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Criptología y Seguridad Jorge Dávila Muro Primera edición: Diciembre 2008 No está permitida la reproducción total o parcial de este libro, ni su tratamiento informático, ni la transmisión de ninguna forma o por cualquier medio, ya sea electrónico, mecánico o por fotocopias. Edita: Fundación Rogelio Segovia para el Desarrollo de las Telecomunicaciones Ciudad Universitaria, s/n 28040-Madrid Imprime: E.T.S.I. de Telecomunicación Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Ciudad Universitaria, s/n 28040-Madrid Diseño de cubierta y maquetación: Rocio Ortega ISBN (13): 978-84-7402-352-7 ISBN (10): 84-7402-352-1 Depósito Legal: M-42946-2008 Índice Presentación 3 Prefacio 7 ¿Qué es la criptografía? 7 La cifra 8 Etapas de la criptografía 9 El principio de la criptografía clásica 10 La ocultación en los textos sagrados 12 Los primeros usos militares 13 La criptografía en la diplomacia y el buen gobierno 16 Los imperios de Oriente 17 Criptografía medieval y renacentista 19 El Barroco y los maestros de espías 26 La era moderna 30 El telégrafo y la popularidad del cifrado 35 El nacimiento del criptoanálisis moderno 38 El siglo XX y las máquinas de cifrado 42 El cifrado perfecto 46 Telegramas cifrados e intercepciones inconfesables 47 La máquina Enigma 51 La guerra en el Pacífico 52 Máquinas para el criptoanálisis 56 La guerra fría y el proyecto Venona 59 La teoría de la información y de los sistemas secretos 68 La guerra de Corea 70 Diecisiete años de espionaje para el Kremlin 72 La guerra de Vietnam 75 En las costas del Sinaí 78 Capturando la máquina 79 ARPANET y la semilla del nuevo escenario 80 El DES y la criptografía civil 81 El nuevo siglo y el Advanced Encryption Standard 86 La era digital y primeros límites para la criptografía civil 88 La Web 89 El PGP 90 El PGP de código abierto 92 Retos y resistencia del algoritmo RSA 93 El SSL y las comunicaciones Web cifradas 95 Primeros ciber-delitos 96 El nacimiento de las funciones hash 97 La quimera de la protección de contenidos multimedia 98 La criptografía de clave pública 100 El RSA y otros algoritmos asimétricos 104 Limitaciones a la criptografía civil 107 El algoritmo RC4 y las conexiones Wi-Fi 109 Evaluaciones criptográficas internacionales 112 Ascenso y caída de las funciones hash 114 Criptografías cuánticas 116 El declive de la función SHA-1 120 El criptoanálisis moderno y la inseguridad GSM 123 El análisis de tráfico 124 Algunos sistemas nacen muertos 126 La longitud de las claves y su evolución con los niveles de 127 seguridad ¿Qué problemas quedan por resolver en la criptrografía actual? 128 Epílogo 132 ANEXO 133 La criptografía y la seguridad en el 7º Programa Marco europeo y 135 en el Plan Nacional Español Organismos y departamentos de la Administración Pública con 143 competencia en temas criptográficos Presentación En la Sociedad de la Información en la que vivimos, la mayor parte de la información que es gestionada se transmite, se procesa o se almacena en algún momento en un sistema de información y comunicaciones. Sin embargo, la enorme y creciente complejidad tecnológica de los sistemas de información y comunicaciones dificulta la comprensión de los conceptos de seguridad y protección de la información. Se da la paradoja de que cada vez hay más personas que conocen y usan las tecnologías de la infor- mación y, sin embargo, cada vez hay menos que tengan un conocimiento profundo de las mismas. Por ello, damos la bienvenida a este trabajo del profesor Jorge Dávila, por su loable intento de dar a conocer y divulgar conceptos complejos como los relativos a la criptología y a la seguridad. Podemos definir la Seguridad de las Tecnologías de la Información (TIC) como la capacidad de los sistemas que utilizan dichas tecnologías (sistemas que denominamos de información y comunicaciones) para resistir, hasta un determinado nivel de confianza, accidentes o acciones maliciosas que pueden comprometer la confidencialidad, integridad, autenticidad y dispo- nibilidad de la información que manejan. También, y no menos importante, el concepto de seguridad de las tecnologías de la información abarca la capacidad de protección de la integridad y disponibilidad de los propios sistemas de información y comunicaciones. Los productos de seguridad son aquellos que forman parte de los sistemas de información y comunicaciones y que proporcionan al sistema la capa- cidad de protección de la información. Su función es singularmente impor- tante porque, en definitiva, los productos de seguridad de las TIC son los que hacen posible que un sistema, inseguro, pueda ser usado de forma segura manteniendo todas sus funciones esenciales. Dentro de los productos de seguridad tienen un papel muy destacado los productos criptológicos, papel que viene dado por las singulares caracte- rísticas que tiene la Criptología. La Criptología, tal como a lo largo de este libro se pone de manifiesto, es capaz de proporcionar soluciones para mantener la confidencialidad y la integridad de la información, para pro- porcionar autenticación, evitar el no-repudio y registrar las acciones ejecutadas sobre un sistema. Los productos criptológicos no son más que implementaciones específicas, adaptadas a diversos entornos y servicios, de las funciones que proporciona la Criptología y por ello, hoy en día, no se concibe un sistema de información que no incorpore funciones y meca- nismos de seguridad fundamentados en un algoritmo criptológico. 3 El autor de la monografía, el profesor Jorge Dávila, es un especialista muy conocido en el mundo de la seguridad de las tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones, con el que el personal del Centro Criptológico Nacional contrasta habitualmente opiniones y pareceres sobre cuestiones técnicas. Experto conocedor de los secretos que esconde la ciencia cripto- lógica, es autor habitual y prolífico de artículos y comentarios en importan- tes revistas del sector de la seguridad. El profesor Dávila ha hecho un excepcional trabajo de divulgación científica en la presente monografía. En algo más de cien páginas, revisa toda la evo- lución histórica de la ciencia criptológica, sin perder detalle de las diferen- tes fases por las que ha pasado y apuntando cuáles serán las líneas futu- ras de su desarrollo. Por ello, estamos seguros de que el presente trabajo satisfará las expectativas tanto de los lectores menos versados en la mate- ria, que buscan una conocimiento genérico en su primera aproximación al mundo de la criptografía, como a los más experimentados, que dispondrán de una perspectiva histórica detallada, lo que les permitirá responder a muchos de los interrogantes actuales del mundo de la seguridad de las tec- nologías de la información y las comunicaciones, en general, y del desarrollo criptológico, en particular. Finalmente, sólo nos queda agradecer y felicitar tanto a Isdefe como a la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid por esta iniciativa, conscientes como somos de que la divulgación de la cultura de la seguridad es un camino arduo y difícil, en el que el Centro Criptológico Nacional no puede ni quiere caminar solo, sino colaborando con empresas e instituciones como las ya citadas, para hacer posible que los beneficios de la Sociedad de la Información lleguen a todos. D. Alberto Saiz Cortés Secretario de Estado-Director CENTRO NACIONAL DE INTELIGENCIA CENTRO CRIPTOLÓGICO NACIONAL 4 Criptología y Seguridad "Es dudoso que el género humano logre crear un enigma que el mismo ingenio humano no sea capaz de resolver" Edgar Allan Poe Prefacio Códigos, cifras, señales y lenguas secretas han estado ocultando el contenido y significado de algunas comunicaciones durante siglos, inde- pendientemente de si su transmisión se ha hecho por medios orales o escritos, mediante gestos o por canales electrónicos. Aunque el origen de esta actividad no está claro, quizás por su mismo amor al secreto y a la confidencialidad, lo que si está claro es que su existencia, sus métodos y sus propósitos no siempre han permanecido ocultos. De hecho, en nuestros días, la preocupación de la sociedad global por los temas de la confiden- cialidad y de la protección de la información ha desenterrado viejos fantasmas y mitos. La seguridad en general, y la de la información en particular, ha venido a extender y popularizar métodos criptológicos que en otros tiempos solo eran propios de iglesias, monarcas, príncipes, diplo- máticos, subversivos y militares, por no mencionarlos a todos. ¿Qué es la criptografía? La criptografía es el arte de escribir algo que no puede entender nadie, a menos que se tenga la correspondiente clave. La palabra criptografía proviene del griego κρυπτος (kryptos = oculto), de γραϕειν (grafein = escribir) y del sufijo -ia que es el utilizado para crear sustantivos abstractos. Así pues, la criptografía es algo que se refiere a la escritura y su cualidad de per- manecer oculta1. Una definición menos lingüística del término criptografía se refiere al arte o ciencia de cifrar y descifrar la información utilizando técnicas complejas que hagan posible el intercambio seguro de mensajes transformados que sólo pueden ser leídos por aquellas personas a quienes van dirigidos. Para hablar con un poco más de precisión, cuando esta área de conocimiento es tratada como una ciencia, entonces deberíamos hablar de la criptología, ya que ésta engloba tanto las técnicas de cifrado, la criptografía propia- mente dicha, como sus técnicas complementarias: el criptoanálisis. Esta 1De esa misma raíz griega que indica algo "oculto, secreto, engañoso", es de donde derivó también la palabra gruta y, a partir de ésta, grotesco. Más tarde surgiría cripta como cultis- mo del término gruta. 7 Jorge Dávila Muro última actividad siempre ha estado íntima y antagónicamente relacionada con aquella, ya que estudia los métodos que se utilizan para "romper" la seguridad de los textos que hayan sido cifrados con el objetivo de recu- perar la información original que contienen, y hacer esto en ausencia de la clave oportuna.
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  • The First Americans the 1941 US Codebreaking Mission to Bletchley Park

    The First Americans the 1941 US Codebreaking Mission to Bletchley Park

    United States Cryptologic History The First Americans The 1941 US Codebreaking Mission to Bletchley Park Special series | Volume 12 | 2016 Center for Cryptologic History David J. Sherman is Associate Director for Policy and Records at the National Security Agency. A graduate of Duke University, he holds a doctorate in Slavic Studies from Cornell University, where he taught for three years. He also is a graduate of the CAPSTONE General/Flag Officer Course at the National Defense University, the Intelligence Community Senior Leadership Program, and the Alexander S. Pushkin Institute of the Russian Language in Moscow. He has served as Associate Dean for Academic Programs at the National War College and while there taught courses on strategy, inter- national relations, and intelligence. Among his other government assignments include ones as NSA’s representative to the Office of the Secretary of Defense, as Director for Intelligence Programs at the National Security Council, and on the staff of the National Economic Council. This publication presents a historical perspective for informational and educational purposes, is the result of independent research, and does not necessarily reflect a position of NSA/CSS or any other US government entity. This publication is distributed free by the National Security Agency. If you would like additional copies, please email [email protected] or write to: Center for Cryptologic History National Security Agency 9800 Savage Road, Suite 6886 Fort George G. Meade, MD 20755 Cover: (Top) Navy Department building, with Washington Monument in center distance, 1918 or 1919; (bottom) Bletchley Park mansion, headquarters of UK codebreaking, 1939 UNITED STATES CRYPTOLOGIC HISTORY The First Americans The 1941 US Codebreaking Mission to Bletchley Park David Sherman National Security Agency Center for Cryptologic History 2016 Second Printing Contents Foreword ................................................................................