Introduction

Guo Xiang revised and finalized the 33 chapters of the Zhuangzi (7 Inner Chapters, 15 Outer Chapters, and 11 Miscellaneous Chapters) with almost 70,000 characters. In his preface to Zhuangzi, Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 writes:

The Inner Chapters give insight into the principles, the Outer Chapters explain their realization, and the Miscellaneous Chapters illustrate the han- dling of matters. Although the Inner Chapters give insight to the principles, they also unveil the realization (of principles); although the Outer Chapters illustrate the realization (of principles), they are full of subtle wisdom.

This is absolutely right! Wangshi Shumin 王师叔岷 believes, when studying the Zhuangzi, one must “eliminate the idea of inner, outer, and miscellaneous chapters.” A certain number of writings referenced in the Outer Chapters preserve records of Zhuangzi himself along with several notes about his deeds and actions handed down by his disciples. The Outer Chapters all reflect the vari- ous ideas of the Zhuangzi school. The text’s interesting and charming composi- tion is full of far-reaching implications. There are many examples in which the Outer Chapters expand on ideas and subjects introduced in the Inner Chapters.

1 Giving Free Reign to One’s Nature and Resting in Emotions

The chapter Pianmu 骗拇 (Webbed Toes) expounds the idea of “allowing our inherent nature to have its free course.” This explanation of allowing one’s nature to have its free course had a great impact on later literature and art. Famous poets like Xi Kang or Ruan Ji belonged to this school of “allowing nature to have its free course,” and so did Li Zhuoyu from the Ming Dynasty. Due to the dominating Confucian influence of elevating nature and suppress- ing emotions, the Song-Confucian confinement of feelings became quite severe. Nietzsche’s theories of the Dionysian spirit and creative willpower may help us resituate the theory of nature and emotions. Thus, the chapter Webbed Toesasks: “Are benevolence and righteousness not human feelings?” The moral values of benevolence and righteousness should correspond to human feelings and nature. Confucian scholars of the past could not help but fall into “ideologies” when the notion of the moral was treated as absolute. The later Zhuangzi school proposed that benevolence and righteousness should

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi ��.��63/9789004310230_010 82 Introduction be in harmony with nature, because it is possible to relieve human nature of the fetters of moral formalization and bigotry only if human feelings are regu- lated. The theory of allowing nature to have its free course may reestablish an important remedy for cultural vitality. The chapter Zaiyou 在宥 (Letting Be) goes one step further and proposes “resting in the emotions of nature,” because resting in them in harmony with nature is important for the cultivation of life and necessary so that one may enjoy a happy and healthy live.

2 The Concept of Benevolence and Righteousness: A Type of Conduct that Leaves No Trace

The eighth chapter of the Laozi explores the importance of benevolence within human relationships (“being kind-hearted in all communication with people”). Furthermore, here, Laozi places special emphasis on the importance of moral conduct in the senses of filial piety, loyalty, and trust, etc. The Outer Chapters explain this even more clearly: “Loving men and being beneficial to things is what is called benevolence” (chapter Tiandi 天地 [Heaven and Earth]) and, additionally, that moral conduct should leave no trace (“acting without a trace”). This explanation of benevolence (“loving men and benefit- ing things”) was quoted by Zhu Xi 朱熹 during the Song Dynasty. Zhuangzi’s impact on Zhu Xi’s understanding of benevolence is clear, because Zhu Xi uses exactly this definition of benevolence, i.e., “loving men and benefiting things,” and combines it with Zhuangzi’s idea of “the ten thousand things and I form one unity” in the chapter Renshuo 仁说 (Explanation of Benevolence).

3 The Dao is Omnipresent

In the chapter Zhi Bei You, Zhuangzi’s replies to Dongguo Zi’s question where he could find the dao by stating that the dao is everywhere. Moreover, the dao is not separate from the things (“it never flees from the things”). There are no boundaries between the dao and the things, and the idea of “that which makes things what they are does not have the same limit that is ascribed to things” greatly influenced later Buddhist, Daoist, and Tang-Song philosophers. As the Daoist Meng Anpai 孟安排 said:

All beings with consciousness, even plants, fruits, trees and stones, they all have dao-nature (Daojiao yishu daoxingyi 道教义枢道性义).