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Diversity in Management: Non- Timber Forest Products and Bush Meat

James L. Chamberlain, Anthony B. Cunningham, Robert Nasi

Introduction fits all” policies may do more harm provide a slightly more limited, yet still than good and should be avoided. broad, definition: “, parts of This paper provides an overview of Lack of clarity about the term “non- plants, fungi, and other biological ma- the complexity, practical and policy timber forest products” merely adds to terial that are harvested from within challenges that need to be faced in deal- these uncertainties.1 “Non-timber for- and on the edges of natural, manipu- ing with sustainable management of est products” often refer to natural re- lated or disturbed .”3 The United forests for non-timber forest products sources collected from forests that are Nations, and Orga- (NTFP). Conservation biologists, re- not sawn timber, which Wickens de- nization uses a slightly different term source managers and policy makers are (non- forest products) that in- all faced by the high diversity of spe- cludes wild-harvested meat, but ex- cies used, the lack of knowledge about Although non-timber cludes all wood.4 No matter which defi- the biology of many harvested species, nition one chooses, the fact is that the and the varying tenure arrangements forest natural resources from which these for both and resources involved. products originate are seldom fully in- This is compounded by the fact that are recognized as cluded in . In this NTFP trade networks are often com- valuable for paper we use the term “non-timber for- plex with serious impacts on species est products” to generally include wild- populations requiring innovative as- people’s sustenance, harvested meat, though in certain con- sessment, monitoring, and conserva- text the two terms are separated to em- tion methods. NTFP harvest and use their economic value phasize differences. occurs across a wide spectrum of bio- geographic, ecological, economic, so- is rarely taken Magnitude and Diversity cial, and historical circumstances into account in across continents and types. The importance of NTFP use to Policies and their implementation, forest planning or in people from all corners of the world is therefore, must to be tailored to local evident in the enormity and variety of circumstances. Simplistic, “one size assessing GDP. species collected for personal con- sumption and as a source of income. In northern Michigan, Emery found Chamberlain is a non-timber forest fined as “all the biological material that rural households collected 138 products research scientist with the (other than industrial round wood and NTFPs for non-market motives.5 An USDA Forest Service. Cunningham is derived sawn timber, wood chips, indigenous group, the Iquitos of the Pe- with Ethnoecology Services, Australia. wood-based panel and pulp) that may ruvian Amazon, sell more than 57 spe- Nasi is principal scientist, Programme be extracted from natural , cies of wild-collected fruit in local mar- on Environmental Services and managed plantations, etc. and be uti- kets.6 In British Columbia, , de Sustainable Use of Forests, Center-for lized within the household, be mar- Geus identified more than 200 botani- International Forestry Research keted, or have social, cultural or reli- cal forest products.7 Thomas and (CIFOR), . gious significance.”2 Chamberlain et al. Schumann identified more than 50 spe- cies native to the U.S. that are harvested for the floral and greenery markets.8 Table 1. The number of species used for The diversity of medicinal plant species, medicinal purposes increases the mag- from tropical and temperate , nitude tremendously (Table 1). in local or international markets. By contrast, most wild-harvested meat comes from a relatively small or Country Number of species a number of large-bodied species, typi- Indonesia 1260 b cally ungulates and primates.9 In South Africa 500 c , , three ungulate spe- Germany 1543 d cies make up 80% of hunted biomass10 Eastern & Central 500 e and approximately 26 mammal spe- North America 175 f cies, 12 bird species and five reptile Appalachia, USA 150 species are regularly eaten. The Maraca Indians of Columbia are known to eat Source: at least 51 bird species, including 10 a Siswoyo, E.A.M. Zuhud and D. Sitepu. 1994. “Perkembangan dan Program hummingbird species regularly,11 while Penelitian Tumbuhan Obat di Indonesia” (Research Program on and Development in Bolivia the Sirionó Indians hunt 23 of Medicinal Plants in Indonesia), pp. 161-300. In: E.A.M. Zuhud and Haryanto mammal species, 33 bird species, and (eds). Pelestarian Pemanfaatan Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan Obat Hutan Tropika Indonesia (Conservation and Use of Medicinal Plants’ Diversity in Indonesia’s nine reptile species. Hunters in the Tropical Forests). Bogor: Jurusan Konservasi Sumberdaya Hutan Fakultas Central African Republic, capture 33 Kehutanan IPB & Lembaga Alam Tropika Indonesia (LATIN). mammal species, seven reptile species, b and three bird species.12 Although of- Cunningham, A.B. 1988. “Collection of Wild Plant in Tembe Thonga Soci- ety: A Guide to Iron Age Gathering Activities?” Annals of the Natal Museum ten disregarded in discussions about the 29(2):433-446. Cunningham, A.B. 1991. “Development of a Conservation Policy importance of , fish, shellfish on Commercially Exploited Medicinal Plants: A Case Study from Southern Africa. and crustaceans, as well as insects, are pp.337-358. In: Heywood. V., Synge, H. & Akerele, O. (eds.). Conservation of important resources for daily diet as Medicinal Plants. Cambridge University Press. Williams, V.L. 1996. The 13 well as for cash income. Witwaterrand Muti Trade. and Flora 82:12-14. c Lange, D. and U. Schippmann. 1997. Trade Survey of Medicinal Plants in Ger- Value of NTFPs many: A Contribution to International Plant Species Conservation. Bundesamt Naturschutz, Bonn, Germany People worldwide have been relying d Foster, S. and J.A. Duke. 1990. A Guide to Medicinal Plants: Eastern and on non-timber forest products and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 366 pp. wildlife for their nutritional needs e TRAFFIC North America. 1999. “Medicine from U.S. Wildlands: An Assessment much longer than for their economic of Native Plant Species Harvested in the for Medicinal Use and Trade desires. In some tropical places, and Evaluation of the Conservation and Management Implications.” Unpublished palm ( sagu), taro report to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. TRAFFIC North America, (Colocasia esculenta) or arrowroot World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. 21pp. + Appendices (Maranta arundiacea) are primary f Krochmal, A., R.S. Walters, and R.M. Doughty. 1969. A Guide to Medicinal Plants sources of starchy staple foods. Wild- of Appalachia. USDA, Forest Service Research Paper NE- 138. Northeastern For- harvested meats commonly provide est Experiment Station, Upper Darby, PA. 291 pp. protein in peoples’ diets, while wild plant foods are valuable sources of nutrients in diets predominated by value is rarely taken into account in for- Unfortunately, cash generated from the starchy staples. 14 Wild plant foods are est planning or in assessing Gross Do- sale of non-timber forest products may important “safety nets” in periods of mestic Product. NTFPs provide a vary tremendously, even for the same shortage or poor harvest of main crops “green social security” for billions of category.16 (e.g., wild sago for Dayak communi- people in the form of building materi- These omissions and misfortunes ties in Borneo). als, income, fuel, food, and medicines. need to be corrected, as NTFPs make Although non-timber forest re- In some cases, revenues earned from significant contributions to rural house- sources are recognized as valuable for NTFP commercialization are the only hold incomes and a nation’s produc- peoples’ sustenance, their economic source of income for rural people.15 tivity. At the same time, it is essential to exercise great care in valuing non- ease. These different approaches are strategies and conserving these valu- timber forest resources to avoid over- one reason why demand for traditional able resources. optimistic assessments (e.g., the value medicine continues in urban environ- of NTFPs are significantly greater than ments even if western biomedicines are Cultural Values and Consequences the value of timber) or over-pessimis- available. Two examples illustrate this: tic estimations (e.g., NTFPs only have the export of kava (Piper methysticum) Cultural systems may be more dy- real economic value in domesticated to expatriate Pacific islanders living in namic than biological ones, and the intensive context). Objective valuation North America, and; the shipping of the shift from a subsistence to a cash studies involving and based on the pref- African medicinal plant khat (Catha economy is a dominant factor in chang- erences of local users probably are a edulis) to Somali communities in Eu- ing how cultures interact with natural first step in correcting omissions and rope and North America. As the young systems. In many parts of the world, misfortunes about NTFP values.17 of Catha edulis need to be “traditional” conservation practices In fact, some NTFP sectors have glo- chewed while still fresh for maximum have been weakened by cultural bal economic impacts that have in- change, greater human demands and a creased over time. In 2004, the global shift to cash economies. There is in- herbal medicine industry is valued at Throughout the world, creasing evidence of resources that more than $60 billion, annually,18 rep- were traditionally conserved, or ap- resenting more than a four hundred there is a deep-rooted peared to be conserved, being overex- percent increase since 1996.19 While ploited. The people whose ancestors was the largest market in 1996, cultural bond to NTFP hunted, harvested, and venerated the representing one-half of the global collection and use. forests that are the focus of enthusias- trade, commanded approximately tic conservation efforts are sometimes 36 percent of the global trade. In 1998, Much of the knowledge the people who are felling the last for- the total retail market for medicinal est patches to plant agricultural crops. herbs in the United States was esti- found in the herbal In extreme cases, “islands” of remain- mated at $3.97 billion, more than medicinal industry ing vegetation, become focal points for double the estimate for North America harvesting and conflict for remaining in 1996.20 No matter how these figures today has passed resources. The cultural and economic are presented, they represent signifi- importance of wild plants to urban cant contributions to national econo- through generations of people is a crucial factor which has to mies. native and indigenous be taken into account. The economic values of wild-har- For many products, harvesting takes vested foods and medicines are a re- people. place in changed by people flection of the social and cultural val- due to farming, fire, or , even ues placed on non-timber forest prod- when human population densities are ucts. Consumers’ desire to enjoy effect, and prices drop rapidly with low. In some cases, this may enhance NTFPs from their native countries is time, the trade is highly organized to species populations and in other cases so great that airfreight is used to trans- get leaves from the forest to the con- may lead to their demise. Light de- port perishable edible and medicinal sumer. manding species whose populations plants regionally and internationally. Throughout the world, there is a actually increase in response to distur- Immigrants from Cameroon, Congo, deep-rooted cultural bond to NTFP bance, including many species of bam- Gabon, and the Democratic Republic collection and use. Much of the knowl- boo, thatch-grasses, edible leafy greens of Congo to France and Belgium im- edge found in the herbal medicinal in- and sources of bark fiber, are distrib- port an estimated 105 tons of “bush dustry today was passed through gen- uted widely. Anthropogenic distur- plums” (Dacryodes edulis) and 100 erations of native and indigenous bance also occurs on smaller scales, tons of “eru” (Gnetum africanum and people, Many rural collectors can trace such as the deliberate planting of use- G. buchholzianum) leaves annually to their bond to NTFP collecting back ful species in forest patches or along meet their cultural desires to consume many generations. The knowledge that paths by the Kayapó in Amazonia22 or these edible products.21 present-day users and collectors have the replanting of seeds by lo- Western and traditional medicines about NTFPs, which they gained from cal diggers in Appalachia.23 At the are based on very different and well- their ancestors, could prove invaluable same time, much more research is documented views of health and dis- in developing appropriate management needed to ascertain the long-term im- pact of harvesting on NTFP popula- the demand for wild plant resources, to the market. Alternative value added tions and associated species.24 catalyzing a commercial trade that strategies may improve the economic In the past, harvesting of plant-based stimulates over-exploitation. benefits to harvesters while reducing NTFPs to meet subsistence demand The shift from subsistence use to the potential of over-harvesting.34 rarely resulted in species-specific commercial sale has significant impli- . Now, rural commu- cations for resource management. It Biological Consequences nities in many parts of the world in- results in larger volumes being har- creasingly are concerned about losing vested, a higher frequency and inten- Differences in , and veg- self-sufficiency as local wild popula- sity of harvesting and often affects re- etation type result in significant dis- tions of NTFPs are harvested and trans- source tenure. In some cases, commer- parities in the availability and use of ported to distant markets. Similar con- cial harvesting may strengthen resource NTFPs. Whether harvests involve the cerns apply to animals used for bush tenure and the incentive to conserve fruits, , bark and/or whole plants, meat, as the wildlife biomass of tropi- plants and animals. Commercial sale the potential yields from wild stocks cal forests generally is low. For ex- of wild fruits such as Sclerocarya of many species often are overesti- ample, in Amazonia, the daily per per- birrea, for example, maintains the in- mated, particularly when stochastic son protein intake of the Yuquí Indians centive to conserve fruit-bearing events are considered. As a result, com- decreased 50 percent after large-scale in parts of Africa where development mercial harvesting ventures based on incursions by colonists between 1983 wild populations often are character- and 1988.25 Bush meat trade as well as ized by “boom and bust,” where declin- some , craft, horticultural and “Traditional” ing resource availability follows initial medicinal plant species all provide ex- harvests. Nantel et al. argue that gin- amples of commercial demand stimu- conservation practices seng populations in Quebec, once the lated by increased access.26 From the have been weakened major source of wild ginseng for inter- perspective of local livelihoods or con- national markets, could not support any servation, species loss through over- by cultural change, harvesting if they were to be main- exploitation benefits neither local greater human tained for the long-term.35 The low people nor conservation. level of extraction required to ensure Road systems are reaching deep into demands, and a shift sustainable harvesting of wild popula- remote, resource-rich .27 To- to a cash economy. tions of American ginseng as well as gether with access along waterways,28 wild ramps (Allium tricoccum) in these road systems increase the acces- Canada36 and the fruit of the amla sibility of timber and non-timber for- of a social stigma against gathering (Phyllanthus emblica) in India37 sug- est resources. As a result, stores of wild wild fruits for personal consumption is gests that at current prices, sustainable harvested plant and animal species are undermining the “traditional” practice harvest levels for these species were not lost due to habitat loss from fire and of conserving wild fruit trees.29 In other viable commercial propositions. farming, followed by increased har- cases, the shift from subsistence use to The resilience, or lack thereof, to vesting of commercially valued spe- commercial harvesting weakens re- harvesting is influenced by the level of cies. Improved transport networks source tenure and undermines custom- demand and by common biological strengthen the link between rural re- ary controls of resource use.30 characteristics: form or body size, sources and urban demand. They re- Market dynamics affect the distribu- growth rate, reproductive biology, geo- sult in an influx of outsiders, frequently tion of benefits and supply of raw ma- graphic distribution, habitat specific- disrupting traditional resource tenure terials. Local gatherers, the initial link ity, population density, etc.38 Harvest- systems and increasing the scramble in complex value chains, typically re- ing of leaves, flowers or fruits (or eggs) for economically valuable resources. ceive low and highly variable prices for from widely distributed, fast growing, As cities grow, markets exert stronger unprocessed plant material.31 Although fast reproducing species occurring at pressures on rural resources. Since the a key factor to realizing the economic high densities in a range of habitats is 1960’s, increasing demand from urban values of NTFP is access to markets,32 obviously of less concern than the kill- areas has catalyzed NTFP trade, at- peoples’ ingenuity should not be un- ing of species that are of limited dis- tracting resources from rural areas to derestimated.33 If prices and potential tribution, slow growing, and reproduce towns and cities for fuel wood, build- profits are high enough, local traders infrequently. ing materials, medicines, and food. As will make remarkable use of any trans- Although the response of individual a result, urbanization tends to increase port network to get perishable species plants is a useful guide to estimate har- vesting impact, it is crucial to avoid lectively from seemingly intact forests, porate NTFPs need to be developed. getting side-tracked when seeing de- or . Development and implementation of structive harvest at the individual level effective conservation and resource and to take into account geographic Dealing with Uncertainty management plans may require legis- distribution, habitat specificity, growth lative reform before managed use of rates, conflicting uses, reproductive A major problem with managing the resources provides sufficient incen- biology and management costs. forests for NTFPs is that little is known tives for conservation as a form of land- Harvested populations need to be about the population biology, standing use.47 viewed in terms of abundance, distri- stocks or yields of most plant species To achieve a balance between con- bution, and response to disturbance at that are harvested.43 Many tropical spe- servation and sustainable use of non- the level.39 A seemingly low cies have yet to be described and less timber forest products, protected area impact use, such as harvesting of fruits, is known about their population biol- networks need to be expanded and en- may have a high long-term effect on ogy or ecological interactions with as- hanced. The wider matrix surrounding populations, either because of the ef- sociated species. Though temperate protected areas also needs consider- fect on seedling recruitment40 or be- forest species may be better studied, ation. Establishing and maintaining cause fruit collection involves tree fell- for many NTFPs little is known beyond biological corridors to accommodate ing. On the other hand, even if harvest- basic and geographic distri- migratory species is an essential part ing bark, roots, or stems kills individual bution. There is a general lack of of this that inevitably requires links plants, it may have little impact on the knowledge about the reproductive bi- with local communities. The ways in populations if the species are fast grow- ology, inventories, and sustainable which this is implemented will vary ing and rapid-reproducers. Low-diver- yields. Consequently, we urgently need with social, political and economic cir- sity forests offer better opportunities to draw on predictive ecological stud- cumstances, such as conservancies, for sustainable single-species extrac- ies and applied ethnobotany to priori- “land care” groups, multiple-use zones, tion, as they are dominated by eco- tize NTFP species as components of co-management areas or indigenous nomically important species.41 conservation and sustainable use plans. production forests. Firm, mutually Forest fragmentation results in the Forest management agencies need to agreed upon and enforceable regula- harvesting of NTFPs and wild meat on recognize the resources from which tions need to be established. the remaining source areas, including non-timber products are harvested and Due to the diversity of forest eco- national parks, botanical gardens and integrate them into forest management, systems, the products collected, and other protected areas. A decline in for- monitoring, and infrastructure plan- limited “scientific” knowledge, the in- est area with desired species is highly ning. Non-timber forest resources sights of knowledgeable local and in- significant to conservation and re- should receive similar attention in for- digenous people are extremely useful source management.42 Periodic assess- est management as other natural re- for resource management and conser- ment of the extent and rate of habitat sources, such as timber, , and vation biology. In situations where for- change at a landscape level using aerial . There is one major problem fac- mally trained taxonomists are not avail- photographs or satellite images is a ing recent calls44 for statistically rig- able, local folk taxonomists can be re- common, cost-effective way to moni- orous NTFP inventories, however: pro- markably effective.48 Traditional tor the impact of conservation pro- hibitively high economic and time ecological knowledge of local and in- grams. These assessments however, do costs.45 One alternative is to reduce digenous peoples about NTFPs needs not provide a complete picture of the costs by including important NTFPs as to be documented, strengthened, re- situation. Although the forest canopy part of multi-species inventories at the spected, and developed.49 The greatest may not change, populations of high same time as timber inventories are potential contributions by folk taxono- value, vulnerable plant and animal spe- carried out.46 Another option is a par- mists may be in the inventory and as- cies below the canopy can be disap- ticipatory survey with local resource sessment of the population biology of pearing due to species-specific over- users coupled to inventories and moni- useful plant and animal species.50 Tra- exploitation. For a more comprehen- toring focused on a few key species. ditional ecological knowledge can pro- sive assessment, monitoring at a large level and population man- vide valuable information on steward- spatial scale needs to be broadened to agement planning must take place ship practices for sustainable NTFP encompass more varied biological fac- through a process of consultation that use.51 tors, including the monitoring of a high considers relevant scientific, local, and Importers and consumers need to value “indicator” plant and animal spe- indigenous knowledge. Silvicultural become aware of whether the products cies which are being overexploited se- prescriptions that consider and incor- they consume are harvested sustainably or not, and bear some responsibility for comes a convenient bit of “window These networks can be invaluable sustainable resource management. Pro- dressing” masking the continued ex- tools to link individuals working on the grams that raise awareness about the ploitation of wild populations. same topic for purposes of comparison “ecological footprint” of long-distance and contrast. Networks enable people trade from developing to developed Building Professional Capacity to share their experiences of what countries or certification programs and Awareness works or fails and under what circum- (e.g., Forest Stewardship Council, Sus- stances. Pullin and Knight point out the tainable Forestry Initiative) that may Capacity-building in applied, inter- relevance of decision-making models be applied to some NTFP are useful disciplinary fields such as ethnobotany, in medicine and public health to con- tools to achieve this goal.52 Certifying ethnoecology, conservation biology, servation and resource management, the environmental management system and forestry can make major contribu- which also are “crisis disciplines” of a forest organization can be done tions to better understanding and man- where action often is required urgently according to international standards, agement of non-timber forest products, in the absence of precise information.55 however it does not lead to product la- and urgently is needed. As Hamilton They suggest that medical practice beling. Certification systems of organic et al. point out with regard to ethno- underwent an ‘effectiveness revolution’ agriculture such as the International botany, there is great opportunity for through a defined learning framework Federation on Organic Agriculture or and more recently56 that conservation the Organic Crop Improvement Asso- managers rarely make full or system- ciation deal with NTFP from human Forest management atic use of available information. The altered vegetation types. Finally, the same applies to NTFP harvest. Non- Fairtrade Labeling Organization fo- agencies need to timber forest products use takes place cuses on socio-economic criteria of recognize the resources in a complex set of circumstances; products including NTFP. It is impor- there is a great need to support similar tant to attune different certification from which non-timber learning processes across a range of schemes so they mutually reinforce forest systems. This is an opportunity their processes and avoid potential con- products are harvested trained young professionals and agen- flicts.53 and integrate them into cies responsible for managing non-tim- Cultivation or ranching has to be ber plant and wildlife resources should economically viable to be successful forest management, grasp to work effectively with the lo- in providing an alternative supply of cal harvesters and their communities. over-exploited species. Slow growing, monitoring, and slow reproducing species that take a infrastructure planning. Conclusions long time to reach harvestable matu- rity pose the greatest challenge but, Unrestricted access to valued but from a conservation viewpoint, are the innovative contributions in these fields vulnerable species may provide a high highest priorities. Most cultivation or from trained professionals in develop- initial harvest, but will be merely a wildlife farming will be competing ing countries.54 Not only do trainees temporary “bonanza” followed by a with material harvested from the wild from developing countries have many loss of local self-sufficiency, increased that is supplied to the market by com- advantages of language, social net- harvesting efforts, higher prices for the mercial gatherers, who have incurred works and personal knowledge of land- final product and potential loss of little or no input costs. Prices therefore scapes and resources, but also high . Over harvesting of plants increase with scarcity due to transport quality work can be done with rela- and animals is becoming a significant costs, search time, and the long-dis- tively little equipment compared with factor as habitats shrink and demand tance trade. Low prices for many wild many other fields of science. Collabo- increases. Substantial proportions of harvested species mean that few spe- ration with ethnobotanists from indus- some of the world’s most useful plant cies can be marketed at high enough trialized countries can further assist this families currently are threatened by prices to make cultivation of plants or process. The internet now provides habitat loss or overexploitation. Efforts ranching of wildlife profitable while opportunities for professional “knowl- urgently are needed to improve man- large, viable wild populations still ex- edge networks” and for scientists from agement and conservation of these spe- ist. A further risk is that if cultivation developing countries to access research cies to ensure long-term sustainability does not take place on a big enough papers and colleagues on a scale never of the cultural and biological systems scale to meet demand, it merely be- before possible or affordable. that are affected. As people shift from a subsistence vice, North Central Research Sta- ries 2. Tropenbos-Colombia, to a cash economy, the frequency and tion. Santafé de Bogota, Colombia. See intensity of harvesting or hunting 6. Vasquez, R. and A.H. Gentry. also, Rodriguez Fernández, C.A. changes rapidly. Often, it is assumed, 1990. “Use and Misuse of Forest- 1998. “Arponeros de la Trampa del falsely, that non-timber forest products Harvested Fruits in the Iquitos Sol (Sustentabilidad de la Pesca are sustainably harvested and that this Area.” Conservation Biology 3(4): Comercial en el Medio Rio “green social security” will be avail- 350-361. Caquetá). Harpooners of the trap able to resource users in perpetuity. In 7. De Geus, P.M.J. 1995. Botanical of the sun. (Sustainability of Com- many parts of the world, people are Forest Products in British Colum- mercial in the Middle losing access to valued plant and ani- bia: An Overview. For the Inte- Caquetá River).” Tropenbos Co- mal species through over-exploitation, grated Resources Policy Branch, lombia Series 18. Tropenbos-Co- habitat destruction, or loss as gather- British Columbia Ministry of For- lombia, Santafé de Bogota, Co- ing areas are incorporated into national ests, Victoria, B.C. 51 pp. lombia. parks and forest reserves. For all inter- 8. Thomas, M.G. and D.R. 14. Santos-Oliviera, J. and F.M. de est groups, resource users, rural devel- Schumann. 1993. “Income Oppor- Carvalho. 1975. “Nutritional Value opment workers or forest managers, it tunities in Special Forest Products, of Some Edible Leaves used in is far better to have pro-active manage- Self-Help Suggestions for Rural Mozambique.” Economic Botany ment and to stop or phase out destruc- Entrepreneurs.” Agriculture Infor- 29: 255-263. See also Quin, P.J. tive harvesting in favor of suitable al- mation Bulletin #666. United 1959. Food and Feeding Habits of ternatives before over-exploitation oc- States Department of Agriculture, the Pedi. Witwatersrand University curs, than to have the “benefit” of Forest Service. Washington, D.C. Press. See also Wehmeyer, A.S. hindsight after resources are depleted. 206 pp. 1966. “The Nutrient Composition 9. Bennett, E.L. and J.G. Robinson of Some Edible Wild Fruits Found Endnotes (eds.). 2000. “Hunting of Wildlife in the Transvaal.” S. Afr. J. Nutr. in Tropical Forests: Implications Suppl. S.A. Med. J. 40, 1102-1104. 1. Belcher, B.M. 2003. “What isn’t for Biodiversity and for Forest 15. van Andel, T.R. 2000. “Non-Tim- an NTFP?” International Forestry Peoples.” Biodiversity Series Pa- ber Forest Products of the North- Review 5(2):161-168. per 76, The World Bank, Washing- West District of Guyana.” 2. Wickens, G.E. 1991. “Manage- ton D.C. Tropenbos Guyana Series 8. ment Issues for Development of 10 Bennett, E.L., A.J. Nyaoi and J. Tropenbos Guyana Programme, Non-Timber Forest Products.” Sompud. 2000. “Saving Borneo ‘s Georgetown, Guyana. Unasylva 42(165): 3-8. Bacon: the Sustainability of Hunt- 16. Tewari, D.D. and J.Y. Campbell. 3. Chamberlain, J.L., R. Bush, and ing in Sarawak and Sabah.” In J.G. 1996. “Increased Development of A.L. Hammett. 1998 “Non-Tim- Robinson and E.L. Bennett (eds.), Non-Timber Forest Products in ber Forest Products: The Other Hunting for Sustainability in India: Some Issues and Concerns.” Forest Products.” Forest Products Tropical Forests, pp.305-324. New Unasylva 47: 26-31. See also Journal. 48(10):2-12. York: Columbia University Press. Shackleton, S., C. Shackleton and 4. UN, FAO [no date] http:// 11 Ruddle, K. 1970. “The Hunting B. 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Parataxonomists, Inventory Man- 2001. “Effectiveness in Conserva- 200 1. “Inventory Time-Cost and agers and Taxonomists in Costa tion Practice: Pointers from Medi- Statistical Power.” Forest Ecology Rica’s National Biodiversity In- cine and Public Health.” Conser- and Management 150:313-322. ventory.” pp. 223-254. In: vation Biology 15, 50–54. 46. See note 44. Biodiversity Prospecting, W. V. 56. Pullin, A S., T. M. Knight, D A. Reid, et al, eds., World Resources Stone and K. Charman. 2004. “Do Institute, Washington, D.C. Conservation Managers Use Sci- entific Evidence to Support Their Decision-making?”, Biological Conservation. 119:245-252. VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 SUMMER 2004

CONTENTS

News and Announcements ...... 3 Articles: Auditing Conservation in an Age of Accountability ...... 6 Jon Christensen Diversity in Forest Management: Non-Timber Forest Products and Bush Meat ...... 11 James L. Chamberlain, Anthony B. Cunningham, Robert Nasi Speaking Truth to Power ...... 20 Daniel Yankelovich Meetings, Workshops & Symposia ...... 23 International News ...... 29