Diversity in Forest Management: Non- Timber Forest Products and Bush Meat James L. Chamberlain, Anthony B. Cunningham, Robert Nasi Introduction fits all” policies may do more harm provide a slightly more limited, yet still than good and should be avoided. broad, definition: “plants, parts of This paper provides an overview of Lack of clarity about the term “non- plants, fungi, and other biological ma- the complexity, practical and policy timber forest products” merely adds to terial that are harvested from within challenges that need to be faced in deal- these uncertainties.1 “Non-timber for- and on the edges of natural, manipu- ing with sustainable management of est products” often refer to natural re- lated or disturbed forests.”3 The United forests for non-timber forest products sources collected from forests that are Nations, Food and Agriculture Orga- (NTFP). Conservation biologists, re- not sawn timber, which Wickens de- nization uses a slightly different term source managers and policy makers are (non-wood forest products) that in- all faced by the high diversity of spe- cludes wild-harvested meat, but ex- cies used, the lack of knowledge about Although non-timber cludes all wood.4 No matter which defi- the biology of many harvested species, nition one chooses, the fact is that the and the varying tenure arrangements forest resources natural resources from which these for both land and resources involved. products originate are seldom fully in- This is compounded by the fact that are recognized as cluded in forest management. In this NTFP trade networks are often com- valuable for paper we use the term “non-timber for- plex with serious impacts on species est products” to generally include wild- populations requiring innovative as- people’s sustenance, harvested meat, though in certain con- sessment, monitoring, and conserva- text the two terms are separated to em- tion methods. NTFP harvest and use their economic value phasize differences. occurs across a wide spectrum of bio- geographic, ecological, economic, so- is rarely taken Magnitude and Diversity cial, and historical circumstances into account in across continents and vegetation types. The importance of NTFP use to Policies and their implementation, forest planning or in people from all corners of the world is therefore, must to be tailored to local evident in the enormity and variety of circumstances. Simplistic, “one size assessing GDP. species collected for personal con- sumption and as a source of income. In northern Michigan, Emery found Chamberlain is a non-timber forest fined as “all the biological material that rural households collected 138 products research scientist with the (other than industrial round wood and NTFPs for non-market motives.5 An USDA Forest Service. Cunningham is derived sawn timber, wood chips, indigenous group, the Iquitos of the Pe- with Ethnoecology Services, Australia. wood-based panel and pulp) that may ruvian Amazon, sell more than 57 spe- Nasi is principal scientist, Programme be extracted from natural ecosystems, cies of wild-collected fruit in local mar- on Environmental Services and managed plantations, etc. and be uti- kets.6 In British Columbia, Canada, de Sustainable Use of Forests, Center-for lized within the household, be mar- Geus identified more than 200 botani- International Forestry Research keted, or have social, cultural or reli- cal forest products.7 Thomas and (CIFOR), Indonesia. gious significance.”2 Chamberlain et al. Schumann identified more than 50 spe- cies native to the U.S. that are harvested for the floral and greenery markets.8 Table 1. The number of plant species used for The diversity of medicinal plant species, medicinal purposes increases the mag- from tropical and temperate climates, nitude tremendously (Table 1). in local or international markets. By contrast, most wild-harvested meat comes from a relatively small Region or Country Number of species a number of large-bodied species, typi- Indonesia 1260 b cally ungulates and primates.9 In South Africa 500 c Sarawak, Malaysia, three ungulate spe- Germany 1543 d cies make up 80% of hunted biomass10 Eastern & Central North America 500 e and approximately 26 mammal spe- North America 175 f cies, 12 bird species and five reptile Appalachia, USA 150 species are regularly eaten. The Maraca Indians of Columbia are known to eat Source: at least 51 bird species, including 10 a Siswoyo, E.A.M. Zuhud and D. Sitepu. 1994. “Perkembangan dan Program hummingbird species regularly,11 while Penelitian Tumbuhan Obat di Indonesia” (Research Program on and Development in Bolivia the Sirionó Indians hunt 23 of Medicinal Plants in Indonesia), pp. 161-300. In: E.A.M. Zuhud and Haryanto mammal species, 33 bird species, and (eds). Pelestarian Pemanfaatan Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan Obat Hutan Tropika Indonesia (Conservation and Use of Medicinal Plants’ Diversity in Indonesia’s nine reptile species. Hunters in the Tropical Forests). Bogor: Jurusan Konservasi Sumberdaya Hutan Fakultas Central African Republic, capture 33 Kehutanan IPB & Lembaga Alam Tropika Indonesia (LATIN). mammal species, seven reptile species, b and three bird species.12 Although of- Cunningham, A.B. 1988. “Collection of Wild Plant Foods in Tembe Thonga Soci- ety: A Guide to Iron Age Gathering Activities?” Annals of the Natal Museum ten disregarded in discussions about the 29(2):433-446. Cunningham, A.B. 1991. “Development of a Conservation Policy importance of wildlife, fish, shellfish on Commercially Exploited Medicinal Plants: A Case Study from Southern Africa. and crustaceans, as well as insects, are pp.337-358. In: Heywood. V., Synge, H. & Akerele, O. (eds.). Conservation of important resources for daily diet as Medicinal Plants. Cambridge University Press. Williams, V.L. 1996. The 13 well as for cash income. Witwaterrand Muti Trade. Veld and Flora 82:12-14. c Lange, D. and U. Schippmann. 1997. Trade Survey of Medicinal Plants in Ger- Value of NTFPs many: A Contribution to International Plant Species Conservation. Bundesamt fur Naturschutz, Bonn, Germany People worldwide have been relying d Foster, S. and J.A. Duke. 1990. A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants: Eastern and on non-timber forest products and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 366 pp. wildlife for their nutritional needs e TRAFFIC North America. 1999. “Medicine from U.S. Wildlands: An Assessment much longer than for their economic of Native Plant Species Harvested in the United States for Medicinal Use and Trade desires. In some tropical places, sago and Evaluation of the Conservation and Management Implications.” Unpublished palm (Metroxylon sagu), taro report to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. TRAFFIC North America, (Colocasia esculenta) or arrowroot World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. 21pp. + Appendices (Maranta arundiacea) are primary f Krochmal, A., R.S. Walters, and R.M. Doughty. 1969. A Guide to Medicinal Plants sources of starchy staple foods. Wild- of Appalachia. USDA, Forest Service Research Paper NE- 138. Northeastern For- harvested meats commonly provide est Experiment Station, Upper Darby, PA. 291 pp. protein in peoples’ diets, while wild plant foods are valuable sources of nutrients in diets predominated by value is rarely taken into account in for- Unfortunately, cash generated from the starchy staples. 14 Wild plant foods are est planning or in assessing Gross Do- sale of non-timber forest products may important “safety nets” in periods of mestic Product. NTFPs provide a vary tremendously, even for the same shortage or poor harvest of main crops “green social security” for billions of resource category.16 (e.g., wild sago for Dayak communi- people in the form of building materi- These omissions and misfortunes ties in Borneo). als, income, fuel, food, and medicines. need to be corrected, as NTFPs make Although non-timber forest re- In some cases, revenues earned from significant contributions to rural house- sources are recognized as valuable for NTFP commercialization are the only hold incomes and a nation’s produc- peoples’ sustenance, their economic source of income for rural people.15 tivity. At the same time, it is essential to exercise great care in valuing non- ease. These different approaches are strategies and conserving these valu- timber forest resources to avoid over- one reason why demand for traditional able resources. optimistic assessments (e.g., the value medicine continues in urban environ- of NTFPs are significantly greater than ments even if western biomedicines are Cultural Values and Consequences the value of timber) or over-pessimis- available. Two examples illustrate this: tic estimations (e.g., NTFPs only have the export of kava (Piper methysticum) Cultural systems may be more dy- real economic value in domesticated to expatriate Pacific islanders living in namic than biological ones, and the intensive context). Objective valuation North America, and; the shipping of the shift from a subsistence to a cash studies involving and based on the pref- African medicinal plant khat (Catha economy is a dominant factor in chang- erences of local users probably are a edulis) to Somali communities in Eu- ing how cultures interact with natural first step in correcting omissions and rope and North America. As the young systems. In many parts of the world, misfortunes about NTFP values.17 leaves of Catha edulis need to be “traditional” conservation practices In fact, some NTFP sectors have glo- chewed while still fresh for maximum have been weakened by cultural bal economic impacts that have in- change, greater human demands and a creased over time. In 2004, the global shift to cash economies. There is in- herbal medicine industry is valued at Throughout the world, creasing evidence of resources that more than $60 billion, annually,18 rep- were traditionally conserved, or ap- resenting more than a four hundred there is a deep-rooted peared to be conserved, being overex- percent increase since 1996.19 While ploited. The people whose ancestors Europe was the largest market in 1996, cultural bond to NTFP hunted, harvested, and venerated the representing one-half of the global collection and use.