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An Abstract of the Thesis Of AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Diane Zentgraf for the degree of Master of Science in Applied Anthropology presented on December 14, 2018. Title: Mid-Nineteenth Century Clay Smoking Pipes from Fort Hoskins (35BE15) and Fort Yamhill (35PO75), Oregon. Abstract approved: ______________________________________________________ David R. Brauner Over the past 42 years clay smoking pipes have been excavated from two U.S. army posts, Fort Hoskins (35BE15) and Fort Yamhill (35PO75) and curated at Oregon State University. These two forts were established in Western Oregon in 1856 and by 1866 both had been decommissioned. Numerous theses have focused on the lives of the men assigned to the forts, but none have focused on the clay pipe, a ubiquitous find at many historic sites. This simple object can often communicate information about human social, economic and status cultures. The military forts were restricted environments in which daily activities were restrained. One means in which someone could express their individuality was with a pipe. This thesis examines clay pipes and combines extensive archival research, journals of soldiers stationed at each fort, with comparison data of previous clay pipe research and consultation with experts in the field to help in their identification. The impact of smoking upon the health and psyche of the men within the military milieu of the forts is examined, as is consumer choice, availability of clay pipes and expressions of status. This thesis presents evidence to support definitive and tentative conclusions for the identification of clay pipe manufacturers and conjecture on consumer choice. ©Copyright by Diane Zentgraf December 14, 2018 CC BY-SA Mid-Nineteenth Century Clay Smoking Pipes from Fort Hoskins (35BE15) and Fort Yamhill (35PO75), Oregon by Diane Zentgraf A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Presented December 14, 2018 Commencement June 2019 Master of Science thesis of Diane Zentgraf presented on December 14, 2018 APPROVED: Major Professor, representing Applied Anthropology Director of the School of Language, Culture and Society Dean of the Graduate School I understand that my thesis will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State University libraries. My signature below authorizes release of my thesis to any reader upon request. Diane Zentgraf, Author ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the many talented, kind and generous people who have helped me and provided me with much encouragement while working on this thesis. I especially would like to thank my major professor Dr. David Brauner for opening my eyes to the world of Historical Archaeology and learning that every small object has a story. To my husband, Bob, thank you for your patience and sacrifice, reading my numerous papers and for your support during the challenging long days and weekends through these past five years. To my children and their spouses, Megan and Keith, Jason and Kara, for your love, support and for listening to me talk about my projects. Thank you, Megan, for being my graphic designer for many projects. Thank you to my friend Doug Ruffier for editing my paper. I particularly want to thank my fellow graduate students for the advice, discussions, shoulders to lean upon, a drink here and there, and helping me in so many innumerable ways. Cayla Hill, thank you for your advice and helpful guidance. Thank you, Shane James, for all the teasing and joking, you made every day a better one. Thank you, Kim Johnson for listening to me and providing feedback. Denise Lucason, thank you for the treats and for your cheerfulness. Thank you, Maryanne Maddoux, you always made me laugh and having you in GIS with me made it more fun. The comradery that we all shared will never be forgotten and will always be cherished. I would especially like to thank Dr. Byron Sudbury for your excitement, enthusiasm and generous help and answering my many questions about clay pipes. Thank you also to J. Paul Jung for your encouragement, insight, generosity and helping me with clay pipes. I would also like to thank Ben Rapaport, and ‘across the pond’ Dr. David Higgins, Ruud Stam, Bert van der Lingen and Ewout Korpershoek for their kind help. Thank you to Dr. Leah Minc for your help in understanding ceramics, Dr. Elaine Pedersen for showing me the joy of human design and Dr. Jesse Ford for your enthusiasm for learning, and Marilyn Read for helping me to fall in love with bungalows. To Karen Mills, Leo Rianda, Aurora Terhune and Loretta Wardrip, thank you for being there and helping in so many ways. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................1 2. Chronology and Theoretical Perspective .......................................................................3 3. History of Smoking ........................................................................................................6 3.1. The History of Tobacco ..........................................................................................6 3.1.1. Consumption and Social Norms ...................................................................6 3.1.2. Use of Tobacco in the Military ...................................................................12 3.1.3. Physiological and Medical Aspects of Smoking ........................................14 4. The History of Fort Hoskins and Fort Yamhill ............................................................18 4.1. Natural Setting .....................................................................................................18 4.2. Military and Political Context ..............................................................................19 4.3. The Forts’ Soldiers ...............................................................................................21 4.4. Health in the Forts ................................................................................................23 5. Sutlers and Transportation of Merchandise .................................................................29 6. A Short History of Clay Pipes .....................................................................................33 6.1. Native American History of Clay Pipes ..............................................................33 6.2. The Dispersion of Clay Pipes ..............................................................................34 6.3. Raw Material for Clay Pipe Manufacture ............................................................35 7. Production ....................................................................................................................39 7.1. Terminology .........................................................................................................39 7.2. Production Techniques.........................................................................................40 7.3. Pipe Production in America .................................................................................43 7.4. Pipe Production in Austria ...................................................................................48 7.5. Pipe Production in Canada ...................................................................................50 7.6. Pipe Production in England and Scotland ............................................................51 7.7. Pipe Production in France ....................................................................................55 7.8. Pipe Production in Germany ................................................................................57 7.9. Pipe Production in The Netherlands ....................................................................59 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page 8. Methods and Materials .................................................................................................62 9. The Pipe Assemblage from Fort Hoskins and Fort Yamhill ........................................70 9.1. Pipes from The United States of America ............................................................70 9.1.1. Pamplin, Virginia ........................................................................................70 9.1.2. Point Pleasant, Ohio ....................................................................................72 9.1.3. New Hampshire ..........................................................................................74 9.1.4. Unknown American Manufacturers .............................................................77 9.2. Pipes from Canada ................................................................................................82 9.3. Pipes from Europe.................................................................................................84 9.3.1. Austro-Hungarian .......................................................................................84 9.3.2. England/Scotland ........................................................................................86 9.3.3. France ..........................................................................................................87 9.3.4. Germany ....................................................................................................104 9.3.5. The Netherlands ........................................................................................114 9.4. Unknown Makers ................................................................................................119
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