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Tracking Wildlife Conservation in Southern Africa: Histories of Protected Areas in Gorongosa and Maputaland

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Tracking Wildlife Conservation in Southern Africa: Histories of Protected Areas in Gorongosa and Maputaland Tracking Wildlife Conservation in Southern Africa: Histories of Protected Areas in Gorongosa and Maputaland A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Kathleen McKeown IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Allen Issacman, Helena Pohlandt-McCormick October 2015 © Kathleen Marie McKeown 2015 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to thank my advisors, Allen Isaacman and Helena Pohlandt-McCormick, for their support and guidance throughout the conception, research, and writing of this dissertation. I also wish to thank the other members of my doctoral committee, Susan D. Jones, Kevin Murphy, and Ajay Skaria, whose careful reading and thoughtful feedback will shape the continued evolution of this project for the better. Thanks also to Heidi Gengenbach for serving on my preliminary exam committee and for influencing the development of my dissertation proposal. Several individuals generously offered their time, insights, and access to materials. I want to thank Paul Dutton, in particular, for his hospitality and endurance over long conversations about wildlife conservation in the region, past and present, and for sharing his collection of images. Thanks also to Ian Player and Ed Ostrosky, who were not only generous interviewees, but also granted me access to their personal archives. Thanks to Ken Tinley for sending various materials, resources, and thoughts about conservation. Thanks also to George Hughes, Carlos Lopes Pereira, Baldeu Chande, Roberto Zolho, John Burlinson, Judy Oglethorpe, Scotty Kyle, Rod de Vletter, Joâo José Macoteco, and Pereira Araujo Charles for sharing their experiences of working in these regions. I want to thank the following individuals for generously providing background material, pointing me in the direction of documents and interviewees, or granting access to pursue this project across several sites and archives: Simon Anstey, Yusuf Adam, Rich Beilfuss, Carlos Bento, Samuel Bila, Kerry Butler, Greg Carr, Markus Coerlin, Peter Coulon, Madyo Couto, Rodolfo Cumbane, Bridget Conneely, Regina Cruz, Rozenn Diallo, Ross Douglas, Miguel Gonçalves, Celestino Gonçalves, Armando Guenha, Cathariné Hanekom, Sifiso Keswa, Ivy Khumalo, Roelie Kloppers, Julieta Lichuge, Fernando Mequicene, Ernest Mokganedi, Domingos Muala, Mateus Mutemba, João Nogueira, Cornelio Ntumi, Maria de Luz Prata Dias, Bradley Poole, Rob Pringle, Antonio Reina, Richard Penn Sawyers, Franziska Steinbruch, Allan Schwarz, Leseho Sello, Cynthia Sithole, Antonio Sopa, Bartolomeu Soto, Marc Stalmans, and Paula Travassos Dias. I am hugely appreciative of the assistance and access I received from the various archives on which this dissertation relied. I particularly want to thank Vanessa de Vos from Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife for allowing me to comb through the trove of material from the former NPB and KBNR (and for working to ensure that these documents continue to be preserved) and Vasco Galante for access to the impressive archive he has collected at Gorongosa National Park and for pointing me towards several important figures in the park’s history. i I received financial assistance from several sources. The University of Minnesota’s Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Global Change, Office of International Programs, and History Department provided funds for pre-dissertation and dissertation research, as well as travel assistance to conferences where I could test and develop my arguments. I am also grateful to the International Institute of Education, from which I received a Graduate Fellowship for International Study to conduct research in South Africa, Portugal, and Mozambique. This work was influenced by conversations with and input from several individuals. Many thanks to William Beinart for ongoing discussions about animals, conservation, and bioinvasions and for introducing me to the possibilities of turning a personal interest in wildlife into an academic one. Mercedes Bailey informed me of the growing historical archive at Gorongosa National Park, which sparked the beginning of this project. Thanks to the participants at the 2010 ASA conference, the 2012 Winter School (particularly Patricia Hayes for commenting on my presentation), and the 2014 World Congress of Environmental History, whose suggestions influenced the direction of this dissertation. Thanks also to my colleagues at the University of Minnesota, especially Frank Murphy, Alicia Lazzarini, Paul Vig, Virgil Slade, Elizabeth Williams, Adam Blackler, and Diana Dinerman. I would particularly like to thank Siân Butcher, Dave Morton, Elliot James, and Meryl Lauer Lodge, who commented on parts of this dissertation and kept me accountable. Your enthusiasm, interest, and empathy provided much-needed motivation at various stages of this project. Many thanks also to Charlotte Cross, Jacob McKnight, and Simon Pooley for reading parts of this dissertation and making suggestions that improved its form and content. Conversations with Abigail Neely, Simon Pooley, Mucha Musemwa, Francis Massey, Gary Minkley, and Sandra Swart all influenced the direction of this project. Despite the huge amount of input from all of the individuals mentioned above (and others), I take full responsibility for all errors, omissions, and inadequacies. I want to also thank my friends and family for their continued support, motivation, and encouragement over the course of researching and writing this dissertation, especially those who suggested they might even be interested in reading the final version. A special thanks is due to Marcél for marrying me in the midst of fieldwork and not divorcing me over a very long writing period. The completion of this PhD is a testament to your perseverance as much as my own— thank you. And, finally, I want to thank Tully and Oscar for being the best writing companions anyone could ask for: you kept my feet warm in winter, listened uncritically as I pieced sentences together, and always knew when it was time to stop agonizing and go for a walk. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i List of Figures iv Abbreviations vii Introduction. Putting Wildlife in Place: Protected Area Histories 1 Chapter 1. Bounding Nature in Gorongosa and Maputaland 46 Chapter 2. Buffalo and Biltong: Wildlife as a Form of Land Use 103 Chapter 3. A Tale of Two Harbors: Conservation, Development, and “Natural” 134 Citizenship Chapter 4. Remaking Eden in Post-Conflict Mozambique 166 Chapter 5. “To Get and Keep a Rhino”: Wildlife Translocations and Other Border 202 Crossings Conclusion. Wildlife Out of Place: Making Animals Belong 249 Bibliography 261 iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Southern Africa showing Gorongosa National Park and 7 Maputaland Figure 2. Map of Protected Areas in Northern KwaZulu Natal and the 27 Maputaland Region Showing the Year each was Established Figure 3. Map of Major Protected Areas in Mozambique Showing the Year 29 each was Established Figure 4. Map of Gorongosa Game Reserve, 1952 52 Figure 5. Map of Ndumo Game Reserve, D. de Wet, 1958 59 Figure 6. Map of Protected Areas (Tourism Sites) in the Maputo Special Reserve 64 Region, José Luís Pessoa Lobão Tello, 1972 Figure 7. Map of the Maputo Special Reserve Boundaries, José Luís Pessoa 66 Lobão Tello, 1972 Figure 8. Hydrological Base and Perennial Rivers of Gorongosa, 70 K. L. Tinley, 1969 Figure 9. The Great Variety of Attractions for Tourists and Safari-goers Offered 72 by the “Gorongosa-Marromeu” Complex, K. L. Tinley, 1969 Figure 10. Gorongosa’s Salient Landscape Features, K. L. Tinley, 1977 74 Figure 11. Distribution and Numbers of Tribal Kraals in the Gorongosa System, 78 (Data from 1971), K. L. Tinley Figure 12. “On the Way to Kosi Bay,” Natal Mercury, 17 July 1947 83 Figure 13. Tongaland, Ken Tinley, 1958 85 Figure 14. Map of Proposed Protected Area Expansions, From James Clarke’s 87 article in The Star, 1973 Figure 15. Maputaland Ecology and Conservation Areas, Undated, circa 1984 90 Figure 16. Boundaries of Tembe Elephant Park agreed with the Tembe Tribal 92 Authority, c. 1983. Figure 17. Protected Areas and Lubombo TFCA Zones in Maputaland, 97 Robert J. Smith et al., 2008. Figure 18. O milionário Barry Johnson com os presas do elefante que abateu 109 iv [The millionaire Barry Johnson with the tusks of the elephant he killed], published in A Tribuna, undated. Figure 19. “Operation Buffalo helicopter,” from Armando Rosinha’s 127 personal photo archive Figure 20. “Marromeu, ’76, Operation Buffalo,” from Armando Rosinha’s 128 personal photo archive Figure 21. New Boundaries of the Maputo Elephant Reserve, undated, c. 1973 141 Figure 22. Swaziland and Surrounding Areas 148 Figure 23. The Masterplan: The development proposed by Blanchard Mozambique 173 Enterprises for the southern Mozambique Coast, 1996 Figure 24. “Marked for a tourist mecca: A lake on the staggeringly beautiful 178 Machangulo Peninsula,” David Holt-Biddle, 1996 Figure 25. An image from the BME plan showing private luxury residences in the 179 Maputo Special Reserve, 1996 Figure 26. “O novo fôlego da Gorongosa [The new breath of Gorongosa],” 189 Diário de Noticias, 28 June 2008. Figure 27. Image from João Augusto Silva’s Gorongosa: Shooting Big Game 191 with a Camera, 1964 Figure 28. “Man on a Mission,” from Onhine Cahane’s “A Once and Future Eden,” 193 2007 Figure 29. Cartoon by David Marais from The Cape Times, 1961 211 Figure 30. “Mphandlana,” Notes on Rhino Sent to Ndumu Game Reserve 214 Figure 31. Fences and Corrals from Captura de Animais Selvagens: Relatório 221 de uma viagem de estudo a algums reservas de caça do Natal (Africa do Sul) [Wildlife Capture: Report on a study trip to some game reserves in Natal (South Africa)], 1964 Figures 32-35. Operation White Rhino from Captura de Animais Selvagens: 223-224 Relatório de uma viagem de estudo a algums reservas de caça do Natal (Africa do Sul), 1964 Figure 36. Advertisement. Albatroz Agency, Maputo Game Sanctuary, 228 Daily Excusions Figure 37. “White rhinoceros, The remains of a bull, shot circa 1935” 231 v Figure 38. Gorongosa’s lions, 1964 232 Figure 39. “1st Operation Rhino for Gorongosa National Park,” dated 7 April 1970 233 Figure 40.
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