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Crp 3 B 1 0 0 ..... ........ ..... ........ .. ....... .......... .......... WS, >W4, tZ BLACK GOLD On the seventeenth of August, 1982, Ruth First was killed in her office at the Centre of African Studies, Eduardo Mondlane University, by a South African assassin's bomb. Ruth First came to join the Centre of African Studies in 1977. Among her other activities she organised the research on Mozambican miners in South Africa which is the basis of this book, Black Gold. Ruth's arrival in Mozambique began a new phase in her political and intellectual work. As an investigative journalist she had already exposed the brutal exploitation of black labour on the South African gold mines. As a politically engaged writer she had already started to analyse the problems of independent Africa. Now, as a co-director at the Centre of African Studies, she worked to form a collective which would train Mozambicans to investigate and analyse the concrete conditions on which the advance of the socialist revolution in this country must be based. Ruth saw her work at the University as a culmination of her personal struggle to unite political militancy and intellectual work. Intellectual work became an instrument of the revolution. This was possible because FRELIMO established the conditions in which the analysis of the problems of socialist transition could occur and because FRELIMO encouraged an intellectual practice which links the consolidation of the Mozambican revolution to the liberation of Southern Africa. A single bomb cannot destroy the basis of Ruth's work in Mozambique nor silence her ideas. The work she began as a young journalist in South Africa and which she pursued with the work on Black Gold will continue in Mozambique. Aquino de Braganqa Director, Centre of African Studies BLACK GOLD The Mozambican Miner, Proletarian and Peasant Ruth First Centre of African Studies, Eduardo Mondlane University Pictures by MOIRA FORJAZ Work-songs and interviews recorded by ALPHEUS MANGHEZI THE HARVESTER PRESS * SUSSEX ST. MARTIN'S PRESS NEW YORK First published in Great Britain in 1983 by THE HARVESTER PRESS LIMITED Publisher: John Spiers 1 -, -, ., 16 Ship Street, Brighton, Sussex and in the USA by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010 ) (© Ruth First, 19S3 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data First, Ruth Black gold: the Mozambican miner, proletarian and peasant. - (Harvester studies in African political economy; 3) 1. Manpower policy - Mozambique I. Title 331.11'0967'905 HD8798 ISBN 0-7108-0314-1 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data First, Ruth. Black gold. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Labor and laboring classes - Mozambique. 2. Peasantry - Mozambique. 3. Migrant labor - Mozambique. 4. Gold miners- Mozambique. 5. Gold minersSouth Africa. 6. Mozambique - Economic conditions1975- . 1.Title. HD8798.F57 1983 330.967'905 82-24()42 ISBN 0-312-08318-1 Phototypeset in Linotron Times by Rowland Phototypesetting Ltd Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk Printed in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd. Guildford, Surrey CONTENTS page List of Tables and Figures viii ,4uthorship and A ckno wiledgements ix ,4dministrative Divisionis xii Currenc- Equiv'alents xii Sources and References xii 'It aniarosa is Done For'- miners' work song xiii Interview with an ex-miner, Radio Mozambique, Sunday 11 March 1979 xvi Map of Mozambique xviii Mlozambique Profile xix A Chronology of the Colonial Period xxi Introduction: The Purpose of This Study 1 Part 1: The Export of Labour Migrant Labour Routes to South Africa 1860-95 - Map 12 Colonialism by Proxy 13 A Two-State System 17 The Organisation of the Flow of Mozambican Miners 27 Work Song: Maghalangu 38 Interview with Zulumiro Meceso 38 Interview with Jos6 Tonela Kumbe 42 Interview with Mauricio Nkome Snr and song My Wife is Suffering 45 Nyankwavane 46 Part II: The Mine Labour Force Changes in the Mining Industry in the 1970s 49 Mozambican Mine Labour after 1974 55 The re-employment certificate 59 A Profile of the Labour Force 67 Black Gold Some social characteristics of the Mozambican mine labour force 68 Frequency and Length of Contracts 69 The ebb and flow of migrant labour 69 The present Mozambican mine labour force 72 The Wages of Mozambican Miners 74 Changes in wage levels since 1962 74 The spread of wages 75 Work Experience and Skills 77 Job descriptions 79 The relationship between schooling and level of experience and skill 81 Work Songs 82 Thandazela 82 Xikwembu xa Muhliwa 83 Push! Push! 83 The Sinall Foolish White Man 84 Pull! Pull! 85 Six Miners' Work Histories 86 Interview with Jose Tonela Kumbe 95 Interview with Mauricio Nkome Jr 100 Part III: The Peasant Base: Inhambane Province Regional Patterns of Recruitment 111 Provincial and district patterns 111 Inhambane Province 111 Agriculture in Inhambane Province 115 The penetration of the money economy 117 Social Differentiation in the Countryside 128 Petty Commodity Production and Commerce in the Countryside 134 Case Studies 136 The extent of labour export: Pembe, Homoine 136 Mine labour and the agricultural system: Maimela 141 Migrant labour and the peasant economy: Homoine 147 A study of water shortage: Sitila 150 Sixteen peasant households 152 Songs 163 On the Flat Bare Place 163 I Waste my Energy 164 Keep Quiet! 165 I am Happy Today! 166 Contents Interviews 167 Filomena Mathayi 167 Emereciana Alfredo Mazivi and Luisa Agosto Mbatini 173 Part IV: Workers or Peasants? Workers or Peasants 183 Migrant Labour in Southern Africa: A Bibliographic Note 195 Bibliography 207 Appendices 1. The conventions on mine labour between Portugal and South Africa 212 2. The miners' questionnaire 223 3. The peasant household questionnaire for selected households 227 4. The Employment Bureau of Africa Limited (TEBA division) Agreement of Service 232 5. Conference on migratory labour in southern Africa: Charter of Rights 239 Notes 241 Glossary 250 Index 252 List of Tables 1. Mine Labour Organisations (WENELA) Ltd East Coast Administration: progressive comparative statement of output 1975-6 2. Percentage distribution of workers recruited by WENELA, ATAS, CAMON and ALGOS, 1967-76 3. Balance of payments 1970-4 4. Composition of mine labour force 1904-76 5. Mine wages (per shift) minimum and average 1910-76 6. N.,iccs recruited by WENELA 1961-77 7. Monthly recruitment by WENELA, 1970-8 8. Proportion of working-life spent on mine labour by 145 miners in Inhambane Province 9. Age distribution of 146 miners possessing a re-engagement certificate 10. Average deferred pay and average earnings per worker, per contract 11. Spread of deferred payments from mine labour 1976-7 12. Percentage of migration to South Africa from Inhambane Province, 1940-76 13. Spread of recruitment by month in Inhambane Province 14. Lobolo (bride- price) 1930-77 15. Credit to traders in (i) 1000$ and (ii) in numbers of traders according to district or locality 16. The average age and number of mine contracts worked by middle and poor peasants in areas investigated 17. Landholding, crops and machinery of middle and poor peasants and number of migrant workers in Murrumbene, Zavala, Homoine and Pembe 18. The number of contracts worked by middle and poor peasants according to rich and poor districts List of Figures 1. Flow of Mozambican labour 1902-76 2. Minework related to wage grades 3. Worker migration to South Africa from Massinga, Murrumbene, Zavala and Homoine districts 1960-76 4. Distribution of crops in Inhambane Province 5. The Employment Bureau of Africa Limited (Teba Division) Lesotho: Miners' registration form AUTHORSHIP AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book has many authors. The material on which it is based was produced during 19)77 in the course of a research project of the Centre of African Studies of the Eduardo Mondlane University of Miozambique. Though I directed the work, it was a team project, organised and participated in by teachers and students of the university, and members of the administrative and transport staff, and assisted in the field by local representatives of the Ministries of Labour and of Agriculture as well as of administrative and political structures of the areas in which the research was conducted. The initial perspectives of the project were established during a x eekly seminar which studied the impact on Mozambique of South African capitalism, beginning with attempts at the periodisation both of the South African and the Mozambican political economies, and proceeding then to discuss the character of capital and labour within the mining industry, and the making of a southern African labour supply, and especially a Mozambican one. Subsequent sessions of the seminar evaluated the existing literature on migrant labour and the literature on peasant economies in labour reserve areas, including such material on Mozambique as had been produced. The project team then devised its working method for its field investigation. Questionnaires were used in order that certain data and methods of field work should be systematised. But the limitations of the questionnaire method - that the pre-ordered form of the questions prevents the interviewer from questioning his assumptions - were acknowledged and discussed from the start. Other ways of investigating what were recognised to be complex social issues were therefore devised. They consisted of a preliminary period in the field being devoted to open discussions with as many different representatives of the community as possible miners, political organisers, school teachers, the old men of the district, members of the women's movement, administrators; also of attendance at meetings and, at times, participation in work with Black Gold the peasants. Where possible local archives and administrative records were searched and visits made to agricultural stations and training schools. The brigades, or research teams, came out of the field in mid-1977. The next stage of the project involved the analysis of both the miners' and the peasant households' questionnaires; discussion in seminar of the reports written by the brigades; the organisation of the statistical material; the preparation of a scheme for the production of a report; and the writing of the report itself, which was, once again, a collective undertaking.
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