Did Mr. X computer be cross - examined? tell you wh'at to say?" ;

19-2 Crase Preparation and Courtroom Procedure'

iThere is nothing wrong with thinking a Review self with out your answer before responding. thaterialti before ydu discuss with your .attorney. You are pot expected to know all the answers--if you do not know, b Be in- a position to present all facts admit it. known to you simply and concisely: Who; What, When, Where, and k Don't attempt to answer questions Why, How. 1 outside your area of personal - knowledge (hearsay) dr beyond your cDon't overlookiacts and/or test expertise. (Your.nfay be an expert results because you don't think pn conducting laboratory tests, but they're important. Let attorney _ not on epidimeological inferences decide what he needs. from results). d Use-of standard report forms 1 Don!t try to answer before the judge , e rules on objection. ' eAbility to recommend additional w,itnesses with needed specialized Inhow that you are an impartial- knowledge

A . di.spenser of information and/or opinion, not a protagonist.., fAbility tct aid in cross-ekamina.tion of other side's experts and reconcile n Don't be afraid to alnit what may opinions and/or results appear to be damaging. 4. g Be candid - sometimes better not 2 If you are testifying as at? expert: to start a lawsuit or accept a settlement than lose in the end. a Establish .qualificatiOns -- give . information reTevant to your area H Non-Verbal Presentation of Evidence of,expe.rtise -- educational (in- , cluding this course?), work, 1 Exhibits - including photographs Publications, number of times you have testified previdusly; 2 Summaries . a b Diffeentiatebetween physicarfacts 3Business and/or government records (measurethents and'observations) .and opinion (derived values). a Prepared contemporaneously and in usual course of activities c Be prepared to discuss.theory cluding assumptions) insteuments 4 Pre-prepared diredt examination used, techniques(including choice of a particular technique), physical a Usu ally limited to actions before limitations and errors, .inter- ICC, FPC, and other federal feierices. agencies. I dIf 'experiments were conducted, ICriminal Procedure ."° % be able to,justify both as to theory and relevancy to this litiOation. 1 Privilege Against Self Incrithination (available only to peri3ohs) ./ 0If you're being paid to testify, 11111 . . e. admit it: , a Warning and suspects . r . 3. Spiezitific personnel as advisers to 1 . b,Effect of duty to report spills r.. counsel: t ;wow. . .

. , . ; 3 ''',':.,..* , . Case Preparation and Courtroom Procedure

cEffect of duty to license or This outline was prepared by David I. permit and/or furnish-operating Shedroff, Enforcdment Analyst, Office of reports Enforcement and General Counsel, Cincinnati Field Investigations Center, .. 1---tiratt from prosecution 5555 Ridge Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45268.

2Double Jeopardy 3Unreasonable search and seizure Descriptors:Courtroom Procedure, Law Enforcement, Legal Aspects, Sampling, a Available to persons and Water Analytls, Water Pollution' corporatidra, Control, -Water Quality Standards 4 Prgcedures and need for arrest and search warrants -- possible cause

Acimj.nistratiam & C6urt Proceedings, and E'xcerpts.from Itevised Draft of O ; . Proposed-Rules--of Evidensce for the United State's courts can be found on the

following page#:- M. 0'

ADMINISTRATIVE & COURT PROCEEDINGS

Court or Agency Fact Finder Burden of Proof Comments

State Pollution Control Agency As per statute - Hearing maybe conducted by hearing Agency usually .weight of examiner, agendy member, or full. evidence. agency. Appeal may be on facts and_ m. Rule` making = djudt -- law or law alone, depending On statute. cation /1:J .44 '0 Federal. Water Pollution Control Act e+ 0 eConferende Head of agency 'Reports acceptable. Hearing Hearing Board Specific testimony. rn 0 0 Court . -Judge Uses prior material, and may take. 2- additional testimony., 001 0 Court . 011 Civil Case -- 0 for money only 'Judge or jury. Weight of ev-idence. .

0 - injunction ,

preliminary or Judge Must show immediate Must also show likelihood of success at 0 :Itemporary -harm or danger: final hearing.- bond required for. non- government plaintiff. permanent Judge Usually clear and convincing.' "Balance Equlties" - administrative Judge -.whether Sometimes have complete new trial., appeal. . "arbitrary and capricious" or sub -1-- Eitantial,evidende. Co .

3' Criminal case Jury, unless. waived.Beyond reasonable Proof of intent may ba.required. "iribludespenalties doubt. 7 197 .:198 Case Preparation and Courtroom Procedure:

- Excerpts from Revised Draft of Proiosed . RULESOF EVIDENCE FOR THE UNITED STATES COURTS

GENERAL PROCEDURES - Mile 102. PURPOSE AND CONSTRUCTION' These rules shall be construed to secure fairness in administration, elimination of unjustifiable expense and helay, and promotion-sof growth and developrrient of .the law cif evidence to theAend that the truth may tie ascertained and proceedings justly determined. . (

1 'Rule 101. PRELIMINARYQUESTIONS

ar (a) Questions of Admissibility Generally. Preliminary questionsconc\eing the qualification of a person to be a witness, the existence of a privilege, or the admissibility of evidence shall be determined by the judge, subject to the pro- 'visions of subdiyision (b). In making his determination he is not bound by the rules of evidence except those with respect to privileges. .,.:. (b) Relevancy Conditioned on Fast. When the relevancy of evidence depends upon the fulfillment of a condition of fact, the judge shall-admit it upon, or subject to, the introduction of evidence sufficient to support.a finding of the fulfillment of the conditibn. 1

Rule 615. _ EXCLUSION OF, WITNESSES At the reques t of a party the judge shall order witnesses excluded so that they cannot hear the testimony of other witnesses, and he..rnay n'iake the order of his own motion.'Ibis rule does not authorize egcludion-of (1).a. ploy who is. a natural person, or (2) an officer or employee of a party which is.not a natural person . designated as its representative by its 1:tttorneyfor-(3) a person whose presence is shown by a party to be' essential-. tdt I, eprpsentatioh oVhis causq. ' <

,Rule 6 , MODE 'AND ORDER OF INTERROGATION AND PRESENTATION ..- . . (a) Control by Judge. The judge may exercise reasonable control over the mode , and order_of:inteirogating witnesses and presenting evidence so as to (1) a.make the '-interrogation and presentation effective for the ascertainment of the truth, (2) avoid needless consumption of time, and (3) protect witnesses frbin-harassment or undue

. embarrassment. , , * - - .. .. , .(b) Scope of-Cross-Examination... A witness maybe cross-examined on any iriatter . relevant ta any issue in the case, includinceredibility. ri In the interests of justice, the judge may limit, cross-examination with resp4ct to matters not testified to on,

. direct exarainatiOn...... _ ... 1. ,.... 199, ..; : 19.-6 . .. .4.,. Case Preparationand courtroom Procedure

. --s-pule 613.' PRIOR STATEMENTS OF WITNESSES (a) Examining Witness Conceining Prior Statement.In examining a witness concerning a, prior statement made by him, whether,written or not, the stat ment need not bt shown or its contents disclosed to him at that time,. but on request the same shall be stiownsor disclosed to opposingcounsel;'

JUDICIAL NOTICE I/

Rule 201. JUDICIAL NOTICE OF ADJUDICATIVE- FACTS (b) Kinds of Facts. A judicially noticed fact must be one not subject to reasonable dispute in that it is either (1) generally known within the territorial jurisdiction of the trial court or (2) capable of accurate and ready determination by resort to sources whose accuracy cannot reasonably be questioned. (g) Instructing Jury. The judge shall instruct the jury to accept as established any facts judicially noticed. RELEVANbE

r!, . Rule 401. - DEFINITION OF "RELEVANT EVIDENCE" "Relevant evidence" means evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to thedeter'mination of the action more 'probable or less probable than it would'be withAttihe-evidence. 1 Rule 402. RELEVANT EVIDENCEGENERALLY ADMISSIBLE; IRRELEVANT EVIDENCE INADMISSIBLE All relevant evidence isadmis sible, exceptas otherwise provided by theserules; thy other rules 'adopted by .the siiprenie Court, by Act of Congresb, or by the Constitution of the United States.Evidenee which is not relevant is not admissible.

COMPETENCY OF WITNESSES 3

Rule 601. . - GENERAL RULE OF dOMPETEN"CY Every person is ,conlpetent.to be a witness except as otherwiseprovided in these rt4ei9t.

111k

4. 0 A

19-7 . 0 ? 0 0 CasePreparation and pciurtroom Procedure`

Rae 602. LACK OF PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE 0 A witness may not testify to' a matter unless evidence is introduced sufficient support a finding that he has personal knowledge of the matter. Evidence to o prove personal knowledge may, but need not, consist of the testimony of the witness himielf..-This rule is subject.to the provisions of Rule 703, relating to opinion testimony, by expert witnesses.

4 . EXPERT TESTIMONY

Rule 702. . TESTIMONY BY EXPERTS If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert liy`knowledge, skill, experience; training, or education, may testify thereto in the form *9,f an opinion or otherwise.

. Rule 703. BASES OF OPINION TESTIMONY Y EXPERTS " , iThe facts or data in the particular case upon which an expert bases an opinion or inference may be those perceived by or made known to him at or before/he hearing. If of a type 'reasonably ,relied upon by experts in the particular field in forming opinions*.or inferences upon the subject, the facts or data need not be admissible,e. in evidence.

Rule 705. DISCLOSURE OF FACTS OR DATA UNDERLYING EXPERT OPINION The expert.may t stify in terms of opinion or inference and give his reasons therefore without rior'disclosure of the underlying facts or data, unless the ' judge requirei'ot erwis,e. The expert may in any event be required to disclose the underlying, fic s or dataton cross-' examination.

a .

Rule706.706 . . CURT APPOINTEIY6CPERTS

a . 4 (a) Appointment. The judge may, an his own motion Or onthiknotionof any anrtylenter an or er to show cause ,Why expert witnesses should not be appointed, d May.requeste, parties to submit nominations. The judge may appoint any exPert-witneases agreed upon by the'partia, and.iiiay Appohit witnesses-of-his---- own seleCtiori.Ai?. expert witness shall nobe appointed by the judge unless he . cOnsents to act...11k witness so appointed shall be informed bf his duties by.the judgein writing,-acopy ofwhich Shall be filed with the clerk, or at a conference in which the parties shall have opportunity to participate. A witness so appointed shall advise the parties of his findings, If any; his deposition may be takenby any ii'arty;,and he may be called to testify by the judge or anypatty.He shall'be subject '. to cross-exarnina ion by.,each party, Including.a party c&tilig.hicn as a-witness. Case Pre .aration and Courtroom Prooedure

*HEARSAY . . Rule 801.. DEFINITIONS

The followingdefinitions apply under this Article: (a) Statement. A "statement" is (1) an oral or written assertion or (2) nonVerbal conduct of a-person, if it isintended by hilt' as an assertion.. (b) Declarant. A"declarant:' is a persoq who makes a statement. (6) Hearsay. "Hearsay" is a statement, other than one madeby-the declarant while testifying. at the trial br hearing, offered in evidenceto:proVe the. truth of the matter asserted.

e Rule 80i.. HEARSAY. RULE

, Hearsay is not admissible ein as-provided by these rules or by other titles adopted by the Supreme Court or by ActofCongress. 4

. Rule 803. s. HEARSAY EXCEPTIONS: AVAILABILITY OF DECLARANTIMMATERIAL The folloWing are not excluded by the hearsay rule, eventhough the declarant is available as a witness: . . (5) Reporded Recollection. A memorandum or record concerning amatter about which a witness once had knowledge but now has insufficientre9ollection to enable him to testify fully and accurately,/ shown to have been madewhen the matter was fresh'in his memory and to reflect that knowledge correctly. Ifadmitted, the memorandum or record may be read into evidence but may not itself be'eceived as an exhibit unlesawffered by an adverse party. . - ; - (6) Radords of Regularly ConductedActivity. A memorandum, report, record, or data compilation, in any form, ofacts, events; conditions, opinions, or diagnoses, made at ornear the time by, or from informationtransmitted by, a person withknowlddge, all in the course of a regularly conducted activity, .shown by the testimony of the custodian or other qualifiedwitness, unless the information or other circumstances indicate lack of trust orthiness; sources of, .Q * (18) Learned/Treatises. To the extent called to the attention of an expertwitness upon' cross - examination or reliedlupon by him in directexamination, statements contained in published treatises, periodicals, or pamphlets pn a.subject of e __history,medicine,,or other science ovart, establishedlas a reliableauthority .43 by the-testimony or:admisOon of the witness or byother expert testimony or by judiCial notice.If admitted, the statements may be read into evidence but ma9- iirct be received as exhibits. !:.?

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r. 'Case Preparation and.Courtroom Procedure'

$ ti .IDENTIFICATION OF PERSONS AND SAMPLES

Rule 901. REQUIREMENT OF AUTHEN'T'ICATION OR IDENTIFICATION rt

(a) General Provision, The requirement of authentication or identification as a 1.1" conditioli inicedent to admiksibility is satisfied by evidence sufficient to support a finding that the matter in queition is whatifs. proponent claiips. (b) illustrations. Way.' of illustration only, and not by way of licratation, the following are examples of authentication or, identification conforming with the

requirements of this rule: . (1) Testimony of Witness with Knowledge. Testimony that a'matter is what it is claimed to be. (3) Comparison by Trier or Expert Witness. Comparison by the trier of fact or by expert 'witnesses with specimens which have been authenticated. (94 Process or System. EvidenCe describirfg a process or systein used toproduce: a result and showing that the process or system producesaccurate result.

ADMISSIBILITY AND.PROOF OF SPACIAL MATTERS -11 Rule'A06. ",HABIT; ROUTINE PRACTICE . , (a) Admissibility.''vidence of the habit of a persio or of the routinepraitice of an organiiation, whether corroborated or not- and_regardless of the, presence of eye- witnesses, is relevant, to 'prove that the conduct of the person or organization on a partic4ar occasion was in conformity with,the habit orroutine4raotice. .. 7' :, 'C ' (b) Method of Proof. Habit or routinepractice may be proved by testimony in the form of an opinion, or by specific instancre'of conduct sufficient in number to warrant 4'' a finding that the habit exited orthat,t4e practice was routine. - 2 F- ...

7 I Rule .612 WRITINGSED. TO REFRESHMEMORY , . , ' \ , ,e ' e . G3 If a witness uses alwriting to refresh his memory,either before or 'hile testifying, .t= an adverse party'i,s entitled to liavIt produced at the hearing, to inspect it, to cross-,cxamins;the witness thereon, and to introduce in evidence those portionswhich IP -relate to the ...teatimonrof-tb.e-witnis;3.' 0 ...------..._ .: 4 77.4 .. , 4-,f---- /-1 ,,; -% S . . 'Rule, 1006: r SUMMARIES .7iThe-vcontents of volumifiouslitritings, recordings, or photographs which cEamot conveniently be:'examined in cOurt May be presented in the form ofa-Chart:Summary, or calculation. The originals, oriduplicates, shallb made,available fOr examination or copying, or both, by oth9r parties at areasonable time and place:.The judge may Order that they be pro_ duCed in 0ourt.

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