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& Historic Character Assessment Report

Sussex Extensive Urban Survey (EUS) Roland B Harris

Brighton & Hove

Historic Character Assessment Report March 2007

Roland B Harris

Sussex Extensive Urban Survey (EUS)

in association with Brighton & Hove City Council and

the Character of West Sussex Partnership Programme

Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

The Sussex Extensive Urban Survey (Sussex EUS) is a study of 41 towns undertaken between 2004 and 2009 by an independent consultant (Dr Roland B Harris, BA DPhil FSA MIFA) for East Sussex County Council (ESCC), West Sussex County Council (WSCC), and City Council; and was funded by English Heritage.

Guidance and web-sites derived from the historic town studies will be, or have been, developed by the local authorities.

All photographs and illustrations are by the author.

First edition: March 2007

Copyright © East Sussex County Council, West Sussex County Council, and Brighton and Hove City Council 2004

Contact:

For West Sussex towns:

01243 642119 (West Sussex County Council)

For East Sussex towns and Brighton & Hove:

01273 481608 (East Sussex County Council)

The Ordnance Survey map data included within this report is provided by West Sussex County Council under licence from the Ordnance Survey. Licence 100018485. The geological map data included within this report is reproduced from the British Geological Map data at the original scale of 1:50,000. Licence 2003/009 British Geological Survey. NERC. All rights reserved.

The views in this technical report are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of English Heritage, East Sussex County Council, West Sussex County Council, Brighton & Hove City Council, or the authorities participating in the Character of West Sussex Partnership Programme.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the advice, assistance, and support of Bob Connell, John Mills, Mark Taylor, Peter Ross, Keith Watson and Mike Hicks (West Sussex County Council); Dr Andrew Woodcock , Greg Chuter and Casper Johnson (East Sussex County Council); Graham Fairclough (English Heritage); Mike Feist (); Dr Mark Gardiner (Department of Archaeology and Palaeoecology, The Queen’s University of Belfast); and staff at the county records offices, English Heritage, and the library of the Sussex Archaeological Society. Cover photo: Brighton (formerly Palace) Pier, Brighton.

4 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Contents

List of maps, tables and other illustrations 6

1 INTRODUCTION 9

2 THE SETTING OF BRIGHTON & HOVE 19

3 THE & HOVE 12

4 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BRIGHTON & HOVE 39

5 STATEMENT OF HISTORIC URBAN CHARACTER 62

8 HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH FRAMEWORK xx

9 NOTES xx

5 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

List of maps, tables and other illustrations

Fig. 1. Location of Brighton and Hove within Sussex. Fig. 2. Brighton and Hove from beach. Fig. 3. The sea off . Fig. 4. Church of St Nicholas, Brighton. Fig. 5. One of the few surviving (albeit 20th-century) boats from the traditional beach-based fishing industry at Brighton. Fig. 6. The Old Ship: an inn since at least the 17th century, modified and expanded as the resort developed. Fig. 7. Grand domestic architecture of the early days of the resort: Marlborough House, 54 The Steine, rebuilt by Robert Adam in 1786-7. Fig. 8. The Theatre Royal, New Road, opened 1807, and subsequently altered and extended. Fig. 9. The : east elevation of the Music Room, from the remodelling of 1815-22, by John Nash. Fig. 10. Royal Crescent: an example of early suburbs expanding eastwards along the cliff top. Fig. 11. Regency Square: an example of suburban development of West Laine. Fig. 12. The Chapel Royal , North Street: the first new church of the resort (1793-5). Fig. 13. Town Hall, Bartholomews (1830-2). Fig. 14. , with lift opposite Marine Square. Fig. 15. Relict of former heavy industry in Station Street. Fig. 16. Redeveloped esplanade with the Grand Hotel behind. Fig. 17. Brunswick Square, Hove. Fig. 18. , one of five former Downland villages engulfed by 20th-century expansion of Brighton and Hove.. Fig. 19. Aldrington Basin – extending Shoreham Harbour 1km into Brighton and Hove. Fig. 20. St Andrew’s, Hove: ruinous when rebuilt in 1836 to serve the new suburb. Fig. 21. St Paul, West Street (R. C. Carpenter, 1846-8). Fig. 22. Synagogue, Middle Street (, 1875). Fig. 23. Grave of Phoebe Hessel (1713-1821), St Nicholas’s churchyard. Fig. 24. Brighton Public Library, Art Gallery and Museum. Fig. 25. The Royal Sussex County Hospital, Eastern Road, Brighton (1828). Fig. 26. The former Cannon Cinema, East Street (1930). Fig. 27. Church of St Nicholas, Brighton: 12th-century font. Fig. 28. Ship Street, looking southwards: the gridded plan of such Brighton streets was developed in the medieval period. Fig. 29. St Helen’s, : south wall of nave. Fig. 30. All Saints’, : chancel arch of c.1100, with 13th-century Doom painting over. Fig. 31. St Nicolas, Portslade: 12th-century south arcade of nave. Fig. 32. St Peter’s, Preston: wall painting on north side of chancel arch (the martyrdom of Thomas Becket).

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Fig. 33. St Peter, : west wall with 12th-century windows. Fig. 34. Porstlade Old Manor House: view from the north. Fig. 35. Portslade Old Manor House: detail of south window. Fig. 36. Cricketers’ Arms, Black Lion Street: 17th-century building, with bow-fronted façade added in 1824. Fig. 37. Timber-framed construction at 43 Meeting House Lane (probably 18th century). Fig. 38. Late 18th-century rebuilding in the historic core of Brighton at 16 and 17 Ship Street. Fig. 39. Late 18th-century suburbs at 44 . Fig. 40. The Royal Pavilion: detail of east elevation showing bow window by Henry Holland (1786-8) surviving under Nash’s largely cosmetic remodelling of 1815-22. Fig. 41. Meeting House Lane: probably an early post-medieval east-west passageway later forming part of the network known as . Fig. 42. Pavilion Parade: built c.1790 (though largely rebuilt or re-faced in the 19th century) facing the Royal Pavilion. Fig. 43. Marine Parade: developed along the seafront boundary of Cliff Furlong in Little Laine. Fig. 44. Hangleton Manor House: mid 16th-century east wing. Fig. 45. Preston Manor: late 16th-century doorway (previously external) to basement kitchen. Fig. 46. Dovecote at Patcham Court Farmhouse. Fig. 47. , Old London Road, Patcham. Fig. 48. The Square, Patcham: 18th-century terraced cottages. Fig. 49. 7 Ship Street. Fig. 50. Marine Square. Fig. 51. , Hove. Fig. 52. 32 Brunswick Terrace (Busby and Wilds 1820-4). Fig. 53. , . Fig. 54, St George’s church, St George’s Road, Kemp Town. Fig. 55. Terminus Road (1840s): Regency-style bow windows and canted bay windows on modest terraces. Fig. 56. Adelaide Mansions, Kingsway, Hove (1873). Fig, 57. Langdale Gardens, Hove: closely packed semi-detached Edwardian suburban villas. Fig. 58. : cast-iron frame exposed by dereliction. Fig. 59. Lower Esplanade, King’s Road: arches, railings and lampposts 1883-7, lights 1980s replicas of 1930s originals. Fig. 60. Former Southdown Brewery, Portslade (1881). Fig. 61. 20th-century rebuilding in West Street following demolition of the west side for widening in 1928- 38. Fig. 62. The Kingswest complex (Russell Diplock, 1965), marking the beginning of the Churchill Square development. Fig. 63. Kingsway, Hove: late 20th-century flats built on the site of early 20th-century villas. Fig. 64. Yeakell and Gardner’s map of Brighton (1779). Fig. 65. J. Marchant’s map of Brighton (1808). Fig. 66. Hove Tithe Map, 1839.

7 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Fig. 67. Brighton Tithe Map, 1852. Fig. 68. Portslade Tithe Map, 1840.

Table 1. Sussex EUS Historic Character Types Table 2. Sussex EUS chronology Table 3. Summary of assessment of Historic Urban Character Areas (HUCAs) for Brighton and Hove

Map 1. Extent of Brighton & Hove EUS study area Map 2. Solid and drift geology with 5m contours Map 3. Ordnance Survey 1st Series 6” (c.1875) Map 4. Historic buildings Map 5. Period 6 (1150-1349) Map 6. Period 7 (1350-1499) Map 7. Period 8 (1500-1599) Map 8. Period 9 (1600-1699) Map 9. Period 10 (1700-1799) Map 10. Period 11 (1800-1840) Map 11. Period 12 (1841-1880) Map 12. Period 13 (1881-1913) Map 13. Historic Character Types in pre-c.1800 historic core (2007) Map 14. Historic Character Type areas showing principal period from which present character is derived Map 15. Historic Urban Character Areas (1914 extent of town) Map 16. Detail of central area showing Historic Urban Character Areas (HUCAs) Map 17. Historic Environment Value (HEV)

8 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

• archaeological and historic environment 1 INTRODUCTION research and management. • informing strategic and local policy. 1.1 Background to the project • underpinning urban historic land and buildings This report is an archaeological, historical, and management and interpretation. historic urban character assessment of Brighton • encouraging the integration of urban historic and Hove. It is part of the Sussex Extensive characterization into the wider process of Urban Survey (henceforth Sussex EUS) that 1 protecting and enhancing urban character. examines 41 towns across the ancient county. The Sussex EUS forms part of a national 1.2.2 Objectives programme of such surveys initiated by English Heritage in 1992. The national programme is Key objectives of the project include the: already well underway, with roughly half the • synthesis of previous archaeological and English counties having been completed or historical work. currently undergoing study. • creation of a Geographic Information System As the surveys have progressed, the approach (GIS) that maps and allows the analysis of has developed. In line with recent surveys, the archaeological events, monuments and urban Sussex EUS includes more modern towns, the th plan components using information obtained main significance of which stems from the 19 from a variety of sources. and 20th centuries. Another recent innovation is the introduction of the characterization concept, • analysis of the origins and development of comparable with the map-based techniques each town by establishing and examining its adopted by historic landscape characterization. principal plan components and existing standing This approach was developed in Lancashire structures. (2000-4), and is further refined in Sussex. • identification of county-wide Historic Character The Sussex EUS has been funded by English Types and attribution of the types to different Heritage, and supported in kind by the areas within each town. commissioning authorities: East Sussex County • preparation of a Statement of Historic Urban Council, West Sussex County Council, and Character for each town, to include assessment Brighton and Hove City Council. A wide range of of archaeological potential and Historic stakeholders (including district and borough Environment Value. councils, and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty) has supported the project. • identification of gaps in the understanding of the past occupation and historical development In West Sussex the Sussex EUS forms part of of character of each town through the the Character of West Sussex Partnership development of a Research Framework. Programme,2 aiming to provide guidance and advice on the protection and enhancement of all • advice to local authorities on the development aspects of character in the county. Other historic of guidance derived from the town studies. environment projects come under this umbrella: • Historic Landscape Characterisation (HLC) of 1.3 Outputs Sussex The principal outputs of the project comprise: • Intensive Urban Survey of Chichester and • Historic character assessment reports. Fishbourne Documents (of which this is one) that, separately • Local Distinctiveness Study of West Sussex for each town, summarize the setting and pre- urban activity; synthesize current archaeological and historical research; describe the 1.2 Aims and objectives development from origins to the present day; assess the surviving historic character and 1.2.1 Aims historic environment value; and set out a The aim of the Sussex EUS is to deliver a framework for future research on the historic unique and flexible tool to aid the understanding, environment of the towns. exploration and management of the historic • Geographical Information System (GIS) for the qualities of 41 of the most significant towns in historic environment of each town. The GIS Sussex with a view to: underpins the analysis and mapping of the town

9 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove reports, and is available to local authorities as a 1.4.4 Statement of Historic Urban unique tool to support their decision making. The Character EUS-generated GIS data includes historic buildings and archaeological data, and mapping Whereas sections on history and archaeology of areas for which Historic Character Type, (above) explore the development of Brighton and historic land use, and Historic Urban Character Hove over time, this part of the report considers Areas have been defined. The GIS data will be and defines the physical evidence of the past in maintained and updated by the West Sussex today’s townscape. It does this by means of a County Council Sites & Monuments Record character-based approach, operating at three (SMR) and the East Sussex County Council different scales: areas of common Historic Historic Environment Record (HER). Character Type; larger and topographically familiar Historic Urban Character Areas; and the • Informing historic environment management whole town. Assessment is made of the Historic guidance specific to each local planning Environment Value of each of the Historic Urban authority, for the 41 EUS towns and Winchelsea, Character Areas, taking account of the produced under the new Local Development archaeological potential. Frameworks, and subject to formal consultation procedures. 1.4.5 Brighton and Hove: a combined • Background papers for the Sussex EUS approach project. Documents that include the project Any analysis of Brighton and Hove has to design, a summary of the methodology and an address the question of whether this is the overall bibliography. history of one town or two towns. The recent official acquisition of the status of ‘city’ – albeit 1.4 The structure of this report with the dual name – reflects earlier history, in that the urban (as opposed to earlier village and 1.4.1 The Setting parish) development of Hove was dependent on the pre-existence of the adjacent town of This introductory section describes the Brighton: Hove’s revitalization in the 19th century topography, geology, communications, and pre- was essentially part of the expansion of urban archaeology of the entire area of Brighton Brighton. Although Hove uniquely maintained an and Hove covered by this study. administrative independence, achieved borough status of its own, and saw resort development of 1.4.2 History the medieval village before it was physically The history of Brighton and Hove in this report joined to Brighton by unbroken suburbs, it is, can be a brief summary only. It aims to thus, similar in origins to the other medieval synthesize published research, and to provide a settlements engulfed by the growth of Brighton. chronological overview of the development of the The dependency of Hove on Brighton is seen town as seen from documentary sources. The most clearly in the fact that Hove’s strongly focus is placed on those matters – such as middle-class development (a key element in its origins, economy, trade and institutions – that identify) was achieved because its vast are most closely related to the urban historic workforce was largely housed in Brighton. This environment today. Aspects of the history of the report, therefore, considers Brighton and Hove parishes – such as the manorial history – have as a single town. been published elsewhere, most notably in the Victoria County History.3 1.5 Principal sources

1.4.3 Archaeology Brighton and Hove have stimulated historical and architectural interest, but little in the way of The archaeology section of this report draws on archaeology related to the town itself. The published and unpublished reports of principal sources drawn on during the writing of excavations, archaeological assessments, and this report are listed below. Many other sources records of finds. This section also includes have been used too, and full references have analysis of historic buildings (listed and non- been given by use of endnotes. listed) and the topography, the latter drawing on maps of the town from 1514 onwards. Again, this 1.5.1 History section follows a chronological structure, and focuses on aspects of the material evidence of There are several histories of Brighton and Hove, which include the Victoria County the town’s past that relate most closely to the 4 historic environment today. History, published in 1940, the works of John

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Farrant5 and Sue Farrant (now Sue Berry),6 unpublished) provide a significant understanding and, remarkably, two largely topographically- of the pre-urban (especially, prehistoric and based ‘encyclopaedias’ for Brighton and Hove, Romano-British) archaeology of the area of the respectively by Timothy Carder7 and Judy modern town (see below, section 2.4). Middleton.8 The focus of most of the thematic The East Sussex Sites & Monuments Record studies is the revival in fortune of the town from th (HER) database has been invaluable for the 18 century, and there remains no scholarly identifying unpublished sites, and for providing study of the medieval and early post-medieval the pre-urban archaeological context. town. While this may reflect the administrative and political insignificance of the early town (compared, for example, to nearby Lewes), this 1.5.3 Historic buildings also appears to be a direct consequence of long- There are 1,216 entries on English Heritage’s lasting neglect of the documentary records of statutory list of historic buildings for the unitary 9 Brighton’s past. authority of Brighton and Hove. 106 of these fall within settlements (such as ) that are 1.5.2 Archaeology quite distinct from Brighton and Hove themselves, and 1,097 lie within the EUS study The buried evidence of Brighton’s past has fared area (see below for extent of area: section 1.6). no better than its documents, for, despite its This substantial number – which includes single status as a significant medieval town and the th listings for many entire terraces – reflects the most populous town in the county in the late 16 th unusual number of surviving historic buildings. century and much of the 17 century (and, of There has been no systematic study of these course, later), the pre-1914 core of the town (i.e. buildings: a detailed analysis is likely to be the EUS study area) has seen little th especially revealing in the historic core of the archaeological study. The amount of late 20 st town, where medieval and early post-medieval and early 21 -century redevelopment within this fabric could well have survived later re-fronting substantial 17km sq area means that this is both and modification. remarkable and lamentable. Archaeological investigation within the EUS study area has been confined to a few minor watching briefs or 1.5.4 Geology and topography evaluations (most unpublished, and many The contextual discussion of the solid and drift disappointing in revealing an absence of geology has principally derived from 1:50,000 archaeological features). These comprise those British Geological Survey digital data. Ordnance at: Survey Historic 25” maps for Epochs 1-4 (c.1875 Springfield Road (Roman villa) – 1962-310 onwards) have proved invaluable, especially as these have been used in digital form, allowing 11 Market Street – 1978 overlaying with each other and with other data. Stafford Road – 198512 Tithe Maps (ranging from 1829-52: East Sussex Record Office) capture Brighton, Hove and the 13 Seafront sewage works (Norfolk site) – 1993 villages later engulfed by suburbs at a large 7-9 Springfield Road – 199914 scale around the time of the arrival of the railway. Brighton itself is the subject of earlier Jubilee Street – 200115 detailed maps such as those of 1826 (Piggott), 16 1822 (Baxter), 1808 (Marchant), 1788 (Budgen), 6 Ship Street – 2002 and 1779 (Yeakell and Gardner). Earlier still, but 20-6 York Place – 200417 less accurate in its survey and depiction of detail, is the 1514 bird’s-eye view of the town. By contrast, the area covered by post-1914 The key large-scale historic maps have been suburbs has seen some more substantial digitized and rectified to fit the National Grid to controlled excavations, mostly in advance of the allow comparison with other maps and data. expansion of the built-up area of the town and Vertical air photo coverage of 2000 provides a the Brighton bypass (A27). Here too there have useful snapshot in time. All analysis and maps been serious lacunae (most obviously the lack of utilize the most recent large-scale Ordnance archaeological investigation of the medieval Survey mapping (digital MasterMap data). villages engulfed by suburbs – with the notable exception of excavations by Eric Holden and the Ministry of Works at Hangleton in 1952-418), 1.6 Area covered by the report but several published excavations and numerous The Sussex EUS assessment of Brighton and reports from minor archaeological assessments, Hove covers the extent of the town c.1914, an watching briefs or evaluations (most

11 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove area of c.17 km sq. This includes the 1914 were (and, indeed, are still) clearly distinct extent of the villages later engulfed by the settlements beyond the modern extent of the expanding suburbs (Portslade, Hangleton, West contiguous suburbs (, , Blatchington and Patcham), but excludes what Rottingdean, and ).

Fig. 1. Location of Brighton and Hove within Sussex. The unitary authority is highlighted and points locate the 41 Sussex EUS towns.

12 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

the north of the shoreline, most of the area of the 2 THE SETTING OF old town is very little higher, only rising in the north-west corner to the parish church, which is BRIGHTON & HOVE located on the edge of a Downland spur (Church Hill) at c.49m OD. To the west of the historic core of Brighton, the Coastal Plain widens, containing all of pre-1800 Hove. Medieval Aldrington was also on the shoreline and Coastal Plain, but the other small medieval settlements eventually absorbed by the suburbs of Brighton and Hove were on the Downs: Hangleton at c.35-80m OD; Patcham at c.45-70m OD; Portslade at c.25-40m; Preston at c.30m OD; and West Blatchington at c.70m OD. Late 18th- century and subsequent suburbs have filled the Coastal Plain (so that there is now unbroken development in a band nowhere less than 1.5km wide westwards to the River Adur) and have expanded increasingly on to the Downs. In the area this has meant development as high as c.150m OD. The principal shopping street of the town is the east-west North Street and its continuation, Western Road. Churchill Square shopping centre lies immediately to the south as do the Lanes (narrow lanes and passageways lying north of the centre of the pre-1750 town, now with a concentration of antique shops). There are significant retail concentrations outside this area, however, in , Kemp Town and Hove. The prime location for hotels (such as the well-known Grand Hotel and the Metropole) is the seafront along the southern edge of the Fig. 2. Brighton and Hove from Aldrington beach. medieval town, but they are widely distributed all along the coast. 2.1 Topography (Map 2) The built-up area of Brighton and Hove forms a large part of the unitary authority of that name The built-up area of modern Brighton and Hove established in 1997. The administrative extends across the eastern end of the Coastal boundary includes other built-up areas Plain (which finally runs out at Black Rock) and, (Ovingdean, Woodingdean, Rottingdean, to the north, the dip slope of the South Downs Saltdean, Stanmer, and the (which rise to 217m OD near Devil’s Dyke, campus at ) that are distinct from the 3.3km north of the built-up area). contiguous suburbs (and engulfed medieval Before its revival and expansion from the late villages) that represent just over 200 years of 18th century, Brighton lay on low lying land expansion of Brighton and Hove. The unitary formed where the eastern extremity of the authority includes numerous pre-1894 civil tapering Coastal Plain was widened by a minor parishes: Portslade, Hangleton, Aldrington, West valley descending from the Downs (which had Blatchington, Hove, Preston, Brighton, Patcham, only the Wellesbourne stream – a winterbourne Ovingdean, and Rottingdean, with parts of – running down the Level and the Steine: this Falmer, Stanmer and Pyecombe. was culverted in the Steine in 1792-3, and has ceased to flow since the building of the Patcham 2.2 Geology (Map 2) Waterworks in 188919). Where the valley and stream met the shore, and where there appears 2.2.1 Solid geology to have been a small inlet (Pool Valley), the ground is at c.8m OD. To the west of this, along Along with the whole of Sussex, the rocks in the the top of what was a low cliff line (now the vicinity of Brighton and Hove are sedimentary. Esplanade) the level is around 12-13m OD. To The town lies on and adjacent to the South

13 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Downs, so that the entire area is underlain by chalky soliflucted debris (known as Coombe the relatively pure White Chalk limestones of, Rock).23 from youngest to oldest, the Tarrant, Newhaven, Seaford, Lewes Nodular, New Pit, and Holywell 2.3 Communications Chalk Formations (all Upper Cretaceous). The uplifting and gentle folding of the chalk began 70-75 million years ago and continued beyond the end of the Cretaceous period (65 million years ago) until as recently as 1.8 million years ago. The uppermost solid geology, however, is the clay, silt and sand of the Lambeth Group, being Tertiary (Palaeocene) irregular beds laid down on the eroded chalk. These are located in an eastwards diminishing band along the shoreline ceasing around Princes Crescent, Hove, and in outcrops on the South Downs: the more significant of the latter are centred on Seven Dials, Nevill Playing Field (West Blatchington) and the Old Shoreham Road cemetery. Large crystalline sandstone boulders – or sarsen stones – were located in the vicinity of the church St Nicholas, and may even have included some examples of ‘puddingstones’ (a pebbly, or conglomeratic, variety of sarsen stones). ‘Puddingstones’ are certainly a feature of the Goldstone valley, including the Goldstone itself.20 Although evidently moved around by man and, probably, previously by natural forces, they are a feature of the Downs, concentrated between the River Adur and the River Ouse (see especially Falmer, Rottingdean and Stanmer), and derive from silicification probably (and unusually for Britain) as late as the Neogene or Quaternary.21 Fig. 3. The sea off Brighton Marina.

2.2.2 Drift Geology 2.3.1 Water The drift geology of the Brighton and Hove area Brighton and Hove is located directly on the is varied. On the rising downland there are dry coast. Although longshore drift has at times valley deposits of sand and gravels, and clay- relocated the mouth of the River Adur as far east with-flints. The distinctive dry valleys of the as Aldrington (just within the EUS study area), downs are largely a product of periglacial neither Brighton nor the villages engulfed by its erosion, while the clay-with-flints is a capping of expansion were founded alongside a navigable reworked Palaeogene deposits.22 Along the river. The origins of Brighton itself as a landing- shoreline there are beach and tidal deposits, place and fishing centre, however, means that and, inland from this, a band of up to c.100m of coastal communication was of fundamental storm beach deposits. Most remarkably, at Black importance to the medieval and post-medieval town. Although coastal travel was not as Rock (Brighton Marina) a raised beach, shore th platform and former cliffline are exposed where important to the 18 -century and later resort as they meet the present-day shoreline at an at Margate (where visitors accessed the resort oblique angle. The raised beach dates from an from London by boat), the establishing in 1763 of a cross-channel Brighton-Dieppe route doubtless interglacial c.200,000 years ago, and reflects a 24 sea-level c.8m above that of today. This so- had an influence on the success of the town. called Norton-Brighton raised beach appears to Cross-channel services have been only very continue as far west as Hayling Island. The old intermittently and briefly maintained since then. shore platform west of Black Rock is buried by More significant, however, however has been beach and non-marine deposits that include good coastal communications in the pre-railway

14 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove age, which were essential for the supply of the 2.4 Evidence for pre-urban expanding town. activity 2.3.2 Road 2.4.1 Prehistoric Since 1996 Brighton and Hove has been bypassed by the A27(T), on the Downs to the • Aldrington – Palaeolithic (500000 BC to 10001 north of the town. Previously this major route BC) Acheulian handaxe found in Coombe Rock along the south coast passed through the town. drift geology (HER reference: TQ 20 NE11 – The former route of this road – the Lewes Road ES1101). (A270) – leaving the town at the north-west. • Vallance Gardens, Hove – Neolithic (4000 BC Other major routes from Brighton and Hove to 2351 BC) leaf-shaped flint arrowhead find comprise the A259 (eastwards along the cliff-top (HER reference: TQ 20 SE1 – ES1039). to Newhaven and beyond, and westwards along the coast to Worthing, via the edge of Shoreham • Surrenden Road – possible site of a Neolithic harbour); the A23 (to London, becoming – in the long barrow. The former mound was about 260' Crawley and Gatwick airport area – the M23); x 35' and 12'-15' high, with its head pointed ENE and the Old Shoreham Road (westwards from (HER reference: TQ 30 NW2 – ES301). Brighton station to the A283 at Old Shoreham • Preston Drove – possible site of a Neolithic (where Old Shoreham Bridge was previously a long barrow. A mound existed in the centre of key crossing point of the River Adur), linking to Preston Drove at its junction with Havelock the A27(T) at Kingston-By-Sea).Two minor Road. When it was destroyed in 1891-2 routes over the top of the South Downs lead to scattered human bones were found in the chalk. Ditchling and Poynings. The mound as shown on OS 25" 1873-5 is estimated as 260’ long, 35’ wide and 12-15’ high. 2.3.3 Railway (HER reference: TQ 30 NW3 – ES302). The London and Brighton Railway Company • Dyke Road Park/Brighton Sixth Form College – (from 1846 the London Brighton & South Coast Neolithic and Early Bronze Age flint Implements Railway – LBSCR) opened the first railway line found in 1900-1914 including fragments of three in Sussex in 1840, linking Brighton to the port at polished axes and four chipped axes, Shoreham. This branch enabled construction to hammerstones, choppers, cores, worked flakes, proceed from both ends of the county’s first main scrapers etc. Also a Neolithic flint chopper found line, between London and Brighton, approved in in 1929 (HER reference TQ 30 NW1 – ES1033). 1837 and opened in 1841. The coastal line was • Former chalk pit near St Nicholas’s church – then extended westwards from Shoreham to two Beaker burials found in 1830 in the pit now Worthing (1845), Chichester (1846) and Havant the site of 15-33 Dyke Road (HER reference: TQ (connecting to Portsmouth: 1847). Lines from 30 SW8 – ES181). Brighton to Lewes and from Lewes to Bulverhithe/St Leonards opened in 1846. A line • Reynolds Road, Hove – Beaker type from Lewes then provided access to the port of arrowhead with barbs and tang of equal length Newhaven (1847, extended to Seaford in 1864). found (HER reference: TQ 20 NE19 – ES1067). In 1858 the Uckfield line opened (linking to Tunbridge Wells in 1868). The Steyning branch • Church Hill – a probable Bronze Age (2350 BC to 701 BC) barrow formerly located (as late as line (1861) was often used as a diversionary th route when the Brighton to London main line was the 19 century) somewhere near the parish blocked. A branch line was built to Kemp Town church of St Nicholas (HER reference: TQ 30 (joining the Lewes line just east of London Road SW3 – ES176). station) in 1869 (closed 1971). In 1879, the • 40 St Patrick’s Road, Hove (vicinity of) – Cliftonville spur opened, bypassing Brighton Bronze Age axe (type ‘A’ palstave: bronze, station and allowing through trains to London without a loop) found at a depth of 8’ at the from Hove and stations to the west. A branch bottom of a small pit while digging for drains in line was built from Dyke Junction (800m west of 1901 (HER reference: TQ 20 NE18 – ES1066). Hove station) to Devil’s Dyke, on the Downs, opening in 1887 and closing in 1939. The • Near St Nicholas’s church – Bronze Age Brighton-London, coastal and Lewes lines all socketed axe found pre-1849 (HER reference: remain in use and were electrified in 1933-5.25 TQ 30 SW6 – ES179). • 133 Bonchurch Road – two Bronze Age loops were found c.1895, 5’ below the surface of the Downs, on the site now occupied by the centre

15 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove of the lower main wall of 133, Bonchurch Road. • land east of Horsdean recreation ground, They lay about 18" apart (HER reference: TQ 30 Patcham – probable Early Bronze Age round NW19 – ES318). barrow revealed by resistivity survey in 1992.30 • Highdown Road, Hove – Bronze Age bronze • Downsview, Lane – Middle and Late hoard weighing about 1 cwt found (probably Bronze Age settlement discovered and during construction of houses in 1910-20) and excavated in 1990 in advance of the construction destroyed (HER reference: TQ 30 NW58 – of the Brighton (A27) bypass. There was ES1032). evidence of eight building terraces, nine round houses, pits, ponds, gullies and fence lines • Hove Tumulus (site of, 13 Palmeira Avenue) – (HER reference: ES7153). site of Middle Bronze Age (1600 BC to 1001 BC) tumulus destroyed in 1856-7. This contained a • Varley Halls site, probable inhumation in an oak dug-out coffin, Coldean Lane – Bronze Age settlement including with the most remarkable grave assemblage Middle Bronze Age hut terraces, lynchets and found in Sussex: an amber cup, a Scandinavian ditch (with possible palisade) and Late Bronze stone battle axe, a grooved bronze dagger and a Age hut terrace, excavated in 1992 prior to perforated whetstone pendant. The radiocarbon construction of halls of residence.31 dating and artefact types are consistent with a th th • Patcham Fawcett School, Carden Avenue – a date in the late 16 or 15 centuries BC (HER 26 Middle and Late Bronze Age settlement site that reference: TQ 20 SE4 - ES1042). included two roundhouses was excavated in • 50-52 New Church Road, Hove – Late Bronze 1993 and 1994 in advance of residential Age (1000 BC to 701 BC) looped and socketed development.32 bronze axe and a lump of metal found when • West Blatchington (Steyning Avenue area) – trenching a piece of ground belonging to and Late Bronze Age settlement excavated in 1947-9 opposite Aldrington House (HER reference: TQ during residential development. Evidence 20 SE3 – ES1041). included an ‘oval cooking place’ in natural clay • Brading Road (probably towards north end) – with 0.75 cwt of pottery, charcoal and animal Middle Bronze Age bronze dagger and a Late bones overlaid by a thick layer of pot boilers, a Bronze Age axe (type 'C' palstave), found before pot containing flint chippings, at least two 1930 (HER reference: TQ 30 NW53 – ES267). storage vessels in scoop cavities, and two • St Joseph's Church, Elm Grove, Brighton – Iron bronze palstaves (HER reference: TQ 20 NE2 – Age (800 BC to 42 AD) ‘saucepan’ type cinerary ES1095). urn found during construction of the church 27 • East Brighton Golf Club store, Roedean (nave 1866-9; east end 1881-3 ) (HER Heights – Early Bronze Age crouched burial and reference: TQ 30 NW87 – ES 300). Middle Iron Age ditch discovered during rebuilding and expansion of the equipment store Outside the EUS study area, significant 33 archaeological sites and finds nearby further in 2003. illustrate the nature of prehistoric occupation in • Hollingbury hillfort – Early Iron Age hillfort. The the Brighton and Hove area and include: site comprises long-recognized (and scheduled) • Black Rock raised beach – Palaeolithic earthworks, and has been the subject of excavations in 1931 and in 1967-9, which implements discovered on or near to the 34 (exposed) end of the raised beach and cliff examined the ramparts and roundhouses. (which dates from an interglacial c.200,000 years ago) include: an Acheulian handaxe found 2.4.2 Romano-British on the shingle of the raised beach at Black Rock Although the north-south London-Hassocks in 1914-15 (HER reference: TQ 30 SW13 – Roman road (Margary road no. 150; West ES186); and drift implements from Roedean Sussex SMR reference: 1932 – WS4200) is (HER reference: TQ 30 SE33 – ES255). usually mapped with confidence only as far 35 • Camp – an important Neolithic south as the scarp of the South Downs, it is causewayed enclosure. The site comprises long- probable that the road continued to the coast. A recognized (and scheduled) earthworks that recent review of the evidence for the road in the were the subject of excavations in 1932-3 and Hassocks and Clayton Gap area suggests that 1935,28 and salvage excavations in 1991 as the the coast was reached in the Portslade area, th result of construction of housing on part of the reviving similar interpretation from the late 18 monument. Smaller rescue excavations were century and countering Margary’s less 36 undertaken in 1993.29 convincing alternative of Brighton.

16 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

More certain Romano-British archaeological • Old Steine – a '1st brass' of Severus Alexander evidence has been discovered within the EUS (222-35) was found in 1822 (HER reference: TQ study area: 30 SW40 – ES213). • 99 Trafalgar Street – evidence for a Roman • Bates Road – a '3rd brass' of Arcadius (395- cemetery comprising inhumations and 408) was found at the allotment gardens (now cremations was found when foundations were in flats) (HER reference: TQ 30 NW62 – ES275). 1827. Finds included a 2nd-century Samian cup • Duke of York's Cinema, Preston Circus – a ‘2nd (form 33) stamped 'SACIRO' (HER reference: brass’ of Otacilia, c.248, was found in 1909 TQ 30 SW20 – ES193). during construction (HER reference: TQ 30 • St Mary’s Hall, Kemp Town - Roman objects NW63 – ES276). were found in 1906-8, in a garden at the back of • Franklin Road, Hove – a '3rd brass' of St Mary's Hall. These comprised: fragments of a rd Magnentius found at No 6 (although this address pot in 'an ancient pit'; two fibulae; a '3 brass' appears to be non-existent) (HER reference: TQ coin of Constantine I (or II); a brass coin of 20 NE15 – ES1063). Sabina (consort of Hadrian); a small bronze 'knee brooch' of c.AD200; large grey pots, • York Avenue – one or two 4th-century coins (3rd probably domestic vessels; and a triangular brick brass) of Constantine were found in 1887, when loomweight (HER reference: TQ 30 SW23 – levelling a school cricket-field west of Norfolk ES196). Terrace (HER reference: TQ 30 SW15 – ES188). • St Peter’s Place – a Romano-British cinerary urn found at the junction of the Ditchling and • St Martin’s church, Lewes Road – coins of Lewes roads (HER reference: TQ 30 SW24 – Antoninus Pius (138-161) Gallienus (253-268) ES197). and Claudius II (268-70) were found in c.1876 (probably during construction of the church in • Round Hill Crescent – Roman ‘thumb-pot’ 1874-5) (HER reference: TQ 30 NW76 – possibly dating from AD 200-50). Roman coins ES289). have also been found here (HER reference: TQ 30 NW74 – ES287). Outside the EUS study area, several significant archaeological sites further illustrate the nature • Recreation ground, Old Shoreham Road, of Romano-British occupation in the Brighton Portslade-by-Sea – Roman cemetery evidenced and Hove area: by finding in 1875 (in what was then a brickfield) of 20 or more cremation burials in urns, with • Southwick villa (around junction of Southwick Samian and New Forest pottery (HER reference: Street and Manor Hall Road) – large and early TQ 20 NE40 – ES1080). (1st-century) Roman villa, known from at least • Springfield Road – Roman villa discovered 1815, most extensively excavated in 1931, and during works in 1876 and 1877in advance of the subject of smaller excavations in 1965 and house building, with subsequent excavations in 1981. Now the (partly scheduled) site is built 38 1962-3. The date is unclear, with some evidence over. for late 1st-century occupation and some for the rd • West Blatchington villa (around junction of late 3 century: it is possible that the site was rd th 37 Amberley Drive and Burwash Road) – 3 to 4 - continuously occupied between. century Roman villa of basilican (i.e. aisled) type • Pavilion Grounds – a '2nd brass' coin of Hadrian excavated in 1947-9 during residential was found in 1911 during gardening between development. Evidence for earlier occupation of South West Gate and New Road lavatory (HER the site includes 11 corn-drying pits dating from nd rd reference: TQ 30 SW35 – ES208). the 2 or 3 century (HER reference: TQ 20 NE2 – ES1095). • Victoria Gardens and The Level – numerous Roman coins were found when these were set • (Goldstone Bottom) – Romano- out in the early 19th century. A silver denarius of British pottery and tiles found during the Vespasian (69-79) was found in Victoria construction of hard tennis courts in 1949, Gardens in 1921 (HER reference: TQ 30 SW37 possibly indicating that this was the site of a – ES210). Roman villa (HER reference: TQ 20 NE23 – ES358). • Pankhurst Avenue – a '3rd brass' coin of Trajan (105-10) was found in 1929 (HER reference: TQ • Eastwick Barn area – Romano-British field 30 SW38 – ES211). system excavated and investigated in advance of construction of the bypass (A27) in 1989 and 1991.39

17 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

• Rocky Clump, Stanmer – a small Romano- This does not mean that the pre-urban British settlement, including a substantial timber archaeological potential is low, but quite the structure (possibly part of a farmstead), reverse: significant evidence for prehistoric, excavated as part of a long-term research and Romano-British and early to mid-Saxon training exercise by the Brighton & Hove occupation within and adjacent to the EUS study Archaeological Society from 1951 onwards.40 area has been found and should be anticipated in any archaeological excavations in or near the • 54 Woodlands Avenue, Hove – broken town. The recovery of some of the features and fragments of a rough earthenware pot with a finds listed above within areas already built up is hoard of 455 Roman copper coins (all but one of especially important since it shows that the which were imitations of Roman radiates of the potential for pre-urban archaeology is not limited period c.265-274 AD) was found in 1939 during to more open areas (such as parks) or to trenching for a water main on the new building farmland about to be encroached upon by the estate, in front of what is now No. 54. Sherds of expansion of the town. 1st, 2nd and 3rd-century pottery were found at the same spot or nearby (HER reference: TQ 20 NE35 – ES1075).

2.4.3 Early and mid-Saxon • Stafford Road/Exeter Street area – Anglo- Saxon inhumation cemetery evidenced by find of burials and grave goods in the Upper Hamilton Road, Exeter Road and Stafford Road area in 1883-93 and 1985. Grave goods include four shield bosses, a sword, spearheads, knives and copper alloy button brooches. The finds have dated the pagan cemetery to the 6th and 7th centuries.41 More human bones were recovered during construction of a kitchen extension at 30 Exeter Street in 2000, representing a large proportion of a female: these are probably to be associated with the Saxon cemetery (HER reference [to 30 Exeter Street]: ES6912 – ES6912). • Junction of Church Road and St Andrew’s Road, Hove – Anglo-Saxon cemetery evidenced by finds of inhumations (apparently oriented east-west) and a cinerary urn in 1898, 1927 and 1949. Finds include a knife and spearheads (HER reference: TQ 20 NE41 – ES1081). Outside the EUS study area, one archaeological site further illustrates the nature of early and mid-Saxon occupation in the Brighton and Hove area: • Rocky Clump, Stanmer – a small cemetery of early or, more possibly, mid-Saxon date excavated between 1951 and 1981.42

2.4.4 Implications of pre-urban archaeology The number of pre-urban sites and find spots for Brighton and Hove is considerable, and reflects the size of the area. Distribution maps of such evidence for early occupation show that the density of finds recovered within and near to the EUS study area is similar to the Downland and Coastal Plain elsewhere in the county.

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3.1.3 Church 3 THE HISTORY OF Domesday Book records a church at Brighton. This evidently relates to the parish church of St BRIGHTON & HOVE Nicholas – a highly appropriate dedication for a coastal church that, given its location, may have 3.1 Medieval origins provided a landmark for sailors.45 The granting of the church by Ralph de Chesney to the new 3.1.1 Place-name Cluniac priory at Lewes was confirmed c.1093.46 th The name Brighton is a contraction (first reliably A vicarage was ordained in the early 13 recorded in 1686 and popularly adopted from the century, and in 1252 a house was to be early 19th century) of earlier forms of the provided. The rectorial tithes remained with 47 placename that developed from Bristelmestune, Lewes Priory. Bristelmeston and Brictelmestune (variant th th Brighton had gained an additional church by spellings in the late 11 and early 12 centuries), 1147, in the form of a dependent parochial via late and post-medieval spellings such as chapel dedicated, by c.1185, to St Brighthelmeston and Brighthelmston. The name Bartholomew:48 although dependent, evidence of derives from a personal name, in Old English 43 a substantial graveyard indicates that the new meaning ‘Beorthelm’s farm’. chapel had the right of burial (see below, section

th 4.1.1). The parish church brotherhoods of Holy 3.1.2 11 -century trading place Trinity and St George were in existence by 49 As with other ports in the south-east, Brighton 1497. appears to have developed as a landing-place, and only subsequently saw seigneurial interest 3.1.4 Market 44 and development into a town. The early In 1312 Brighton was granted a weekly function of the landing-place as a fishing centre (Thursday) market and an annual fair (on the is reflected in payment from one manorial eve, day and morrow of St Bartholomew: i.e. holding of a rent of 4000 herrings recorded in 23rd-25th August).50 Political expediency by Domesday Book (1086). There is no suggestion Edward II had much to do with the flurry of in Domesday Book, however, that Brighton was market grants at this time and, rather than a town – the manors were inhabited by villagers indicating radical change in the nature of the and smallholders, not burgesses. settlement and its economy, this grant is likely to have done no more than formalize customary usage.51

3.1.5 Urbanization Jamison has noted that the treatment of Brighton as a single entity in the 1332 and later subsidies contrasts with its subdivision in the 1296 subsidy, and suggests that this could reflect the laying out of the town.52 However, there is more substantive evidence for the dating of the development of a town from the earlier fishing centre. Unlike the rather detached parish church, the new dependent parochial chapel of St Bartholomew (in existence by 1147) was located within the heart of the later medieval town. This dependent chapel evidently served the town itself and appears to have been a typical foundation at the time of the creation of a new town.53 Certainly, it is implausible that the chapel would have been built without significant expansion of the modest Domesday settlement, and thus the development of the town from the earlier trading place can be dated with a high th degree of probability to the 12 century. Fig. 4. Church of St Nicholas, Brighton.

19 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Seigneurial involvement in the foundation of the The value of the rectorial tithes decreased by town is to be expected, and is implied by the 10% between 1291 and 1340 due to loss of 40 endowment of the chapel with the surrounding acres of arable land to encroachment by the 2½ acres of ‘the Bartholomews’ by the lords of sea.63 the manor of ‘Brighton-Lewes’,54 very probably the same manor that appears to have contained 3.2 The town c.1540-1740 the fishing community in 1086. While there is evidence that Brighton had 3.2.1 Economic history acquired town-like status as early as the mid-12th century, it was evidently a minor centre and lacked the institutions and functions of the more established Sussex boroughs such as Lewes and Steyning. Not surprisingly, the town is poorly documented. The importance of the coastal location is evident, however: in the early 13th century, the vicar had to pay the rector 2000 herrings as part of his annual recompense for receiving all the altar offerings and a share of the tithes;55 in 1268 the inhabitants were sued for sea-wrecking;56 in 1301 and 1302, the town was required to supply a ship for the war with Scotland;57 and by 1497 Brighton boats took part in the autumn cod and herring fishery on the east coast (the Yarmouth Fare).58 That the sea-based economy of medieval Brighton was based on fishing rather than that of a more general port is evident from the absence of identifiable local merchants, although Brighton’s location within the bounds of the Port Fig. 5. One of the few surviving (albeit 20th-century) boats of Shoreham may underplay its contribution to from the traditional beach-based fishing industry at Brighton. 59 shipping. The 16th century saw recovery of the Yarmouth The coastal location would have made Brighton herring and the Scarborough cod industries: vulnerable to French raids in the Hundred Years these had gone into severe decline in the late th War. The closest recorded action was the 14 century to the detriment of the Cinque Ports, 64 French landing in 1377 at Rottingdean, with the which had long-enjoyed privileged access. The burning of the church and that at Ovingdean, decayed state of key Cinque Ports, such as th only 4km east of Brighton. The sparing of Hastings, Rye and Winchelsea, in the 16 Brighton at this time doubtless had more to do century doubtless helped Brighton benefit from with the fact that the French had come along the revival in the North Sea fisheries. Along with coast from the east, having been seen off at other south-coast ports, Brighton was involved in Winchelsea,60 rather than indicating significant both the cod and herring fisheries, initially, in the th defences at Brighton. Some defences were in mid-16 century, focusing on the Scarborough place at Brighton by the late 15th century, Fare, but later in the century predominantly at however, with ‘the werke’ (later called ‘the the Yarmouth Fare, selling the herring catches 65 Bulwark’) and a sea-gate (possibly implying a for curing at Yarmouth. In 1580, Brighton had wall along the low cliff-top) recorded in 1497.61 80 fishing boats and in 1582, 36 of these were of 10 tons or more. At this time around 40-50 boats These defences were insufficient to repel an attended the Yarmouth Fare.66 By the early 17th attack by the French in 1514. A depiction of the century Brighton fishermen were using boats up event shows a small town, although a to 40 tons for the east coast fares, and smaller contemporary account of the incident describes boats for local herring and mackerel fishing. In Brighton as a ‘poore village’ from which Admiral 1626, when England was at war with Spain and Prégent de Bidoux could loot only ‘poor 62 th France, the total fishing fleet at Brighton goodes’. Evidently, at the beginning of the 16 numbered about 60 boats. 14 boats had been century Brighton was still only a minor fishing seized by the enemy, and the fishermen sought town. protection from warships. Convoys to North Foreland were certainly employed during the Commonwealth, with 50 Brighton boats escorted

20 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove in 1653 and again in 1658.67 The difficulties was dominated by less substantial cottages, arising from the vulnerability of the south-coast hovels, workshops and huts. These were fleets to attack by privateers were compounded vulnerable to storm damage, and the declining by falling herring prices and accelerating erosion lower town (all but gone in 1703, with only three of the beach, and during the 1660s the herring tenements surviving74) appears to have been fishing industry at Brighton went into rapid finally destroyed by a storm in 1705.75 decline. By the 1680s the fleet sailing to Yarmouth had reduced to 30 boats, and in 1697 the last Brighton fleet to fish the Yarmouth Fare comprised only four boats.68 Although the trade continued to remain a visible feature of the town (with boats hauled up the beach), fishing thereafter was small scale and limited to local herring and mackerel.69 A significant coasting trade developed in the 16th and 17th centuries and outlasted the fishing trade. In the late 16th century 40% of the cargoes of the Port of New Shoreham and 20% of the cargoes of the Port of Newhaven were carried by Brighton vessels. Cargoes were dominated by corn, timber and iron, mainly exported to Kentish ports and to London.70 In the late 17th century the beach at Brighton handled about 40 cargoes per annum, or two-thirds of the trade at nearby Shoreham; and as late as the 1720s vessels of 60 tons and above appear to have beached at Brighton, although this was a period where the outlets of both the River Ouse and the River Adur were diverted eastwards by longshore drift to the serious impediment of the harbours at Newhaven and Shoreham.71 Fig. 6. The Old Ship: an inn since at least the 17th century, Except for this coasting trade, there is little modified and expanded as the resort developed. evidence for other significant diversity in the The population figures for the period provide economy of the town in the 16th and 17th evidence for the wider impact of the fishing centuries. During the period from 1540 to 1640, industry on the town. From a parish total of the non-agricultural occupations represented in around 900 in 1565, the population rose rapidly Brighton comprised fisherman, mariner, to around 1,450 in 1580, to 2,700 in c.1630, and shipwright, butcher, brewer, miller, malster, to c.4000 in 1657. Slight depopulation to c.2,600 tailor, shoemaker, weaver, carpenter, mason, in 1676 is typical of the period and may well cooper, blacksmith, innkeeper, mercer and reflect no more than epidemics: this population labourer. Despite the considerable population of was still considerably in excess of the c.1,125 at the town, this is a more limited range than that nearby Lewes at the same date, and was the found at nearby Lewes, reflecting the dominance largest in the county. The continuing fall to of fishing at Brighton, and the absence of the c.2,250 in 1724 and to c.2,040 in 1744, however, judicial and administrative function of the ancient is contrary to recovery seen in many other borough of Lewes and the gentry that this Sussex towns over this period (including Lewes, attracted.72 which temporarily resumed its position as the The rise and fall of the Brighton fishing industry largest town in eastern Sussex) and does was thus clearly reflected in the town. The effect appear to reflect the declining economic fortunes was most obvious in the lower town. On the of Brighton.76 Perhaps most tellingly, due to undercliff foreshore, the scatter of buildings poverty 336 (i.e. 74%) of the 454 houses shown in the view of 1514 became more densely recorded in 1744 were exempted from paying packed. In 1576 there were 90 workshops as rates.77 Brighton c.1740 was all too clearly a well as nearly 50 ‘capstanplaces’ for hauled-up town in economic and physical decay. boats.73 As late as 1665 there were 113 ‘houses’ under the cliff, though only 24 of these (9% of the town’s total) were sufficient to be returned in the Hearth Tax that year. Evidently the undercliff

21 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

3.2.2 Church and religion A Privy Council commission reviewed the ancient customs of the town in 1580, This period began with the drama of Henry VIII’s establishing what was typically urban oligarchic Dissolution of the Monasteries. The parish government in the form of appointed inhabitants, church was institutionally robust, although the known as ‘the Twelve’. This had ceased to impact of Dissolution on the brotherhoods of the function by the mid-17th century.87 Holy Trinity and St George was immediate and terminal. The significance for the chapel of St The Town House (or hall) had been built on the Bartholomew was greater still as this was eastern side of the blockhouse by 1580, and in 88 confiscated at the suppression of chantries (in 1730 had a turret and clock. The Market House 1547), and was ruinous when sold two years was under the cliff nearby in 1665, and was later.78 destroyed in the storms of 1703 and 1705. In 1734 a replacement was built between East Although Brighton escaped the dubious honour Street and Black Lion Street (in the of being chosen as one of five Sussex locations Bartholomews). 89 The Town House was for Marian martyrdom in 1555-7, the parish relocated there in 1727, but principally provided two of the Protestant recalcitrants that 79 functioned as a workhouse: this expanded to the were burnt at the stake elsewhere. north in 1733.90 No Roman Catholic recusants were recorded in The large post-medieval population of Brighton Bishop Compton’s census of 1676. The 260 is likely to have given rise to schools, and a Protestant nonconformists that were recorded at schoolmaster was licensed as early as 1581. this time reflect an unusually high level of dissent Other schoolmasters are recorded in the 17th that flourished in eastern Sussex in the renewed century, but it is not until 1701-2 that there are conformism of the Restoration (1660) and, records of a school when an Anglican charity especially, the Act of Uniformity (1662) with its 80 school was either founded or expanded. The Revised Book of Common Prayer. master from 1702-50 was John Grover, a Presbyterians accounted for most of the early prominent Quaker in the town. Initially in Black nonconformism, with around 200 meeting in Lion Street, the school moved in 1726 to 1669, and a minister from 1672. This had 81 Meeting House Lane. A girls’ school was expanded to a congregation of 400 in 1690. founded in 1702, but closed at an unknown Following the Toleration Act (1689), purpose- date.91 built premises became more realistic, and a meeting house was built in Union Street in The earliest provision for sport recorded in the 1698.82 The Quakers had established a meeting town was a bowling green on the Steine by 92 house and burial ground in North Street by 1665. 1701.83 In 1724, the 500 families of Brighton included 150 Presbyterians, three Anabaptists, 3.3 The resort: c.1740-1820 six Quakers and no papists.84 3.3.1 Economic history 3.2.3 Defence From the economic low point of the early 18th New defences were developed to protect the century Brighton recovered so that by 1780 the town and the vulnerable coastline. A blockhouse town had emerged as the nation’s pre-eminent was built in 1559, on the cliff near the southern seaside resort. There were both general and end of Ship Street. Four gates were erected at specific causes of such revival, or reinvention, of the same time, the East Gate (near Pool Valley) the town. The general (and interconnected) being within a substantial length of town wall. A conditions that favoured the development of further wall with gunports protected the town th 85 coastal resorts in the 18 century include the from the sea. A Survey of the Sussex coast in sharply increasing urban population of England; 1587, in response to the Spanish threat, the increasingly urbanized nature of fashion and identified seven towns with artillery, amongst society; the rise in national wealth; greater them Brighton with its demi-culverin, three 86 numbers of the leisured wealthy class; and the sacres, one minion and one fawcon. growing interest in sea bathing and, even, the early stirrings of the Romantic, or Picturesque, 3.2.4 Urban institutions appeal of the coast (a sensibility more widely In keeping with its economic and population cultivated by the end of the century). All but the growth Brighton saw development of urban specifically coast-related factors had proved institutions during this period. important in the emergence of inland spa resorts from the late 17th century. Such successful spa resorts as Bath and Tunbridge Wells set the

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Fig. 7. Grand domestic architecture of the early days of the resort: Marlborough House, 54 The Steine, rebuilt by Robert Adam in 1786-7. was extended to Ashdown Forest in 1723, and to standards that needed to be met by their Lewes in 1752, leaving only a non-turnpiked aspiring seaside equivalents. With the physical 12km route to Brighton. In 1766 the Lewes-East structure of a large town – only recently the Grinstead road was connected (by a turnpike largest in Sussex – Brighton was better placed to from Forest Row) to the fashionable spa town of provide urban sophistication than many other 94 Tunbridge Wells. Turnpiking heralded the proto-resorts. Other specific factors that advent of stage-coaches, here linking favoured the initial success of Brighton as a Shoreham, Brighton, Newhaven and Lewes to resort included the lack of conflicting economic London, via an overnight stop at East Grinstead, focus or interests; readily available from 1741: the improvements to the route had accommodation, workforce and investment reduced this to a one day service, operating capital; and proximity to London, the county 95 three times a week in each direction, by 1756. towns (especially nearby Lewes) and an existing spa resort (Tunbridge Wells). Although Brighton developed quickly as a resort, soon overtaking resorts such as Margate and Good road connections were fundamental to the Weymouth, the change was not instantaneous. earliest function of Brighton as a resort, with key Visitors coming to the town for the purposes of routes in the mid-18th century, inherited from the sea bathing are recorded from 1736, but no medieval period, being to Shoreham, Steyning 96 resort facilities are known before 1750. and Horsham (thence to London); Ditchling and Evidently the earliest visitors were Lindfield (thence to London); and Lewes and accommodated by the existing facilities (which East Grinstead (thence to London). Road 97 included at least seven inns ), against a improvements through turnpiking had a background of continuing economic decline, significant effect on Brighton long before the oft- decreasing population, and further erosion of the cited turnpiking of the parallel routes to London seafront. through Cuckfield and Lindfield through Acts of 1770.93 The first turnpike in the county, in 1717, An early example of new development was the was the London to East Grinstead road, and this substantial townhouse of Nathaniel Brooker, built

23 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove on the west side of the Steine in the 1740s. In 1752-3 this had acquired a more public function as the Castle Inn. Also at this date, Dr Richard Russell of Lewes, an early and significant advocate of sea bathing and drinking of seawater at Brighton, built his substantial house and consulting rooms at the southern end of the Steine (demolished 1826, the site now the ). Access to the sea was easier for wheeled bathing machines here than from the low cliff to the west, and these were available for hire (with necessary attendants) at the time Russell built his house. Russell and other doctors from Lewes and London had prescribed Brighton sea water from the 1740s, and increasing medicinal use in the 1750s and 1760s led to the building of Dr Awsiter’s seawater baths in 1769, again at the southern end of the Steine. Other early resort facilities include a substantial assembly room, added to the Castle Inn in 1754; a second assembly room, at the Old Ship, in 1767; an ancient chalybeate spring at Wick, given a well-house and promoted as a spa as an alternative to seawater in the 1760s; two circulating libraries by the early 1760s; a town pack of fox hounds by the late 1750s; a purpose- Fig. 8. The Theatre Royal, New Road, opened 1807, and built theatre, in North Street, from 1772-3; and subsequently altered and extended. several coffee houses by 1770. As with other early seaside resorts and the spa towns, the use By the 1770s Brighton was firmly established as of such facilities by visitors, and the social a resort, and this new function was the principal interaction of the visitors themselves, became economic driver of the town. Unsurprisingly, part of a structured programme or ‘season’. By there were occasional conflicts between the old the late 1750s the Brighton season was actively and new elements of the economy as late as the promoted, and by the late 1760s, when it lasted mid-1770s – such as that over the traditional use form late June to the end of September, the town of the southern end of the Steine by fishermen had gained a Master of Ceremonies, Captain for net drying. Likewise, large-scale agricultural William Wade. Influential Sussex families, such produce and stock was squeezed out of the as the Pelhams, were amongst the earlier town-centre market: by the 1770s the King and Queen in North Row had become the out-of- visitors, and doubtless this local patronage of the 102 new resort was significant in attracting still town focus for such trade. From the late 1770s wealthier visitors from further afield. By the mid- resort facilities continued to expand, largely 1760s the sophistication of the resort and the through duplication to cope with increasing wealth and influence of its visitors were sufficient numbers of visitors. For example, a second to attract royalty, in the form of the Duke of seawater bathing house (Mahomed’s) was a Gloucester and the Duke of York.98 built at the lower end of Little East Street in 1787,103 and a third, in Artillery Place, King’s Communications continued to develop between Road, in 1813.104 A second theatre (the New 1750 and 1770. In addition to turnpike Acts for Theatre, Duke Street) opened in 1790, but the the Cuckfield and Lindfield routes to London – town appears to have been unable to support the former significantly faster – 1770 also saw two theatres, and that in North Street was forced 99 the turnpiking of the Lewes to Brighton road. to close. Likewise, when the larger Theatre The road through Henfield also developed as a Royal, New Road, opened in 1807, the Duke London-Brighton route when turnpiked in 1771 Street theatre closed and was demolished. New 100 and 1777. A new period in Brighton’s features were added, however, with the Brighton communications began in 1763, when cross- race-course opening on the east side of the town channel passenger traffic from Sussex – which in 1783 (gaining a race stand in 1788); and had lapsed out of Rye by 1700 – was revived in private subscription gardens opening north of the form of a Brighton-Dieppe route, albeit Castle Square (now part of the Royal Pavilion served by boats from Newhaven and, especially, gardens).105 Shoreham.101

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its landward sides by farmland in the form of five open fields (or laines). In typical open field fashion, the laines were divided into furlongs, and the furlongs into narrow strips (locally known as ‘paulpieces’). No enclosure of the entire laines occurred, so development required purchase of individual paulpieces or usually, given that these could measure 12½ ft by 500 ft (3.8m x 152.4m), blocks of adjacent strips. In 1738 the open fields were held by 25 landholders.107 Located on the east side of the fashionable Steine and along the sea, the southern half (Cliff Furlong) of Little Laine was developed first. In the mid-1780s the streets between the Steine and Madeira Place were already under construction, with the most expensive lodging houses located along the east side of the Steine and along Marine Parade (the cliff-top road). Further east, New Steine had begun to be built by 1790, but eastwards expansion then slowed in the 1790s. Thus, when Royal Crescent was begun in the late 1790s as the first development in East Laine, it stood to the east of the other Fig. 9. The Royal Pavilion: east elevation of the Music Room, suburbs until the gap was infilled by 1814. from the remodelling of 1815-22, by John Nash. Most famously, the late 18th century saw the creation of the Royal Pavilion. George, Prince of Wales (from 1811 exercising the functions of Prince Regent) first came to Brighton in 1783 and in 1785-6 determined to have a permanent residence. This entailed conversion of an existing lodging house on the west side of the Steine in 1786-7, and expansion of the building and grounds in the 1790s and from 1810-22 (see section 4.5.1). While the prince’s regular and prolonged visits to the town continued until 1820 (when he became King George IV) and can only have enhanced the season at the resort (notwithstanding his reputation as a profligate), his importance to the development of the resort has been over-emphasized and mythologized. Rather than adopting and promoting a decayed fishing ‘village’, George’s arrival in Brighton reflected the social status that the new resort had already achieved. Largely irrespective of his presence, the increasingly rapid expansion of the town (and improving transport links) from the 1780s ensured that by c.1820 the earlier social exclusivity had been lost and that the Royal Pavilion had become isolated from the most fashionable townhouses (and occupants) increasingly located in new suburbs away from Fig. 10. Royal Crescent: an example of early suburbs the Steine.106 expanding eastwards along the cliff top. Suburbs had become inevitable as, by 1780, the Away from the sea view, the northern part of old town could no longer accommodate Little Laine (Upper Furlong – now the land development for new housing and resort between St James’s Street and Edward Street) – facilities. The historic town was surrounded on was less viable for fashionable lodging houses,

25 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove apart from where it fringed the Steine at North, functioned in a manner similar to the crofts off South and Pavilion Parades (built in the early North Street 70 years earlier, with urban fringe 1780s). Nonetheless, some attempt was made usage such as market gardens, workshops and from 1792 to emulate the area to the south (such stables.110 as at Dorset Gardens), but by the late 1790s development of the furlong was soon focused on providing more modest and equally necessary houses for the expanding number of tradesmen and artisans. Similar modest housing and businesses dominated the suburbs developed to the north of Little Laine, in Hilly Laine, between 1800 and 1820. Again, the exception here was the lodging houses along the east side of the Steine, such as Carlton Terrace (1806-8). The eastward extent of the Hilly Laine suburbs by 1820 tapered off sharply north of Carlton Hill, though, along the Lewes Road frontage only, development had reached as far north as Waterloo Place (1819) and the then isolated Hanover Terrace (begun c.1820).108 Lower class housing and businesses were features of the earliest expansion on the west side of the old town, into West Laine, in the 1770s and early 1780s. This small-scale and dense development included Kent’s Court (formerly off the southern end of West Street), Great and Little Russell Street (neither of which survive), and Farmyard. The potential for upper class housing was soon evident as the initial focus on Little Laine made further eastwards development of the resort unattractively distant from its social centre – the Steine. More pragmatically, West Laine was nearer the concentration of services in the old town.

Building began in the 1790s, again focusing on the furlongs adjacent to the old town and cliff Fig. 11. Regency Square: an example of suburban development of West Laine. (most notably, Cliff Butts). Previous enclosure of parts of West Laine made development simpler, The large-scale suburban expansion of Brighton as at Bedford Square (begun 1801) and, on the after 1780 is a key theme in the economic grander scale, at Regency Square (begun 1817). history of the town at this time. By Between these squares, and inland, there was a accommodating both visitors and those servicing scatter of larger detached villas, almost all their needs, it allowed – and was driven by – the replaced by more densely packed post-1820 popularization of the resort: what would now be housing.109 called the ‘tourism industry’ expanded hugely beyond that supported by visitors c.1750. At the Development of North Laine began along its same time, the vast (albeit haphazard) eastern edge along the Steine (North Row: construction exercise generated employment in begun 1771). The area between North Street building and related industries. and Church Street lay immediately south of the open field and, in the mid-18th century comprised The population figures for the period c.1740- gardens or crofts to properties on North Street. 1820, reflect the continuing economic decline in This began to be built up and penetrated by new the early years – despite the first hints of the north-south roads by 1780. By 1820, both this future reinvention of the town – followed by and the southern furlong of North Laine (now accelerating economic growth. Thus, the bounded by Church Street and North Lane) were population of c.2,040 in 1744 continued to fall to densely built up with workers houses and c.1,830 in 1753, before rising to c.2,690 in 1770, businesses. To the north, Kensington Gardens 3,620 in 1786, 7,339 in 1801 and 24,429 in 111 (begun by 1810) was built up, but otherwise the 1821. Between 1811 and 1821 Brighton was 112 area between North Lane and Trafalgar Place the fastest growing town in Britain.

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in use, with the Presbyterians remaining in Union Street and the Quakers moving (as a result of the expansion of the Royal Pavilion) to their current site in Ship Street in 1808.117 Calvinistic Methodists were provided for in 1761 with the building of the Countess of Huntingdon’s chapel in North Street (replaced in 1871).118 The Salem Baptist chapel in Bond Street opened in 1787 (replaced 1861, and demolished 1974). Wesleyan Methodists established themselves in the town in 1804 (unusually, the impetus coming from Methodists amongst the soldiers then flooding the town119) and built their first chapel in the town in 1808 in Dorset Gardens (replaced 1884 and 2002). Providence (Calvinistic) chapel, Church Street was built in 1805, and the Unitiarians built a chapel (Christ Church) in New Road in 1819. Holy Trinity, Ship Street, was built for Thomas Kemp’s own sect, before being bought by the Diocese of Chichester in 1826.120 The first Roman Catholic church was built in 1806-7 in High Street, Kemp Town (closed 1856). A Jewish community established itself in Brighton in the 1780s with temporary synagogues in Jew Street then, by 1808, Poune Court, off West Street.121 The lack of church building (especially, but not exclusively, Anglican) whilst Brighton expanded rapidly between 1800 and 1820 is notable yet has been poorly understood:122 quite simply, Fig. 12. The Chapel Royal , North Street: the first new church there was a national absence of any church of the resort (1793-5). The tower and North Street elevation building movement at this time – with were added in 1882-3. construction largely confined to replacements or, 3.3.2 Church and religion as seen at Brighton, ventures speculating in pew-rents – and it was not until the very end of The church of St Nicholas continued as the this period (and the symptomatic ‘Million Act’ of parish church throughout this period. The 1818 that provided for the Commissioners’ revitalization of the town from the mid-18th Churches) that the wave of church building that century had a material impact on the church, was a feature of the 19th century got under way. with eight new bells cast in 1777, and, more directly a reflection of a growing population, an 3.3.3 Defence 113 extension to the churchyard in 1789. A further th extension for burials followed in 1818.114 In the early 18 century Brighton had not expanded its defences beyond the late 16th- The parish church was soon unable to provide century blockhouse. Eventually, the blockhouse for the expanding population and, especially, the was undermined by the sea, partly collapsed in visitors. The Chapel Royal, North Street, was 1748 and was ruinous in 1773.123 With the built in 1793-5, specifically to meet the demands advent of the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) a of the season, in 1803 becoming a chapel of replacement was required, and a new brick-built ease to the parish church. This was followed in battery opposite the lower end of East Street 1810 by the chapel of St James, St James’s was one of seven built along the Sussex coast in Street, built to serve the new suburb of Kemp 1759.124 Within twenty years the guns were in a 115 Town. poor state and this battery too collapsed into the Nonconformism continued to have a strong sea in 1786. The greater threat of the French presence in Brighton, although by 1740 it Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793- accounted for a smaller proportion of the 1815), saw an urgent need for renewed defence population than it had earlier in the century. 116 and this was provided in 1793 by the East The two 17th-century meeting houses continued Battery (opposite the lower end of Madeira

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Place) and the West Battery (immediately in The Meeting House Lane charity school front of the, later, Grand Hotel). Again, erosion continued to be used throughout this period. In was to play its part, with the East Battery defunct 1768 it was supplemented by a second Anglican by 1807 and largely gone by 1809.125 At the charity school (in Yeakell and Gardner’s 1779 peak of danger after the temporary respite of the map [Fig. 64], it is shown on Duke Street). In Peace of Amiens (1802-3) and before naval 1801 this combined with the earlier school in the victory at the Battle of Trafalgar (1806), Brighton Meeting House Lane building: the schools had 45 lightly armed vessels manned by local separated in 1818 when the earlier foundation seafaring volunteers (sea fencibles).126 became the National school. The girls’ school was revived between 1801 and 1818.133 An inter- Barracks were a feature of the county during the denominational, but strongly nonconformist, French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, boys’ Union Charity School opened in Middle housing thousands of soldiers when coastal Street in 1807 (later known as Middle Street invasion was most feared. Many of these were School), with the Union Street School for Girls temporary structures quickly dismantled or sold 134 opening the following year. off when the threat of invasion diminished. In addition to small-scale temporary barracks, The workhouse in the Bartholomews was Brighton had two main barracks: the Church extended in 1794.135 The Percy and Wagner Street barracks (built in the 1790s and Almshouses in Lewes Road were built in 1795 demolished 1869: marked by Barrack Place, to for six poor (Anglican) widows.136 the rear of Marlborough Place) and Preston The Sussex General Infirmary opened in 1812 in Barracks, 1.6km north-east of the town at that North Street, opposite Ship Street, in premises time, on the Lewes road. Preston Barracks was already established as the Brighthelmston built in 1796, rebuilt as a permanent barracks in Dispensary in 1811.137 1800, and partly survives (in rebuilt form) as a Territorial Army centre.127 Cricket was played in the town by 1776, almost certainly initially using the Steine. Ball games 3.3.4 Urban institutions were banned there in 1787, with the Level then being used: the Prince of Wales’s ground was In addition to specialized resort facilities (such as laid out on the Level in 1791.138 sea-water baths), the Brighton of 1740-1820 had other more typical urban institutions. 3.4 Expansion: c.1820-2006 With the terminal decline of the civic government th of the ‘the Twelve’ by the mid-17 century, 3.4.1 Economic history administration was largely undertaken by the parish vestry. The demands of an expanding Brighton and Hove’s economic history population and wealthy visitors required a more throughout the period has continued to be specifically urban administration capable of dominated by urban and suburban expansion. regulating and funding paving, lighting, street- From 24,429 in 1821, Brightons’ population rose cleaning, sanitary provision, groynes (on the to 40,634 in 1831, but expansion noticeably beach), and the market. This was provided slowed in the 1830s, only rising to 46,661 by under an Act of 1773, which appointed town 1841. Development in Hove parish (see below) commissioners, who were able to levy rates. A began to be significant in this period, with the second Act of 1810 reformed the administration population rising from a meagre 319 in 1829, to and extended the area and the powers.128 An 1,360 in 1831 and 2,509 in 1841. After 1841 (the early action of the commissioners was the year that the London-Brighton railway opened), building in 1774 of a new daily market, on the the growth of Brighton and Hove saw renewed site of the north-western part of the present town vigour: for the parishes of Brighton and Hove in hall in the Bartholomews.129 At the same time a 1851, a total of 69,673; for the Borough of distinct Market House was built facing the west Brighton, Hove parish and the newly side of the market, on the site now occupied by 9 suburbanized parish of Preston in 1881, a total and 10 Bartholomews.130 of 128,440; for Brighton and Hove boroughs in 1911, a total of 173,410; for Brighton and Hove Despite its growth, Brighton gained little in the boroughs in 1931, a total of 202,420 and for way of local justice in this period. Petty Sessions Brighton and Hove unitary authority in 2001, a were held from 1812, but quarter sessions total of 247,820. remained at Lewes.131 Policing began in 1812 with eight nightwatchmen appointed by the town commissioners, followed by another 16 in 1815.132

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Resort facilities continued to develop from 1820, to accommodate visitors who were increasingly numerous and no longer restricted to the social elite who adopted Brighton in the early years of the resort. Symptomatic of this change is the fact that around 1820, the role of the Master of Ceremonies as co-ordinator of the season came to an end. More tangibly, by this time the more fashionable housing had already begun to be found in the new suburbs away from the Steine. In 1822 – ironically the same year that the Royal Pavilion saw completion – King’s Road was opened, bypassing the roads of the Old Town and providing a new promenade (incorporating a sea wall) that superseded the Steine.142 The important link between King’s Road and Marine Parade – Grand Junction Road – opened in 1829. A new bathing house (Brill’s Baths) opened in 1823, where East Street met the new promenade: significantly it was Brighton’s first communal swimming pool, marking a change from the earlier provision for personal bathing.143 The seafront thereafter became the focus of resort development, boosted, after (albeit not instantaneously) the opening of the railway to London in 1841, by increased and less affluent Fig. 13. Town Hall, Bartholomews (1830-2). visitors. The town gained its first pier in 1823 (Chain Pier; destroyed 1896), although this Brighton belatedly had its status recognized by retained something of the function of a jetty as it gaining parliamentary representation. The town was used by the cross-channel passenger acquired two members of parliament at the first service (in 1825 the General Steam Navigation electoral Reform Act (1832), at the expense of Company started a paddle steamboat service ‘rotten’ boroughs such as Bramber and from Newhaven to Dieppe, via Brighton Chain Winchelsea. With further electoral reform in Pier, but this lapsed immediately144). The two 1867, Brighton was the only town in Sussex to 139 later examples of piers (West Pier, 1863-6, return two members. The emerging civic closed 1975 now derelict; and Palace Pier, status was reflected in the building in 1830-2 of 1891-1899) were built purely for pleasure. The the substantial Town Hall, in Bartholomews. This Aquarium opened in 1872, and, as it was built was followed, in 1854, by the first charter of over the road and sea-wall to the Chain Pier, incorporation. Superseding the town th involved the building of a new sea wall and commissioners, established in the 18 century, promenade (the western part of Madeira Drive: this gave the town a stronger role in law and 1869). Volk’s Railway – an electric narrow-gauge order: the corporation had a police force, a line initially from the Aquarium entrance to the coroner and a commission of the peace, with a 140 Chain Pier – opened in 1883. This was extended court of quarter sessions. Following the Local to the Banjo Groyne in 1884 and to Black Rock Government Act 1888, Brighton and Hastings in 1901. The 1901 extension was granted by (and, in 1911, Eastbourne) became county way of compensation for enforced closure – for boroughs, operating independently from the the purpose of groyne construction – of Volk’s county councils: all three county boroughs lost Rottingdean Railway (an electric railway that this status in 1974 when they were absorbed into opened in 1896, and which ran along the East Sussex as districts (following the Local intertidal chalk shoreface ramp between Banjo Government Act 1972), but Brighton (this time Groyne and Rottingdeam, with a car supported together with Hove borough) re-established by legs 24ft high).145 Also extending eastwards independence from the county council in many from the Aquarium – and still surviving – is of its functions in 1997 when it became the only 141 Madeira Terrace, built on cast-iron columns in unitary authority in Sussex. Granting of the 1830-8, with the lift by Marine Square added in title ‘city’ in 2000 simply confirmed the town’s 1890. On reclaimed land adjacent to the lift the economic pre-eminence in the historic county. bowling greens and gardens of Madeira Lawns was set out in 1889.146 Built in the manner of the

29 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove grandest station hotels, the Grand (1862-4) and around 600, and by 1861 this appears to have the Metropole (1888-90) added to the prestige of doubled, making this the most substantial the more central part of the seafront, and have industry in the town, drawing skilled helped sustain this focus. To the west, Hove metalworkers from other parts of the country, esplanade was built in 1884-97.147 and spawning its own working class district immediately east and south of the station and workshops.150 The works closed in 1958. Whilst the fishing industry at Brighton never regained the importance to the economy that it had had until the emergence of the resort, it continued during the 19th century and much of the 20th century. In 1862 there was a fleet of 150 boats, dropping to 88 boats in 1902 and to 48 boats in 1948.151 The traditional beach-based industry finally disappeared in the late 20th century (with the fish market in the King’s Road Arches relocated to the municipal market in Circus Street in 1960: this closed in 2004 and moved to Crowhurst Corner, Hollingbury). A modest fishing industry now operates from Aldrington basin. Although increasingly marginal to the economy of the town, agriculture continued to be catered for in the daily market (see section 3.4.3), and in the specialized wholesale markets. The former riding school of the Prince of Wales was purchased by the town in 1850 and in 1868 became the corn exchange, replacing the King and Queen Inn. A corn market was held there until 1914. A permanent meat market was Fig. 14. Madeira Terrace, with lift opposite Marine Square. established in 1912 in the former Church of the A grandstand was added to the race-course in Resurrection in Russell Street, relocating in 1968 1822,148 but the change in the type of visitor to to a new meat market built next to the pre- the town after 1841 saw the abandonment of the existing abattoir in Lane. A cattle races by many of the most fashionable. market was established in 1831 on Church Hill, 152 However, after construction of another new but quickly failed. stand in 1851 and improvements to the course, attendances increased again: race-meetings continue to be held.149 While development of Brighton and Hove as a resort in the 18th and 19th centuries was essential to revitalization and growth of the decayed fishing town, the economy soon diversified so that the town ceased to become solely dependent on its visitors and the trade they engendered. This diversification manifested itself in the development of industry and of an expanding resident professional class employed in the town and in London. In both cases the role of the railway was critical. In the case of industry the relationship was especially direct since in the late 1840s the London Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR) decided to expand the railway workshops at Brighton, with the first Brighton- built locomotives produced in 1852, even before the new workshops opened (1854). In 1851 LBSCR employees at Brighton numbered Fig. 15. Relict of former heavy industry in Station Street.

30 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

The range of manufacturing industries in opened in 1936. Although the latter closed in Brighton and Hove increased during the 20th 1978, this was not the result of contraction of the century. Early examples of diversity include two long commercialized seaside frontage at large diamond factories that were opened at the Brighton and Hove, but rather a sign of junction of Coombe Road and Lewes Road in expansion in the form of Brighton Marina. This 1917 and 1918.153 The development of was approved by an Act of Parliament in 1968, Hollingbury industrial estate from 1950, initially and was designed to be much more than a yacht with a concentration of engineering factories, is basin: a full range of retail, recreational and more typical of the scale and nature of modern conference facilities was planned. Construction industry in the town.154 By 1951, 40% of the began in 1971 and the harbour was completed in manufacturing jobs in Sussex were located 1976. Although the original scheme was not within the borough.155 Whilst lacking large-scale realized through lack of funding, subsequent employers in the form of heavy industries (such development of the marina has created as automotive works), the town has become a something very near to it, with a cinema, sports focus for large-scale service industries. The centre, superstore, and a marina ‘village’ of most notable example of this is , houses and shops, in addition to the pontoon Edward Street, built in 1977 for the American berths of the tidal and locked basins.157 Express Corporation, Brighton’s largest private- 156 In the more central seafront area the major post- sector employer, to house 1800 workers. war hotels comprise the (1967) Fig. 16. Redeveloped esplanade with the Grand Hotel and the Ramada Renaissance Hotel (now The behind. Brighton Thistle Hotel, immediately south of Bartholomew Square, 1984-7).158 Municipal schemes have also sought to maintain and develop Brighton’s success as a resort. Redevelopment of the area bounded by West Street, King’s Road, Cannon Place and Western Road, was planned from 1935 as the new retail and entertainment centre of the town. Clearance began in 1938 and resumed in 1957-8 (the Grand Hotel narrowly avoiding compulsory purchase and demolition). The Top Rank Centre (Kingswest) and Russell car-park opened in 1965, followed by the shops, car-parks and offices of Churchill Square in 1967-8. The contribution of Churchill Square to the success of the resort is questionable, but the final element of the municipal scheme – the (1974-7) – has helped the town meet and stimulate a demand for the conference trade. This variant on the earlier functions of seaside resorts was first seen at Brighton in the mid-19th century (and the first party-political conference in the town dates from that of the Tory party in 1875), but is substantially a post-World War II development.159 Suburban expansion of Brighton continued to be a key economic theme in this period. In 1820, Thomas Read Kemp began his large scheme of Fig. 16. Redeveloped esplanade with the Grand Hotel behind. development on the eastern edge of Brighton – Kemp Town.160 The distance of the new suburb Notwithstanding the maturation and from the centre of the town meant that Kemp diversification of the economy of the town, Town saw the first introduction of a (horse- Brighton and Hove has continued to be a drawn) bus route in the town, opening the day successful resort. Earlier development of the 161 th the railway came to Brighton (1840). Later, a seafront has continued in the 20 century. East branch railway was built to Kemp Town (1869, of Palace Pier, the present amusement park closed 1971: see section 2.3.3). Kemp Town developed from Madeira Lawns after the Second was also connected to the new electric tramway World War, and Black Rock swimming pool system built in 1901-4: this 9.5 mile system

31 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove connected the Steine, Brighton station, the race the medieval villages engulfed by Brighton, Hove course, and, principally, the northern suburbs. It gained borough status and built its own Town closed in 1939.162 Hall (1882). This clear identity was certainly furthered by independent development of Hove village as a separate resort – in the form of Cliftonville – in the 1850s, before the expanding edge of Brighton reached it in the 1880s (with the building of the West Brighton Estate) and thereafter made the two boroughs, topographically at least, inseparable. The northwards spread of the suburbs saw Preston absorbed by 1914, but the medieval Downland villages to the west of the town – Portslade, Hangleton, West Blatchington and Patcham – were only engulfed by Brighton and Hove after the Second World War. On the coast west of Hove (and indeed just west of Aldrington parish) a small maritime settlement was established in the late 19th century extending east from Copperas Gap. Known as Portslade- by-Sea (it was occupied the narrow coastal part of the parish of Portslade) it quickly became a residential area and expanded northwards to the Old Shoreham Road in the early years of the 20th century. By the late 1930s the eastwards (coastal) spread of Portslade-by-Sea had met the westwards expansion of Hove, in Aldrington parish (which appears to have lost its village – probably located at the mouth of the River Adur – to erosion, by the 17th century).166

Fig. 17. Brunswick Square, Hove. The demand for accessible seafront, however, pushed development westwards into the parish of Hove. Although Hove itself had been a medieval village of sufficient status to provide ships or mariners for royal service in the 14th century, it had even at this time suffered badly from inundation, with 150 acres of the parish lost to the sea between 1291 and 1340. After a minor post-medieval revival closely connected with the success of Brighton’s fishing industry in the late 16th and 17th centuries, Hove had declined so that the population in 1801 was only 101 and its church ruinous. In 1821 the population of Hove remained low (312), but thereafter grew rapidly (1,360 in 1831; 2,509 in 1841; 20,804 in 1881).163 Expansion of Brighton into Hove parish began with the development of Brunswick Town from 1824. Equipped with its own administration (the Brunswick Town Commissioners), the new suburb was highly fashionable. For example, in 1851 a remarkable 20% of its head of households had titles.164 Although the covered market of 1828 failed immediately,165 Brunswick Town, and Hove, went on to gain some Fig. 18. Portslade, one of five former Downland villages independence from Brighton: uniquely amongst engulfed by 20th-century expansion of Brighton and Hove..

32 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Although Portslade-by-Sea had expanded 3.4.2 Church and religion westwards to join Fishersgate (outside the boundary of modern Brighton and Hove) by the 1930s, it was only after the Second World War that further development blurred distinctions between coastal settlements by creating a continuous built-up coastal strip stretching from the cliffs on the east side of Brighton to the River Arun at Littlehampton. The area west of the western end of the Hove esplanade (the Lagoon), however, developed a different character from the general coastal suburbs, since the former mouth of the River Adur was redeveloped from 1851 as a new floating dock for Shoreham harbour: this physically extended the harbour eastwards into the modern area of Brighton and Hove by over 1km, and increased the overall length of (so-called) Shoreham harbour to 5.7km. On the shingle spit opposite Portslade-by-Sea the largest gasworks in Sussex was built (1874) followed by the Brighton Corporation electricity works in 1906.167Just as coastal communications had been important in the creation of the 18th-century resort at Brighton, so too has Shoreham harbour (and its associated industries) proved an important element of the economy of Brighton and Hove, and the adjacent towns and county.

Fig. 20. St Andrew’s, Hove: ruinous when rebuilt in 1836 to serve the new suburb. The period from 1820 has been remarkable for its building of new churches in Brighton and Hove. The parish of Brighton (St Nicholas) remained intact until 1873, by which point there were 19 Anglican churches and chapels: seven district parishes were then created, and St Peter’s became Brighton’s new parish church.168 Similar changes occurred in the surrounding parishes as they developed from sparsely populated areas into modern Brighton and Hove. The medieval church of St Andrew had remained the parish church of Hove despite its ruinous condition and annexation to Preston in 1531, and was rebuilt in 1836. Thereafter it remained the parish church until 1892 (being separated from Preston in 1879), by which time there were seven new Anglican churches and chapels: St Andrew’s then became a chapel of ease to the new parish church of All Saints, and by 1940 Hove parish had been divided into eight ecclesiastical parishes.169 The parish church of St Peter, West Blatchington, had long been derelict (see section 4.2.1) and, since 1744, its vicarage united with Brighton: it was restored in Fig. 19. Aldrington Basin – extending Shoreham Harbour 1890 and its vicarage disunited from Brighton in 1km into Brighton and Hove. 1941.170

33 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

examples comparing to 47 Anglican for the same period). Again, an initial spate of foundations occurred (with five each in the 1820s and 1830s), with the most active period being from 1860-1900, with an average of almost 10 foundations per decade: however, there was no nonconformist revival linked to the inter-war suburban expansion. Nonconformist foundations were dominated by Baptists (13 churches and chapels) and Congregationalists-Presbyterians (10 chapels and churches).175 Roman Catholic foundations for the period number 14, with the only significant burst of activity in 1900-6, with five new foundations, four of which were convents.176 Congregations of all Christian denominations have declined significantly in the 20th century, with at least 34 churches and chapels demolished since 1945, and at least 15 other closures.177 A permanent synagogue was built at 36-40 Devonshire Place in 1823, and enlarged with a school in 1836. Another, Brighton synagogue was built in 1875, in Middle Street, with 20th- century examples following in Hove at 79 Holland Road (1929-30, re-using a gymnasium of 1883), 6 Lansdowne Road (1938), 29 New Church Road (1958) and Palmeira Avenue (1966).178 Fig. 21. St Paul, West Street (R. C. Carpenter, 1846-8). The parish church of St Nicholas, Aldrington, was likewise ruinous in the post-medieval period, and only rebuilt in 1876-8 (now St Leonard, reviving what appears to have been an earlier medieval dedication). It maintained its parish church status, although a new church of St Philip, New Church Road, was built nearby in 1894-5.171 The medieval church of St Peter, Preston, continued to function as the parish church, until succeeded in 1908 by St John the Evangelist, Preston Road (built 1902). By 1915, five independent parishes had been formed from the old parish of Preston.172 The medieval church of St Helen’s, Hangleton, continues as the parish church, although supplemented by St Richard, Egmont Road (1960-1).173 Portslade, with its more significant settlement, retains its medieval parish church of St Nicholas, as does Patcham (All Saints). The building of new Anglican churches was marked by an initial flurry of activity in the 1820s, with the most sustained period of construction between 1850 and 1880. Thereafter new foundations declined, with a notable revival in the 1930s marking the great expansion of suburbs at this time.174 Although typically smaller buildings and sometimes more transient, nonconformist chapels founded during this Fig. 22. Synagogue, Middle Street (Thomas Lainson, 1875). period were more numerous (63 pre-1960

34 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

The school – then known as Brighton Grammar School – relocated to purpose-built premises in Buckingham Road, in 1868. Becoming Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School, it moved again to a new site off Dyke Road: in 1975 this became Brighton, Hove and Sussex Sixth Form College.181 In Hove, a National School opened in Farman Street in 1834 (closed 1893).182 St Andrew’s school, George Street, Hove, was built in 1858, and moved to Haddington Close in 1977.183 Brighton’s new school board (1870) aimed at delivering universal provision of elementary education (as required by the 1870 Education Act) to the rapidly expanding population. It took over several existing schools and resulted in new building: York Place (1870), Fairlight Place (1870; rebuilt 1931), Richmond Street (1873), Hanover Terrace (1873: now part of the College of Technology), Sussex Street (1874), Freshfield Place (1880), Preston Road (1880, closed 1937: now part of the College of Technology), Finsbury Road (now part of Brighton University), Ditchling Road (1890: now the Downs School), Elm Grove (1893), Stanford Road (1893) and St Luke’s Terrace (1903).184

Hove gained a school board in 1877, again Fig. 23. Grave of Phoebe Hessel (1713-1821), St Nicholas’s churchyard. assuming control of existing schools and building new ones. The first new schools were the Ellen Brighton’s parish churchyard continued to Street schools (1879; moved to a new site as expand, on the north side of Church Street in Goldstone Junior in 1975), followed by East 1824 and on the west side of Dyke Road in Hove Board School (1893; known popularly as 1841. In 1853 the much extended churchyard the Davigdor Road Schools, this replaced the closed and a burial board was formed in 1856 for Farman Street National School, and relocated to a new cemetery off the Lewes Road. This was Somerhill Road in 1988) and West Hove First extended in 1868, and in 1902 became Brighton and Middle Schools, Portland Road (1898).185 Borough Cemetery. A portion was sold off in 1919 for use by the Jewish community.179 As a county borough, Brighton became responsible for elementary, secondary and The churchyard of St Andrew’s, Hove, was technical education under Balfour’s Education extended in 1860. This soon became Act 1902 and an Education Committee for inadequate, and a new cemetery was opened off Brighton was formed in 1903. New schools the Old Shoreham Road in 1880. This was opened under the county borough include: Loder 180 expanded in 1912 and 1923. Road (1910: closed 1924), Coombe Road (1912), Balfour Road (1924), Varndean High 3.4.3 Urban institutions School (1926), Primary (1929), Moulsecoomb Junior (1930), Hertford Road The development of schools in Brighton and (1931), Varndean boys’ secondary school (1931: Hove is complex and can only be traced here in became ) Whitehawk (1933: summary form. In Brighton, the National School became Stanley Deason 1976), Whitehawk relocated from Meeting House Lane to purpose- Junior (1934), Patcham Secondary (1937: built premises in Church Street (the Central became Patcham Fawcett 1966, Patcham National School) in 1829. This survived, most Margaret Hardy 1969, and Patcham High 1989), recently as the Central Voluntary Primary Carden (1948), (1950), Stanmer School, until 1967 (demolished 1971). The Union Secondary (1951: became Westlain Grammar Charity School in Middle Street (1807; see 1957, then Falmer High 1974), Coldean (1952), above) continued until demolished in 1973. The Dorothy Stringer (1955), St Joseph’s (1956), Brighton Proprietary Grammar and Commercial (1961), Carlton Hill (1963), Longhill School opened in 1859, at 47 Grand Parade. (1963), and Middle Street (1974; replacing the

35 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove former Union Charity School, demolished 1973). department became a separate technical college Abolition of the county boroughs in 1974, in Richmond Terrace. Additional science following the Local Government Act 1972, saw teaching was offered by of East Sussex County Council become the local Technology, which opened in Lewes Road in education authority for Brighton.186 1963: in 1970 this combined with the art college to become Brighton Polytechnic (since 1992 After the Education Act 1902 the municipal Brighton University). Confusingly, in 1974 the borough of Hove passed secondary education to Richmond Terrace technical college was the county council, but initially retained renamed Brighton College of Technology. responsibility for elementary education. New Although outside the built-up area of Brighton secondary schools opened under the county and Hove, the University of Sussex has been an council include: Knoll Girls’ School (1931),187 important educational development for the town. Hove County School for Girls (1935; later It opened in temporary accommodation in became Hove Grammar School for Girls); Hove Preston Road in 1961, with the campus at County School for Boys (1936; became Hove 194 Falmer opening the following year. County Grammar School of Boys in 1947, and Hove Grammar School in 1957);188 Portslade Boys’ School (1940); Portslade Girls’ School (1940); Cardinal Newman School (1966; co- educational Roman Catholic comprehensive);189 Portslade Community College (1972; comprehensive formed by merger of Portslade Boys’ School and Portslade Girls’ School); Blatchington Mill School (1979; comprehensive formed in 1979 by merger of Hove Grammar School for Boys, Nevill County School (Mixed) and Knoll Boys’ School); (1979; mixed comprehensive formed by amalgamation of Hove Grammar School for Girls and Knoll Girls’ School).190 New elementary schools in Hove (and its suburbs that expanded into adjacent parishes) since 1902 include: St Andrew’s Infants, Portslade (1906; called St Peter’s from 1947); St Mary’s Roman Catholic Primary (1918); Knoll Infants (1931; moved to Stapley Road in 1956, and merged in 2001 with Goldstone Junior, becoming Goldstone Primary);191 Benfield Junior, Portslade, (1949); Hangleton Infants (1949); Cottesmore St Mary’s Roman Catholic Primary (1950); Hangleton Junior (1952); West Blatchington Middle School (1954); West Blatchington First School (1956); Primary, Portslade (1965); Peter Gladwin Primary (1974); and Somerhill Junior 192 (1974). Fig. 24. Brighton Public Library, Art Gallery and Museum. In common with other fashionable seaside A public reference library opened in 1869 in the resorts, Brighton and Hove has a long a complex Royal Pavilion. In 1873, this moved to the history of private schools, many of which were remodelled service, stable and coach block east small and short-lived. Of these, Brighton of the Dome in Church Street, where it was College, a co-educational public school, is the combined with the (surviving) museum and art most significant. It originated as Portland House gallery. A lending library was opened in 1889. In boys’ boarding school in 1847, with the present 1902, both libraries were relocated to the site and the earliest of the buildings dating from remodelled parish rooms immediately to the 1848-9.193 west (i.e. in front of the Dome).195 Hove lending library opened in 1891, in Grand Avenue, and Higher education has a long history in the town. relocated to the new site in Church Road in Brighton School of Art was founded in Palace 196 1908. Place in 1858, gaining a science department in 1874 and moving to Grand Parade in 1876. Brighton gained a county court in 1847, initially Under municipal control from 1892, the science in the town hall, but it soon transferred to 151

36 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

North Street, then to Prince’s Street, and in 1869 High Street, relocated c.1854 to 76 West Street to a purpose-built courthouse at the bottom of and in 1922 to the former grammar school Church Street. This closed 1967 (when the new buildings in Buckingham Road: it closed in 1970. premises in Edward Street/John Street opened, The Sussex Eye Hospital opened in 1832 in housing magistrate, juvenile, coroner, county Boyce’s Street, moved to purpose-built premises and quarter session courts) and is now a library at 104 Queen’s Road in 1846, and to the current store.197 The earlier watchmen were replaced by building opposite the Royal Sussex County a professional police force in 1838 based at the Hospital in 1935 (the Queen’s Road building town hall. This central station was replaced by being demolished c.1961). The Brighton (now the present one in John Street in 1965 (adjacent Royal Alexandra) Hospital for Sick Children to the courts). The Brighton Police Force merged began in Western Road in 1868, relocated to the with other forces in 1968 to form the Sussex present site in Dyke Road in 1870-1, and was Constabulary, based at the former East Sussex rebuilt in 1880-1. A smallpox sanatorium opened Police Force headquarters at Lewes.198 Hove in Bevendean Road (north of Brighton cemetery) gained a magistrates court in 1904, based in the in 1881, was expanded in 1898 (when it became town hall. Purpose-built courts opened in 1971 in Brighton Borough Hospital), and closed to in- Holland Road, which, in 1992, became the patients in 1989: only the lodges have survived crown court.199 Hove constables and watchmen residential redevelopment of the site. The were introduced in 1830, and retained its own Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital was established force until it became part of the East Sussex in 1879 in Granville Place, moved to Queen’s Police in 1947.200 Road in 1882 and then to purpose-built premises in Church Street in 1897: it closed in 1986 and In 1822 the workhouse in the Bartholomews was 206 was demolished in 1988. replaced by a new building located on Dyke Road between the church and (later) Leopold Road.201 The 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act left Brighton parish as its own union. Expanding population and increasing urban poverty, however, meant that the existing Brighton workhouse was soon insufficient and this was replaced in 1865-7 by a new workhouse on Elm Grove. This was provided with its own infirmary.202 The workhouse closed in 1930.203 There were no other workhouses in the area of modern Brighton and Hove either before or after the Poor Law Amendment Act: from 1835 the parishes of Portslade, Hangleton, Aldrington, West Blatchington, Patcham, Preston and Hove formed part of the Steyning Union (which was catered for from 1835 by the new union workhouse in Ham Road, Shoreham204). Parishes to the east of Brighton fell into Newhaven Union from 1835,205 but there was no significant expansion of Greater Brighton into these parishes in the period during which workhouses were effective. The Sussex General Infirmary of 1812 (see section 3.3.4), was succeeded in 1828 by the Sussex County Hospital and General Sea- Bathing Infirmary, in Eastern Road. In 1905 this Fig. 25. The Royal Sussex County Hospital, Eastern Road, became the Royal Sussex County Hospital, and Brighton (1828). has seen considerable expansion, absorbing the A dispensary opened at 4 Farm Road, Hove in function of many of the specialist hospitals (see 1859, with a purpose-built replacement opening below). A second large hospital was created in in Sackville Road in 1888. In 1918, this was re- 1935 when the former workhouse in Elm Grove named Hove Hospital, and was repeatedly (see above) became Brighton Municipal (from extended, before closure in 1997. In 1998 Hove 1948, General) Hospital. Brighton and Hove also Ployclinic opened, followed by Mill View Hospital gained several specialist hospitals. The Sussex 207 (1998) and the Nevill hospital (1999). Maternity Hospital was founded in 1830 at 69

37 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Foredown Hospital, Hove (1883-4) for infectious Stadium opened as a tennis centre in diseases, became a hospital for handicapped 1936, but was converted to an athletics stadium children 1972 (demolished 1988-9).208 in 1952-5 and has hosted a wide range of sporting – and non-sporting – events since.217 A new market house was built in 1828-30 on the western side of Market Street (backing on to The purpose-built Duke of York’s cinema, Black Lion Street). The site of the former market Preston Circus, opened in 1910, and, was then used for the building of the present remarkably, still functions as a cinema.218 More town hall (1830-2). With the dissolving of the substantial cinemas followed, such as the Brighton town commissioners, this was purpose-built Cannon Cinema, which opened on transferred to the new corporation in 1855. The the site of Brill’s baths in 1930, with a seating market house was rebuilt in 1900-1, then closed capacity of 2,300.219 Large cinemas were not in 1938 (mostly demolished 1940) following its exclusive to the centre of Brighton, however, replacement by the new municipal wholesale with the Lido, Denmark Villas, Hove, opening in market in Circus Street in 1937.209 1931. Using a former ice-rink (built 1929),this seated 2,081, became the Odeon and closed in Sporting and leisure provision increased with the 220 1961 (demolished in 1970). The Granada, development of parks. Queen’s Park opened as Portland Road, Hove opened in 1933 and seated a subscription park in 1824, becoming public in 210 1592 (this became the ABC, and closed 1891-2. Hove Recreation Ground opened 221 1974). 1891, followed by nearby Hove Park in 1906, and St Ann’s Well Garden in 1908.211 The Level cricket ground was replaced in 1823 by the Hanover Ground on the adjacent Park Crescent. This was used by the new Sussex county club, formally established in 1839, which relocated to the Brunswick Ground in Hove (between later Third Avenue and Fourth Avenue) in 1848, then, when the lease ran out, moved to the present County Ground, Eaton Road, Hove, in 1872.212 The King Alfred Sports Centre was built as a swimming pool in 1938-9, immediately requisitioned by the Admiralty (as HMS King Alfred – hence its current name), and opened to the public in 1946.213 The Prince Regent Swimming Complex, north of the east end of Church Street, opened in 1981, replacing North Road pool (opened 1895).214 Brighton and Hove stadium, Nevill Road, opened for greyhound racing in 1928. This remains its main purpose, but the stadium has been used for many other sports and events.215 Professional football dates from 1898, with Brighton United, using the County Ground. This team disbanded after two seasons, but was immediately succeeded by an amateur team, which, from the 1901-2 season, became professional and adopted the name Brighton and Hove Albion. The Albion moved to the Goldstone Fig. 26. The former Cannon Cinema, East Street (1930). Ground for the 1902-3 season, the ground having been first used the previous season (by Hove Football Club).216 In the 1996/7 season they played their last match at the , which had been sold, and are currently temporarily housed at .

38 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

octagonal stepped base of sandstone. While the 4 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF upper parts are evidently replacements, the base (including the socket-stone for the shaft) is BRIGHTON & HOVE substantially older and may well be medieval.225 Nothing survives of the 12th-century chapel of St 4.1 The medieval town (Maps 5 Bartholomew, although an old wall and graves and 6) discovered during building of the Market House in 1774 (i.e. the site now occupied by 9-10 Bartholomews, to the rear of 1 and 2 Prince 4.1.1 Buildings Albert Street) appear to mark the site: this is further confirmed by references to the chapel in title deeds of the properties. The graveyard appears to have extended further to the south as human burials were noted during construction of Town House (which largely functioned as a workhouse) in 1727 or during its expansion in 1733 (see section 3.2.4) and during digging of cellars of houses to the south.226

4.1.2 Excavations The absence of archaeological excavation in the old town means that it is difficult to determine the whether medieval deposits and features have survived redevelopment from the 18th-century onwards. Excavation in 1978 at Market Street showed that levelling had removed the uppermost archaeological levels including remains of St Bartholomew’s chapel and its graveyard. 227 However, excavation at 6 Ship Street in 2002 found a well of possible medieval date.228

4.1.3 Topographic analysis (Maps 5-6)

There has been little study of the topography of th medieval Brighton. A common assumption has Fig. 27. Church of St Nicholas, Brighton: 12 -century font. been that the medieval town was on the beach The parish church of St Nicholas is the only and only later moved to the cliff-top: Carder building recognizably surviving from medieval dates this shift to the 13th or 14th centuries and Brighton, and even this was largely rebuilt in even suggests that the beach may have been 1853. A Caen stone font of the early to mid-12th the location of the parish church mentioned in century is carved with scenes including the Last Domesday Book.229 Although there was evident Supper, the Baptism of Christ, St Nicholas and encroachment by the sea in the 13th and 14th the Ship, and another scene that appears to centuries (and consequent reduction in the value involve St Nicholas (possibly the confession of of rectorial tithes: section 3.1.5) there is, the innkeeper at Myra222) but nothing visibly however, no evidence for the transplanting of an survives from the contemporary church.223 The earlier purely beach-based town. Indeed, the 13th-century chancel has been almost entirely evidence is quite against it. The present church lost to the 19th-century rebuilding, but the nave (on architectural grounds certainly in existence arcades and the tower and chancel arches are by the 13th century) lies outside the late medieval 14th century. The wooden rood screen is also town and, thus, is hardly suggestive of relocation reputed to be of the 14th century,224 but, if so, to accompany major settlement shift. The has been very heavily restored in the 19th present location of the church, of course, is century. The medieval exterior of the church has consistent with the small-scale (and non-urban) been almost entirely lost, with the exception of rural settlement of the area (within which there the west window of the south aisle (reset) and was a developing landing place) of 1086 (section the tower, both dating from the 14th century. To 3.1.2). Moreover, we have seen (section 3.1.5) the south of the church lies a cross with an that the creation of a new dependent chapel of

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St Bartholomew by 1147 is most likely to be coincident with the creation of a new town, within which it would have been located. Given that the 16th-century growth of Brighton saw considerable expansion of the lower town (section 3.2.1), it is most probable that the undercliff settlement at Brighton – even then dominated by less substantial cottages, hovels, workshops and huts directly related to the fishing industry – was at its peak during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Medieval use of the undercliff is likely to have been similar, though smaller scale, and quite different from the more substantial urban tenements and institutions above the low cliff. It does remain possible, however, that the modest 11th-century trading place originated on, or partly on, the beach. The encroachment of the sea is likely to have played a significant role in the development of the medieval town since the recorded loss of 40 acres between 1291 and 1340 represents 45m of erosion if averaged across the parish: another 40 acres was lost over the same period from Aldrington parish (93m on average), although it is not clear whether the 150 acres lost from Fig. 28. Ship Street, looking southwards: the gridded plan of Hove parish (a remarkable 305m on average) such Brighton streets was developed in the medieval period. represents permanent loss.230 That coastal erosion was considerable in the 17th and 18th A third open area in the medieval town is centuries (sections 3.2.1 and 3.3.1) shows the probably represented by the Hempshares, which longevity of the problem, only halted by 19th- appears to have been the location for a rope- th century and later sea defences. The starting walk or, even, the growing of hemp. In the 17 point of the rapid erosion of the low cliff is century this was located in the area now unclear since the nature of the earlier medieval bounded by between Middle Street, Meeting beach, and its protective role, is unknown. Thus House Lane, Duke Street and the Hippodrome the extent of the loss to the sea of the medieval (i.e. north of Boyce’s Lane, which lies west of the 232 town cannot be determined with any accuracy, site). but is likely to have been substantially greater The street pattern of the medieval town is than the 45m estimated from the losses between uncertain. The bird’s-eye view showing the 1291 and 1340. attack of 1514 confirms the broadly square form By the early post-medieval period urban of the town, with the parish church sitting just institutions such as the Town House and market beyond to the north-west. A built up North Street were located on a cramped site on the cliff top is implied, but it is placing too much reliance on between Black Lion Street and Ship Street, a schematic representation to infer from the suggesting that this was the northernmost depiction of five rows of north-south houses, that remnant of a more expansive medieval market East Street, West Street and one intermediate place. street were fully developed. What it does show, th however, is that the north-south component of To the north-east of this lay the 12 -century the gridded town plan was well developed. chapel of St Bartholomew. The width and Although thoroughfares have evidently been northern limit of the boundary of the 2½ acres of created in the post-medieval period through the ‘the Bartholomews’ with which the chapel was previously open areas of the Hempshares (i.e. endowed (see section 3.1.5) have been the northern part of Ship Street) and St reasonably inferred from tenement histories and 231 Bartholomews (i.e. part of Market Street, fragments of surviving walls: This would Bartholomews and Prince Albert Street), it is suggest that the southern boundary was the likely that the main gridded street pattern is same as the southern edge of modern medieval rather than, as has been suggested,233 Bartholomew Square. to a large degree a post-medieval creation.

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4.2 The medieval villages

4.2.1 Buildings The 18th-century and, especially, later suburbs of Brighton and Hove have engulfed earlier rural settlements, or villages. Several medieval buildings have survived late and post-medieval decline and the more recent suburbanization, including seven parish churches. The church of St Helen, Hangleton retains a simple nave of flint-rubble laid in herringbone courses, together with very small semicircular headed windows and primary doorways. The combination of these features suggests a date of the very late 11th century or the early 12th century. The use of Quarr stone in the ashlar of the nave (e.g. in quoins and voussoirs of the south doorway) corroborates this dating as the stone was almost never used outside the immediate vicinity of the Isle of Wight and Hampshire after the early 12th century.234 It is Fig. 30. All Saints’, Patcham: chancel arch of c.1100, with perhaps significant that c.1093 the church was th granted to Lewes Priory,235 where Quarr stone 13 -century Doom painting over. was employed extensively. The west tower is an The exterior of the medieval walls of All Saints’, th addition of the 13 century and the chancel a Patcham is almost entirely hidden by Roman replacement of the 14th century. cement (which bears no resemblance to any medieval render). However, the building is evidently earlier than the only in situ medieval features that are visible on exterior – the 13th and 14th-century windows that light the tower, nave and chancel. The plain semicircular arches of the chancel arch (surmounted by a 13th-century ‘Doom’ painting, uncovered in the late 19th century) and the north doorway to the nave (relocated to the north wall of the new north aisle of 1898236) are both of c.1100: again, the use of Quarr stone corroborates a pre-c.1125 date, and here too the supply of this ashlar may be connected to the church being held by Lewes Priory by 1091.237 The church of St Nicolas, Portslade dates from the 12th century. The most obvious Romanesque detail is the southern arcade of the nave that has piers probably dating from the 1160s with scalloped and, in the easternmost example, drilled capitals. The flint-rubble southern, eastern and western walls are essentially of the same period, albeit with later windows. The arcade was copied on the north side in 1874, when a wide north aisle was added. The chancel, with its stepped sedilia and adjacent piscina, dates from the 13th century. The west tower was begun c.1200 and th completed in the 14 century. Fig. 29. St Helen’s, Hangleton: south wall of nave.

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The church of St Peter, West Blatchington, was ruinous from the late 17th century and only re-roofed and restored in 1890, yet preserves parts of the medieval building as the south aisle to the present main body of the church (built in 1960). The most obvious early feature is the west wall of the former nave with its two small 12th-century windows. These are set lower than, and are of quite different character to, two blocked windows in the south wall. The south windows had no ashlar quoins and were almost certainly of double-splayed form. Although such windows continued to be built in even the most prestigious buildings into the 12th century,239 the fact that the western window appears to have abutted, and was presumably rendered redundant by, a Romanesque doorway (visible as semicircular blocking above the 15th-century nave doorway) indicates that there are at least two phases of early work.

Fig. 31. St Nicolas, Portslade: 12th-century south arcade of nave. The church of St Peter, Preston (declared redundant in 1990) is almost entirely of the late 13th century, consisting of an unaisled nave, with a chancel and a western tower. The windows are lancets, except for the three-light east window. A fire in 1906 destroyed the interior and resulted in the replacement of the roofs. The fire also damaged the wall paintings of the nave (c.1300), which remain in part visible on the east and north walls.238

Fig. 33. St Peter, West Blatchington: west wall with 12th- century windows. Small-scale sondages of footings west of the nave that had been exposed during the 1890 restoration suggested that a 12th-century church replaced a Saxon church (with a west doorway), with the present west wall marking the end of the shortened nave, and with the south and north Fig. 32. St Peter’s, Preston: wall painting on north side of walls being re-used.240 However, there are chancel arch (the martyrdom of Thomas Becket). significant weaknesses in the excavator’s

42 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove analysis of the standing building, most especially in regard to the conclusion that the retained lengths of the Saxon walls were thickened by the addition of a 6” (150mm) flint-rubble skin on the exterior (structurally implausible, and conflicting with the evidence for blocked openings of the earlier phase), by the assumption that there was no chancel in the earliest period (additionally undermined by comparison to St Botolph’s, West Sussex, where the late 11th-century nave and the western part of the chancel are coeval241), and by adherence to the no longer tenable idea that Saxon and Norman work can be sharply differentiated. In the absence of a more detailed study involving removal of plaster and mortar, and further excavation, it remains certain only that the 12th-century west wall represents a westwards shortening of an earlier nave of Saxo- Norman character. The form of the eastern end of the church in either of these earlier phases is unclear. The church of St Nicholas, Aldrington had a Fig. 34. Porstlade Old Manor House: view from the north. similar fate to that of West Blatchington, being The chamber-block can be dated to the early to ruinous in the 17th century (and neglected at the mid-12th century on the basis of the scalloped least in the late 16th century), and not being re- capital and the rear arch (with its roll and hollow roofed and restored until 1878. In 1936, this mouldings) of the eastern window, with the use rebuilt church became the south aisle of an of Quarr stone for the inner (primary) part of the expanded church, with consequent removal of ground-floor doorway perhaps suggesting origins the north wall.242 The amount of medieval fabric earlier in the period. that survived such neglect and rebuilding is minimal, and is mainly confined to the lower parts of the east, south and, especially, the tower walls. The church of St Andrew, Hove (Fig. 20) was also ruinous in the post-medieval period, losing its chancel by 1724 and, following further decay (including the loss of its aisles and tower), restored in 1836.243 The only element of the medieval church to survive the restoration consists of the four eastern bays of the nave arcades, of the 13th century: the present western bay replaces one that had been lost by c.1800. Few secular medieval buildings survive from the villages adjacent to these medieval churches. By far the most notable survival is Portslade Old Manor House. Although ruinous from the early 19th century, this includes the remains of a two- storey building dating from the 12th century. This had a functional timber-ceiled ground floor (lit by narrow splayed windows) and a much more sophisticated first floor (lit by more elaborate two-light windows). Such buildings were until recently considered to be self-contained ‘first- floor halls’, whereas – as demonstrated recently Fig. 35. Portslade Old Manor House: detail of south window. at the archetype of Boothby Pagnell and elsewhere in England and Normandy – these While reputedly incorporating the remains of a 13th-century stone house,245 Preston Manor chamber-blocks were usually located adjacent to th large ground-floor halls.244 appears to date from the late 16 -century and,

43 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove especially, the 18th century. The putative Wealden parts of the Hangleton estate would medieval doorway (roundheaded and without have made this far less substantial than imposts) opening on to the ‘cross-passage’ Domesday Book might appear to suggest248), but appears late 16th-century, albeit more simply rather occupation from the late 12th century, with functional than the intact (formerly external) a heyday from c.1250-1300 followed by decline doorway to the south (Fig. 45). in the 14th century: Holden identified the Black Death of 1348 as ‘the culminating blow to an Little identifiably medieval fabric survives at th already impoverished village from which it never Hangleton Manor House other than a 15 - 249 fully recovered’. century doorway in the west (now subsidiary) wing: this could suggest that the west wing represents the late medieval manor house: 4.3 The town c.1540-1800 rebuilding in the mid-16th century included the substantial east wing – since then, the main residence (now a public house). West Blatchington Manor House does not survive, but was the subject of a watching brief during demolition in 1955. This showed that the flint-rubble building (which stood north-east of the mill and south-east of the church) had north and south wings probably dating from the 14th and 15th centuries respectively.246

4.2.2 Excavations The expansion of Brighton and Hove has engulfed numerous shrunken or deserted medieval villages. Much of this process (as in the case of Hove) predates the development of modern archaeological techniques and the appreciation of the value of such archaeological sites. Uniquely, the village of Aldrington appears to have been lost to coastal erosion (leaving the church isolated). Elsewhere, the surviving settlement was sufficiently substantial for the new suburbs to leave the earlier village apparently intact (though this ignored the potential archaeology arising from historic settlement shift and shrinkage, and the impact of infill development). Only two obviously almost entirely deserted villages survived into the post-war period, at Hangleton and West Blatchington. The latter Fig. 36. Cricketers’ Arms, Black Lion Street: 17th-century appears to have engendered no archaeological building, with bow-fronted façade added in 1824. interest, with the few surviving cottages, one possibly medieval, north of the church being 4.3.1 Buildings swept away by development. By contrast, the The historic core of Brighton (i.e. its extent area east of Hangleton church had been c.1800) has 84 surviving buildings, or groups of identified as early as the 1879 Ordnance Survey buildings, that date from between 1540 and map as the site of the medieval village, and was 1800: none from the 16th century, one from the excavated in advance of housing development in 17th century, and 83 from the 18th century. 247 1952-4. Almost all the 18th-century buildings are from the second half of the century. While the dearth of The excavations by Eric Holden and by the th Ministry of Works revealed numerous buildings buildings dating from before the mid-18 century reflects the re-invention of the fishing town as a and trackways in the area extending north- th th eastwards from the church to Stonecroft Close. seaside resort, the late 16 to mid-17 -century The buildings did not represent the Domesday fishing-based prosperity and expansion of the village (although Warne has pointed out that the town almost inevitably would have generated a wave of house building.

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(built in 1767: Grade II*). Of the early substantial townhouses, Marlborough House, 54 The Old Steine (Grade I) is the best example: initially built c.1765, this was largely rebuilt by Robert Adam in 1786-7.252 The typical Neo-Classical villa style of Adam – with its wide low frontage – contrasts with the more typical tall townhouses on narrow plots of the adapted fishing town or, especially, the new suburbs. At exactly the same time, Henry Holland began remodelling a nearby lodging house for the Prince of Wales, creating a still more substantial Pavilion: although substantially remodelled in the 19th century (see below, section 4.5.1), Holland’s design of bow- fronted wings flanking a domed rotunda still forms the core of the structure today. The Old Ship assembly rooms, 73 Ship Street, preserves a remarkable interior by Robert Golden surviving from 1767, and the most evocative survival of the early Brighton ‘season’.

Fig. 37. Timber-framed construction at 43 Meeting House Lane (probably 18th century).

Remains of houses from this period – and indeed earlier – may well survive in houses subsequently remodelled and re-fronted to meet the demands of the resort. The cellars of the Black Lion may be one such survival (if, indeed, they are of 16th-century date). Several buildings in The Lanes are suggestive of an early date, but, as in the case of the jettied and weather- boarded house at 43 Meeting House Lane a pre- th 18 -century date has yet to be demonstrated. The pre-resort buildings include the Cricketer’s Arms, Black Lion Street (before 1790, the ‘Last and Fishcart’), but even this has been extended with a cobble-built wing to the north, and re- fronted with a typical bow-fronted façade in 250 1824. 20-3 Church Street (and including 27 Fig. 38. Late 18th-century rebuilding in the historic core of King Street) have been listed as possibly late Brighton at 16 and 17 Ship Street. 17th century,251 but are evidently late 18th-century Although the old town initially accommodated the in date (and, indeed, are not shown on the 1779 needs of the resort, and consequently saw Yeakell and Gardner plan). considerable adaptation, widespread re-fronting Whilst most of the early resort developments – and rebuilding of houses c.1800-40 (and later such as the Castle Inn – have been lost, a few redevelopment) means that comparatively few examples survive. Public spaces used in the visible and clearly datable examples of 18th- fashionable season are represented by the century townhouses survive in the historic core: restored interior of the Old Ship assembly rooms Brighton, for all its 18th-century revitalization, has

45 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove far fewer houses identifiably of this period than townhouses already provided with bow or bay does the centre of nearby Lewes. Nonetheless, windows were less susceptible to re-fronting there are largely intact examples of 18th-century after c.1800. in the historic core of Brighton, such as brick- built 16 and 17 Ship Street; and wide-fronted 15 Prince Albert Street. The earliest (i.e. pre-1800) suburbs have proved equally vulnerable to re-fronting and rebuilding. For example, the terrace at 6-12 Old Steine dates from 1786, but all except No. 10 have been refaced in the early 19th century. At the south end of the Old Steine No. 44 represents a terrace of three bay-windowed 18th-century houses, but even here there has been much rebuilding (in the late 20th century). Nearby, 9 Pool Valley also dates from the late 18th century and again has bay windows (although here only at first and second-floor levels). Considerably further east, Royal Crescent shows a more developed use of similar materials and form, with construction beginning in 1798-9 (Fig. 10). But, of course, the Royal Crescent is more notable for other reasons: it represents the first appearance in Brighton of the newly fashionable crescent (which began with the Royal Crescent, Bath, 1767-75), albeit here stripped of even a token classical façade; and, significantly, faces the sea, presaging the early 19th-century shift in focus away from the hitherto fashionable Steine.

Fig. 40. The Royal Pavilion: detail of east elevation showing bow window by Henry Holland (1786-8) surviving under Nash’s largely cosmetic remodelling of 1815-22. Due to the lack of early examples in Brighton, materials in use during the period 1540-1800 can only be considered for the 18th century, although it can be assumed that timber frame, flint, cobble and brick all played a role in any 16th and 17th-century building. These materials continued to be employed in the 18th century. Timber frame was utilized in modest buildings in Fig. 39. Late 18th-century suburbs at 44 Old Steine. the densely packed Lanes (e.g. 43 Meeting House Lane: Fig. 37) and, in more stylish new Two other features of the Royal Crescent – the townhouses, in conjunction with a new material – bow and bay windows, and the first-floor mathematical tiles. Of course, mathematical tiles veranda – had been more famously exploited were not only suited for simulation of brick on earlier in the first building of the Prince of timber-framed buildings, as they were used for Wales’s Pavilion by Henry Holland (1786-8). re-facing masonry too: a notable early example Both features were to become popular themes in was Henry Holland’s 1786-8 re-facing, in the townhouses of Brighton (and later Hove) limestone-coloured mathematical tiles, of the from around c.1800, although it was the curved lodging which became part of the Royal Pavilion. bow window that came to dominate rather than th The seven buildings, or groups of buildings, that the canted bay window. Doubtless 18 -century th are surviving examples of late 18 -century

46 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove usage of mathematical tiles include 44 Old in Brighton in the later 16th and early 17th Steine (Fig. 39), Royal Crescent (Fig. 10), 9 Pool centuries. Although the undercliff development of Valley and 10 Manchester Street, all of which fishing-related cottages, hovels, workshops and use black glazed tiles. Flint cobbles were used huts was at its peak during this period, no trace with brick quoins and dressings, as at 8 of this survives or, indeed, survived into the Bartholomews (now painted black with pitch) and period of accurate large-scale mapping, as the 9 Brighton Place (the Druid’s Head), both dating last remnants were swept away in 1705 (see from the late 18th century, albeit modified. Flint section 3.2.1). With the boom in the fishing was also combined with stucco dressings, as at industry reflected in a population increase from 34 Camelford Street, again in the late 18th around 900 in 1565 to c.4000 in 1657, it is highly century. probable that the 16th and 17th centuries saw further development of the medieval gridded street plan and an increase in the density of housing: infilling of the northern part of the town, including encroachment on to the open Hempshares is likely, although not clearly demonstrable. It is evident that the narrow east- west lanes, or twittens, between the main streets (e.g. Ship Street Gardens [formerly Middle Street Lane], Black Lion Lane and Meeting House Lane [formerly Market Lane]) allowed development of modest housing behind the existing street frontages. Whilst, in the absence of sufficient documentary evidence or survival of pre-18th- century buildings, it is difficult to find conclusive evidence for such development, it is certainly more probable that the small-scale and densely packed houses off such passageways were a creation of the fishing-related expansion than the early phase of resort development. Certainly, such accommodation is consistent with post- medieval development in other fishing towns. Moreover, these lanes were in existence at the time of Yeakell and Gardner’s 1779 map of Brighton (the earliest accurate large-scale plan of the town: Fig. 64), at which point the population was only around 75% of its 17th- century peak. The 1779 map, however, does show the area now known as the Lanes only partly developed, with the area of Brighton Fig. 41. Meeting House Lane: probably an early post- Square and northwards as unbuilt. Likewise, medieval east-west passageway later forming part of the some of the main streets (such as Black Lion network known as the Lanes. Street and Duke Street) were not entirely built up at this time: by 1800, these areas had been 4.3.2 Excavations infilled, the remaining area of the Lanes developed, and other new back lanes created to The extremely limited extent of archaeological allow more densely packed housing at the rear excavation within the historic core of Brighton of existing plots (e.g. Duke’s Court/Lewis’s means that very little has been recovered from Buildings). Evidently this cramped this period. A rare find of a cannon recovered accommodation was not suitable for the social from the shingle beach in front of the Norfolk elite, and was utilized by the expanding service Hotel in 1993 during excavations for sewage class necessary to support the resort. works: this may originate from the 18th-century coastal defences.253 New development in the second half of the 18th century outside the extent of the old town 4.3.3 Topography (Maps 7-9) evidently had a considerable impact on the topography of Brighton. As we have seen It is difficult to identify with certainty any (section 3.3.1), the initial focus for new building, individual features of the topography of the town from the 1740s, was on the Steine. Rather than resulting from the heyday of the fishing industry simply representing a suburb, this turned a

47 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove peripheral piece of common land into the focal imprinted on the new suburbs. Thus, the point of the resort: a place roomy enough both development of Little Laine, immediately east of for society to promenade in a picturesque semi- the Steine, was based on three main east-west rural location adjacent to the sea-front, and for streets (Marine Parade, St James’s Street and construction of grander houses (sections 3.3.1 Edward Street) that follow the boundaries of its and 4.3.1). two furlongs (Cliff Furlong and Upper Furlong): these boundaries were already marked by trackways (or ‘leak ways’). The subsidiary north- south streets mark the orientation and pattern of the smaller paulpieces: blocks acquired for the speculative building of townhouses, and these subsidiary roads, typically combined two to five adjacent paulpieces. Exceptions to the pattern do occur, such as Royal Crescent (begun 1798), built across paulpieces in one of the few pre- 1800 developments in East Laine, so as to face the sea. Development north of Church Street, on North Laine, followed a similar pattern and orientation to that on Little Laine. Development began in 1771 on the Steine frontage (North Row, later Marlborough Place), and then gradually extended over First Furlong in the late 18th century and into the early 19th century: here, however, the housing was more modest and expanded into areas that had recently been colonized by paddocks, stables and gardens that had already been pushed northwards by development of workers housing and workshops south of the common fields, between North Street and Church Street (from the late 1770s, Fig. 42. Pavilion Parade: built c.1790 (though largely rebuilt including densely packed tenements such as or re-faced in the 19th century) facing the Royal Pavilion. Salmon Court, Mulberry Square, Durham and With the beginning of development of eastern Petty France, many of which were later identified and northern suburbs on Little, East and North as slums and cleared). Pre-1800 development of Laines in the late 18th century, the Steine lost its farmland north of North Road and Edward Street was largely limited to the (extended) Steine rural aspect, but became all the more the focus 254 of the season: this was further accentuated by frontage. the linear development of the Steine (as the Parade and North Steine: now Victoria Gardens) along the increasingly important road to Lewes and London, and the construction of the barracks at the rear of Marlborough Place. In short, by 1800 Brighton had developed an extremely broad promenade on the line of the principal route, flanked by the most stylish new buildings and key resort facilities, and leading straight to the most accessible part of the seafront. Existing and new east-west routes (such as North Street, St James’s Street and Marine Parade) connected directly to the Steine. As we have seen (section 3.3.1) the early suburbs of the seaside resort were developed from c.1780 on farmland, comprising open fields (or laines) that were divided into furlongs and, further still, into narrow ‘paulpieces’. In the absence of enclosure of this land, development Fig. 43. Marine Parade: developed along the seafront of the farmland was piecemeal and ensured that boundary of Cliff Furlong in Little Laine. the layout of furlongs and paulpieces was

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largely rebuilt in the mid-16th century, with the new east wing becoming the main house. A service or lodging range was built 20m to the north of the rebuilt manor house at the same time, later converted into cottages (now Rookery Cottage). To the south, a circular dovecote was added in the 17th century: built of flint, it has chalk nesting boxes. An 18th-century flint and brick barn survives 250m to the north-west, part of demolished Benfield Manor. The better preserved villages of Patcham, Portslade and Preston together have 32 buildings, or groups of buildings, dating from 1540-1800, with the majority in Patcham. Preston Manor was evidently a substantial late 16th-century house, although features of this date are confined to the basement doorways, as the house was remodelled and enlarged in 1738. Likewise, has a probable 16th- century core, although the present external appearance is 18th century. Cottages of probable th th 16 -century origins survive opposite Patcham Fig. 44. Hangleton Manor House: mid 16 -century east wing. Place at 128-36 Old London Road and at 4-5 Although the old town had also developed on a Church Hill, where late re-fronting hides timber- gridded layout, that established by the new framing. Similar, probably 16th-century, cottages suburbs is noticeably different. More with later flint re-fronting survive at 65 and 67 significantly, the development of suburbs High Street, Portslade: the adjacent former changed the focus of the town, not only farmhouse (Kemps) is also reputed to be timber reinforcing the importance of the Steine, but also framed and of the same period. bringing North Street into a more central position: from the 1780s North Street became the principal shopping street of the town. Significantly for the future of the town, the seafront of the densely built-up part of the town had more than doubled to 1.2km by 1800 from its 1740 extent. With spacious villas strung along the coastal parts of West Laine and sporadic development, such as Royal Crescent, in East Laine, the total length of the seafront in 1800 extended to 2.3km.

4.4 The villages c.1540-1800

4.4.1 Buildings Post-medieval decline means that there was no expansion between 1540 and 1800 of the villages later absorbed by Brighton and Hove. Nothing survives from post-medieval Aldrington, lost to erosion by the early 17th century. West Blatchington was extremely impoverished with the church in ruins in the 17th century, and no buildings survive from this period. Hove had a cluster of buildings c.1800 along what is Hove Street, but nothing appears to survive from this period. Hangleton never recovered from its 14th- century decline, but does have post-medieval buildings. Although medieval fabric may survive Fig. 45. Preston Manor: late 16th-century doorway (previously (section 4.2.1), Hangleton Manor House was external) to basement kitchen.

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Of Brighton’s villages, Patcham also preserves the largest cluster of 18th-century houses (13 buildings or groups of buildings), which includes several of the finer 18th-century houses. Southdown House, Old London Road, is a substantial flint and brick house dating from the early 18th century. This is adjoined by contemporary buildings on the south: the former stables of Southdown House (No. 49; largely rebuilt in the 20th century) and a row of flint and brick terraced cottages (Nos. 45, 45A and 47). Patcham Place (now a youth hostel) was remodelled in the mid-18th century, with black mathematical tiles, canted bay windows and a pediment. Mathematical tiles were also used at Wootton House, Old London Road, in the late 18th century. Amongst the 18th-century cottages in Patcham, the flint and brick terraces of The Square are particularly notable.

Fig. 46. Dovecote at Patcham Court Farmhouse. The 17th century is represented in Preston by a former farmhouse in South Road (now The Old Cottage, Little Barn and Mulberry Cottage), although this has been re-fronted in the 18th century. A single building – the Stag’s Head, High Street – survives from the 17th century in Portslade, and this too has seen heavy remodelling. Patcham, however, has several 17th-century buildings, which include flint-rubble Patcham Court Farmhouse, together with its probably contemporary barn (converted) and dovecote, and timber-framed cottages (albeit re- fronted in flint) at 28 and 29 Church Hill.

Fig. 48. The Square, Patcham: 18th-century terraced cottages. Portslade has three groups of cottages dating from the 18th century (44-50 and 57-63 High Street, and 1-5 South Street), all of flint. Preston also has good examples of flint and cobble terraced housing from the 18th century at 19-27 North Road, and more substantial houses – again using flint – at 36 North Road and 199 Preston Road (the latter with knapped flint). Preston Manor was largely rebuilt and enlarged in 1738, although has been substantially modified in the 20th century. A flint well-house c.30m to the east also survives from the mid-18th century.

4.4.2 Excavations Archaeological excavation within the villages later engulfed by Brighton and Hove has been

extremely limited. The excavations at Hangleton Fig. 47. Southdown House, Old London Road, Patcham. found little evidence of post-medieval

50 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove occupation, consistent with the fact that, was most evident where the street pattern was following decline in the 14th century, the village modified. For example, New Road was created did not recover.255 in 1805 to replace the northern part of Great East Street blocked by the expanding Pavilion: 4.4.3 Topography most of the buildings lining the western side of the street date from this period (the colonnade The topography of the villages now lying within first added in 1823), with bow-windowed Nos. 6 the built-up area of Brighton and Hove remained and 7 the least modified (Fig. 8). Another largely largely unchanged during the period 1540-1800, consistent area of early 19th-century houses with the obvious exception of the loss of survives within the old town at 20-4 Prince Albert Aldrington to coastal erosion. The impact of pre- Street and 1-6 Bartholomews, together with the 1800 turnpiking appears to have had little impact adjacent buildings of Market Street (Nos. 23-4 on the topography of the villages north of and 40-1). Elsewhere in the old town rebuilding Brighton, although Preston and Patcham and re-facing was more sporadic. Ship Street evidently benefited from being on the London- has particularly good surviving examples that Brighton route via Cuckfield, turnpiked in 256 include the wide double-fronted brick-built No. 7 1770. (with bow-windows of ); a pair of stuccoed terraced houses at No. 15 and Ship 4.5 Expansion: c.1800-2007 Street Chambers (with No. 15 losing the ground (Maps 1 and 3) floor of its bow-window to a surviving late 19th- century shopfront); Nos. 53-5 (with No. 53 also th 4.5.1 Buildings and topography preserving a late 19 -century shopfront that removed the lower part of the bow window); and The majority of the buildings, streets and other No. 22 (re-facing of an earlier building to give a urban features of Brighton and Hove date from flat three-windowed range with flint cobbles and after 1800 as a result of the simple fact that the brick dressings). Other examples within the old extent of the contiguous built-up area of the town include 77 West Street (stucco with two modern city (i.e. excluding detached areas such bow windows) and 74-6 Middle Street (stuccoed as Woodingdean and Rottingdean that fall within 75-6 with full-height bow-windows). the present administrative area) is over 40 times larger than it was in 1800. In addition to suburban expansion, rebuilding within the centre of Brighton has also increased the number of buildings of this period. Rebuilding in the 19th century not only swept away most of the pre- 1740 buildings, but also replaced, or at the least re-fronted and remodelled, many of the late 18th- century townhouses. Almost inevitably, many of these 19th-century buildings in the town centre have been in turn replaced in the 20th century: a similar fate has met many of the 19th-century houses in the suburbs (including Hove). Although building between and after the two world wars has been prolific it does not entirely dominate the modern city: only half the extent of the built-up area today dates from after 1914. Expansion was rapid from the beginning of the period, with, as we have seen (section 3.3.1), the population increased by 550% from 7,339 in 1801 to 40,634 in 1831, slowing thereafter during the economic downturn of the 1830s, until the arrival of the railway in 1841. The legacy of this late Georgian and Regency period is very evident in the modern townscape. The impact of accelerating building and changing architectural fashion was felt on the pre-1800 built-up area, where both wholesale rebuilding and re-fronting occurred. Rebuilding Fig. 49. 7 Ship Street.

51 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

principal examples of such seafront squares comprise Regency Square (1817-28; Fig. 11), Marine Square (1823-5), Brunswick Square (1824-30; Fig. 17), and Sussex Square (façades completed 1827, many interiors finished later). Smaller and more conventional (i.e. four-sided) squares were also built back from the seafront, as at Clarence Square (c.1810-20; largely re- fronted), Russell Square (c.1820-5) and Norfolk Square (1820s). Terraces continued to be built after 1800, but on a grander scale than before, especially where facing the sea. Surviving examples can be found in the original extent of Kemp Town at Arundel Terrace (1823-8) and Chichester Terrace (1820s and 1830s, with final completion delayed until the 1850s). In Hove, Brunswick Terrace was built in 1824-30. Kemp Town and Brunswick Town also saw large-scale crescents on the seafront, at Lewes Crescent (façades completed 1827) and Adelaide Crescent (begun 1830) respectively.257 It is in this context of grandiose suburban development that the King’s Road opened in 1822, bypassing the old town on the seafront, and the link from this to Marine Parade opened in 1829: the focus for fashionable society had moved from the Steine to the seafront itself (section 3.4.1).

Fig. 50. Marine Square. Perhaps surprisingly, however, more concerted (though not at all unified) rebuilding occurred in the areas only recently colonized by new suburbs. Thus, the uniform bow-windowed terrace of South Parade, on the east side of the Steine, had only been built in the 1780s, yet was rebuilt, or at the least re-faced, in the early 19th century. The motivation on this prime site appears to have been both pragmatism (Nos. 20-2 are substantially taller than their predecessors) and fashion (for example, No. 26 was rebuilt by c.1830 with abundant decoration; and all of the houses as re-designed had first-floor verandas). A similar process occurred nearby at late 18th-century Pavilion Parade (Fig. 42). It is in the wholly new areas of the suburbs, however, that the impact of the late Georgian and Regency period was greatest. Here architecture developed as unified schemes first seen (excepting conventional smaller terraces) at Royal Crescent (begun 1798). Grand squares, open on their south side, became a feature of both the eastern and western seafronts: Bedford Square (1801-18) led the way, but does not have a unified approach to the façades ensured on later schemes either by covenants or by use of the same architect and builder throughout. The Fig. 51. Adelaide Crescent, Hove.

52 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Many of the architectural forms found in these grand suburbs were employed before 1800, but were used subsequently on an unprecedented scale. For example, bow windows, which appeared in re-frontings and rebuildings in the old town with increasing frequency from c.1800 (see above), started to be used en masse in large-scale architectural compositions: good examples include Brunswick Square and Regency Square (Figs. 11 and 17). However, the large crescents, squares and terraces allowed use of more conventional unifying classical decorative schemes not seen previously in the town, though, obviously, a feature of large-scale street developments elsewhere for the previous century (e.g. Grosvenor Square, London, c.1725-35; or John Wood I’s works at Bath from 1725-54). Thus, applied orders of pilasters and columns make their appearance and, in their absence, implied orders still follow the Palladian scheme. It being the early 19thcentury, however, the Neo- Classicism of late Georgian and Regency Brighton and Hove is very much influenced by the Picturesque and, as would be expected, owes less to John Wood’s Bath than to, say, John Nash’s speculative-built London townhouses: for example, Busby and Wild’s Arundel Terrace, in Kemp Town, is very much Fig. 52. 32 Brunswick Terrace (Busby and Wilds 1820-4). redolent of Nash’s Chester Terrace (1825) and Cumberland Terrace (1827), both at Regent’s Park, London. It is in this context that a relaxed interpretation of classical orders was permissible, with Amon and Amon Henry Wilds’ humorous ammonite capitals, first used in 1810 at 166 High Street, Lewes (Gideon Mantell’s house), and thereafter occurring in Brighton (e.g. Oriental Place, begun 1825). Nowhere, however, is the taste for the exotic more evident than in the expansion and remodelling of the Royal Pavilion. William Porden’s stable-block (now the Dome theatre) of 1803-8 is in Indian style, while John Nash’s remodelling (1815-22) of the Royal Pavilion is more eclectic with the Indian elements (such as the domes) combined with Chinese and Gothic detailing. Neo-Classicism was employed in early 19th- century churches: for example, at Christ Church (Unitarian), New Road (Amon Henry Wilds; 1820); St George’s, St George’s Road (Charles Busby; 1824-5); the Congregational chapel, Union Street ( and, possibly, Busby; 1825258); and St John Evangelist, Carlton Hill (George Cheeseman; 1840). But new styles were adopted too, as at Charles Barry’s rather unhistorical Gothic Revival of St Peter’s, Victoria Gardens (1824-8) and his early essay in the Renaissance style at St Andrew, Waterloo Road Fig. 53. Arundel Terrace, Kemp Town. (1827-8). At the new town hall (1830-2; Fig. 13),

53 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove however, Thomas Cooper stuck firmly to the west of ) was similarly shaped Greek Revival in line with prevailing (pre-Barry by earlier field boundaries – as in the case of the and Pugin’s Westminster) civic Classicism. distinctive splayed plan of Osborne, Medina and Albany Villas. North of Church Road, however, expanding Hove paid less respect to the disappearing agricultural land as it expanded between 1840 and 1880. Brighton in this period began to expand beyond the former common fields, or laines, into the more open sheep down that did not enforce such rigid street patterns. In the north-west of the old parish, the sheep down of Church Hill thus allowed the great arc formed by the west side of the new station, the railway line to Portsmouth, and Terminus Road. To the west of this lies (1843-7) and, as the clearest symbol of a break from the gridded street forms of medieval, post-medieval, and Georgian Brighton, the focus of multi- directional roads known as the Seven Dials. Sheep down to the north-east of the town provided similar scope for Park Crescent (1849) and, still larger, Round Hill Crescent (c.1865). The new railway lines east of the station (to Lewes in 1846 and to Kemp Town in 1869) introduced curves on a grander scale, but had little impact on the developing street pattern of the Round Hill area (due in part to the use of viaducts). The open nature of the area beyond the laines allowed for more than a freer street pattern: echoing the creation of Queen’s Park in 1824, it provided room for larger public facilities Fig. 54, St George’s church, St George’s Road, Kemp Town. demanded by the large town, such as the workhouse at Elm Hill (1865-7) and the The arrival of the railway in Brighton in 1841 cemeteries off Dyke Road (1841) and at Bear coincided with the end of the comparative lull in Hill (1856, and later). construction that had marked the 1830s. The station itself – by David Moccatta – brought a new architectural form to the town (the canopy over the road and the arched roof over the platforms were added in 1882-3259). Access to the station was soon improved by the creation of Queen’s Road (1845), removing housing to the north of North Street, but neatly continuing the line and alignment of medieval West Street. Although less directly the result of the arrival of the railway, post-1841 Brighton and Hove saw much more widespread building than before. With the completion of Prince Albert Street in 1842260 the old town achieved a street plan largely identical to that of today. Initially, the suburbs continued the pattern established in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The eastern suburbs continued to fill East Laine and Hilly Laine. Likewise the northern suburbs continued to fill North Laine, with the new streets between the station and London Road (in existence by c.1850) followed the curve of both laine and paul piece. The seafront Fig. 55. Terminus Road (1840s): Regency-style bow suburban expansion in Hove after 1840 (i.e. windows and canted bay windows on modest terraces.

54 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

are more substantial and mixed with streets of semi-detached houses and, even, detached villas (as at Preston Park Avenue). Densely packed terraced housing dominated the suburbs of 1900-14, as in the area east of Preston Barracks (with its new laid roads testaments to the period: Ladysmith Road, Kimberley Road and Mafeking Road), east of Preston village (e.g. Gordon Road and Balfour Road), in the continuing westwards march of Hove (towards Wish Barn) and the northwards expansion of Portslade-by-Sea. The old town, Regency suburbs and the seafront remained far from untouched during this post- 1840 expansion of Brighton and Hove. We have seen (section 3.4.1) that the change in the type of visitors brought by the cheaper and quicker railway consolidated the shift of the focus of the resort from the Steine to the seafront. Despite the transient nature of entertainment, monuments to this period of the seaside town survive. Whilst Eugenius Birch’s remarkable West Pier (1863-6) is derelict, Palace Pier (1891-9) remains in use. Likewise, whilst Volk’s implausible Rottingdean Railway (1896) has long gone, his 1883 railway running east from the Fig. 56. Adelaide Mansions, Kingsway, Hove (1873). Aquarium (itself a relict of 1872) survives: Architectural form, style and materials used in remarkably survival includes rolling stock from the town after 1840 were more varied. While the the 1890s. bow window had been displaced from many of the more fashionable and large-scale seafront developments by grander Neo-Classical schemes, its increasingly popular variant – the canted bay window – returned en masse as housing construction accelerated. The still expanding seafront at Hove saw construction of the most substantial examples of terraced housing, such as 1-4 Adelaide Mansions, Kingsway, which combines multi-storey bays and verandas (1873). The near-contemporary terraced houses on adjacent First Avenue are only slightly less grand, while the new roads to the west (from Second Avenue to Medina Villas) developed in the late 1870s to 1890s with large detached and semi-detached villas. To the west and north more modest semi-detached and, especially, terraced housing dominated Hove. Still denser terraced housing of the 1870s-90s survives in suburbs created by the expansion of Brighton northwards to the Lewes railway line: examples abound in the area between The Level and Queen’s Park Road, while the comparable between London Road and the station (predominantly built to serve the workers of the railway works) has been largely demolished. Further north, the density of late 19th-century Fig, 57. Langdale Gardens, Hove: closely packed semi- housing in Brighton is lower: while terraces are detached Edwardian suburban villas. still a feature (such as at Chester Terrace), they

55 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

son Revd Arthur Wagner – so that the architectural importance of Victorian Brighton and Hove is ecclesiastical as well as secular (despite a series of regrettable church demolitions as recently as the 1980s). Without doubt the most remarkable church is St Bartholomew, Ann Street (Edmund Scott, 1872- 4) with its austere 135ft-high unaisled nave and Arts and Crafts decoration by Henry Wilson (1895-1910). Successful examples of cathedral- like scale use of 13th-century gothic survive at All Saints’, Eaton Road, Hove (lPearson; 1892); the nave and north aisle of St Michael, Victoria Road (Chapple, 1893, based on the earlier designs of Burges). Amongst new churches and convents (see section 3.4.2), Roman Catholicism brought equally soaring Early English style at St Joseph, Elm Grove (W. Kedo Broder; 1866-9). Within the old town itself is St Paul, West Street (R. C. Carpenter; 1846-8), with its eastern octagonal tower and spirelet on the streetfront (Fig. 21).

Fig. 58. West Pier: cast-iron frame exposed by dereliction. It is the seafront promenade, however, that is the chief monument to the 19th-century resort. With origins in the early 19th-century development of King’s Road and Grand Junction Road, the form of the promenade projecting seaward on arches, with its ten shelters and cast-iron railings dates from 1883-7. To the east of Palace Pier this continues still more remarkably as the two-storey cast-iron walkway (the lower arcaded, the upper open) of Madeira Terrace, with lift, café and waiting room (Philip Lockwood, 1890-7; Fig. 14). East of Regency Square, two blocks of seafront terraced houses were replaced by much more substantial hotels, reflecting the changing demands of visitors. The Grand Hotel (1862-4; Fig. 16) had five lifts to serve its nine storeys (plus additional service storeys) and was part of a new wave of seaside hotel building: its architect John Whichcord had built the Clarence Fig. 59. Lower Esplanade, King’s Road: arches, railings and 261 Hotel at Dover (1863, also equipped with lifts). lampposts 1883-7, lights 1980s replicas of 1930s originals. This was followed, in 1888-90, by Alfred The diversifying economy and the infrastructure Waterhouse’s Metropole Hotel, over twice the demanded by the Victorian and Edwardian town size and, with its red brick and terracotta façade, have left an industrial legacy, despite key losses in stark contrast to the cream-painted stucco of 262 (such as the railway works, next to Brighton the earlier seafront buildings. station). This includes the railway stations at Back from the seafront, building after 1840 town Brighton (1841: see above), and, in Tuscan-villa included new churches – 11 of which were built style, at Portslade (1857) and Hove (1865-6, at the instigation of Revd Henry Wagner and his expanded 1879); substantial brick-built London Road Railway Viaduct (1845-6); Goldstone

56 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Pumping Station (1866), with its operational had perhaps the greatest impact. This began, beam engine of 1872; and John Dudney’s almost incidentally, as early as 1845, with the brewery at Portslade (1881). construction of Queen’s Road and the necessary demolition of squalid housing in Durham Street, Petty France Street and part of Air Street. More deliberate municipal clearances date from 1876 north of Church Street, in the area east of Bread Street. Replacement of slums followed in the most densely packed areas north and south of Edward Street, with the creation of St James’s Avenue, White Street, Blaker Street and Tillstone Street (1889-98). More significant clearances began in the 1930s driven by government subsidy. The Albion Hill area (east of Grand parade and north of Edward Street) and the area to the east (north and south of Eastern Road) have been most affected as the degenerated stock of small terraced houses was targeted for municipal redevelopment: the war halted work, but heavy bombing in the area increased the scope and need for redevelopment. As well as demolition of terraced houses, the dense street plan was thinned out north of Edward Street, and the main east-west streets of Sussex Street and Richmond Street were severed as curved Ashton Rise/Grove Hill was imposed on the earlier gridded plan.

Fig. 60. Former Southdown Brewery, Portslade (1881). The extensive 20th-century suburbs of Brighton and Hove, with their increased provision of semi- detached housing, but also including blocks of flats, fall almost entirely outside the EUS study area. The development of council housing, however, is an important feature of this suburban expansion and merits a summary account. Moulsecoomb was the corporation’s first large- scale estate, beginning with comparatively spacious South Moulsecoomb in the early 1920s, followed by more densely built North Moulsecoomb in 1926-30. This was extended with the building of the Bevendean estate in the early 1930s, and with the East Moulsecoomb estate from 1935. Construction continued in the late 1940s and 1950s with housing in the Halland Road area and the Bates estate. Hollingbury housing estate on the north-western slope of Hollingbury is the largest post-war council estate in the borough, beginning in 1946 at Midhurst Rise and Petworth Road, and was completed in 1964. The council estate at Hollingdean was mostly built in the 1950s, with additions – including the tower blocks off Upper Hollingdean road – of the 1960s.263 While the expansion of Brighton and Hove has being the main theme in the topography and architecture of the town since 1800, it is evident th that it is also a story of loss. Slum clearance has Fig. 61. 20 -century rebuilding in West Street following demolition of the west side for widening in 1928-38.

57 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

failure to address the important ecclesiastical heritage of Brighton and Hove;266 the 1978 closure and subsequent demolition of the Black Rock lido meant the loss of the town’s principal Art Deco seafront building (as well as its much- valued open-air pool); the Black Lion Brewery was demolished in 1968 (despite its local reputation as the ‘oldest brewery in the world’) and replaced in 1974 by the present pastiche;267 and the Central National School, Church Street, was demolished in 1971 while a protection order was held up in a postal strike.268 Although not driven by urban redevelopment, the now almost total decay of the West Pier (undoubtedly, one of the most important piers in the country) has been perhaps the most publicly debated loss (Fig. 57). In the suburbs redevelopment of late 19th and early 20th-century houses – especially large detached villas – has occurred, typically with replacement by blocks of flats. This has been especially prevalent in Hove, where the seafront (Kingsway) in particular has offered scope for flats aimed at the retired population.

Fig. 62. The Kingswest complex (Russell Diplock, 1965), marking the beginning of the Churchill Square development. The more substantial plots arising from the new street plan of the Albion Hill area allowed for large-scale public buildings. These include Milner Flats (the first corporation flats in Brighton, 1934), the municipal market (1937: closed 2004) and – all by the architect Percy Billington – the rebuilt College of Art (1965), the police station (John Street, 1965), and the court house (at Edward Street/John Street, 1967). The Eastern Road area redevelopment included five council tower blocks of the late 1960s and early 1970s. Other areas of slum clearance include the terrace housing (largely for railway workers) between the railway engineering works and goods yard, and London Road (beginning with Blackman Street, Whitecross Street and Wood Street, in 1962).264 In addition to slum clearance, continuous redevelopment within the historic town has seen loss to large-scale redevelopment (such as the Churchill Square area) and, with equal effect, road widening schemes (such as that of the west side of West Street in 1928-38, and North Street 265 in 1927-36 and the early 1960s ) piecemeal th redevelopment. The process is common to many Fig. 63. Kingsway, Hove: late 20 -century flats built on the site of early 20th-century villas. towns, but the loss of particular examples at Brighton and Hove is noteworthy: for example, Despite the large losses to slum clearance and the demolition of St Margaret’s, Cannon Place redevelopment, an increasing awareness of the (1959), and St Anne’s, Burlington Street (1986) value of the historic buildings and topography is unfortunate, and symptomatic of a general has played a role in shaping the town since the 1930s. For example, the small-scale post-war

58 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove developments in the Lanes at Brighton Square 9 Castle Square and adjacent 45 East Street. (1966) and Dukes Lane (1979) reveal a There has also been an increasing focus on changing approach to historic fabric: the mock- conserving the truly historic, as seen, for Regency style of the latter being an attempt to example, through the increasing number of replicate the historic architecture that is conservation areas (and their expansion), which increasingly valued by visitors to the town. include both the obvious areas of late Georgian Elsewhere, new buildings have attempted architecture and areas of more modest housing sympathetic references to Regency Brighton such as North Laine. rather than complete pastiche: examples include

Fig. 64. Yeakell and Gardner’s map of Brighton (1779).

59 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Fig. 65. J. Marchant’s map of Brighton (1808).

Fig. 66. Hove Tithe Map, 1839 (copy in East Sussex Record Office).

60 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

Fig. 67. Brighton Tithe Map, 1852 (copy in East Sussex Record Office).

Fig. 68. Portslade Tithe Map, 1840 (copy in East Sussex Record Office).

61 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

are from 1881-1913; and 34 are from 1914-45. Just over 97.5% of the listed buildings and 5 STATEMENT OF monuments (or groups) are of 18th-century or 269 HISTORIC URBAN later date. There are 33 Conservation Areas in the modern CHARACTER administrative area of Brighton and Hove, although this includes examples outside the contiguous built-up area (e.g. Ovingdean). There 5.1 Town summary are no Scheduled Monuments in the EUS study area, although the scheduled Neolithic 5.1.1 Historic environment overview causewayed enclosure of Whitehawk Camp lies immediately outside (and has been partly built Although a significant fishing town – especially th during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, on by late 20 -century housing), and Hollingbury hillfort (an Early Iron Age hillfort) is almost when it was the most populous town in Sussex – th Brighton went into decline and was only entirely surrounded by the 20 -century suburbs revitalized by its new function as a resort in the of Brighton and Hove. second half of the 18th century. Since then it has grown well beyond its early post-medieval 5.1.3 Historic building materials th th extent, with the 19 and 20 -century suburbs The dominance of any building material in the engulfing the neighbouring medieval villages of medieval and early post-medieval town is Portslade, Hangleton, West Blatchington, Hove, uncertain as there are no secular buildings from Preston, and Patcham (Aldrington having been the old fishing town identifiably surviving from lost previously to erosion). Little survives in the these periods. The church of St Nicholas (the way of pre-1740 buildings. While this is in part one surviving medieval building of Brighton itself) due to modern (post-war) development, much is of flint rubble with ashlar dressings (and a was lost to the rebuilding occasioned by Caen stone font), and similar materials were development of the resort in the second half of th th used in the parish churches later engulfed by the the 18 century, and in the early 19 century. suburbs of Brighton and Hove, and in the high Fortunately much of Georgian and Regency status medieval secular buildings (e.g. Portslade Brighton and Hove survives, as later building Manor House), and 16th and 17th-century village tended to expand the boundaries of the town houses. However, timber-framed construction rather than completely rebuild it. Moreover, it is does survive from the 17th century in the villages important to recognize that the wide range of th (e.g. at 28 and 29 Church Hill, Patcham) and Victorian and 20 -century buildings (including from the 18th century within Brighton itself (e.g. domestic, seaside and ecclesiastical), add much 43 Meeting House Lane) and it is likely that use to the historic value of the Brighton and Hove. of timber frame was widespread in the old town Less visible is the archaeological evidence of the – and on the lower town beach settlement that pre-resort town, with its medieval origins. Unlike served the fishing interest – in the medieval and the archaeological sites located in the suburbs, early post-medieval periods. the archaeological potential of the old town has not been realized through controlled excavation, Flint continued to be used – both knapped and, although it is likely that much will have been lost more typically, as beach cobbles (sometimes to redevelopment from the 18th century onwards. tarred on the exterior) – in the building of the seaside resort in the late 18th and 19th centuries, 5.1.2 Historic environment designations although it was increasingly obscured by stucco. (Map 4) The post-1750 architecture of the town saw a new material in the form of mathematical tile There are 325 listed buildings and monuments used both for re-fronting and for new builds. In (or groups thereof – significant as whole terraces parallel, use of brick expanded hugely, with are often included in a single listing) in the EUS brickfields opened on the edge of the expanding central study area (i.e. the pre-c.1800 extent of town, and, after the arrival of the railway, the town), with another 772 in the extended EUS became the dominant building material of the study area of the pre-1914 suburbs, giving at new suburbs. total of 1,097 Of all these, 21 are Grade I, 52 are Grade II*, and 1,024 are Grade II. In terms of dating, 11 predate 1500; seven are 16th century; nine are 17th century; 114 are 18th century; 499 are from 1800-40; 253 are from 1841-1880; 170

62 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

5.2 Historic Character Types reflect the character of these towns, and, thus, they are different from those that would be 5.2.1 Historic Character Types and applied nationally or to another county. chronology (Maps 5-14) The Historic Character Types have been mapped to areas within the towns (polygons in Historic Character Types (HCTs) for Sussex EUS the Geographical Information System that Lane/road [includes all historic routes] underpins the Sussex EUS). Whilst character Major road scheme [modern ring roads, motorways etc.] type can prove consistent throughout a large Bridge/causeway area (for example, across a late 20th-century Regular burgage plots housing estate), different historic use of part of Irregular historic plots [i.e. pre-1800] that area has been used as a basis for Proto-urban subdivision. This is to allow the application of the Vacant [reverted from built-up to fields etc.] types in Table 1 to the mapped polygons throughout the 15 periods of the EUS Market place chronology (Table 2). This means that for any Church/churchyard [i.e. parish] area within the town, or mapped polygon on the Cemetery Geographical Information System, both the Religious house [abbey, priory, convent etc.] present Historic Character Type and the past Great house land use(s) are defined. Castle Town defences Period Date Other fortification Period 1 500,000BC-AD42 Barracks Period 2 43-409 School/college Period 3 410-949 Public Period 4 950-1065 Farmstead/barn Period 5 1066-1149 Mill Period 6 1150-1349 Suburb [estates and individual houses] Period 7 1350-1499 Retail and commercial [i.e. post-1800] Period 8 1500-1599 Extractive industry [e.g. sand pit, brickfield] Period 9 1600-1699 Heavy industry [e.g. steel or automotive industry] Period 10 1700-1799 Light industry [e.g. industrial estates] Period 11 1800-1840 Utility Period 12 1841-1880 Quay/wharf [inc. boatyards] Period 13 1881-1913 Harbour/marina/dock Period 14 1914-1945 Station, sidings and track Period 15 1946-present Inland water Table 2. Sussex EUS chronology Orchard Market garden [inc. nursery] This approach gives time-depth to the map- Allotments based character component of the Sussex EUS, and is structured to take account of both Race course upstanding and buried physical evidence of the Sports field [inc. stadia, courts, centres etc.] past. It enables the generation of maps (e.g. Park Maps 5-12) showing the changing land use of Informal parkland [e.g. small civic areas, large grounds] the urban area throughout the history of each Seafront [piers, promenades etc.] town, and, through use of the Geographical Beach/cliffs Information System developed as part of this Table 1. Sussex EUS Historic Character Types assessment, for simple interrogation of any area in the town to show all its known past land uses. Historic Character Types have been developed in the Sussex EUS to describe areas of common 5.2.2 Historic Character Types in character by reference to generic types found Brighton and Hove (Maps 13-14) across all 41 towns. Historic function is often the key determinant of character type, hence the Although Historic Character Types represent term ‘Historic Character Types’ and the time- county-wide types, modern Brighton and Hove is depth implicit in many of the types in Table 1 characterized by its particular concentration of (e.g. regular burgage plots). The types also some types and the comparative rarity, or

63 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove absence, of others. For example, the 5.3.2 Archaeological potential identification of regular burgage plots reflects the medieval origins of the town, but the small Whilst the nature and extent of areas to which proportion of this – compared to irregular historic Historic Character Types have been applied is plots – is a result of the modest extent of the closely related to the survival of buried medieval town and the considerable post- archaeology, this assessment considers the medieval reorganization and expansion. archaeological potential at the larger scale of the HUCAs. The reasons are twofold: first, the Historic Character Types for Brighton and Hove typically smaller scale of areas of common are mapped only for the historic core, Historic Character Type could misleadingly imply established by c.1800 (and typically much older). that high, or even low, archaeological potential is precisely confined, or that archaeological value 5.3 Historic Urban Character is exactly coterminous with the edge of specific Areas (Maps 15 and 16) features (standing or buried); and, second, most Sussex towns have had insufficient archaeological investigation to support this 5.3.1 Defining Historic Urban Character precision. For this reason, too, there is no Areas (HUCAs) grading or ranking of archaeological potential. Whereas Historic Character Types have been Rather, the summary of archaeological potential applied to areas of the Sussex towns with is used to inform the overall (graded) consistent visible character and historical assessment of Historic Environment Value of development – and are mapped across the each HUCA (see below). whole history for each town – Historic Urban When considering the archaeological potential of Character Areas (HUCAs) represent the towns, it is important to recognize that meaningful areas of the modern town. Although archaeology often survives 18th, 19th and 20th- similar areas are found in many towns, HUCAs century development and that it is misleading to are unique, can include components of different assume complete destruction. Also, whilst pre- history and antiquity, and usually represent urban archaeology (such as the prehistoric, amalgamation of several Historic Character Romano-British, and Anglo-Saxon features and Types. finds that are likely to be located in the Brighton Thus, HUCA 1 in Brighton and Hove combines and Hove area) tells us little about the towns four present day Historic Character Types that themselves, it contributes to wider represent irregular historic plots dating from archaeological research. Period 6 (1150-1349) and later, a market place In assessing the likelihood of buried archaeology th of Period 10 (18 -century) and public area of within areas in the towns there has been Period 11 (1800-40) that derive from a religious consideration of the potential for archaeology house of Period 5 (1066-1149), and a retail and ‘buried’, or hidden, within later buildings and commercial area that derives from Period 11 structures, as well as that for below-ground onwards. Combining this complexity into a single features: in the absence of a systematic detailed HUCA called Bartholomews reflects the largely survey of the interior of buildings in the old town coherent character of the area today. This – and the historic village cores – this potential coherence renders HUCAs suitable spatial units could be surprisingly significant in the case of for describing the historic environment of the Brighton and Hove. EUS towns, for assessing their archaeological potential, Historic Environment Value and for 5.3.3 Historic Environment Value (Map linking to research questions. 17) Some components of the towns are not included The Historic Environment Value (HEV) of each as HUCAs: roads (other than those that were HUCA is assessed here, and expressed as a built as part of a particular development) and value from 1 (low) to 5 (high). Such values are waterways are kept separate as they frequently iniquitous to some and always subjective, but antedate surviving buildings or the known urban here provide a necessary means of consistently activity. Historic Urban Character Areas are and intelligently differentiating (for the purposes mapped for the entire EUS study area in of conservation) the upstanding fabric, Brighton and Hove: i.e. across the c.1914 extent boundaries and archaeology that form the of the town. historic urban environment. The Historic Environment Value (HEV) of each HUCA is based on assessment of:

64 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

• Townscape rarity Grade II), of which six are Period 10 (18th century), 14 are Period 11 (1800-40), and three • Time-depth or antiquity are period 12 (1841-80). The unbroken run of • Completeness listed buildings along both sides of the part of Prince Albert Street that falls within this area is Lesser additional considerations in the noteworthy as is the almost unbroken run of assessment comprise: listed buildings that continues this line across the • Visibility north side of Bartholomew’s. However, it is the Town Hall, built in 1830-2 (Thomas Cooper) in • Historic association Greek Revival style that is the dominant historic The full methodology for assessing Historic building. Environment Value forms part of the annexe to Historic plots are not evident due to the facts that the historic environment management guidance the plots rarely extend beyond the confusion of for Brighton and Hove City. buildings along the street frontages; there has been substantial rebuilding along the south and 5.3.4 Vulnerability west sides of the area; and most of the area falls The vulnerability of each HUCA is also within the putative extent of the precinct of the considered, although many future threats cannot suppressed chapel. That said, the square in be anticipated. These brief analyses mean that which the present Town Hall sits perpetuates to this Statement of Historic Urban Character can some degree the medieval and post-medieval be used to focus conservation guidance. difference (and openness) of this part of the old town. 5.3.5 Research questions The rebuilding of the area since the late 18th century – especially in the case of the large- Where relevant, reference is made to questions th in the Research Framework for Brighton and scale late 20 -century developments at the Hove (below, section 6). This referencing links south and west of the HUCA – means that these key questions to specific HUCAs, helping archaeological potential of this HUCA is ensure that any investigation of the historic moderate, although pockets of pre-1700 environment (such as that as a condition of archaeology may survive amongst the earlier development, under PPG15 or PPG16) is buildings. properly focused. The number of 18th and early 19th-century buildings, the completeness of historic street- 5.3.6 Brighton and Hove’s Historic fronts (especially Prince Albert Street and the Urban Character Areas (Maps 15 and 16) north side of Bartholomews), and the archaeological potential give this HUCA an The following assessments of the Historic Urban Historic Environment Value (HEV) of 3. Character Areas (HUCAs) of Brighton and Hove th commence with those that make up the historic HUCA 1 has seen significant change in the 20 core – i.e. the pre-c.1800 town. Inevitably, these century (principally through the loss of the th th assessments are more extensive than those that Market, and the loss of 18 and 19 -century relate to more recent expansion of the town. houses – and earlier lanes – south of the Town Hall). The Historic Environment Value of the HUCA 1 Bartholomews (HEV 3) area means that vulnerability is medium. Perhaps the greatest threats are to alteration or HUCA 1 is in the centre of the medieval and loss of the unlisted buildings (which include modern town. Its origins lie in the dependent many of 19th-century date and not insignificant parochial chapel in existence by 1147 and historic interest) within the block delimited by dedicated, by c.1185, to St Bartholomew. This East Street, King’s Road and the east side of was made redundant at the suppression of Bartholomews. chantries (in 1547), and was ruinous when sold two years later, thus creating a space in the Research questions especially relevant to this burgeoning town that has since had a largely HUCA relate to the foundation of the town and public and market function. the chapel of St Bartholomew (RQ5 and RQ10). Although no evidence of the former chapel HUCA 2 The Lanes (HEV 3) survives above ground, today the area retains a significant public function as it is dominated by HUCA 2 lies on the northern edge of the Brighton Town Hall. There are 23 listed medieval and pre-resort town. The name The buildings, groups of buildings, or monuments (all Lanes derives from the narrow passageways

65 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove that are a famous feature of this part of Brighton, HUCA 3 has seen substantial change since the but their origins appear similar to the narrow Second World War. Most significant has been east-west lanes that run between the main north- the redevelopment along the east side of West south streets elsewhere in the old town. The Street, at Middle Street School, at the Old Ship passageways may be medieval – or early post- Hotel and at Duke’s Lane. The most significant medieval – but the dense building up of this area threat is to further redevelopment, especially to may be at least in part a feature of the resort small-scale unlisted 19th-century buildings: this period: certainly the area of Brighton Square and risk is doubtless increased where buildings are northwards was unbuilt in 1779. in poor condition and unoccupied (e.g. at the time of writing, in parts of Middle Street). As a Today the area remains dominated by closely result vulnerability is medium. packed houses (mostly functioning as shops), predominantly with frontages on narrow Research questions especially relevant to this passageways (although the HUCA includes the HUCA relate to zoning within the medieval and more substantial Brighton place and a short post-medieval town (RQ9 and RQ14). length of the west side of East Street), and much of it provides an interesting contrast with the HUCA 3 Old Town – west (HEV 3) more grandiose survivals from the early resort period. There are 48 listed buildings, groups of HUCA 3 comprises the western part of the buildings, or monuments (all Grade II), of which medieval and pre-1740 town, and includes the 34 are Period 10 (18th century), nine are Period main north-south streets of West Street, Middle 11 (1800-40), three are Period 12 (1841-80), and Street, Ship Street and Black Lion Street, as far two are Period 13 (1881-1913). This includes the north as Duke Street/Prince Albert Street. As Friends’ (i.e. Quaker) Meeting House (c.1805-8); such it appears to have been densely occupied in the medieval period and more so during the and the former Congregational chapel, Union th th Street, (later the Elim Tabernacle, now fishing boom of the late 16 and early 17 converted to commercial use) of 1825 (Busby centuries: the building of houses off the narrow and Wilds). Several houses in The Lanes appear lanes, or passageways, between the main early, but, as in the case of the jettied and streets may date from this period. weather-boarded house at 43 Meeting House Today the area remains dominated by the th Lane a pre-18 -century date has yet to be continuously built-up frontages of streets that are demonstrated. There are several examples of predominantly commercial, with offices and th intact 19 -century shopfronts, with good hotels featuring as much as shops, and with examples at 31 East Street, 49-50A Meeting some narrow connecting lanes having a more House Lane, and 53-5 Ship Street. residential character. There are 32 listed Historic plot boundaries partly survive between buildings, groups of buildings, or monuments (29 Grade II; and three Grade II*), of which one is West Street and Ship Street (especially towards th th the south of the HUCA) and suggest survival of Period 9 (17 century), eight are Period 10 (18 medieval burgage plots oriented at right-angles century), 15 are Period 11 (1800-40), four are to the principal north-south streets. The narrow Period 12 (1841-80), and four are Period 13 east-west lanes (such as South Street and Ship (1881-1913). The concentration of listed buildings on Ship Street reflects the particularly Street Gardens) appear to follow such th th boundaries rather than to have developed from good survival of 18 and 19 -century yards and entrances within large plots. townhouses on this street. Individually important buildings include the Old Ship Assembly Rooms The rebuilding of the area during and since the (Grade II*), of 1767, which preserves interiors of th 18 century means that archaeological the assembly room and ballroom that are a potential of this HUCA is moderate, although remarkable record of the season in the early some pockets of pre-1700 archaeology may years of the resort. Also of architectural note – survive amongst the earliest buildings. and as a reflection on different aspects of the The survival of numerous townhouses history of the town – are the synagogue (1874-5) predominantly of 18th and 19th-century date, and the bingo hall (opened as an ice rink in together with public buildings, within the 1897, converted to the Hippodrome theatre and framework of probably medieval streets and, circus in 1901), both in Middle Street and both even, plots, combine with the archaeological Grade II*. potential to give this HUCA an Historic The rebuilding of the area since the late 18th Environment Value (HEV) of 3. century – especially in the case of the large- scale late 20th-century developments at the south and west of the HUCA – means that

66 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove archaeological potential of this HUCA is the assembly room and ballroom that are a moderate, although pockets of pre-1700 remarkable record of the season in the early archaeology may survive amongst the earlier years of the resort. Also of architectural note – buildings. and as a reflection on different aspects of the history of the town – are the synagogue (1874-5) The number of 18th and early 19th-century and the bingo hall (opened as an ice rink in buildings, the completeness of historic street- 1897, converted to the Hippodrome theatre and fronts (especially Prince Albert Street and the circus in 1901), both in Middle Street and both north side of Bartholomews), and the Grade II*. archaeological potential give this HUCA an Historic Environment Value (HEV) of 3. The rebuilding of the area since the late 18th th century – especially in the case of the large- HUCA 1 has seen significant change in the 20 th scale late 20 -century developments at the century (principally through the loss of the south and west of the HUCA – means that Market, and the loss of 18th and 19th-century archaeological potential of this HUCA is houses – and earlier lanes – south of the Town moderate, although pockets of pre-1700 Hall). The Historic Environment Value of the archaeology may survive amongst the earlier area means that vulnerability is medium. buildings. Perhaps the greatest threats are to alteration or loss of the unlisted buildings (which include The number of 18th and early 19th-century many of 19th-century date and not insignificant buildings, the completeness of historic street- historic interest) within the block delimited by fronts (especially Prince Albert Street and the East Street, King’s Road and the east side of north side of Bartholomews), and the Bartholomews. archaeological potential give this HUCA an Historic Environment Value (HEV) of 3. Research questions especially relevant to this HUCA relate to the founding of the town, and the HUCA 1 has seen significant change in the 20th origins of the gridded street plan and burgage century (principally through the loss of the plots (RQ5, RQ7 and RQ8). Market, and the loss of 18th and 19th-century houses – and earlier lanes – south of the Town HUCA 4 Church (HEV 4) Hall). The Historic Environment Value of the area means that vulnerability is medium. HUCA 4 comprises the western part of the Perhaps the greatest threats are to alteration or medieval and pre-1740 town, and includes the loss of the unlisted buildings (which include main north-south streets of West Street, Middle many of 19th-century date and not insignificant Street, Ship Street and Black Lion Street, as far historic interest) within the block delimited by north as Duke Street/Prince Albert Street. As East Street, King’s Road and the east side of such it appears to have been densely occupied Bartholomews. in the medieval period and more so during the fishing boom of the late 16th and early 17th Research questions especially relevant to this centuries: the building of houses off the narrow HUCA relate to the origins of the church of St lanes, or passageways, between the main Nicholas (RQ2). streets may date from this period. HUCA 5 Old Steine (HEV 3) Today the area remains dominated by the continuously built-up frontages of streets that are HUCA 5 lies mainly east of the medieval and predominantly commercial, with offices and early post-medieval old town and comprises the hotels featuring as much as shops, and with Old Steine and surrounding buildings. The some narrow connecting lanes having a more Steine was a useful piece of common land prior residential character. There are 32 listed to the resort, used for such activities as informal buildings, groups of buildings, or monuments (29 sport and, more regularly, for drying nets. From Grade II; and three Grade II*), of which one is the beginning of the use of the town as a resort, Period 9 (17th century), eight are Period 10 (18th the Steine was quickly established as the century), 15 are Period 11 (1800-40), four are sheltered focus for promenades and fashionable Period 12 (1841-80), and four are Period 13 society, although it became eclipsed by the (1881-1913). The concentration of listed seafront from c.1820. buildings on Ship Street reflects the particularly th th Today the area remains open, with a central good survival of 18 and 19 -century formal garden and surrounding houses giving it townhouses on this street. Individually important the feel of a large square. Although vehicular buildings include the Old Ship Assembly Rooms access was a feature of the Steine in its (Grade II*), of 1767, which preserves interiors of fashionable heyday (it being the point where the

67 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

London and Lewes roads unloaded their visitors The number of 18th and early 19th-century from the mid-18th century), this historic function buildings, the completeness of historic street- has little in common with the one-way road fronts (especially Prince Albert Street and the system that now dominates the HUCA. There north side of Bartholomews), and the are 42 listed buildings, groups of buildings, or archaeological potential give this HUCA an monuments (39 Grade II; two Grade II*; and one Historic Environment Value (HEV) of 3. Grade I), of which 13 are Period 10 (18th HUCA 1 has seen significant change in the 20th century), 22 are Period 11 (1800-40), four are century (principally through the loss of the Period 12 (1841-80), one is Period 13 (1881- Market, and the loss of 18th and 19th-century 1913), and two are Period 14 (1914-45). These houses – and earlier lanes – south of the Town listed buildings are almost continuous around the Hall). The Historic Environment Value of the perimeter of the Old Steine. Individually area means that vulnerability is medium. important buildings include Robert Adam’s Perhaps the greatest threats are to alteration or Marlborough House, 54 Old Steine (Grade I); th loss of the unlisted buildings (which include and the late 18 -century townhouses with canted many of 19th-century date and not insignificant bay windows at 44 Old Steine (Grade II) and 9 historic interest) within the block delimited by Pool Valley (Grade II*). East Street, King’s Road and the east side of The rebuilding of the area since the late 18th Bartholomews. century – especially in the case of the large- th Broad, or Brighton and Hove-wide, research scale late 20 -century developments at the questions only apply to this area. south and west of the HUCA – means that archaeological potential of this HUCA is moderate, although pockets of pre-1700 archaeology may survive amongst the earlier buildings.

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RQ10: What archaeological evidence is there for 6 HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT the origins of the chapel of St Bartholomew and the extent of its precinct? RESEARCH FRAMEWORK RQ11: What was the location and form of the fishing industry and coastal trading place (with

particular reference to the function of Pool Valley), and what was the nature of the 6.1 Pre-urban activity seaborne trade? Development pressure and opportunities for RQ12: What evidence is there for the economy developer funding mean that archaeological of the town, especially with regard to its excavations and standing building analyses in Downland hinterland? the town, or prior to expansion of the town, are more likely to occur than in the surrounding area. 6.4 The town 1540-1740 Thus, archaeological investigations in Brighton and Hove should address: RQ13: How have tenements/burgage plots developed from the first built-up street frontages RQ1: What was the nature of the palaeo- to the plots that survive today? environment (ancient environment), and the prehistoric, Roman, and Early Anglo-Saxon RQ14: What different zones (e.g. social human activity in the area? differentiation, or types of activity: especially consider the fishing industry) were there during 6.2 Origins this period, and how did they change? RQ2: What was the location, form and RQ15: What evidence is there for the construction detail (e.g. sculpture) of the Anglo- development of institutions, such as schools? Saxon and Norman church of St Nicholas? RQ16: What documentary and archaeological th RQ3: What evidence is there for Anglo-Saxon evidence is there for late 17 -century decline? and early Norman secular settlement (and its RQ17: What evidence of buildings of this period economy), both at Brighton and in the parishes survives later remodelling and re-facing? later absorbed by expansion of the town? RQ18: How and when did the town defences RQ4: What was the road layout, how did this develop? evolve, and how did it relate to east-west Downland and coastal routes, river crossings, a transhumant Downland-Wealden economy, and the fishing-based settlement?

6.3 Medieval town RQ5: What evidence is there for the founding of the town in the 12th century and for its subsequent development? RQ6: Is there any evidence for the location and extent of the under-cliff settlement in the medieval period? RQ7: What evidence is there for the evolution of the gridded street plan during this period? RQ8: What evidence is there for early burgage plots (and associated narrow lanes or passageways), and when and where did built-up street frontages first occur? RQ9: What different zones (especially with reference to the northern part of the medieval town) were there during this period, and how did they change?

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7 Notes 15 Stevens, S., An Archaeological evaluation at the Jubilee Site, Brighton, East Sussex (unpubl. Archaeology South-East report no. 1410, August 2001). 1 The 41 towns of the Sussex EUS are: Alfriston, Arundel, 16 Battle, Bexhill, Bognor Regis, Bramber, Brighton, Burgess Greatorex, C., A Watching Brief Maintained on Hill, Crawley, Crowborough, Cuckfield, Ditchling, Eastbourne, Groundworks Undertaken on 6 Ship Street, Brighton, East East Grinstead, Hailsham, Hastings, Haywards Heath, Sussex (unpubl. CG Archaeology report, 2002). Heathfield, Henfield, Horsham, Hove, Lewes, Lindfield, 17 Worrall, S., An Archaeological Watching Brief at 20-26 Littlehampton, Mayfield, Midhurst, Newhaven, Peacehaven, York Place, Brighton, East Sussex (unpubl. Archaeology Petworth, Pevensey, Pulborough, Robertsbridge, Rotherfield, South-East report no. 1927, October 2004). Rye, Seaford, Shoreham, Steyning, Storrington, Uckfield, Wadhurst and Worthing. Chichester and Winchelsea are 18 Holden, E. W., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval omitted as they are the subjects of more intensive studies. Village of Hangleton: Part I’, SAC 101 (1963), 54-181; Hurst,

2 J. G., and D. G., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval The Character of West Sussex Partnership Programme is Village of Hangleton: Part II’, SAC 102 (1964), 94-142. lead by West Sussex County Council in conjunction with the borough and district councils, AONB agencies and 19 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 201. stakeholders. The main aims of the partnership are to 20 produce a range of interlocking characterization studies; to The suggestion that these ‘puddingstones’ or sarsens produce planning and land management guidance; and to represent a prehistoric stone circle pre-dating the church (for raise public and community awareness of character as a vital examples, see HER reference: TQ 30 SW4 – ES177) is and attractive ingredient of the environment of the county. implausible. There is also considerable doubt that these The full range of characterization studies comprise: stones were relocated to the Steine, where the stones are not sarsens, but ferruginous rocks (derived from the basal Landscape Character Assessment and Landscape Strategy bed of the Woolwich and Reading Beds (Lambeth Group) for West Sussex (2003). that formerly overlay the chalk): pers. comm. Dr Stewart Ullyott, University of Brighton. Historic Landscape Characterisation (HLC) of Sussex (2003- 6). 21 Ullyott, J. S., Nash, D. J., Whiteman, C. A., Mortimore, R. N., ‘Distribution, petrology and mode of development of Sussex Extensive Urban Survey (EUS) (2004-7). silcretes (sarsens and puddingstones) on the eastern South Intensive Urban Survey of Chichester/Fishbourne (2004-5) Downs, UK’ in McLaren, S. J., Nash, D. J., and Goudie, A. (Chichester District Council). S., (eds.), Earth Surface Processes and Landforms vol. 29, issue 12 (2004), 1509-39. Local Distinctiveness Study of West Sussex (2004-5). 22 Robinson, D. A., & Williams, R. B. G., ‘The landforms of 3 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 215- Sussex’, in Geographical Editorial Committee of the 86. University of Sussex (eds.), Sussex: Environment, Landscape and Society (1983), 33-49, at 43-5. 4 Ibid. 23 Woodcock, A., ‘The archaeological implications of coastal 5 E.g. Farrant, J. H., ‘The Brighton Charity School in the early th change in Sussex’, in Rudling, D., (ed.), The Archaeology of 18 century’, SAC 122 (1984), 139-46; Farrant, S., & Farrant, Sussex to AD2000 (2003), 1-16; Woodcock, A., ‘Earliest J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Tudor town to Regency Inhabitants’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B. (eds.), An Historical resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 331-50. Atlas of Sussex (1999), 10-11; Pope, M., ‘The Earliest 6 E.g. Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Occupation of Sussex: Recent Research and Future Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 331-50; Objectives’, in Rudling, D., (ed.), The Archaeology of Sussex Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005); Berry, S., ‘Myth and to AD2000 (2003), 17-28; Robinson, D. A., and Williams, R. reality in the representation of resorts: Brighton and the B. G., ‘The Sussex Coast Past and Present’, in Geographical emergence of the ‘Prince and fishing village’ myth 1770- Editorial Committee of the University of Sussex (eds.), 1824’, SAC 140 (2002), 97-112. Sussex: Environment, Landscape and Society (1983), 50-66. 24 7 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990). Farrant, J. H., ‘The seaborne trade of Sussex, 1720-1845’, SAC 114 (1976), 97-120, at 117. 8 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade (2001- 25 2). Griffiths, I. L., ‘Road and rail in Sussex’, in Geography Editorial Committee (eds.), Sussex: Environment, Landscape 9 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), ix. and Society (1983), 239; Farrant, J., ‘Growth of

10 Communications 1840-1914’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B. Dudley, C., ‘A re-appraisal of the evidence for a Roman (eds.) An Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 80-1; Mitchell,V. villa in Springfield Road, Brighton, following further & Smith, K., Branch Lines to Horsham (1982). discoveries on the site’, in Kelly, E., and Dudley, C., ‘Two Romano-British Burials’, SAC 119 (1981), 65-88, at 68-88. 26 Garwood, P., ‘Round Barrows and Funerary Traditions in

11 Late Neolithic and Bronze Age Sussex’, in Rudling, D., (ed.), Webster, L. E., and Cherry, J., ‘Medieval Britain in 1978’, The Archaeology of Sussex to AD2000 (2003), 47-68, at 53. Medieval Archaeology 23 (1978), 254. 27 12 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Smith, P. S., ‘Early Anglo-Saxon burials from Stafford Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004), 8. Road, Brighton, East Sussex’, SAC 126 (1988), 31-51. 28 13 Curwen, E., ‘Excavations in Whitehawk Neolithic camp, HER reference: TQ 30 SW108 – ES470. Brighton, 1932-3’, Antiquaries Journal 14 (1934), 99-133; 14 Rudling, D., Archaeological Evaluation at 7-9 Springfield Curwen, E., ‘Excavations in Whitehawk camp, Brighton, third Road, Brighton (unpubl. Archaeology South-East report no. season, 1935’, SAC 77 (1936), 60-92. 652, May 1999).

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29 Russell, M., and Rudling, D., ‘Excavations at Whitehawk 48 Ibid., 263.

Neolithic enclosure, Brighton, East Sussex: 1991-93’, SAC 49 134 (1996), 39-61. Ibid. 50 30 Greatorex, C., An Archaeological Assessment of the Land Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 253. East of Horsdean recreation Ground, Patcham, Brighton 51 Bleach, J., and Gardiner, M., ‘Medieval Markets and Ports’, (unpubl. South Eastern Archaeological Services project no. in Leslie, K. and Short, B. (eds.), An Historical Atlas of 1992/27, April 1993). Sussex (1999), 42-3. 31 Greig, I., ‘Excavation of a Bronze Age settlement at Varley 52 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 245. Halls, Coldean Lane, Brighton, East Sussex’, SAC 135 (1997), 7-58. 53 Pers. comm. Dr Mark Gardiner: see also, Beresford, M.,

32 New Towns of the Middle Ages: Town Plantation in England, Greatorex, C., An Archaeological Excavation at Patcham Wales and Gascogny (1967), 169-75. Fawcett School, Carden Avenue, Brighton, East Sussex (unpubl. South Eastern Archaeological Services project no. 54 Ibid., 263; Clarkson Wallis, W., ‘Brighthelmston Church 1993/14); Greatorex, C., The Excavation of a Later Bronze and the Chapel of St Bartholomew’, Brighton & Hove Age Settlement Site at Patcham Fawcett School, Carden Archaeologist 3 (1926), 105-27, at 118.

Avenue, Brighton, East Sussex (unpubl. Archaeology South- 55 East report no. 11, March 1997). Ibid., 262. 56 33 Funnell, J. D., An Early Bronze Age Burial and Iron Age Ibid., 246. Ditch at Brighton Golf Course (unpubl. Brighton and Hove 57 Ibid. Archaeological Society report, 2003). 58 Ibid. 34 Holmes, J., ‘Excavations at Hollingbury Camp, Sussex, 59 1967-9’, SAC 122 (1984), 29-53. For example, see: Pelham, R. A., ‘The distribution of wool

35 merchants in Sussex (c.1330), SNQ 4 (1933), 67-9; Pelham, E.g., Rudling, D., ‘Roman Sussex’, in Leslie, K., and Short, R. A., ‘The distribution of wool merchants in Sussex in 1296’, B., (eds.) An Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 24-5. SNQ 4 (1933), 161-3; Pelham, R. A., ‘Further evidence of the 36 distribution of wealth in mediæval Sussex’, SNQ 5 (1935), Shields, G., ‘The course of the London to Brighton Roman th road south of Burgess Hill’, SAC 137 (1999), 81-90. 18-19; Pelham, R. A., ‘Sussex wool ports in the 13 century: 3 - Seaford’, SNQ 5 (1935), 166-171. 37 Dudley, C., ‘A re-appraisal of the evidence for a Roman 60 villa in Springfield Road, Brighton, following further Brent, C., Pre-Georgian Lewes c.890-1714: the emergence discoveries on the site’, in Kelly, E., and Dudley, C., ‘Two of a county town (2004), 156-7. Romano-British Burials’, SAC 119 (1981), 65-88, at 68-88. 61 Ibid., 245. 38 Rudling, D., ‘Excavations on the site of the Southwick 62 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 245. Roman villa, 1965 and 1981’, SAC 123 (1985), 73-84. 63 39 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 244, Barber, L., Gardiner, M., and Rudling, D., ‘Excavations at 262. Eastwick Barn’, in Rudling, D., (ed.) , Downland Settlement 64 and Land-use, The Archaeology of the Brighton Bypass Sylvester, D., ‘The development of Winchelsea and its (UCL Field Archaeology Unit Monograph No. 1, 2002), 107- maritime economy’, in Martin, D. & B., New Winchelsea, 40. Sussex: a medieval port town (2004), 16-18. 40 Gilkes, O. J., ‘Excavations at Rocky Clump, , 65 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 2-3. Brighton, 1951-81’, SAC 135 (1997), 113-25; Funnell, J. D., 66 Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Rocky Clump 1997 Interim Report (unpubl. Brighton and Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 331-50, at Hove Archaeological Society report); Funnell, J. D., 336. Archaeological Field Notebook 2002: a Record of the Projects of the Brighton and Hove Archaeological Field Unit 67 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 246. (unpubl. Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society report, 68 2003). Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 5. 69 41 Smith, P. S., ‘Early Anglo-Saxon burials from Stafford Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Road, Brighton, East Sussex’, SAC 126 (1988), 31-51. Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 339. 70 42 Gilkes, O. J., ‘Excavations at Rocky Clump, Stanmer Park, Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Brighton, 1951-81’, SAC 135 (1997), 113-25. Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 335. 71 43 Mawer, A, & Stenton, F.M., The Place-names of Sussex Farrant, J. H., ‘The Seaborne Trade of Sussex, 1720- (1929-30; reprinted 2001), 291; Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria 1845’, SAC 114 (1976), 97-120. County History 7 (1940), 244; Coates, R., ‘Studies and 72 Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from observations on Sussex place-names’, SAC 118 (1980), 309- Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 333-4. 29, at 316-7. 73 44 Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Gardiner, M., ‘Shipping and Trade Between England and Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 336. the Continent During the Eleventh Century’, Anglo-Norman Studies 22 (2000), 71-93, at 85-6. 74 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 5. 45 Pers. comm., Dr Mark Gardiner. 75 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 245. 46 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 262. 76 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 9; Cooper, J. H., ‘A 47 Religious Census of Sussex in 1676’, SAC 45 (1902), 142-8; Ibid. Ford, W. K., (ed.), ‘Chichester Diocesan Surveys 1686 and

71 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

1724’, SRS 78 (1994), 124-5. With the exception of Berry’s 102 calculation for 1580 (based on 102 rated landsmen), the Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 32, 150. calculations for total populations are the author’s and are 103 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 25, 27. necessarily indicative, with the following multipliers used: 131% for surveys of adults (1676), and 450% for families or 104 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 7. households (1565, c.1630, 1724 and 1744). 105 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 33-4, 36. 77 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 247. 106 Berry, S., ‘Myth and reality in the representation of 78 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 263; resorts: Brighton and the emergence of the ‘Prince and North, J. S., ‘The Bartholomews Property, Brightelmston, fishing village’ myth 1770-1824’, SAC 140 (2002), 97-112.

1547 to 1592’, Brighton and Hove Archaeologist 3 (1926), 107 81-104, at 83. Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 248; Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from 79 Wilkinson, P., ‘The Struggle for a Protestant Reformation Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 346-8; 1553-1546’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B. (eds.) An Historical Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 97-110. Atlas of Sussex (1999), 52-3. 108 Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from 80 Cooper, J. H., ‘A Religious Census of Sussex in 1676’, Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 346-8; SAC 45 (1902), 144; McCann, T., ‘Religious Observance in Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 118-20, 131-5. th the 17 Century’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B. (eds.) An 109 Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 56-7. Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 346-8; 81 Farrant, J. H., ‘The Brighton Charity School in the early Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 123-8. 18th century’, SAC 122 (1984), 139-46, at 140. 110 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 129-31. 82 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 263. 111 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 9; the calculations for 83 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 8. the total populations in 1744, 1753 and 1770 are the author’s

84 and are necessarily indicative, with a 450% multiplier used Ford, W. K., (ed.), ‘Chichester Diocesan Surveys 1686 and for families or households. 1724’, SRS 78 (1994), 124-5. 112 85 Farrant, S., Fossey, K., and Peasgood, A., The Growth of Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 246. Brighton and Hove 1840-1939 (CCE Occasional Paper 14, Jamison located the blockhouse near the end of Middle 1981), 13. Street, but it’s location has since been placed just east of the lower end of Ship Street by Ron Martin (see Berry, S., 113 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), Georgian Brighton (2005), fig. 2). 259; Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 177. 86 Lower, M. A., A Survey of the Coast of Sussex made in 114 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 169. 1587 (1870), 4. 115 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 87 Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from 260-1. Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 338-9, 341. 116 Farrant, J. H., ‘The Brighton Charity School in the early 88 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 246. 18th century’, SAC 122 (1984), 144. 89 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 253. 117 Ibid., 263; Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 180-1. 90 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 184, 118 Newman, R. F., ‘The Countess of Huntingdon’s Church, 215. North Street, Brighton’, SAC 109 (1971), 65-8. 91 Farrant, J. H., ‘The Brighton Charity School in the early 119 Hickman, M. R., ‘The role of soldiers in the origins of 18th century’, SAC 122 (1984), 139-46. Wesleyan Methodism in Brighton and other towns on the Sussex Coast’, SAC 143 (2995), 257-66. 92 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 248. 120 93 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Johnston, G. D., Abstract of Turnpike Acts relating to Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004), 6-13. Sussex (c.1948, transcript at SAS), 11. 121 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 182. 94 Leppard, M. J., A History of East Grinstead (2001), 46. 122 95 E.g. Sue Berry suggests that the lack of new foundations Leppard, M. J., A History of East Grinstead (2001), 46. between 1800 and 1820 reflected that the town was over- 96 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 19. provided in 1800: Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 182. 123 97 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 86-7. Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 246. 98 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 248- 124 9; Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from Woodburn, B., ‘Fortifications and Defensive Works 1500- Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 342-3; 1900’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B. (eds.) An Historical Atlas of Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 22-9, 37-40. Sussex (1999), 102-3. 125 99 Johnston, G. D., Abstract of Turnpike Acts relating to Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 64-5, 67-8. Sussex (transcript at SAS, c.1948),10. 126 Hudson, A., ‘Volunteer Soldiers in Sussex during the 100 Hudson, T. P. (ed.) Victoria County History 6:3 (1987), Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815’, SAC 122 135. (1984), 165-81, at 174. 127 101 Farrant, J. H., ‘The seaborne trade of Sussex, 1720- Hudson, A., ‘Napoleonic Barracks in Sussex’, SAC 124 1845’, SAC 114 (1976), 97-120, at 117. (1986), 267-8; Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 69-72.

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128 Farrant, S., & Farrant, J. H., ‘Brighton, 1580-1820: from 160 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), Tudor town to Regency resort’, SAC 118 (1980), 345-6. 250. 129 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 100. 161 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 26. 130 Clarkson Wallis, W., ‘Brighthelmston Church and the 162 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 185.

Chapel of St Bartholomew’, Brighton & Hove Archaeologist 3 163 (1926), 124. Source: decennial census. 164 131 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 165. Note, Carder Ray, M., ‘Domestic Servants in a Superior Suburb: dates the petty sessions from 1808: Carder, T., The Brunswick Town, Hove’, SAC 131 (1993), 172-84. Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 48. 165 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 9 132 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 123. (2002), 12-13. 166 133 Farrant, J. H., ‘The Brighton Charity School in the early Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 18th century’, SAC 122 (1984), 144-5. 275, 282. 167 134 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 171. Farrant, J., ‘Growth of Communications 1840-1914’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B. (eds.) An Historical Atlas of Sussex 135 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 161. (1999), 80-1. 136 English Heritage listed building description, no. 482032. 168 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 118. 137 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 78. 169 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), 267-8, 272. 138 Ibid., 177; McCann, T. J., Sussex Cricket in the Eighteenth Century (SRS 88, 2004), xlviii. 170 Ibid,; Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 202. 139 Childs, R., ‘Parliamentary Representation’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B., (eds.), An Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 171 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), 72-3. 276; Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004), 34. 140 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), 252-3. 172 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), 272-3. 141 Godfrey, J., ‘Local Government in the 19th and 20th Centuries’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B., (eds.), An Historical 173 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Atlas of Sussex (1999), 126-7. Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004), 26. 142 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 39, 62. 174 The Anglican churches and chapels of the contiguous

143 area of Greater Brighton and Hove (i.e. excluding the Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 7, 73. discrete settlements east of the modern city) created 1820- 144 O’Mahoney, B. M. E., Newhaven-Dieppe 1825-1980: The 1960 comprise (in chronological order): History of an Anglo-French Joint Venture (1980), 3-9. Holy Trinity, Ship Street (1817, but only Anglican from 1826: see section 3.3.2); 145 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 3, 34, 117, 157, 196, 204. St Margaret, St Margaret’s Place, Cannon Place (1824; demolished 1959); 146 Ibid., 95. St George, St George’s Road, Kemp Town (1824-5); 147 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 4 St Peter, Victoria Gardens (1824-8); (2002), 78-9. St James’s chapel, St James’s Street (built as nonconformist 148 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), chapel 1810, became Anglican 1826, rebuilt 1875; 250. demolished 1951); St Andrew, Waterloo Street, Hove (1827-8; redundant 1991); 149 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 140. All Souls’, Eastern Road (1833-4; demolished 1968); 150 Sheppard, J. A., ‘Brighton’s railway workers in the 1850s’, Christ Church, Montpelier Road (1837-8; demolished 1982, SAC 139 (2001), 191-201. following fire); 151 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 67. St Mark, Eastern Road (1839; closed 1985, now St Mary’s Hall School chapel); 152 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 52, 100. St John Evangelist, Carlton Hill (1840; closed 1991, now 153 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 9. Greek Orthodox); 154 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 75. St Paul, West Street (1846-8); St Stephen, Montpelier Place (1851; closed 1970); 155 Beard, J., ‘Employment 1951-1991’, in Leslie, K. and Short, B., (eds.), An Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 132-3. St John the Baptist, Church Road, Hove (1852); All Saints’, Compton Avenue (1853; demolished 1957); 156 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 60. Royal Sussex County Hospital chapel, East Road (1856); 157 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 12, 95, St Patrick, Cambridge Road, Hove (1858; part converted into 98. social housing 1998); 158 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 10, 77. Brighton College chapel, Eastern Road (1859); 159 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 18, 37, St Michael and All Angels, Victoria Road (1861-2); 72. Holy Trinity, Blatchington Road, Hove (1862-4);

73 Sussex EUS – Brighton & Hove

St Anne, Burlington Street (1863; demolished 1986); Our Lady of Lourdes Convent chapel, London Road (1903; St Mary and St Mary Magdalene, Bread Street (1862-4; demolished 1972); demolished 1965); Poor Servants of the Mother of God: St Mary’s Convent, Annunciation, Washington Street (1864); Portslade (established in House in 1904, and chapel added 1933; closed 1966, now Emmaus Brighton Workhouse (later, General Hospital) chapel, Elm Community); Grove (1867); St Benedict’s Convent chapel, 1 Manor Road, Kemp Town Emmanuel, Lansdowne Road, Hove (1868; built as an (1906); unconsecrated proprietary chapel, now the Baptist Tabernacle); St Mary, Surrenden Road (1910-12); and St Bartholomew, Ann Street (1872-4); Blessed Sacrament Convent Chapel, Walpole Road (1913). St Martin, Lewes Road (1874-5); Source: Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 St Luke, Old Shoreham Road, Prestonville (1875); (2004).

Holy Resurrection, Russell Street (1876-8; demolished 177 1968); Ibid. St Mary, Upper Rock Gardens (1877-9); 178 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of St Matthew, Sutherland Road (1881-3; demolished 1967); Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004), 13, 33- 4. St Luke, Queens Park Road (1881-5); 179 St Barnabus, Sackville Road, Hove (1882); Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 33, 169. St Saviour, 133-5 Ditchling Road (1886; demolished 1983); 180 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 All Saints’, Eaton Road, Hove (1892); (2002), 93-7. St Philip, New Church Road, Hove (1894-5); 181 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 22, 36, St Augustine, Stanford Avenue (1896); 172. St Thomas the Apostle. Davigdor Road, Hove (1901-14; 182 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 5 closed 1993, now a Coptic church); (2002), 11-12. Elsewhere, Middleton dates the school to St John the Evangelist, Preston Road (1902); c.1840-1: Middleton, J., A History of Hove (1979), 68. St Matthias, Ditchling Road (1907); 183 Middleton, J., A History of Hove (1979), 69; Middleton, J., St Alban, Coombe Road (1910); Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 13 Part II (2003), 9. St Agnes, Newton Road, Hove (1913; closed 1977); 184 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 22, 36, The Good Shepherd, Dyke Road (1921-2); 172. St Andrew, Hillside, Moulsecoomb (1932); 185 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 4 Holy Cross, Tamworth Road, Hove (1936); (2002), 3, 58-9, 66-70; Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 5 (2002), 11-12; Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia Bishop Hannington Memorial church, Holmes Avenue, Hove of Hove and Portslade 13 Part II (2003), 10. (1938); 186 St Wilfrid, Elm Grove (1933-4; closed 1978); Ibid., 172. St Cuthman, Whitehawk Way, Whitehawk (1937; bombed 187 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 2 1943, replaced 1952); and (2001), 59. St Richard, Egmont Road, Hove (1960-1). 188 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 Sources: Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (2002), 112.

(1940), 215-86; Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A 189 Gazetteer of Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 3 (2004). (2002), 9. Note, elsewhere Middleton dates it to 1971: Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 13 Part 175 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of II (2003), 9. Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004). 190 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 2 176 The Roman Catholic churches and chapels of the (2001), 59. contiguous area of Greater Brighton and Hove (i.e. excluding 191 the discrete settlements east of the modern city) created Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 8 1820-1960 comprise (in chronological order): (2002), 54-5. St John Baptist, Bristol Road (1835); 192 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 13 West Cliff Catholic mission chapel, 9 Silwood Mansions (in Part II (2003), 9-10. use from 1858 to 1862); 193 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 19. St Mary Magdalene, Upper North Street (1862); 194 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 124, St Joseph, Elm Grove (1866-9); 178, 188.

Convent of the Sacred Heart, Upper Drive, Hove (1878: later, 195 Chapel of Christ the King, Cardinal Newman School); Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 88. Sacred Heart, Norton Road, Hove (1880); 196 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 St Joseph’s Convent of Mercy, Bristol Road (1892); (2002), 127-34. St Joseph’s Home chapel, Hove (Little Sisters of the Poor), 197 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 36, 48. 182 Old Shoreham Road (1900; demolished 1989); St Peter, Tamworth, Hove (Portland) Road (1902);

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198 Poole, H., Lewes Past (2000), 101; Carder, T., The 227 Webster, L. E., and Cherry, J., ‘Medieval Britain in 1978’, Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 123. Medieval Archaeology 23 (1978), 254. The excavation was simply described as being at TQ 311040. 199 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 (2002), 102, 137. 228 Greatorex, C., A Watching Brief Maintained on

200 Groundworks Undertaken on 6 Ship Street, Brighton, East Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 Sussex (unpubl. CG Archaeology report, 2002). (2002), 158-66. 229 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 94, 115. 201 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 161. 230 202 Salzman, L. F., Victoria County History 7 (1940), 244, Wells, R., ‘The Poor Law 1700-1900’, in Leslie, K. and 265, 275. Short, B. (eds.) An Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 70-1; Morrison, K., The Workhouse: A Study of Poor-Law Buildings 231 Clarkson Wallis, W., ‘Brighthelmston Church and the in England (1999), 160, 162, 210. Chapel of St Bartholomew’, Brighton & Hove Archaeologist 3

203 (1926), 118-126. Note: Clarkson Wallis’s hypothesis therein Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 70. of a priory with cloister to the north of the chapel and 204 Sleight, J. M., A Very Exceptional Instance: Three conventual buildings beyond is somewhat fanciful. Centuries of Education in Steyning, Sussex (1981), 59. 232 Ron Martin in Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), Fig. 2; 205 Wells, R., ‘The Poor Law 1700-1900’, in Leslie, K. and Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), 245. Short, B. (eds.) An Historical Atlas of Sussex (1999), 70-1. 233 E.g. Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 206 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 9, 55, 115. 70, 162. 234 R. B. Harris, ‘The Structural History of The White Tower 207 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 1066-1200’, in Impey, E. A. et al, The White Tower (Yale (2002), 118-22. University Press, forthcoming 2007). 235 208 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 5 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), (2002), 45-50. 281. 236 209 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 100, Barrows, A., Harben, J., and Oldfield, E., All Saints’ 184. Patcham Church Guide & Parish History (1990), 9. 237 210 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 138. Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 219. 211 Middleton, J., A History of Hove (1979), 173; Middleton, 238 J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 7 (2002), 170-6. Ibid., 272; Vigar, J. E., St Peter’s Church, Preston park, East Sussex (The Churches Conservation Trust guidebook, 212 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 177; 2004). Middleton, J., A History of Hove (1979), 152. 239 E.g. the flint rubble west cloister/east hostry wall, Norwich 213 Middleton, J., A History of Hove (1979), 158. Cathedral, of the early 12th century. 214 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 36, 111. 240 Holmes, J., ‘A Saxon church at West Blatchington’, SAC 126 (1988), 77-91. 215 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 21. 241 216 Harris, R. B., St Botolph’s, Sussex (unpubl. BA Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 20. dissertation, University of London, 1987). 217 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 213. 242 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 218 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 54. 276. 243 219 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 28. Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), 267. 220 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 3 244 (2002), 54-5. Impey, E., and Harris, R. B., ‘Boothby Pagnell Revisited’, in G. Meirion-Jones, E. Impey and M. Jones, The Seigneurial 221 Middleton, J., Encyclopaedia of Hove and Portslade 3 Residence in Western Europe AD c800-1600 (BAR (2002),49-50. International Series 1088, 2002), pp. 245-69. 222 The Corpus of ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE in Britain 245 Salzman, L. F., (ed.) Victoria County History 7 (1940), and Ireland (on line: http://www.crsbi.ac.uk/crsbi/). 268-9. 223 Nikolaus Pevsner dates the font to c.1160-70, although 246 Holden, E. W., ‘West Blatchington Manor-House’, SAC this seems a little late: Nairn, I., & Pevsner, N., The Buildings 127 (1989), 258-9. of England: Sussex (1965), 427-8. 247 Holden, E. W., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval 224 Salzman, L. F. (ed.), Victoria County History 7 (1940), Village of Hangleton: Part I’, SAC 101 (1963), 54-181; Hurst, 259. J. G., and D. G., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval Village of Hangleton: Part II’, SAC 102 (1964), 94-142. 225 HER reference: TQ 30 SW18 – ES191. 248 Warne, H., ‘Stamner: a Restructured Settlement’, SAC 226 Clarkson Wallis, W., ‘Brighthelmston Church and the 127 (1989), 189-210, at 194. Chapel of St Bartholomew’, Brighton & Hove Archaeologist 3 (1926), 124-5. 249 Holden, E. W., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval Village of Hangleton: Part I’, SAC 101 (1963), 72. The timescale of the decline of Hangleton gets additional support from discovery of the 1377/8 poll tax assessment: Brandon,

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P., ‘Deserted Medieval Villages in the Brighton District’, SAC 112 (1974), 162-4. 250 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 115c. 251 English Heritage listing description: ID no. 480499. 252 Miele, C., ‘”The First Architect of the World” in Brighton: Robert Adam, Marlborough House, and Mrs Fitzherbert’, SAC 136 (1998), 149-75. 253 HER reference: TQ 30 SW108 – ES470. 254 Berry, S., Georgian Brighton (2005), 94, 104-8, 129-31. 255 Holden, E. W., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval Village of Hangleton: Part I’, SAC 101 (1963), 54-181; Hurst, J. G., and D. G., ‘Excavations at the Deserted Medieval Village of Hangleton: Part II’, SAC 102 (1964), 94-142. 256 Johnston, G. D., Abstract of Turnpike Acts relating to Sussex (c.1948, transcript at SAS), 11. 257 Dating of buildings derives from: Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990); English Heritage listed building descriptions; and the author’s site inspections. 258 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Buildings erected between c.1760 and c.1960 (2004), 10. 259 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 145. 260 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 115. 261 Dixon, R., and Muthesius, S., Victorian Architecture (1978), 81. 262 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 103. 263 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 75-6, 105. 264 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 1, 48, 58, 91, 123-4. 265 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 112, 205. 266 Elleray, D. R., Sussex Places of Worship: A Gazetteer of Buildings erected between c1760 and c1960 (2004), viii. 267 It appears, in fact, to have comprised buildings of the early 18th century, possibly with earlier cellars: Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 115. 268 Carder, T., The Encyclopædia of Brighton (1990), 36. 269 Listed building data is drawn from the statutory lists produced by English Heritage, but has been amended – especially in regard to the dating – during the Sussex EUS. The GIS data prepared during the Sussex EUS contains the full references to the sources for revised dates: in many cases these come from fieldwork undertaken by the author.

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